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Refer to Notes. a Abdurrahman Wahid, 163 Acculturation Degree Of, 126

Refer to Notes. a Abdurrahman Wahid, 163 Acculturation Degree Of, 126

INDEX

Note: Page numbers followed by “n” refer to notes.

A Alliance Direct Membership Abdurrahman Wahid, 163 Organization (ADMO), 220 acculturation Amanah Saham Nasional (ASN), 103, degree of, 126 104 during Dutch period, 85–86 investment opportunity, 109 factors facilitating, 8–13, 83–88 ancestor-worship, 150n25 colonial decline, dislocation and Anjuman Himayathul Association, dispersion, 44–49 13 hybrid origins of people, 43–44 Annam people, 127 intermarriage and, 83–84 anti-colonial political exiles, 11 manifestations of loan words, 93 Catholicism, 91–92 artistic culture, in Portuguese cuisine and dress, 94–96 Eurasians, 96–98 eclectic family heritage and assimilation names, 88–91 during Dutch period, 85–86 Kristang Creole, 93–94 factors facilitating, 8–13 performing arts, 96–98 preconditions for, 203 B in Bahasa , 20 embracing and development of, 19–20 cultural life, 135–37 baju kurung, 55 Malay-style attire and cuisine, Bangsa Malaysia, 210 137–39 theatre, 20–21 religion and identity, 139–41 banian, 95 traditional Malay housing and Bart, Balthazar, 86 architecture, 139 Baweanese, 202n2 agricultural pioneers, 46 acculturation and assimilation agricultural villages, 128 creating symbiotic ties with Allah, 214–15 , 171–73

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geographical and ethnic British colonial period, 153 rerouting via Riau, 166–68 British era language, ethnicity and inter- classes and chasms, 86–88 marriage, 168–69 market economy in, 86 and cultural reproduction of Malay Brothers of the Church, 113 ethnicity, 152–54 buah buton, 139 immigration to Malaya, 158–60 bumiputeras, 43, 67, 68 “invasion” of , 157–58 benefits of, 108 land and houses, 171 expectations of, 107 life-histories, 183–200 and Portuguese routes, 98–109 marginalization and merantau status of, 64–65, 204–205 among, 160–61 Bygone Eurasia: The Life Story of the place and its people, 156–57 Eurasians of Malaya, 103 Baweanese Association of Singapore, 158 C Baweanese community in Kaska, cakes, 94–95 172–73 Cannosian Convent, 86 Baweanese-dominated settlement, Catholic Church in Malaysia, 112 154 Catholic missionary schools, Baweanese immigration, 152, 154, establishment of, 86–87 156 Catholicism factors facilitating permeable identity marker, 91–92 foreign labour demand in prohibition of, 86 Malaysia, 161–63 Chau Chu Fei, 124 Islam and Baweanese migration Chau Ju-Kua, 123–24 tradition, 163–66 cheng beng, 90, 126, 127, 138, 140 marginalization and merantau Cheng Ho, Admiral, 123–25, 129, 130, among Baweanese, 160–61 141, 147 to Malaya, 158–60 Cheng Hoon Teng Temple, 45, 51 nationality status, 173 Chia Ban Hock, 133, 142–43 Baweanese population in Singapore, Chinese 159 acculturation and identity, factors Baxter, Alan, 83 influencing, 127–30 belacan, 117n4 Cheng Ho, 123–25 theatre, 20–21 immigration cohorts, dialect branyo, 96 groups and length of stay, British 126–27 dispersed by, 46–47 Malay Muslim state, minority land policy, 61 in, 123 British colonialism, 47, 86–88, 98, 112 annals, 124 British colonial market economy, 46 community, 119, 125

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in Kampung Tirok, 130 Christian community, 79, 91 in Tirok, 131 Christianity, 91, 112–13 education in, 134 Christmas, at Portuguese Settlement, identities of, 125 92 immigrants in Kemasek, 127 Chulias, 9–11 migration, diversity and church-based events, 92 complexity of, 126 Cina-Kampung operas, 136 harnessing multiple identities posters, 139 between, 141 settlement in Terengganu, 120 interstate and overseas emigrants, Chinese-educated school 144 backgrounds, 142 rural Peranakan-type Chinese, Ching Dynasty, 126 141–42 community, 67, 68 urban localized Chinese, 142–44 ancestor worship, 69–70 cincalo, 117n4 communal property, 45 citizenship cuisine, 54 Indian, 25 culture, 53 of Indonesian-born children, 173 emigrants, 61 Civil Rights Act, 218 heritage, 50 colonial Baweanese immigration interviews of, 71–75 “invasion” of Singapore, 157–58 multi-lingual skills, 57 to Malaya, 158–60 Chitty creole, 49, 51, 52 place and its people, 156–57 Chitty of colonial categories, 21–22 status, 64–65 colonial immigration, 9–13 culture and identity colonial market economy, 66 arts, performing, 55–56 colonial migration to peninsula, cuisine and dress, 54–55 155–56 language, 52–54 colonial trading port, 9 religion, 49–52 colonialism, Indian Muslim traders, 16 ethnic space commercialization, 92 creating, 57–61 community perpetuating, 61–63 dispersion of, 79 shrinking community, 56–57 hybrid nature of, 88 threats to, 63–64 Malay roots of, 102–3 history, 43–49 performing arts, 96–98 introduction, 42–43 community-based church Chitty village, 49, 52, 59, 61 celebrations, 114–16 layout of, 60 Community Mediation Council, 217 Chowrasta Lines, 11 conflicts, between and non- Chowrasta Market, 11 Muslims, 212

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Constitution, 212–14 dress contract workers, , 181 cross-cultural influences, epitome Coromandel traders, 9 of, 54–55 Cosmopolitan creole, 93–94 Malaysia, 94–96 creolization, 84 Portuguese Eurasian, 94–96 cuisine dual identities, dilemma of, 27 Chitty community, 54 Dutch cross-cultural influences, epitome dislocated by, 45–46 of, 54–55 intermarriages with, 88 Malaysia, 94–96 preference for Batavia, 45 Portuguese Eurasian, 94–96 Dutch colonialism, 47 cultural intermediaries, Peranakan Dutch Occupation, 85–86, 88 Chinese, role of, 49 Dutch period cultural resurgence, 125 Azmi, life history, 199 culture dispersion and dislocation, Chitty community, 53 acculturation and assimilation, and identity, 49–56 85–86 influences on Malaysia, 17–21 Dutch Reformed Church services, 112 Bahasa Malaysia, enriching, 19–20 E Malaysian food, spicing up, education system 17–19 in British era, 86 Malaysian theatre and music, lack of, 87 20–21 unity, 219 in Portuguese Eurasians, artistic, entrepreneurship, 16–17 96–98 Equality Act, 218 reproduction of Malay ethnicity, ethnic-based political system, 66, 204, 152–54 205, 209 ethnic groups, interaction with, 79 D ethnic identity, 95 Darah Keturunan Kling, 30 ethnic minorities, 153 de Albuquerque, Alfonso, 83 acculturation experiences of, 203 deity worship, 140 multiple identities of, 205 de Silva, Patrick, 93 ethnic polarization, 206–8 Dhoraisingam, Samuel S., 53 ethnic rerouting process, 204 dialect groups, 126–27 ethnic route, identity crisis, 30–31 dislocation, during Dutch period, ethnic space, cross-cultural influences 85–86 creating, 57–61 dispersion, during Dutch period, perpetuating, 61–63 85–86 shrinking community, 56–57 , 55, 56 threats to, 63–64

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Eurasian community, 83 Hinduism, 49, 50 European control of Tamil ports, 16 Hirschman, Charles, 206 European Renaissance theatre, 21 historical monuments, Portuguese extremism, 214 Square, 104–7 Association of Terengganu, F 125, 147 fado, 104, 105 Hokkiens, 126, 127 Farish Noor, 207 farmers, 125 Fazal Mohd Bros, 37 immigrants, 132 Feast of Saint Peter, 114 Hokkien words, 135–36 Feast of St John the Baptist, 114 Holy Infant Jesus Convent, 86 Feast of the Assumption, 116 Holy Week, 116 Federal Constitution, 31 home-coming event, 92 Federal Government policies, 29 housing Federated Malay States (FMS), 182 Chitty, 61–63 Fei Xin, 124 in Bumiquest, 79 Fernandis, Gerard, 107 Hungry Ghost Festival, 150n25 Festa San Pedro, 114 Hussein Onn, 100 fishing villages, 128 hybrid Chitty trading community, 44 fluid identities, coalescing, 31–32 hybrid groups, 203–4 foreign labour demand in Malaysia, hybridization, 78 161–63 fried shrimp patties, 95 I identity, 43, 61–63 G culture and, 49–55 Gagasan Rakyat, 32 identity crisis Ghulam Kadir Navalar, 16 dual identities, dilemma of, 27 Goh Chok Tong, 152 ethnic, political and social routes, Guan Yin, 129 30–33 negative stereotyping, 29–30 H social discrimination, perceived, Haja, A.V.M., 28, 33 27–29 Haja Mohideen, 36 Idris, S.M., 31 Hanapi Dollah, 32 immigration Hassan, Fatimah, 20, 23, 40n11 Baweanese, 152, 154, 156 hate speech, 219–20 factors facilitating, 160–66 Hidayathul Islam Association, 13 to Malaya, 158–60 Hindu calendar, spiritual events in, nationality status, 173 51 colonial, 9–13 Hindu Panchayat system, 58 colonial Baweanese Hindu religious rituals, 48 “invasion” of Singapore, 157–58

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to Malaya, 158–60 identity crisis, 27–30 place and its people, 156–57 dual identities, dilemma of, 27 Indian immigration in , ethnic, political and social routes, 40n5 30–33 Indonesia, 156, 170 negative stereotyping, 29–30 colonial period 1850–1957, social discrimination, perceived, 181–82 27–29 farmers, 156 immigrants, 6, 9, 14 to Peninsula, pre-colonial and impact and influence colonial, 154 popular Malaysian culture, in 1980s, 162 influences on, 17–21 Kampung Tirok, 130–31 religion, leadership, trade, independent migrants via Singapore historical impact on, 13–17 pilgrim brokers, 181 Malay Muslim citizens, 22–25 India memorial, 11 citizenship, 25 merchants, 11, 34 community, 8 mosques, 20 in Malacca, 8–9 organizations, 25 traders, 43–44 permanent residents, 25–26 in early fifteenth century, 155 petty traders, 142 Indian ancestry, 24 quest for identity, 33–35 Malays of, 23 in , 33 Indian descent, 26 trade and traders, 9, 17 Indian Hindu community, 53 and missionaries, 8 Indian immigrants, 9, 21, 25 Indonesia groups, 20 citizens, 174 in Penang, 40n5 by ethnic sub-group, Malaya, 159 Indian Malayan trade, 16 immigration, 156, 170 Indian Muslims, 7, 8, 15, 22, 153 colonial period 1850–1957, acculturation and assimilation, 181–82 factors facilitating, 8–13 farmers, 156 Kedah and Malacca, 8–9 to Peninsula, pre-colonial and Penang’s Indian Muslim settlers, colonial, 154 9–13 in 1980s, 162 pre-colonial Indian links, 8–9 migrants, number of, 182 ancestry, 23 percentage of Malayan population, Chulia Street, Penang, 6–7 157 citizens, 26–27 Industrial Revolution, 12 colonial and post-colonial intellectual leadership, 15–16 categories, 21–22 interaction, in trade, 84 community, 7, 29–31, 33, 35, 38 inter-dependence, in trade, 84

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inter-ethnic interaction, 79 kain songket, 126 inter-ethnic relations, 216 traders, 138 Inter-Faith Council, 216, 217 Kampong Praya, 87 inter-marriages, 47, 132–33 Kampong Tengah, 87 and acculturation, 83–84 Kampung Chitty, 42–43, 51, 61 with Dutch, 88 Kampung Jeram, 125 Internet matchmaking service, 33 Kampung Kling Mosque, 44–45, 51 inter-regional relations, 216 Kampung Tirok, 120, 121, 128, 134 inter-religious disputes, 214–15 Chinese community in, 126, 130 intra-marriages, 132–33 factors facilitating acculturation in Intrudu, 116 common schooling and shared Ipoh Indian Muslim mosque, 14 Malay language, 133–35 Iqbal, Mohamed, 28 early immigration and long Irmoes da igreja, 113 settlement, 130–31 Iskandar, Mohamad, 15 intermarriage and intra-marriage, Islam, 43, 44, 50 132–33 and Baweanese migration tradition, working and living with Malays, 163–66 131–32 legacy of, 13–15 Kapitan Kling Mosque, 11, 14 Islamization, 215 kasot manek-manek, 55 kompridu, 95 J Kedah, 8–9 Jabatan Agama Islam (JAIS), Kedah Eurasians, 103–4 215 Chinese, 132 Jalan Portugis, 87 Kelinga mee, 19 Jamilah Ariffin, 172 keramat, 14 Japanese Occupation, 48 Keramat Sampokang, 124 Javanese contract workers, 181 keroncong, 104–5 Jawi Pekan, 41n14 Khor, Neil, 28 Jawi Peranakan, 15, 16, 20, 22, 23, 25 Kongres India Muslim Malaysia Jawi script, 19 (KIMMA), 32 Jente Kristang, 91 Kong Yuan Zhi, 124 Jinkly Nona, 96–97, 117n7 Koo Ong Jin, 119, 130, 150n25 , 55, 56, 96 Kristang, 78 creole, 93–94 K emergence of, 84 Kadayanallur Indian Muslims, 13 population, 88 community, 12 , 124 immigrants, 12–13, 17, 34 (KT), 119, 128, 129 Kadayanallur Muslim Association Chinatown, 146–47 (KMA), 13, 31 Kuan Teh Yah, 151n27

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Kuil Melaka, 51 Portugese Eurasian family names, Kumpulan Barkath, 38 89 Malacca-based educational L institutions, 56 La Salle Brother’s School, 86 Malacca Portugese Eurasian family labourers, 10–11 names, 88, 89 land campaigns, 104, 106 Malay, 135–37 land disputes, in Portuguese ancestry, 23 Settlement, 99–100 from Baweanese to, 173–78 land policy, British, 61 Chinese interaction with, 127, 128 land security, 106 citizens, Muslim, 22–25, 34 land transactions, 58 common schooling, 133–35 leadership, unity, 220–21 community leader, 176 Light, Francis, 10 cultural-based legal definition of, 22 Loghat Tanjong, 20 culture, 13 Lua Yik Hor, 130, 133, 134 deserts, 94 Luso-Malays, 102, 103, 110 ethnicity, and cultural reproduction of, 152–54 M of Indian ancestry, 23 , 13, 24, 25, 31, intermarriage to, 33 101, 104–5, 107, 152 minority in Muslim state, 123 Ma Huan, 124 Muslims, 153 Majapahit Kingdom, 124 population of Selangor, 156 Majlis Amanah Rakyat (MARA), 99, religion and identity, 139–41 176 symbiotic ties with, 171–73 Malabar Coast traditional, housing and Muslims from, 9 architecture, 139 traders, 9 working and living with, 131–32 Malabaris, 12 Malay Archipelago, 21 Malacca, 8–9, 43 Malay-assigned names and Chitty of, see also Chitty community nicknames, 136 culture and identity, 49–56 Malay-based creole, 52–54 ethnic space, 56–64 Malay-Baweanese settlements, 171 history, 43–49 Malay Buddhist, 44 introduction, 42–43 Malay-bumiputera status, 204 seeking bumiputera status, 64–65 identity, 35 educational and job opportunities Portuguese and, 101–4 in, 56 Malay communities, 19, 23, 27, 33, 34, government, 63 55, 124, 152 Indian community in, 8–9 intermarriage and social mid-level employees in, 57 assimilation into, 153

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Malay Customary Land (MCL), 76n8 Malaysiakini, 29 Malay Hindu communities, 44 Malaysian-born children, 26 Malay-Indonesian archipelago, 155 Malaysian Catholic Church, 112 Malay-majority community, 209 mainstream, 143 Malay-majority state, 123 Malaysian Constitution, Article 153, Malay-Muslim community, 50, 134 207 Malay-Portuguese-Eurasian hybrid, Malaysian culture, influences on, 78 17–21 Malay-style attire and cuisine, 137–39 Bahasa Malaysia, enriching, 19–20 Malay-style jewellery, 55 Malaysian food, spicing up, 17–19 Malaya Malaysian theatre and music, 20–21 Baweanese immigration to, 158–60 Malaysian Indian Congress (MIC), Indonesians by ethnic sub-group, 63, 67 159 Malaysian Portuguese, 88 Indonesians population (1911–57), Mamak, 7, 29 percentage of, 157 Mamak Kurnia, 55 Malaysia, 177–78 Mamak mee, 7, 19 agriculture in, 46 Mamak Redia, 55 Chitty population in, 57 Marakaryar coastal, 11 citizens of Indonesian descent, market economy in British era, 86 175–77 marriages, 32–33 citizenship, 25, 174 arranged marriages, 44 cuisine and dress, 94–96 endogamous marriages, 23 documented and undocumented exogamous marriages, 48 foreign workers, 153 inter-marriages, 47, 132–33 ethnic-based politics in, 62, 66 intra-marriages, 132–33 ethnic relations in, 120 love marriages, 44 food, spicing up, 17–19 mixed marriages, 83, 102 foreign labour demand in, 161–63 mock weddings, 97 government of, 93 trans-national marriages, 48 identities, 125 Masjid India Mosque, 20, 40n12 Indian Muslims, 7 mata kantiga, 96 Indonesian settlement in, 168 Megat Ayub, 26 lack of housing and education Meggamay, 61 access in, 174 Melaka, 155 Malay-majority in, 154 Melaka Pindah, 85 Peranakan Chinese, 132 refugees in, 85 race and religion in public merantau, 160–61 discourse, 211 migrant farmers/settlers, 181 society, 8, 35 Milner, Anthony, 179 theatre and music, 20–21 Minangkabaus of , 155

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mobility, 32–33 non-Muslim , 17 mock weddings, 97 non-Peranakan Chinese, 120, 125, 141 Mohamed Ismail Sharif, 32 non-stereotypical Chinese features, Mohamed Kader Ali, 27 132 Mohamed Said Mohiddin, 16 Northern Malay, 20 money-lenders, 10–11 Mooncake Festival, 150n25 O Munshi Abdullah, 15, 146 O’Neil, Brian Juan, 88–89 Muslim-based social organizations, Orang Boyan. See Baweanese 40n10 Muslim League, 31 Muslims, 17 P built-heritage, 14 Malay and Islamic Customs conflicts with non-Muslims, 212 Council (MUIP), 213 human rights concern, 215 Parameswara, 8, 43, 66, 155 kingdoms in archipelago, 155 parchu buah-buahan, 52 missionaries, 15 parchu ponggal, 52, 69–70 pilgrims, 37 Parsee Theatre, 21 traders, 8, 43 pasembur, 17, 19 Mutahir, Tun, 15 patriarchal community, 50 Mydin Mohamed Holdings, 38 Penal Code, Communications and Mydin Sultan, 28 Multimedia Act, 219 My People, My Country (Sta Maria), Penang-based Muslim League, 25 103 Penang Indian Muslims, 6, 12, 13, 27 Penang Malays, 24 N dialect, 20 Nagore Memorial, 11, 14 Penang sub-dialect, 20 Najmudeen Kader, 25 Penang’s Indian Muslim settlers, 9–10 Nambikai, 14 Kadayanallur immigrants, 12–13 nasi kandar, 18 traders, money-lenders, labourers, nasi lemak, 54 10–11 National Harmony Act, 216–18 Penang’s Tamil immigrants, 10 National Unity Council, 216 Peninsular Malaysia, 8, 14 Nattukotai Chettiars, 10, 45, 68 British colonialism and market needs-based approach, 208, 209 economy into, 86 needs-based economic policies, 208 Eurasian community, 102 Negapat Line, 12 Peranakan ancestral altars, 140 negative stereotyping, 29–30, 50 Peranakan Chinese, 49, 54 New Economic Policy (NEP), 207 Cheng Hoon Teng Temple, 45 non-citizen Permanent Residents, 25 communities, 55, 129 Non-Discrimination Act, 218 jewellery, 55

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role of, 49 cuisine, 80, 94–96 Singapore, community in, 128 cultural heritage, 109 Peranakan Indians, 42, 44, 68, 204 dispersion of, 85 Peranakan-type ancestry, 132 dress, 94–96 Peranakan-type Chinese, 125, 128, employment in, 86–87 133–35 housing settlement for, 99 cuisine of, 138 land disputes in, 99–100 fluency in Malay, 136 mixed marriages in, 83 rural, 141–42 nature of, 91 Peranakan-type community, 120, 125 performing arts, 96–98 Peranakan-type cultural features, 128 population of, 86 Peranakan-type social features, 126 religious events, 114–16 Permanent Residence (PR) of saving community, 100–101 Indonesian-born children, 173 Portuguese Eurasian Catholic pesantren, 163–65 heritage, 112–13 Pillay, Amu, 72–73 Portuguese-Indian-Malay descent, 90 Pillay, M.K.T., 47 Portuguese Settlement, 78 Pillay, Sithambaram, 73–74 Christmas at, 92 Pillay, S.K., 69, 70 creation of, 98–99 pluralism, 212 land disputes in, 99–100 political leadership, 15–16 layout of, 82 political parties, race and religion location of, 81 based, 220 Portuguese Square, 104–7 political route, identity crisis, 31–32 post-colonial categories, 21–22 Portuguese, 80, 93–95 post-colonial immigrants, 153 Arabic loan words in, 93 post-war interaction and Bahasa Malaysia words derived intermarriage, 47–48 from, 93, 94 poverty, 87 colonialism, 47 Baweanese immigration, 156, cultural shows and cuisine, 80 160–66 and Malay-bumiputera, 101–4 Kadayanallur immigrants, 12 occupation, churches during, 112 Portuguese Eurasians, 87 refugees, 85 pre-colonial Indian links, 8–9 side-lined by, 44–45 pre-colonial migration to peninsula, Portuguese Church, 112 155–56 Portuguese Creole, 78 pre-colonial times Indian Muslim Portuguese Cultural Society, 101 traders, 16 establishment of, 97 Printing Presses and Publications Act, Portuguese-Dutch heritage, 88 219 Portuguese Eurasians, 89 Prophet Muhammad, 217 bumiquest, 117n1 Pulau Babi, 130, 147, 149n12

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Q rural Peranakan-type Chinese, 123, Qawwali singing style, 21 141–42

R S Race and Religious Harmony Sam Poh Kong, 147 Commission, 219, 220 temple committee, 125 “race” concept, 206 “Sampokang”, 124 Race Relations Act, 218 sanggul nyonya, 55 racial discrimination, 218 Sanskrit Pallava inscriptions, 8 racial ideology, 206–7 Santa Cruz Festival, 115 Raja, Nadarajan, 65, 68, 74–75 Sarawak, Indian Muslims in, 33 Rajan, K. Shanmugan, 52, 71–72 Sarkissian, Margaret, 83 Ramlee, P., 21 sarong kebaya, 42, 43, 55, 95, 126, 137, , 56 138 Reclamation Action Committee, 106 Save Portuguese Community Action refugees Committee (SPACC), 111 in Melaka Pindah, 85 Save the Portuguese Community Portuguese, 85 Committee, 100 religion and built heritage, 13–15 Sedition Act, 219 religious events, 91–92, 114–16 Selangor, Malay population of, 156 Feast of Saint Peter, 114 Sembahyang Dato Chachar, 51 Feast of St John the Baptist, 114 semutar, 137, 138 Feast of the Assumption, 116 Shelly, G., 102 Holy Week, 116 Sijil Tinggi Persekolahan Malaysia Intrudu, 116 (STPM), 65 Santa Cruz Festival, 115 Singai Varthamani, 16 St Francis Xavier’s Feast Day, Singapore 114–15 agriculture in, 46 Rent Control Act in 2000, 34 Baweanese “invasion” of, 157–58 Riau Archipelago, 166 Baweanese population in, 159 Riau, geographical and ethnic Peranakan community in, 128 rerouting via, 166–68 Singapore pilgrim brokers, 181 rokok daun, 139 Singho, Michael, 93 , 55, 56, 96 social discrimination, 29–30 roti canai, 18 perceived, 27–29 Rukun Negara, 219 social routes, identity crisis, 32–33 rural Chinese community in Soh Teck Soon, 119 Terengganu and Kelantan, 133 songkok, 35 rural immigrants, 128 South Indian mosques, 14 Rural Industries Development South Indian Muslims, 13 Authority (RIDA), 99 architecture, 6

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Sri Poyyatha Vinayagar Moorthi Tankainecan, 16 Temple, 45 Taoist-Buddhist minority, 140 Srivijaya, dependency of, 8 teh tarik, 18 Sta Maria, Bernard, 87, 101–4 Terengganu, 132 Sta Maria, Horace, 80, 85, 90–91, 98 acculturation in Sta Maria, Joseph, 108, 109 embracing Malay language and State affirmative action policies, 27 cultural life, 135–37 State-backed Malay-run companies, Malay-style attire and cuisine, 17 137–39 State-based affirmative action, 208 religion and identity, 139–41 State-financed public housing, 62 traditional Malay housing and State-recognized Malay identity, 22, architecture, 139 30 Terengganu Chinese, 120, 141 stereotyping, 50 Terengganu-Malay dialect, 134 negative, 29–30 Terengganu Peranakan Chinese food, St Francis Institution, 86, 87 148 St Francis Xavier’s Feast Day, 114–15 Thai-Malay heritage, 103 St Peter’s Church, 112, 113 Thangai Nesan, 16 St Peter’s (San Pedro) Festival Theseira, Martin, 111 celebrations, 80 Tirok Chinese, 139 Straits Settlement-born Indian Tirok community, 130, 131 Muslims, 15 Toa Peh Kong, 151n27 , 9, 10 traders, 10–11 Sufism, 14 Malabar Coast, 9 Sumatran Hindu Prince Muslims, 8, 43 Parameswara, 43 petty, 12 Syed Shahul Hamid, 11 traditional community leaders, 62 traditional home-cooked Portuguese- T type cuisine, 95 tali pening, 138 Tranquerah Tamil immigrants, Penang, 10 education, occupations and class Tamil merchant community, 42 in, 87 Tamil Muslims, 9, 10, 15, 19, 37 traders in, 84 community, 16 trans-national marriages, 48 immigrants, 10 Trez Amigos, 98 labourers, 10–11 Tropa De Assunta group, 97 Tamil ports, European control of, 16 Tupi, 93 Tan Chee Beng, 140 Tan Teng Hong, 126, 129 U Tanah Melayu, 142 UiTM, 29 Tang Wei Chee, 125 Ulla, Fidha, 14

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United Malays National Organization urban-based Indian Muslims, 29 (UMNO), 31 urban localized Terengganu Chinese, United Muslim Association, 13 142–44 unity U.S. Commission on International Article 153, 218 Religious Freedom, 212 constitutional literacy Usman Awang, 180 improvement, 216 educational system, 219 V Federal-State division of powers, Vengai, Ibrahim, 34 219 Vision 2020, 31, 189, 210 hate speech, 219–20 Vittiya Vicarini, 16 institutional framework for reconciling race and religious W conflicts, 216–17 wakaf, 10, 14 inter-ethnic and inter-regional Wang Gungwu, 153 relations, 216 wayang kulit performances, 140, interfaith studies promotion, 217 150n16 leadership, 220–21 Wee Kwee Siew, 128, 131 race and religion, political parties, Western-style clothing, 95 220 Western theatre techniques, 21 Race and Religious Harmony Commission, 219 X racial discrimination, 218 Xing Cha Sheng Lan, 124 restoration of, 216–21 University Technology Mara (UiTM), Y 29 Ying Ya Sheng Lan, 124

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