Building the Future Children and the Sustainable Development Goals in Rich Countries Innocenti Report Card 14 Was Written by Chris Brazier

UNICEF Innocenti Report Card 14 Children in the Developed World

Building the Future Children and the Sustainable Development Goals in Rich Countries Innocenti Report Card 14 was written by Chris Brazier. The UNICEF Office of Research – Innocenti would like to acknowledge the generous support for Report Card 14 provided by the Government of Italy. Any part of this Innocenti Report Card may be freely reproduced using the following reference: UNICEF Office of Research (2017). ‘Building the Future: Children and the Sustainable Development Goals in Rich Countries’, Innocenti Report Card 14, UNICEF Office of Research – Innocenti, Florence.

The Innocenti Report Card series is designed to monitor and compare the performance of economically advanced countries in securing the rights of their children.

In 1988 the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) established a research centre to support its advocacy for children worldwide and to identify and research current and future areas of UNICEF’s work. The prime objectives of the Office of Research – Innocenti are to improve international understanding of issues relating to children’s rights, to help facilitate full implementation of the Convention on the Rights of the Child, supporting advocacy worldwide. The Office aims to set out a comprehensive framework for research and knowledge within the organization, in support of its global programmes and policies. Through strengthening research partnerships with leading academic institutions and development networks in both the North and the South, the Office seeks to leverage additional resources and influence in support of efforts towards policy reform in favour of children. Publications produced by the Office are contributions to a global debate on children and may not necessarily reflect UNICEF policies or approaches. The views expressed are those of the authors. The Office of Research – Innocenti receives financial support from the Government of Italy, while funding for specific projects is also provided by other governments, international institutions and private sources, including UNICEF National Committees.

Cover photo © Shutterstock ©United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), June 2017 ISBN: 978-88-6522-050-4 eISBN: 978-92-1-060790-2 ISSN: 2519-108X

UNICEF Office of Research – Innocenti Piazza SS. Annunziata, 12 50122 Florence, Italy Tel: +39 055 2033 0 Fax: +39 055 2033 220 [email protected] www.unicef-irc.org @UNICEFInnocenti facebook.com/UnicefOfficeofResearchInnocenti Innocenti Report Card 14 Children in the Developed World

Building the Future Children and the Sustainable Development Goals in Rich Countries INTRODUCTION – BUILDING THE FUTURE

Report Card 14 Introduction

The Sustainable Development Goals have set ambitious targets that apply to rich countries as well as poor. The most telling sign of a nation’s progress towards meeting those goals will be how well it meets the needs of its children.

This Report Card offers an Goals (MDGs) prioritized the require new approaches to ensure assessment of child well-being in reduction of poverty, as well as inclusive and sustainable outcomes. the context of sustainable progress in related social indicators. Long-term, inclusive and sustainable development across 41 countries The 17 goals of the SDGs add to this social goals are best met through of the European Union (EU) and a series of outcomes associated with attention to the needs of children. the Organisation for Economic inequality, economic development, Ensuring the well-being and realizing Co-operation and Development the environment and climate change, the rights of all children (including (OECD). This group includes both as well as peace and security. migrants and refugees) is not only a high- and middle-income economies, In contrast to the MDGs, which commitment made by those states but here we refer to them all as primarily applied to low- and middle- that have signed the CRC, but is ‘high-income countries’ – or ‘rich income countries, the ambitious also an essential condition for countries’, for convenience. The agenda of the SDGs is of necessity achieving long-term development concept of child well-being is rooted universal; it thus applies to rich goals. Every high-income country in the Convention on the Rights of countries, as well as poor. invests in its children: healthy, the Child (CRC) but the Agenda for The stronger focus of the SDGs educated children are better able to Sustainable Development adds new on equitable development and on fulfil their potential and contribute dimensions. Progress across all leaving no one behind also demands to society. By contrast, problems these dimensions will be vital to attention to inequalities along of child development often carry children, and advanced economies multiple dimensions – of income through into adulthood, with the will therefore need to monitor the and wealth, health and educational resulting social costs accruing to situation of children and young opportunity, as well as voice and the next generation, too. Indeed, people both nationally and globally. political participation – both within achieving the SDGs is about The Sustainable Development Goals and between countries. Addressing ensuring that future generations (SDGs) agreed by the international rising inequality and its related have the opportunities enjoyed by the present generation: successful community in 2015 represent an problems requires a focus not just outcomes for today’s children will ambitious effort to set a global on the conditions of the poorest, but build the foundations for the well- agenda for development that is both also on the consequences of wealth being of our societies tomorrow. equitable and sustainable, in social, accumulation by the richest. As economic and environmental terms. countries seek to meet the SDGs, so Commitments to the SDGs made The earlier Millennium Development the changing political landscape will by governments now need to be

4 INNOCENTI REPORT CARD 14 INTRODUCTION – BUILDING THE FUTURE

translated into programmes and the better to reflect the problems nor of the policy options available Introduction public investments that can deliver facing children in such countries for making progress on selected on this wide-ranging set of goals (see Table 1 pages 4-5). indicators. Nonetheless, by and their 169 accompanying targets. illustrating variation along key Although limited by the lack of While many goals require dimensions of child well-being comparable data in some domains, commitment at the global or related to the SDGs – from ending this report compares 41 countries multilateral action level if they are poverty to promoting peaceful and across 25 indicators. As in other to be achieved (particularly those inclusive societies – it suggests Report Cards, countries are ranked associated with climate change areas where policy efforts or public on their achievements in well-being and the global economy), they also investment may be targeted to for children according to the demand national action. If countries improve outcomes, and reveals selected indicators. The Report Card are to be held to account for their where data inadequacies still need cannot provide an in-depth analysis progress towards these goals, to be addressed. of the reasons behind differences, appropriate indicators for monitoring that progress are necessary. UNICEF has long been at the forefront of global efforts to monitor life outcomes and social progress Box 1 How have Report Card 14 for children, and it now plays a leading role in monitoring child- indicators been selected? related SDG indicators (see Box 2: UNICEF’s global role in SDG monitoring, page 6). Indicators for monitoring child-relevant SDGs in high-income countries were selected using the criteria listed below. Many of the SDG indicators proposed by the global community Relevance: Does the indicator directly concern child well-being in are most appropriate for lower- high-income countries? income contexts. Report Card 14 Data availability and quality: Are high-quality data with adequate proposes an adapted set of coverage available? Do they meet necessary standards regarding indicators to assess countries’ representativeness, comparability, accuracy and frequency of performance against the promise collection? of “leaving no one behind” when national circumstances, ambitions Communicability: Is the indicator itself easily explained, conceptually and existing levels of social progress clear, and do the reported figures clearly convey the extent of progress by country on a given target? are already well advanced (see Box on the right: How have Report Card Policy attainability: Is progress on the indicator realistic, within the 14 indicators been selected?). time frame of the SDGs?

Specifically, this report seeks to Alignment with global indicators: Is the indicator a good match to bring the SDG targets for children the proposed global indicator? Does it reflect the spirit and intent of in high-income countries into the corresponding SDG goal and target? meaningful operation (while staying Extensive consultations with experts at meetings of the Report Card true to the ambitions of the global Advisory Board – composed of academics, independent experts, agenda) and to establish a point of UNICEF national committee members and communications experts – departure for reviewing the SDG also informed the selection of indicators and established their framework in these contexts. It conceptual relevance. focuses on those goals and targets with most direct relevance to the Source: Bruckauf, Z. and Cook, S. (2017). ‘Child-Centred Approach to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in High-Income Countries: Conceptual well-being of children in high-income issues and monitoring approaches’, Innocenti Working Paper 2017-06, settings. Where appropriate, it UNICEF Office of Research – Innocenti, Florence. adapts the agreed SDG indicator,

INNOCENTI REPORT CARD 14 5 INTRODUCTION – BUILDING THE FUTURE INTRODUCTION – BUILDING THE FUTURE

Table 1: Mapping Report Card 14 indicators to global goals, targets and indicators

Goal Target (by 2030 unless specified) Report Card 14 indicator Relationship to SDG global indicators Official SDG indicator which uses 60% of the median for cross-country Relative child poverty (60% of the median household income) End poverty in all its forms everywhere 1.2 Reduce at least by half the proportion of men, women and comparability 1 children of all ages living in poverty in all its dimensions according (page 10) Based on UNICEF MODA methodology, which uses 7 child-specific to national definitions Proportion of children living in multidimensional poverty dimensions of poverty for cross-country comparability 1.3 Implement nationally appropriate social protection systems and measures for all, including floors, and by 2030 achieve substantial Reduction in the rate of child poverty due to social transfers Adapts the official SDG indicator for better country coverage coverage of the poor and the vulnerable 2.1 End hunger and ensure access by all people, in particular the Official SDG measure of food insecurity applied to households with End hunger, achieve food security poor and people in vulnerable situations, including infants, to safe, Children under 15 living with a respondent who is food insecure (%) 2 children under 15 and improved nutrition (page 14) nutritious and sufficient food all year round Obesity is a form of malnutrition, and is highly relevant for high-income 2.2 End all forms of malnutrition Obesity rates among adolescents aged 11-15 countries. Differs from the official SDG indicator 3.2 End preventable deaths of newborns and children under 5 years Neonatal mortality rate Official SDG indicator 3 Ensure healthy lives and promote of age well-being (page 18) Suicides of adolescents aged 15-19 per 100,000 population Official SDG indicator applied to relevant age group 3.4 Promote mental health and well-being 11-15-year-olds reporting 2 or more psychological symptoms more Indicator chosen for its relevance for high-income countries and links than once a week (%) to suicidal behaviour. No matching global indicator 3.5 Strengthen the prevention and treatment of substance abuse, Children aged 11-15 who reported having been drunk in the Drunkenness is a proxy of harmful use of alcohol among children and including harmful use of alcohol previous month (%) young people. Differs from the official SDG indicator 3.7 Ensure universal access to sexual and reproductive Number of births per 1,000 females aged 15-19 Official SDG indicator applied to the relevant adolescent population health-care services 4.1 Ensure that all girls and boys complete free, equitable and quality 15-year-old students achieving baseline proficiency across reading, Official SDG indicator covering young people at the end of secondary Ensure inclusive and equitable primary and secondary education leading to relevant and effective 4 mathematics and science (%) education, adapted to reduce subject-specific bias quality education for all (page 24) learning outcomes 4.2 Ensure that all girls and boys have access to quality early childhood Participation rate in organized learning (one year before official development, care and pre-primary education so that they are ready for Official SDG indicator primary entry age) primary education Share of adult respondents agreeing "university education is more Measure of values and attitudes towards equal gender opportunities 5 Achieve gender equality and 5.1 End all forms of discrimination against all women and girls important for a boy than for a girl” for children. No matching global indicator empower all girls (page 29) everywhere Gender difference in girls' and boys' share of daily participation in Proxy of intergenerational transfer of norms as regards gender roles. housework by age No matching global indicator 5.2 Eliminate all forms of violence against all women and girls in the Women aged 18-29 who reported having experienced sexual violence Differs from the global indicator in age group and recall period due to public and private spheres before age 15 (%) limited availability of cross-national data 8.5 Achieve full and productive employment and decent work for all New indicator showing the proportion of children impacted by Children living in jobless households (%) 8 Promote full and productive employment women and men unemployment/inactivity of household members and decent work for all (page 33) 8.6 By 2020, substantially reduce the proportion of youth not in Official SDG indicator, but with more child-specific age coverage Youth aged 15-19 not in education, employment or training (%) employment, education or training (15-19 rather than 15-24) 10.1 Progressively achieve and sustain income growth of the Palma Ratio: ratio of income share held by top 10% of households Not an official SDG indicator, but a standard indicator of inequality, 10 Reduce inequality within and among bottom 40% of the population with children to bottom 40% adapted to reflect children's experience countries (page 36) 10.2 Empower and promote the social, economic and political inclusion Impact of socio-economic status on students' performance across Not an official SDG indicator, but an equal-opportunity measure regularly of all, irrespective of economic or other status 3 subjects reported by PISA 10.3 Ensure equal opportunity and reduce inequalities of outcome, Not an official SDG indicator, but consistently used by UNICEF Report Cards Gap between household income of child at 50th percentile (median) including by eliminating discriminatory laws, policies and practices and to measure how far behind the poorest children are being allowed to fall and child at 10th percentile, reported as % of median promoting appropriate legislation, policies and action in this regard from 'average' standards in society

11 Make cities inclusive, safe, resilient 11.6 Reduce the adverse per-capita environmental impact of cities, Annual average PM2.5 concentrations in urban areas, weighted by Official SDG indicator but weighted to reflect the proportion of children and sustainable (page 41) including by paying special attention to air quality proportion of child population (0-19) living in urban areas living in cities

12.8 Ensure that people everywhere have the relevant information Ensure sustainable production and Not an official indicator but reflects the SDG focus on education for 12 and awareness for sustainable development and lifestyles in harmony 15-year-old students familiar with 5 or more environmental issues (%) sustainable development (including climate-change education) consumption patterns (page 43) with nature

16.1 Significantly reduce all forms of violence and related death rates Deaths of children aged 0-19 by intentional assault per 100,000 Official SDG indicator adapted for children aged 0-19 16 Promote peaceful and inclusive societies everywhere for sustainable development (page 45) Children aged 11 to 15 who have experienced bullying at least twice Bullying as a form of physical and psychological violence corresponds 16.2 End abuse, exploitation, trafficking and all forms of violence a month in the past month (%) to the official indicator but focuses on children against and torture of children Women aged 18-29 who reported having experienced physical Differs from the global indicator in age group and recall period due to violence before age 15 (%) limited availability in cross-national data

6 INNOCENTI REPORT CARD 14 INNOCENTI REPORT CARD 14 7 INTRODUCTION – BUILDING THE FUTURE

Box 2 UNICEF’s global role in SDG monitoring

For the past 70 years, UNICEF has played a leading role in calling for more and better data on the situation of children worldwide. In recent decades, the organization has established surveys and extensive cross-national databases of indicators relating to the well-being of children, including the Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS) programme.

Today, the SDGs place an unprecedented demand on national statistical systems to generate the information required to monitor official indicators. UNICEF, as custodian of ten of the global SDG indicators and co-custodian of a further seven, supports national and international partners in meeting the data demands of the SDGs. UNICEF is the sole custodian of indicators in the areas of stunting, malnutrition, infant mortality, neonatal mortality, skilled birth attendants, developmental trajectories of children under 5, child marriage, female genital mutilation, physical punishment, and sexual violence (by age 18).

For each SDG indicator, custodians like UNICEF lead the development of global data standards and contribute to national statistical capacity building, so as to facilitate the compilation and verification of national data. Once compiled by the custodian, SDG indicators are submitted to the global SDG database (managed by the UN Statistics Division), along with an interpretation of the data and trends for the annual SDG progress reports.

Beyond its specific custodian role, UNICEF will work closely during the SDG period with other international agencies (such as the UNESCO Institute of Statistics’ Global Alliance to Monitor Learning) to support the production of other child-related global SDG indicators, and with national governments to collect, analyse and use other child-related data.

This Report Card is an example of UNICEF’s data work outside its custodian role. It focuses on higher-income countries and provides proxy measures relevant to these countries that are aligned with official targets under each goal.

8 INNOCENTI REPORT CARD 14 INTRODUCTION – BUILDING THE FUTURE

Report Card 14 Summary league table

The summary league table on the majority of rich countries are in education, health and pages 8-9 shows how some rich going backwards on key indicators employment, areas where national countries do better than others in the goals of reduced inequalities social policies on children and across nine social-progress goals (Palma ratio, income gaps), good families are arguably the strongest; for children. At first glance, the health and well-being (childhood but those goals are not strongly league table reads well for those obesity rates) and quality education associated with the newly defined countries accustomed to appearing (learning outcomes). social-progress goals of at the top of recent comparisons Second, although countries such environmental sustainability, of human and child development – as Bulgaria and Romania have responsible consumption and the Nordic countries, Germany lower incomes per capita than production, and peace. and Switzerland – and less well other countries in the industrialized for lower-income countries of the The results therefore highlight the world, the presence of countries group, such as Romania, Bulgaria new challenges set by the SDGs. such as New Zealand and the and Chile. And, unlike the traditional goals United States in the bottom that preceded them, these new However, a more detailed look reaches of this league table is proof goals are subject to a range of uncovers some key considerations. that high national income alone is supranational influences – such no guarantee of a good record in First, the indicators that underlie as globalization of markets and sustaining child well-being. the table reveal room for economic shocks, pollution, improvement across the board: Third, the overall results of the advances in information flows, all countries rank in the mid- or League Table are driven by instability and migration. They bottom-third on at least two of consistency across the traditional therefore demand the attention the goals. A closer look behind the goals of reduction of poverty, of all countries, in collaboration, headline measures shows that deprivation and inequality, advances no matter how rich or how poor.

INNOCENTI REPORT CARD 14 9 INTRODUCTION – BUILDING THE FUTURE INTRODUCTION – BUILDING THE FUTURE

League Table – Country performance across nine child-relevant goals

Country No Zero Good health and Quality Decent work Reduced Sustainable Responsible Peace, justice and poverty hunger well-being education and economic inequalities cities and consumption strong institutions growth communities and production Norway 1 4 5 9 5 2 2 13 30 Germany 8 8 4 7 6 9 24 15 Denmark 4 2 21 5 10 3 20 19 10 Sweden 6 9 13 16 7 11 6 21 5 Finland 2 15 16 1 15 4 5 11 29 Iceland 3 17 2 27 18 1 8 27 1 Switzerland 5 3 12 11 2 7 27 31 7 Republic of Korea 5 10 3 12 16 22 23 Slovenia 11 27 11 23 9 10 2 13 Netherlands 7 6 6 17 8 12 34 33 14 Ireland 9 31 22 13 37 8 1 8 9 Japan 23 1 8 10 1 32 33 36 8 United Kingdom 16 34 15 20 31 6 14 9 16 Luxembourg 19 12 14 25 3 15 31 28 19 Austria 10 10 9 26 24 13 18 30 28 Spain 28 26 3 12 36 28 16 16 4 Estonia 18 20 26 21 14 29 4 4 35 Portugal 30 32 1 24 26 27 7 1 27 France 15 7 17 14 20 34 23 25 21 Czech Republic 17 16 25 22 13 31 26 24 6 Australia 12 28 23 39 23 17 3 18 18 Croatia 20 14 24 36 35 18 11 14 11 Poland 22 24 32 31 4 23 17 10 20 The league table summarizes Italy 31 23 18 19 30 20 30 15 2 the overall findings of this Canada 32 37 29 8 11 14 19 6 37 Report Card. Countries are Belgium 14 11 19 6 28 19 36 32 32 listed in order of their average Cyprus 13 30 34 21 5 22 36 performance across nine Latvia 27 21 27 18 16 25 12 38 Sustainable Development Malta 24 39 28 2 29 21 32 12 Goals. Goal 5 (Gender) is also Slovakia 21 19 34 35 19 24 10 29 26 included in the Report Card, but there were too many gaps Greece 29 35 20 33 32 36 28 17 3 in the available data for the Hungary 26 22 31 30 33 30 21 23 17 results to be incorporated into Lithuania 25 25 33 29 27 33 5 31 this composite table. Before New Zealand 18 38 15 34 26 9 35 33 goals with multiple indicators Israel 36 13 7 28 22 39 37 34 25 are ranked, each indicator Turkey 40 37 41 22 29 3 22 has been normalized using a United States 33 36 36 32 17 35 13 20 40 z-scores method and averaged 1 Mexico 34 41 30 4 40 41 15 using equal weights. Each country’s rank within Romania 37 33 35 40 25 38 12 37 24 a particular goal is shown, Bulgaria 35 38 39 38 39 40 25 7 34 ranging from 1 for the highest Chile 29 40 37 38 37 35 26 39 performer to 41 for the lowest.

Higher Average Lower insufficient data

10 INNOCENTI REPORT CARD 14 INNOCENTI REPORT CARD 14 11 GOAL 1 – END POVERTY IN ALL ITS FORMS EVERYWHERE

GOAL 1 End poverty in all its forms everywhere

»»An average of one child in five in high-income countries lives in poverty, though there is wide variation – from one in ten in Denmark, Iceland and Norway to one in three in Israel and Romania. »»Measuring children’s multidimensional poverty produces an even broader range of national results, with Switzerland and Romania at opposite extremes. »»Social transfers have proven to be very effective tools in reducing child poverty.

Figure G1 – End poverty Average country performance across three indicators: child income poverty (0–17 years of age), multidimensional poverty (1–15 years) and effectiveness of social transfers (0–17 years)

N F I D S S N I A S A C F C R E L C S P M L H L S P I C S M I R 1 1 11 11 1

Note: Chile, Republic of Korea, New Zealand and Turkey are excluded from the calculation of Goal 1 due to insufficient data (each country reports on only one of the three indicators for this goal).

This chart – and the others at the head of each goal section in this Report Card – is a composite of the indicators in the section. Read 100 as the average country performance for the goal, and 10 points as a standard deviation from this overall average. A greater than 5-point difference from 100, or half a standard deviation, can be interpreted as higher or lower than average (for a sample of around 30 cases, half a standard deviation is equivalent to a 99-per-cent confidence interval). Countries with a difference of 10 points or more from the average can be considered as ‘high performing’ or ‘low performing’, while those differing by 20 points or more can be considered ‘leaders’ or ‘laggards’.

12 INNOCENTI REPORT CARD 14 GOAL 1 – END POVERTY IN ALL ITS FORMS EVERYWHERE

Figure 1.1 An average of one in five children in rich countries lives in relative income poverty End poverty in all its forms everywhere Percentage of children aged 0–17 living in a household with income lower than 60 per cent of the median, 2014 and 2008

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Note: The relative child poverty rate shows the proportion of each nation’s children living in a household where disposable income is less than 60% of the national median (after taking taxes and benefits into account and adjusting for family size and composition using the OECD modified equivalence scale). Sources: European Union countries and Iceland, Norway and Switzerland – European Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC); Australia – Household, Income and Labour Dynamics (HILDA); Canada – Canadian Income Survey (CIS); Chile – La Encuesta de Caracterización Socioeconómica Nacional (CASEN); Israel – Household Expenditure Survey (from Luxembourg Income Study); Japan – Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare’s Comprehensive Survey of Living Conditions; Mexico – El Módulo de Condiciones Socioeconómicas de la Encuesta Nacional de Ingresos y Gastos de los Hogares (MCS-ENIGH); New Zealand – Household Economic Survey (estimates taken from Perry, B (2016). ‘Household Incomes in New Zealand: Trends in indicators of inequality and hardship, 1982 to 2015’, Ministry of Social Development, Wellington); Turkey – Income and Living Conditions Survey; United States – Current Population Survey 2013, Annual Social and Economic Supplement (from Luxembourg Income Study).

Goal 1 of the SDGs calls for an It calculates the national median to have a common experience just end to poverty in all its dimensions. income of all persons – the mid- because they are born into the rich The standard measure of poverty point that sees equal numbers of world. Denmark has the best is based on income, and SDG individuals above and below the line record on relative poverty, but even indicator 1.2.1 aims to measure – and then establishes a percentage there 9.2 per cent of children are the proportion of people living of this as a poverty threshold. Figure below the poverty line. All seven of below the national poverty line – 1.1 presents child poverty rates the countries where the proportion including the share of children. across a broad range of high-income of children living in poverty is Living in poverty during childhood countries, showing the proportion around one in seven are in Europe. can do lifelong damage, with of each nation’s children who live in Israel and Romania have the worst proven effects on health, nutrition, households with incomes of less records on relative poverty – here brain development and educational than 60 per cent of the median. more than one child in three is attainment.2 These effects can A broad average of one child in five considered poor. However, Bulgaria, evolve into large earnings in 41 high-income countries lives Mexico, Spain, Turkey and the differences in adulthood.3 in poverty. However, the record of United States4 also have child This Report Card uses a relative individual countries is so divergent poverty rates substantially above measure of monetary poverty. that children cannot be considered the rich-world average.

INNOCENTI REPORT CARD 14 13 GOAL 1 – END POVERTY IN ALL ITS FORMS EVERYWHERE

Figure 1.2 Finland, Iceland and Norway are most effective in reducing child poverty Percentage reduction in the rate of child poverty due to social transfers, 2014 and 2008

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Note: Reduction in child poverty is measured as the proportional difference between child poverty rates before and after social transfers. Child poverty rates are measured using income thresholds at 60 per cent of the median household income of the total population, before and after social transfers. Sources: As for Figure 1.1.

Intervening to reduce pre-transfer child poverty; and in the to start with, and so reducing high child poverty most successful cases of Finland, levels of child poverty with a single If child poverty rates were entirely Iceland and Norway, they reduce the policy may prove difficult. The role of dependent on household incomes pre-transfer child poverty rates by taxes and other social programmes is derived from the market, they would up to two thirds. not considered here. The evidence does suggest strongly, however, that be much higher across the board. This impressive capacity to redress social transfers have a true potential Instead, governments intervene child poverty should not be taken to reduce child poverty effectively. through benefits and taxes to for granted. It is known to depend redress inequalities. Social transfers on multiple factors, from the size of Measuring other dimensions can be effective in reducing the transfers and their targeting, to the of poverty incidence of relative child poverty, initial levels of pre-transfer child Poverty encompasses more than the as Figure 1.2 reveals. poverty. Social transfers have a much lack of income. The SDGs specifically more modest child poverty reduction How effective can social transfers call for a reduction of at least half in effect in several countries analysed, be? Across high-income countries, “the proportion of men, women and reducing the pre-transfer child they are estimated to have a fairly children living in poverty in all its poverty rates by 10 per cent or less large capacity to reduce pre-transfer dimensions according to national in some cases (Romania, Israel child poverty. On average, social definitions”. High-income countries and Mexico). transfers in high-income countries have made a commitment to monitor reduce child poverty rates by almost These estimates need to be used multidimensional child poverty, 40 per cent. In 11 of these countries, with caution, however. Countries and there are various methodologies social transfers more than halve have different child poverty levels for doing so.

14 INNOCENTI REPORT CARD 14 in Mexico. lived inmultidimensionalpoverty 54 percent ofchildrenunder18 services andfood.In2014, social security, housing, basic in relationtoeducation,healthcare, to income,itassessesdeprivation multidimensional poverty. Inaddition official nationalmeasureof In 2009,Mexicointroducedan for a cross-country comparison, comparison, for across-country Child. ThisReport CardusesMODA Convention ontheRightsof child rights,asestablishedin the among children.Itisbasedon study multidimensionaldeprivation Deprivation Analysis(MODA) toolto developed theMultipleOverlapping In aseparateinitiative,UNICEFhas than thepopulationasawhole. children areathigherriskofpoverty Multidimensional childpoverty(twoormoredimensions),2014 Figure 1.3OneEuropeanchildinthreeisdeprivedtwoormore ways European Union’, InnocentiWorking Paper 2017-07,UNICEFOfficeofResearch–Innocenti,Florence. Source: Chzhen,Y., Bruckauf, andToczydlowska, Z. (2017).‘SustainableDevelopmentGoal1.2:Multidimensionalchild poverty inthe E. and theUnitedStates. The countryaverageisunweighted.Missingcountries:Australia,Canada,Chile, Israel,Japan,Korea, Mexico,NewZealand,Norway, Turkey, leisure activities,socialinformationaccess,orhousing. Dataisfor European countriesonly. Norwayisexcludedduetomissingdata. Note: Materialdeprivationismeasuredaschildrenwhoaredeprivedof2ormore of thefollowing:nutrition,clothing, educationalresources, P

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GOAL 1–ENDPOVERTY INALLITSFORMSEVERYWHERE A ‘multidimensional childpoverty’. dimensions areconsideredtobein to atleasttwooftheseseven housing. Childrenwholackaccess information accessandqualityof leisure activities,social clothing, educationalresources, nutrition, are rootedintheCRC: dimensions ofchildpovertythat Switzerland. Itconsidersseven Union countries,plusIcelandand based on2014datafor28European that children’s materialdeprivation 2009 and2014. MODA analysisofdatacollected in Statistics Icelandtoperforma 2015, UNICEFcollaboratedwith high-income countrytodoso.In MODA studies,Icelandwasthefirst countries havecarriedoutnational While over40lower-income I A L E S

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INNOCENTI REPORT CARD14 P R 6

Poland andtheUnitedKingdom. 50 percent. TheseincludeGreece, rates ofbetween33 percentand multidimensional childpoverty in Italy. Ten countries have Romania andSlovakia,aswell countries ofBulgaria,Hungary, dimensions intheCentralEuropean every twoispoorinormore By contrast,atleastonechildin the NetherlandsandSwitzerland. in fiveispoortheNordiccountries, to thismeasure,lessthanonechild 85 percent inRomania. According 11 percent inSwitzerlandto child povertyrateisvast:from The variationinthemultidimensional to beseverelydeprived. the numberofchildrenconsidered 2009 and2014,withatriplingin had morethandoubledbetween L

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GOAL 2 – END HUNGER, ACHIEVE FOOD SECURITY AND IMPROVED NUTRITION

GOAL 2 End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture

»»Given the ample food resources available, no level of food insecurity among children is acceptable; and yet in high-income countries, one child in eight is food insecure. »»Rates of food insecurity among children vary widely across countries, from 1 in 70 in Japan to one in three in Mexico and Turkey. »»Obesity is also a form of malnutrition, and rates are increasing in all but a handful of countries. »»Good nutrition is vital from birth, and breastfeeding is key to that, though most mothers in high-income countries stop breastfeeding before the recommended minimum of six months.

Figure G2 – End hunger Average country performance across two indicators: food insecurity (0–14 years of age), rates of overweight and obese children (11–15 years)

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16 INNOCENTI REPORT CARD 14 nutrition andpromotesustainableagriculture End hunger, achieve foodsecurityandimproved insecurity isacceptable,even ifit is strikingvariation.Nolevel of food countries is12.7 percent,butthere The averageforthisgroupof children undertheageof15. severe foodinsecurityamong the prevalenceofmoderateor as meeting theneedsoftheircitizens, better thanothersintermsof some countriesaredoingmuch When measuredbythisstandard, as anactiveandhealthylifestyle. growth anddevelopment,aswell food thatcanensurenormal to sufficient,safeandnutritious defined aslackofsecureaccess nutrition. Food insecurityis of SDGGoal2onhungerand Food securityisanofficialmeasure Innocenti Working Paper 2017-09,UNICEFOfficeofResearch–Innocenti,Florence. Source: Pereira, Handa,S. andHolmqvist, G. A., (2017).Prevalence andCorrelatesofFood InsecurityamongChildrenacrosstheGlobe, of childrenlivinginfood-insecurehouseholds. Gallup World Poll Surveys,whichfieldedtheFIES, from2014and2015.TheFIEScountryaverageshavebeenrecalculatedtoreflecttheshare the Food andAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNationsisincorporatedintoofficialSDGindicatorframework.Datacomefrom Note: Food insecurityismeasuredbytheFood InsecurityExperienceScale(FIES),whichwascreatedbytheVoices oftheHungryprojectat Percentage shareofchildrenbelowtheage15livingwitharespondentwhoisfoodinsecure,2014/15 Figure 2.1Foodinsecurityishighinsomeoftheworld’srichest countries P Figure 2.1reveals.Thisreports GOAL 2–ENDHUNGER, ACHIEVE FOODSECURITYANDIMPROVED NUTRITION

R C S C G S N F A I A F I D children’s nutritionalneeds. families struggletosatisfytheir in anyofthesecountries,toomany availability offoodisnotaproblem United States.Althoughthegeneral the UnitedKingdomand and aroundoneinfiveLithuania, one infourBulgariaandRomania insecurity inMexicoandTurkey, Yet onechildinthreesuffersfood of Korea, SwedenandSwitzerland. Croatia, Germany, Japan,Republic affects only1childin20,as children, butthereisaspecific stunting andwastinginvery young The mainfocusisonending all formsofmalnutritionby2030. Target 2.2oftheSDGsistoend malnutrition Obesity asaformof

A N C R I M S N E H C INNOCENTI REPORT CARD14 S S P aged Children(HBSC)survey The HealthBehaviourinSchool- and diabetesinadulthood. disease risk ofcardio-vascular andtoaheightened self-esteem, conditions inchildhood,tolower been linked tomultiplehealth exercising enough.Obesityhas at thesametimetheyarenot with ahighsugarcontent,while unhealthy foodandsoftdrinks increasingly consumingtoomuch income settings.Childrenare is apressingchallengeinhigh- is alsoaformofmalnutrition,and as underweight.Obesityinchildren indicators trackoverweightaswell of adolescentgirls,andthe reference tothenutritionalneeds G A C C I U P U S

9 R T M 17 18 GOAL 2–ENDHUNGER, ACHIEVE FOODSECURITYANDIMPROVED NUTRITION is consideredoverweight. Canada, whereonechildinfour end ofthescaleareMaltaand already lowlevels.Attheother rate hasfalleninrecentyears from respect isDenmark,wherethe The healthiestcountryinthis of between10and20 percent. countries havingchildobesityrates on mostothers,withallbutfour variation onthisindicatorthan or obese,andthereislower in thesecountriesisoverweight An averageofonechildinseven 30 countries,mostlyinEurope. who areobeseoroverweightin proportion ofchildrenaged11–15 On thisbasis,Figure 2.2showsthe to calculatetheirbodymassindex. height andweight,usesthese collects datafromchildrenontheir Source: HBSC,variouswaves. New Zealand,RepublicofKorea, Turkey, theUnitedKingdomandStates. (excluding theBrusselsregion).Thecountryaverageisunweighted.Missingcountries: Australia,Chile,Cyprus,Ireland,Japan,Mexico, The UnitedStatesdidnottakepartintheHBSCstudy2014/15.Belgianestimates arebasedonpopulationweightsforregionalsamples Note: DataforIrelandandtheUnitedKingdomhavebeenexcludedbecauseof high non-responserates(over50 percentofchildrensampled). Percentage of11–15-year-olds whoareobeseoroverweight,2014/15 ofobesityhaveincreasedinmosthigh-incomecountries Figure 2.2Rates P

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of thoseaged12–19. children aged5–11and36 percent or obesechildren:33 percentof very highproportionofoverweight in theHBSCsurvey, itreportsa Although Mexicoisnotincluded Lithuania andSlovakia. over thisperiodoccurredinLatvia, sharpest increasesinincidence higher in2014than2006.The age whowereoverweightwas the proportionofchildrenthis 22 ofthe30countriessurveyed, It isacauseforconcernthatin A I E R

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Box 3 Breastfeeding in high-income countries

Although there is a wealth of evidence that Although some of the data are relatively old and breastfeeding contributes to children’s development do not refer to exclusive breastfeeding, the results in cognitive and general health terms,i specific indicate that the proportion of mothers who have targets for breastfeeding have not been set as ever breastfed is high in all the rich countries part of the Sustainable Development Goals. included, with only France and Ireland reporting Nevertheless, breastfeeding is critical to providing rates of below 75 per cent. By the time the infant the required nutrition for newborn and infant is 6 months old, between a third and a half of development, and can contribute to other SDG goals mothers who had started breastfeeding no longer related to nutrition, health and education. The World continue, and in countries such as Canada, Greece Health Organization (WHO) and UNICEF recommend and the United Kingdom the falling-off is more exclusive breastfeeding for six months. Given this substantial. Rates continue to fall up to 12 months, context, it is worth comparing breastfeeding rates by which point there is a marked difference in in high-income countries, especially as this is one practice between countries: in Japan and Turkey of the few positive health indicators on which rich the majority of mothers continue to breastfeed, countries tend to lag behind poorer ones.ii while in Denmark, Ireland and the United Kingdom rates fall to 3 per cent or lower. More recent data The table below is drawn from a global review for Mexico show 46 per cent of children are still of breastfeeding rates published in early 2016. being breastfed at the age of 12–15 months.iii

Estimates by time and prevalence Country Reference year Ever breastfed At 6 months At 12 months Australia 2010 92 56 30 Austria 2006 93 42 16 Canada 2011/12 89 30 9 Chile 2011/12 95 41 21 Czech Republic 2005 96 42 16 Denmark 2013 – 13 3 Finland 2010 92 58 34 France 2012/13 63 23 9 Germany 2009/12 82 50 23 Greece 2007/08 88 22 6 Ireland 2012 55 – 2 Italy 2013 86 46 19 Japan 2009 95 63 60 Mexico 2012 – – 44 Netherlands 2006/08 – 32 11 New Zealand 2006 – 60 44 Norway 2013 95 71 35 Republic of Korea 2012 88 61 46 Spain 2011 77 47 23 Sweden 2010 98 52 16 Switzerland 2003 94 62 28 Turkey 2008 – – 74 United Kingdom 2005/10 81 34 0.5 United States 2011 79 49 27

Note: Breastfeeding rates are not exclusive breastfeeding rates. Data in bold are extrapolated – see source for methodology. Source: Victora, C.G. et al. (2016). ‘Breastfeeding in the 21st Century: Epidemiology, mechanisms, and lifelong effect’, The Lancet, vol. 387, no. 10017, pp. 475–490. i OECD (2011). Doing Better for Families, OECD Publishing, Paris; Victora, C.G. et al. (2016). ‘Breastfeeding in the 21st Century: Epidemiology, mechanisms, and lifelong effect’, The Lancet, vol. 387, no. 10017, pp. 475–490. ii Victora, C.G. et al. (2016). ‘Breastfeeding in the 21st Century: Epidemiology, mechanisms, and lifelong effect’, The Lancet, vol. 387, no. 10017, pp. 475–490. iii National Institute of Public Health-UNICEF (2017). MICS Mexico, 2015. https://www.unicef.org/mexico/spanish/ENIM_KFR.pdf

INNOCENTI REPORT CARD 14 19 GOAL 3 – ENSURE HEALTHY LIVES AND PROMOTE WELL-BEING

GOAL 3 Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages

»»The rates of neonatal mortality, adolescent suicide, drunkenness and teenage births in high-income countries are all falling, though the gaps between the best and the worst performers on each of these indicators remain wide. »»National averages conceal variation in outcomes that reflect socio-economic, gender or other disparities that affect child health. »»The majority of countries surveyed saw an increase in adolescent self-reporting of mental health issues between 2010 and 2014. One adolescent in four reports experiencing two or more psychological symptoms more than once a week.

Figure G3 – Ensure health Average country performance across five indicators: neonatal mortality (< 4 weeks of age), suicide rates (0–19 years), mental health symptoms (11–15 years), drunkenness (11–15 years) and teenage fertility rates (15–19 years)

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Note: Cyprus is excluded from the calculation of Goal 3 on account of insufficient data (reporting on only two of the five indicators for this goal). Two data points for Mexico have been excluded from the calculation of the results for Goal 3: neonatal mortality rates (2015) and number of births per 1,000 females aged 15-19 (2015). Inclusion of these outliers would result in Mexico’s ranking falling to 40th place.

20 INNOCENTI REPORT CARD 14 for allatages Ensure healthylivesandpromotewell-being neonatal mortality continues to fall neonatal mortalitycontinuesto fall different socialgroups.Given that may hidestarkvariationsbetween 1,000 livebirths,althoughaverages the globaltargetof12deaths per neonatal mortalityratestobelow countries havealreadyreducedtheir under Target 3.2.Allhigh-income of life–isanofficialSDGindicator tracks deathsinthefirstfourweeks The neonatalmortalityrate–which Newborn deathsarefalling the firstyearoflife. many childrenaspossiblesurvive prerequisite istoensurethatas impact throughoutlife.Thefirst in childhoodcanhavealasting but alsobecausehealthproblems health andwell-being“atallages”, SDGs, notjustbecauseitrefersto to theattainmentofGoal3 A focusonchildrenisfundamental Source: OECDHealthdatabase,2016.DataforBulgariaarefromtheWHOWorld HealthStatistics2016. Cyprus, MaltaandRomania. series: France (2009).NodataforIrelandin2015,France orTurkey in2005.Thecountryaverageisunweighted.Missingcountries:Croatia, Note: Neonatalmortalityhasnominimumthresholdofgestationperiodorbirthweight. Datafor2015isornearestavailableyear. Breakin Deaths inthefirst28daysoflife,per1,000livebirths Figure 3.1Overthepastdecade,mostrichcountrieshavereported notablefallsinneonatalmortalityrates D

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N I I P weight birthsintheOECD. the highestpercentageoflow- one, atjust0.9per1,000,despite neonatal mortalityrateofunder historic benchmarkbyachievinga countries. Japanhassetanew weeks oflifeacrossthese36OECD per 1,000weredyinginthefirstfour In 2015,anaverageof2.8children mortality needcarefulinterpretation. international rankingsofneonatal birthweight babiesmeanthat registration ofprematureandlow- However, nationaldifferencesinthe room forimprovementintherest. Figure 3.1suggeststhatthereisstill in thehighest-performing nations, than halveditsneonataldeath rate. between 2005and2015itmore spectacular inrecentyears: ranked nation,Slovenia,hasbeen The improvementinthesecond- S B

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L H suicide wastheleadingcause of In high-incomecountriesin2012, death amongtheyoung Suicide: leadingcauseof the NetherlandsandPoland. rate, followedbyEstonia,Lithuania, which hashalveditsmortality strides since2005areLatvia, nations thathavemadesignificant quarter overthatperiod.Other reducing itsratebyalmosta shown amarked improvement, indicator since2005,Mexicohas have madenoprogressonthis However, whileChileseemsto of theirhighest-achieving peers. way togomeetthestandards average andstillhaveasignificant Turkey, areabovetherich-world Americas, alongwithBulgariaand the fourOECDcountriesfrom At theotherendofscale, P D N S S U S B

T M 21 22 GOAL 3–ENSUREHEALTHY LIVESANDPROMOTE WELL-BEING likely todiebysuicidethangirls – Across theboard,boysaremore well abovetheinternationalaverage. Lithuania teenagesuicidesare also Chile, Estonia,Finland, Irelandand New Zealand,althoughinCanada, than inPortugal –istobefoundin 15.6 per100,000–ninetimeshigher countries. Thehighestrate,of to belowinsouthernEuropean 100,000, inPortugal, andtends The rateislowest,at1.7per 37 OECDandEUcountries. for adolescentsaged15–19across Figure 3.2reflectsthesuiciderate all deaths. accounting for17.6 percentof between 15and19ofbothsexes, death amongyoungpeopleaged Source: WHOmortalitydatabase,2016. Missing countries:Greece,Iceland,SlovakiaandSlovenia.[c=around] three yearspreceding. DataaremissingforGreece.MostrecentdataIceland(c2008,5.4),Slovakia2.5)andSlovenia(c2009, 7.6). Note: Thecountryaverageisunweighted.Figures averagesaroundtheyearinbrackets.Earlierestimatesarefor arethree-year Suicide ratesofadolescentsaged15–19per100,000population,basedonthelatestavailabledata(2009–2013) Figure 3.2Adolescentsuicideratesvarywidelybetweenhigh-income countries S

P INNOCENTI REPORT CARD14 I S T U I M D B L G N are lesslethal. generally themethodschosen twice asoftenboys,though actually attemptsuicidearound mental healthsymptoms.Girls from thesurveyofself-confessed gender gaprunstheoppositeway Latvia, Poland andSlovakia.This countries oftheCzechRepublic, in theCentralandEasternEuropean though thereisafivefolddifference three timesmorelikely, onaverage, increases forboysinLuxembourg suicide ratehasrisen,withmarked and Lithuania.Insixcountries, the with thehighestsuiciderates: Chile have comeintwoofthenations years. Thebiggestimprovements in themajorityofcountriesrecent Adolescent suiciderateshavefallen H R

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N A B M for boyshasbeendeclining. rate forgirlsincreasing, whilethat can beobserved,withthesuicide United States–theoppositetrend Netherlands, NewZealandandthe Cyprus, Finland, Malta,the deaths. Inahandfulofcountries– outweighing adeclineingirls’ and Sloveniasignificantly mental healtharenotavailable – international dataonyoungpeople’s these. Objectiveandcomparable and well-being(Target 3.4)isoneof and youngerchildren.Mental health and adolescents,ratherthaninfants countries relatetoolderchildren that arerelevantforhigh-income Most oftheSDGhealthtargets a growingconcern Adolescent mentalhealth: U SL R P E I L N Figure 3.3. countries in2014areshown in The resultsfrom31high-income sleeping difficulties. irritability, feelingnervousand of foursymptoms:feelinglow, how oftentheyexperienceeach a rangeofcountriesareasked schoolchildren aged11–15in health. Everyfouryears, measure ofadolescentmental self-reported provide anon-clinical, However, theHBSCsurveydoes at present. transnational surveysthanexist would requiremorecomprehensive conditions affectingadolescents full rangeofneuropsychiatric reliable measurementofthe Source: HBSCStudy, various waves. Cyprus, Israel,Japan,Mexico,NewZealand,RepublicofKorea, Turkey andtheUnitedStates. for Belgium,andNorthernIrelandinthecaseofUnitedKingdom).Thecountry average isunweighted.Missingcountries:Australia,Chile, Note: EstimatesforBelgiumandtheUnitedKingdomarebasedonpopulationweights forregionalsamples(excludingtheBrusselsregion feeling nervous,havingsleepingdifficulties)morethanonceaweek Percentage ofadolescentsreportingtwoormorepsychologicalsymptoms(feelinglow, feelingirritable, Figure 3.3Adolescentmentalhealthissuesarebecomingmore common P G

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surveyed sawariseofmore than countries: 15ofthe31countries is ontheriseinmanyhigh-income reporting ofmentalhealthissues The surveyprovidesevidence that they becomeolder. are boys,withthegapwideningas related totheirmentalhealththan more likely toreportsymptoms As inpastsurveys,girlsaremuch to thehighestof36 percentinItaly. incidence of14 percentinGermany This rangesfromthelowest symptoms morethanonceaweek. two ormorepsychological (23 percent) reportsexperiencing of aroundoneadolescentinfour reported statistics,butanaverage of cautionaroundinterpretingself- There shouldalwaysbeanelement A B S I I H E

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standardized, internationaldata on There isamanifestneedfor points, respectively. by 7,6and5percentage has declinedinthosecountries the self-reportedprevalencerate crisis –between2006and2014, despite therecenteconomic continue alonger-term trend, in Greece,Romania andSpain symptoms. Thepositiveresults of adolescentmentalhealth seen areductioninthereporting A fewcountries,however, have Slovenia andSweden. Luxembourg, theNetherlands, with particularlylargeincreasesin symptoms between2010and2014, 2 percentagepointsinself-reported R

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23 I public concerninmanyhigh-income drinking bychildrenisamatter of related tothisfocusesonadults, Although theofficialindicator including …harmfuluseofalcohol”. treatment ofsubstanceabuse, “strengthen thepreventionand Target 3.5oftheSDGsaimsto becoming lesscommon Adolescent drunkennessis that emergelaterinlife. greater healthcostthanthose to adulthoodimposeaten-fold health disordersthatemergeprior shared. Ifleftuntreated,mental determine futurepolicytobe positive initiativesthatcanhelp income countries–aswellfor adolescent mentalhealthinhigh- 24 Percentage aged11–15whoreportedhavingbeendrunkinthepreviousmonth Figure 3.4Adolescentdrunkenness has declinedmarkedly since2010 GOAL 3–ENSUREHEALTHY LIVESANDPROMOTE WELL-BEING Source: HSBCstudy, various waves. Mexico, NewZealand,Norway, RepublicofKorea, Turkey andtheUnitedStates. the caseofUnitedKingdom).Thecountryaverageisunweighted.Missingcountries: Australia,Chile,Cyprus,Finland, Israel,Japan, United Kingdomarebasedonpopulationweightsforregionalsamples(excluding the BrusselsregionforBelgium,andNorthernIrelandin Finland, France, Latvia, Lithuania,Poland, RomaniaandTurkey areexcludedonaccountofhighmissingvalues.EstimatesforBelgiumandthe Note: 2014dataforFinland, IsraelandNorwayareexcludedonaccountofhighmissingvalues.The2010dataforCzechRepublic,Estonia, P I INNOCENTI REPORT CARD14

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with medicallytreatedinjuries. least becauseoftheassociation use”,not constitute “harmful among youngerteenagerscan countries –anddrunkenness figure forthecountrywith the lastmonth–seventimes the of childrenhadbeendrunkwithin and Denmarkin2014,13 per cent between countries.InBulgaria There issubstantialvariation in theprevious30days. reported havingbeendrunk 11 and15ineachcountrywho of schoolchildrenagedbetween Figure 3.4showsthepercentage industrialized countries. data foralargegroupof The HBSCsurveyprovides

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E P by adolescents. that guardagainstharmfuldrinking to developandmaintainpolicies Nevertheless, itremainsimportant Kingdom theratemorethan halved. in Ireland,SpainandtheUnited the improvementwasdramatic: 2010 and2014.Insomecountries, drunkenness declinedbetween years, theincidenceofadolescent countries withdataforboth It isalsostrikingthat,inallthe below average. adolescent drunkenness thatare nations generallyhaveratesof contrast, southernEuropean Central andEasternEurope.In with thehighestratesarein notable that9ofthe11countries lowest incidence,Iceland.Itis S S

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H D B of twogenerationschildren. chances andhealthprospects can thereforeimprovethelife Preventing earlypregnancies own economicopportunities. likely adverseimpactontheir complications, inadditiontothe mortality risksandbirth Very youngmothersfacehigher teenage pregnanciesandbirths. and socialcostsassociatedwith on accountofthehighindividual significant concern,however, decades. Theissueremainsof income countriesinrecent declined rapidlyinmanyhigh- Adolescent birthrateshave falling fast Teenage birthratesare Source: OECDFamily database,2016forRomaniaandSlovenia,World DevelopmentIndicators2016forothercountries. Note: Thecountryaverageisunweighted. Number ofbirthsper1,000femalesaged15–19 Figure 3.5Theteenagebirthrateisfallinginallhigh-income countries R B -

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that intheRepublic ofKorea. United Statesismorethan13 times birth rateinNewZealandand the the highestrates,adolescent Even leavingasidethecountries with countries onthisindicatorisvast. difference betweenhigh-income countries ofChileandMexico.The rates occurintheLatin American four orunderper1,000.Thehighest Switzerland –alsohavearateof the Netherlands,Sloveniaand countries –Denmark,Japan, with 1.6per1,000,whilefiveother found intheRepublic ofKorea, The lowestteenagebirthrateis living in41high-incomecountries. births per1,000womenaged15–19 2005 and2015inthenumberof Figure 3.5trackschangesbetween G A G B

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problem inthosecountries. concern, giventhescaleof and Romania isofparticular of improvementinBulgaria,Chile and Sweden,whiletheslowrate minimal recentprogressinSlovakia States. Incontrast,therehasbeen the UnitedKingdomand Luxembourg, Portugal, Switzerland, Germany, Ireland,Lithuania, 40 percent: Austria,Estonia, reduced theirratesbyover period, buttenothercountries its rateby63.5 percentoverthat marked inIceland,whichreduced The progresshasbeenparticularly birth ratebetween2005and2015. show adeclineintheteenage Without exception,allcountries L U A

M H US S N T R B M 25 GOAL 4 – ENSURE INCLUSIVE AND EQUITABLE QUALITY EDUCATION FOR ALL

GOAL 4 Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all

»»Measures of basic competency in reading, mathematics and science literacy show that even in the best-performing countries, one 15-year-old in five does not reach the level of basic competency. »»About 19 out of every 20 children have access to some kind of organized preschool provision one year before the start of formal schooling. However, both the quantity and the quality of such services for children from the age of 3 vary substantially across countries.

Figure G4 – Inclusive education Average country performance across two indicators: rates of children achieving baseline learning proficiency (15 years of age) and participation rates in the preschool year (age 3–6)

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Note: The data point for Turkey (2013/14) for participation rate in organized learning (one year before official age for entering primary school) is an outlier; the data point is therefore excluded from the calculation of the results for Goal 4. Inclusion of those data would result in no change to the ranking of Turkey on Goal 4.

26 INNOCENTI REPORT CARD 14 and promotelifelonglearningopportunitiesforall Ensure inclusiveandequitablequalityeducation secondary school competency attheendof Falling short ofuniversal young people. chance inlifeforallchildrenand fundamental skillsensuresafairer Achieving universalproficiencyin unemployment andinactivity. productivity andwages,higher through schooldropout,lower individual childrenandonsociety level imposesahighcoston in coresubjectsateacheducational Goals. Failure toachievebasicskills of theSustainableDevelopment is key toanychild-focusedvision Investing inchildren’s education Source: OECDPISAsurvey, variouswaves. standards in2015.Thecountryaverageisunweighted.Missingcountries:Cyprus, MaltaandMexico. México’, https://www.unicef.org/mexico/spanish/UNICEF_NFE_MEX.pdf. Some35.9 percentoftheMexicansamplereachedbaselineeducational income quintilemakeupalmosthalf(45 percent)ofnon-attendeesinthisagegroup, seeUNICEF(2016).‘NiñosyniñasfueradelaEscuelaen PISA 2015surveymorethanoneinfourMexicanstudentsbetweentheagesof 15-17 wereoutofschool(26.7 percent);childrenfromthelowest reading. MaltadidnotparticipateinPISArounds2006and2012.DataforMexico areexcludedduetolowratesofenrolment.Atthetime 2009 dataareavailableforthemajorityofcountries;2006resultsUnitedStates arenotreportedbecauseoflackdataavailabilityin Note: Datafor2015and2012arecomparedto2006data,asthiswasthelasttime thatscienceliteracywasthemainfocusofPISAtests; Student Assessment(PISA)is a The Programme forInternational Percentage of15-year-olds achievingbaselinecompetencyinreading, mathematicsandscience educational standards Figure 4.1Eveninthehighest-performing nations,aroundonechildinfivedoesnotachievebaseline

E GOAL 4–ENSUREINCLUSIVE ANDEQUITABLE QUALITY EDUCATION FORALL B F C R I D S A N N S Canada, Estonia,Finland and Japan. 80 percent –areachievedin The highestproportions–over among its15-year-olds. in reading, mathematicsandscience approaches universalcompetency established itseducationsystem, no matterhowwealthyorlong in 2015.Itisstrikingthatnocountry, reading, mathematicsandscience proficiency (Level 2orhigher)in achieving atleastminimum on theproportionoftheirchildren compares 39industrializedcountries of 15-year-old students. Figure 4.1 testing theskillsandknowledge national educationsystemsby triennial surveythataimstoevaluate A B N S A

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minimum standard. and Turkey achievedtherequisite tested inBulgaria,Chile,Romania less thanhalfofthe15-year-olds At theotherendofspectrum, far fromuniversal. Level 2orhigher)–thoughstill baseline competency(proficiency successful thanothersinensuring approaches areevidentlymore but theirnationaleducational This isadiversegroupofcountries, Republic ofKorea andSlovenia. Denmark, Germany, Ireland,Poland, level acrossthreesubjectsare 15-year-olds attainingthebasic more than75 percentof The onlyothercountrieswith I L L C C I S B C R

T 27 GOAL 4 – ENSURE INCLUSIVE AND EQUITABLE QUALITY EDUCATION FOR ALL

Box 4 Measuring quality in early childhood education and care

SDG Target 4.2 emphasizes the importance of access The child’s home learning environment and to high-quality early childhood education and care her/his interaction with formal settings influences (ECEC) as a means of achieving equity and transforming child outcomes, and measures should be lives through education. At the heart of this ambition is sensitive to this. the message that access to ECEC alone is insufficient »» What it means to be ‘ready for primary to achieve positive child outcomes, and that ECEC education’ or ‘developmentally on track’. must also be of high quality. As a result, meeting Quality ECEC settings foster child development Target 4.2 means developing methods to accurately and recognize children as active learners and measure and monitor quality standards in ECEC.i capable explorers of their environment. As a minimum, measures of ECEC quality should The concept of ‘school readiness’, however, capture: (a) the system design and organization can be problematic if it shifts the focus too far (structure) of services, including accreditation, from how children learn through play – vital in staff-child ratios, and health and safety regulations; developing soft skills, such as self-regulation (b) practice within ECEC settings (process), including and attentiveness – towards a more school-like interactions and relationships, the role of play, and pedagogy, emphasizing the development of the integration of care and education; and (c) child ‘basic skills’ and literacy outcomes. outcomes, including the child’s social, emotional, Each country can ensure that the question of quality mental, physical skills and benefits to family is high on the policy agenda by collecting data at the and community. child level, identifying risks and barriers to positive For cross-national monitoring efforts, child development, and ensuring that the system can key considerations include: respond to the needs of both child and family. Such efforts will link improvements in the quality of ECEC »» Monitoring ECEC quality in different contexts. to policy measures and enhance equity in access. ECEC services in high-income countries vary widely in terms of decentralization, curriculum and i Bruckauf, Z. and Hayes, N. (2017). ‘Quality of Childcare funding structure. This means that a ‘one-size-fits- and Pre-Primary Education: How do we measure it?’ all’ solution to measuring quality and monitoring Innocenti Research Brief 2017-13, UNICEF Office of Research – Innocenti, Florence. standards is unlikely to be found. »» The interplay between home environment and formal care. Quality ECEC settings are responsive to the dynamic nature of children’s lives.

28 INNOCENTI REPORT CARD 14 Percentage participatinginorganizedlearning(oneyearbeforeofficialageforenteringprimaryschool) Figure 4.2aMorethannineoutoftenchildrenparticipateinorganizedpreschoollearning Source: SDGIndicatorsGlobalDatabase(UNESCO, OECDandEUROSTAT SurveysofFormal Education). one yearbeforetheofficialprimaryentryage,bothsexes(percent).Missingcountries: Austria,CzechRepublic,GermanyandSlovakia. Note: Mostrecentdataarefor2010Croatia,Estonia,IcelandandSwitzerland. DataforCanadarefertoadjustednetenrolmentrate, while Chile also improved; there while Chilealsoimproved;there of around12percentagepoints, all showedsubstantialimprovement 2006: Bulgaria,IsraelandRomania indicator inthenineyearsfollowing the greatestprogressonthis nations areamongthosethatmade Some oftheweakest-performing in thetopfive. half thatofthefourothercountries per-capita national incomelessthan all onthismeasure,Estonia,hasa the highest-performing nationof the resourcestheyhaveavailable: more effectiveusethanothersof that somecountriesmake much in thesample.However, itisevident lowest per-capita nationalincome are alsothecountrieswith With theexceptionofChile,these

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F F S S D R N N in the future. in thefuture. their communitiesandsocieties millions ofchildrentoday, butalso start inlifecanbenefitnotonly and educationinitiatives,agood public investmentinearlycare in allsocieties, force forsustainabledevelopment childhood developmentisadriving for primaryeducation”. Early education sothattheyareready development, careandpre-primary access toqualityearlychildhood “ensure thatallgirlsandboyshave Target 4.2oftheSDGsaimsto preschool provision Almost allchildrenhavesome and Turkey. change onthisindicatorinMexico was littleevidenceofpositive I S L

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from disadvantagedbackgrounds. particularly positiveforchildren These effectsseemtobe performance attheageof15. the likelihood ofloweducational preschool programmesdecreases Specifically, participationinsuch and reducedcriminalbehaviour. terms ofeducation,health,jobs highlighting positiveoutcomesin and careforchildrenaged3–5, preschooleducation of high-quality attests tothelong-term benefits A growingbodyofevidence they startschool. organized learningoneyearbefore are benefitingfromsomelevel of all childreninhigh-incomecountries Figure 4.2aindicatesthatalmost C S B

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30 children from the age of 3 onwards children fromtheageof3onwards the agecoveragetoincludeall countries thaninothers.Expanding which beginsmuchlaterinsome only theyearbeforeprimary school, However, thedataabovecover education. pre-primary ten childrendonotparticipatein between twoandthreeoutofevery Turkey remainsubstantiallylower: countries, theratesinAustraliaand Despite recentincreasesinboth education andcare,page26). Measuring qualityinearlychildhood quality ofprovision(seeBox4: account forhoursusedorthe although thismeasuredoesnot formal preschoolprovision, across thesecountriesbenefitfrom On average,95 percentofchildren GOAL 4–ENSUREINCLUSIVE ANDEQUITABLE QUALITY EDUCATION FORALL Source: Eurostat(EU-SILC). DataforJapanfrom2013ComprehensiveSurveyofLivingStandards,MinistryHealth,Labour andWelfare. *Confidence intervalsforJapanarenotavailable,thiscountryiscategorizedas ahigherperformerbasedonthegroupingofnearestcomparators. Note: Missingcountries:Australia,Canada,Chile,Israel,Mexico,NewZealand,Republic ofKorea, Turkey, theUnitedStates. least onehouraweek Percentage servicesforat ofchildrenfrom3yearstominimumcompulsoryschoolageattendingcentre-based Figure 4.2bFormalchildcareattendancefrom3yearsisless prevalent insomecountries I INNOCENTI REPORT CARD14

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S I N Croatia andPoland. and Malta,lessthanhalfdosoin hour aweekinBelgium,Iceland learning orcareforatleastone over age3take partincentre-based shows. Whilenearlyallchildren national results,asFigure 4.2b produces agreatervarietyof S A I N

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C U B S R C GOAL 5 – ACHIEVE GENDER EQUALITY AND EMPOWER ALL GIRLS

GOAL 5 Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls

»»Around one woman in 16 in high-income countries reports having been sexually abused by an adult before the age of 15. »»Assumptions about gender roles communicated during childhood play a part in reproducing gender inequalities later in life. »»In all countries with data, more girls than boys report daily participation in housework. »»On average, 14 per cent of adults in sample countries felt that higher education was more important for boys than for girls, though there was a wide range of opinion – from 3 per cent supporting that idea in Sweden to 32 per cent in Turkey.

Few of the globally agreed outperform boys. However, this Unwillingness to report acts of indicators included under Goal 5 does not yet translate into equality sexual violence can result from, have comparable child-focused of outcomes in later life. among other factors, the trauma of recalling the experience, fear indicators that reflect gender Gender equality requires an of blame or the stigma attached inequalities in childhood. For end to violence against girls other indicators, there is a lack of to such violence. Differences in Experience of any form of violence comparable cross-country data. results across countries may thus in childhood can inflict lifelong Consequently, no composite table in part reflect social climates that damage – in both girls and boys has been constructed from the are more or less conducive to (as recognized by Goal 16). women speaking openly about indicators included under Goal 5. Goal 5 focuses specifically on such experiences. What is clear is Sustainable Development gender equality, and thus prioritizes that sexual violence is experienced Goal 5 focuses on eliminating the ending of all forms of violence by girls in all countries and discrimination on the basis of against women and girls, including appears widespread. Bringing gender, and on ending violence physical, sexual or psychological the prevalence of the problem against girls and women. In many violence. Figure 5.1 presents data to public notice is itself a step high-income countries, significant from a 2012 survey undertaken by towards countering such abuse progress has been made in the European Union Agency for and empowering girls. It should combating overt discrimination on Fundamental Rights. The survey be noted that sexual violence is the grounds of sex – sometimes asked women aged 18–29 whether also perpetrated against boys; through legislation and sometimes they had suffered sexual violence to date, however, limited data are from an adult before the age of 15. through changing social norms. available on violence against boys or on the differential experience Indeed, for many child-level In surveys on subjects such as of girls and boys. indicators, such as education sexual violence, some level of outcomes, girls frequently under-reporting is to be expected.

INNOCENTI REPORT CARD 14 31 32 GOAL 5–ACHIEVE GENDEREQUALITY ANDEMPOWERALLGIRLS 2010–2014 Percentage ofadultrespondentsagreeingthat“universityeducationismoreimportantforaboythangirl”, Figure 5.2Attitudesthatreinforcegenderinequalityremainentrenched Source: FRA–EuropeanUnionAgencyforFundamental Rights,gender-based violenceagainstwomensurveydataset,2012. Republic ofKorea, Switzerland,Turkey andtheUnitedStates. or theadultexposingtheirgenitals.Missingcountries:Australia,Canada,Chile,Iceland, Israel,Japan,Mexico,NewZealand,Norway, Note: Sexualviolencewasdefinedas:forcedintercourse;unwelcometouching ofbreastsorgenitals;beingforcedtoposenaked; Percentage ofwomenaged18–29whoreportedhavingexperiencedsexualviolencebeforetheage15 Figure 5.1Sexual violencebyadultsaffects6 percentofEuropeangirlsundertheage15 Source: World Values Survey, 2010–2014. statement. Circleonbars=male/female average. Note: Datarefertothecurrentofficialrelease versionv2016-01-01ofthe World Values Survey. Respondentsagreeorstronglywiththe P P 14 1 4 1 1 1 4 R INNOCENTI REPORT CARD14 C 14 S C 1 M 11 C 14 1 A P 1 1 G N C R N P

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S U S L 44 4 4 S S 4 1 A A 4 H S 11 4 11 L 4 P 14 C 4 G 1 C 1 G M 1 1 11 I E 14 I 1 11 S 14 C 4 1 D R 4 E 11 S M N 1 R 1 111 U 1 41 L T 1 44 1 GOAL 5 – ACHIEVE GENDER EQUALITY AND EMPOWER ALL GIRLS

Societal attitudes contribute young women consistently notwithstanding the overall to unequal outcomes for girls outperform their male peers in progress made towards gender and boys high-income countries. As of equality in high-income countries 2013, 55 per cent of all students in Gender differences persist in many over recent decades. For example, OECD countries who graduated areas of life in rich, as well as in the view that university education from a general secondary education poor countries. In most rich is more important for boys than for programme were girls and countries, women still lag well girls is still widely held in many 58 per cent of graduates with a behind men when it comes to pay, countries by both men and women, bachelor’s degree were women20 – to holding managerial positions as a study of 17 countries but this is still not translating into conducted as part of the World and to political representation at an advantage in the labour market. both the local and the national level. Values Survey revealed (Figure 5.2). The gender gap in adult life is In terms of wage gaps, for example, Wide variation is displayed here in therefore not closely tracked by on average across the OECD, terms of social attitudes to gender. women earn 15.5 per cent less indicators of opportunity or performance during childhood: The proportion of respondents who than men;18 meanwhile, they hold instead, other factors play into value male education over female only 27.9 per cent of seats in the later disadvantage of women. is as high as one in five in Chile, national parliaments.19 These include gender norms and Romania and Mexico, is over one Yet in terms of their attainment expectations of gender roles that in four in the Republic of Korea, at school and university, girls and persist in most societies, and is almost one in three in Turkey.

Figure 5.3 Girls do more housework than boys at ages 8 and 12 Percentage point difference in girls’ and boys’ share of daily participation in housework by age, 2013/14

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Note: In some countries, only one region or administrative area was sampled, as follows: Poland – Wielkopolska region; Spain – Catalonia; Turkey – Istanbul; United Kingdom – England. Source: Children’s Worlds, the International Survey of Children’s Well-Being (ISCWeB).

INNOCENTI REPORT CARD 14 33 GOAL 5 – ACHIEVE GENDER EQUALITY AND EMPOWER ALL GIRLS

Such attitudes are likely to translate every day, while only 11 per cent into differential educational indicated that they did so rarely or opportunities and thus to unequal never. In all countries, more girls gender outcomes in adult life. than boys report participating in housework on a daily basis, while Girls do more housework boys predominate among those Another factor inhibiting gender who say that they never or rarely equality in adult life is women’s help. The gender difference is disproportionate responsibility for consistent across all countries and unpaid care and domestic work. In all three ages. Although Mexico most cultures, the assumption that was not covered by the survey, such work within the household national data for 2013 indicate is primarily the responsibility of that in the age group 10 to 13, women is learned early in life, as 74 per cent of girls are involved in children are socialized by example household work, compared with and by expectation both within 64 per cent of boys.21 and beyond the family home. The The nature of children’s International Survey of Children’s housework varies, depending Well-Being collects data based on on the socio-economic and children’s subjective perceptions cultural context, and children’s of their own lives. Children aged 8, contributions to household chores 10 and 12 were asked: “How often are by no means necessarily do you usually spend time helping negative. However, the clear around the house when you are gap between boys’ and girls’ not in school?” The results appear participation at the age of 8 in Figure 5.3. does seem indicative of the kind In the 12 high-income countries of gender stereotyping that is included in the survey, about reproduced within families and that 52 per cent of children aged 8 said can reinforce gender inequalities that they helped with housework over the long term.

34 INNOCENTI REPORT CARD 14 GOAL 8 – PROMOTE FULL AND PRODUCTIVE EMPLOYMENT AND DECENT WORK FOR ALL

GOAL 8 Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all

»»An average of 1 young person in 13 in the countries surveyed is not in employment, education or training (NEET) – and the proportion is much larger in southern Europe and Latin America. Jobs for young people can redress this lack of opportunities and improve the inclusion of young people. »»Around one child in ten lives in a household where no adult is employed; this rises to almost one child in five in Ireland.

Figure G8 – Inclusive economic growth Average country performance across two indicators: youth inactivity (NEET) rates (15–19 years) and children living in jobless households (0–17 years of age)

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Note: The data point for Turkey for the proportion of youth (aged 15–19) not in employment, education or training in 2014 is an outlier, and so is excluded from the calculation of the results for Goal 8. The inclusion of the outlier would result in Turkey ranking 41st on Goal 8.

INNOCENTI REPORT CARD 14 35 36 GOAL 8–PROMOTE FULLANDPRODUCTIVEEMPLOYMENT ANDDECENTWORKFORALL be athigherriskofsocialisolation, skills ortheirconfidence,and may in workarenotdevelopingtheir Young peoplenotineducation or but alsoforsocietyasawhole. for theyoungpeoplethemselves, NEET ratesareunhealthy–notjust education ortraining(NEET).High young peoplenotinemployment, opportunities istheproportionof success indeliveringsuch country’s livelihood. Akey measureofa provide themwithadecent productive employmentthatwill for youngpeopletoengagein has toincludeopportunities sustainable economicdevelopment Any strategyforachieving Source: OECDFamily Database,2016.DataforJapan:StatisticsBureau,Labour Force Survey2015. for Chilereferto2009.Missingcountry:Lithuania. and employed,irrespectiveoftheirlabourmarketstatus.Reported2014datafor RepublicofKorea andChilereferto2013;reported2010data Note: AccordingtotheInternationalLabour Organizationdefinition,studentsinwork-study programmesareconsideredtobebothineducation Percentage ofyouth(aged15–19)notinemployment,educationortraining(NEETrate) Figure 8.1Amongyoungpeopleaged15-19around1in13is notinschoolorwork P 4 1 1 INNOCENTI REPORT CARD14

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4 4 4 4 poor mentalandphysicalhealth. involvement inriskybehaviourand affected, with1in5thiscategory. Turkey’s youngpeople areworst Northern andCentralEurope. Latin America,andthelowestin occur insouthernEuropeand In general, the highest rates In general,thehighestrates high-income countriesisNEET. Around 1in13ofthisagegroup adolescents aged15–19. reports onthesituationof report isonchildren,Figure 8.1 training. Sincethefocusinthis not inemployment,educationor is theshareofyouthaged15–24 The officialSDGindicator(8.6.1) F 4 I P 1 E N C 1 A 1 UA

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I U K Poland. Estonia,France andthe 2005 and2014inbothIreland and with NEETratesdoublingbetween situation insomeothercountries, significant worseningofthe However, therehasbeena all OECDcountries. still hasthehighestrateamong made massivestrides,thoughit more thanhalf, andTurkey hasalso average. Cyprushascutitsrateby bringing itdowntotheinternational thirds between2005and2014, its NEETratebymorethantwo been spectacular:Israelreduced In some,theimprovementhas countries overthepastdecade. NEET rateshavefalleninmost F I 4 R 1 14 1 M 1 I 11 C 11 1 C 1 M 141 T 1 1 GOAL 8 – PROMOTE FULL AND PRODUCTIVE EMPLOYMENT AND DECENT WORK FOR ALL

Figure 8.2 Around one child in ten lives in a household where no one works for pay Percentage of children under 18 in jobless households (based on self-defined economic status of adults)

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Note: Reported 2014 data for Republic of Korea and New Zealand refer to 2015; for USA they refer to 2013; and for Israel and Japan – to 2012. Mexico’s data are excluded on account of high rates of informality in the labour market. Missing countries: Australia, Chile and Turkey. Source: See Figure 1.1.

United States have also seen their in Ireland. Around one child in NEET rates rise, albeit on a more seven lives in a jobless household modest scale. in Bulgaria, Hungary, New Zealand, Spain and the United Kingdom. Another key indicator related to Goal 8 is adult unemployment. Growing up in a household where no adult works has been linked to a greater risk of experiencing income poverty,23 and poorer child well-being outcomes in areas of learning, bullying, and notably being NEET.24 Figure 8.2 shows the proportion of children living in households where nobody has a paid job.

The results range from 2 per cent of children in Japan to 19 per cent

INNOCENTI REPORT CARD 14 37 GOAL 10 – REDUCE INEQUALITY WITHIN AND AMONG COUNTRIES

GOAL 10 Reduce inequality within and among countries

»»Considerable inequalities remain in high-income countries. In two thirds of countries, the entire bottom 40 per cent of households with children have less income than the top 10 per cent. »»In most countries, the incomes of the poorest 10 per cent of the population have fallen further behind those at the median since 2008. »»These inequalities are at their most extreme in Bulgaria and Mexico, and at their least severe in Iceland and Norway. »»Economic disadvantage undermines equal opportunities: in every country studied, 15-year-olds from better-off families achieve substantially better educational results than their less-advantaged peers.

Figure G10 – Reduce inequality Average country performance across three indicators: Palma ratio (0–17 years of age), ‘bottom-end’ inequality (0–17 years) and impact of socio-economic status on student performance (15 years)

I N D C U S I G S S N A C L R A C I M T P S L N P S E H C R L U S G C R I M 1 1 11 11 1 1

Note: One data point for Mexico is an outlier and has been excluded from the calculation of the results for Goal 10 (2014, Palma ratio based on households with children). The inclusion of the outlier would result in no change for Mexico.

38 INNOCENTI REPORT CARD 14 Reduce inequalitywithinandamongcountries where avalueof1.0indicates that adaptation ofthePalma ratio, countries. Thisisachild-focused with childrenin41high-income this relationshipforhouseholds 10 percent. Figure 10.1looksat population relativetothetop of thebottom40 percent which measurestheincomeshare on inequalityusesthePalma ratio, One ofthekey SDGindicators opportunities andresources. their accesstoeducational plays alargerroleindetermining inequality, children’s familyincome countries withhigherincome Palma ratiobasedonhouseholdswithchildren,2014and2008 Figure 10.1Inmostcountries,theincomeshareoftop10 percentexceeds thatofthebottom40 percent satisfaction. education, healthandlife tend tohaveworseoutcomesin up incountrieswithlessequality suggests thatchildrengrowing in manyways.Recent evidence Income inequalityaffectschildren Source: SeeFigure 1.1. of thetop10 percentisbigger, andvaluesbelow1.0indicatethatitissmaller. Values below1.0thereforesuggestlowerlevelsofinequality. A valueof1.0indicatesthattheincometop10 percentissameas ofthebottom40 percent.Values above1.0showthattheshare Note: ThePalma ratioistheofincomesharetop10 percentandbottom40populationinandistribution. R

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Sweden. Othercountrieswhere the countries ofFinland, Norway and below eventheotherNordic has taken Iceland’sPalma ratioto in theincomeofrichestgroup of 2008.Theconsequentreduction children sincethefinancialcrash 40 percent ofhouseholdswith top 10 percentandthebottom narrowing ofthegapbetween where therehasbeenamarked The lowestratioisfoundinIceland, a smallershare. the bottom40 percentreceives greater than1.0indicatesthat 10 percent; converselyavalue share ofincomethantherichest 40 percentreceivesabigger 1.0 indicatesthatthebottom 40 percent.Avalueoflessthan the sameasthatofbottom 10 percent ofthepopulationis the incomeshareoftop G C C M H S L U I C INNOCENTI REPORT CARD14

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I and poorest children.InReport Cards9 indicator thatfocusesonthe report includesanadditional seek toleavenoonebehind, this In thespiritofSDGs,which 10 percent Taking account ofthepoorest Turkey andtheUnitedStates. Bulgaria, Greece,Israel,Latvia, the internationalaveragein though inequalityisalsowellabove Latin America,inChileandMexico, by thismeasurearetobefoundin The highestlevelsofinequality Greece, Hungary, Slovakia andSpain. significantly inAustralia,Estonia, Kingdom, whereasithaswidened Portugal, Romania andtheUnited narrowed aretheNetherlands, segments ofthepopulationhas gap betweentherichestandpoorest E 13, UNICEFtracked howfar S L R U SL G I T C M 39 40 GOAL 10–REDUCEINEQUALITY WITHINANDAMONGCOUNTRIES they haveshrunk);ratheritis households haverisen(infact, of thepoorest10 percent however, becausetheincomes position since2008isnot, improvement intheirrelative in anyothercountry. Thestrong median thantheequivalentchild in Icelandisclosertothenational from afamilyinthe10thpercentile Iceland leadstheway. Achild In thisandthepreviousindicator, as changessince2008. such householdsin2014,aswell Figure 10.2showsthepositionof with childrenwerefalling. bottom 10 percentofhouseholds behind themedianincome Sources: SeeFigure 1.1. (the median)andthatofachildatthe10thpercentile,reportedaspercentage themedian.DataforChileare2015. ismeasuredasthegapbetweenhouseholdincomeofachildat50thpercentile inequality’) Note: Relativeincomegap(‘bottom-end 2014 and2008 Relative incomegapbetweenmedianandthatofthebottom 10 percent ofhouseholdswithchildren, the medianincomesince2008 Figure 10.2Inmostcountries,thepoorest10 percentofhouseholds withchildrenhavefallenfurtherbehind I INNOCENTI REPORT CARD14 C

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A I L R declined evenmore. because medianincomehas of thepoorest10 percent importance oftrackingtheposition and 2014.Thisgoestoshow the ratio improvedbetween2008 is despitethefactthatPalma worse position.InPortugal, this of childrenareinasubstantially where thepoorest10 percent Slovakia, SloveniaandSpain, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Portugal, cause forconcerninEstonia, were in2008.Thereisparticular median incomein2014thanthey were evenfurtherbehindthe there aredata,thepoorestchildren In 23ofthecountriesforwhich A C C RA S N

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H C C S C L on thebottom40 percent. children, inadditiontofocusing they startschool. diverge earlyinlife,evenbefore backgrounds causetheirpathsto suggests thatchildren’s family educational achievement.Evidence economic statusonstudents’ is throughtheimpactofsocio- One wayinwhichthisplaysout of opportunitycanlastalifetime. The adverseimpactsofinequality affects achievement background Socio-economic developed abroadmeasure of Student Assessment(PISA)has The Programme forInternational U TS L I E 27

G I S M R students’ achievement. background hasagreaterimpact on value indicatesthatsocio-economic mathematics andscience.A higher across thethreesubjectsofreading, ESCS indexandstudents’results increaseinthe between aone-unit Figure 10.3showstheassociation and educationalresources. (art objectsandclassicalliterature) family wealth,culturalpossessions occupational statusofparents, five indices:parentaleducation, (ESCS) index.Itisderivedfrom economic, socialandculturalstatus background– the socio-economic ESCS index differenceinreading, increase in the The score-point mathematicsandscienceassociatedwithaone-unit advantageleadstobetterschoolresultsinall39countriesstudied Figure 10.3Socio-economic Source: OECDPISAsurvey, variouswaves. and Mexico. difference in Mexico2015.DataontheESCSindexaremissingforAustria2012round.Missingcountries:Cyprus a 19.8score-point ‘Niños yniñasfueradelaEscuelaenMéxico’,https://www.unicef.org/mexico/spanish/UNICEF_NFE_MEX.pdf. advantageledto Socio-economic (26.7 percent); childrenfromthelowestincomequintilemakeupalmosthalf(45 low ratesofenrolment.AtthetimePISA2015surveymorethanoneinfour Mexicanstudentsbetweentheagesof15-17wereoutschool Note: Allvaluesarestatisticallysignificant.US2006datanotavailable,asthere arenodataonreading. DataforMexicoareexcludeddueto S T C S L I U SI C A E GOAL 10–REDUCEINEQUALITY WITHIN ANDAMONGCOUNTRIES D C G

three subjectsof56scorepoints, an averageimprovementacross the in theESCSindexisassociated with France, increase whereaone-unit The biggestimpactofallisfound in than oneyearofschooling. ESCS indexisequivalenttomore increase inthePISA with aone-unit performance differenceassociated across theOECDcountries, countries studied.Onaverage peers acrossall39industrialized in 2015thantheirless-advantaged results inthethreecoresubjects economic termsachievedbetter advantaged backgroundsinsocio- consistent. Studentsaged15from The resultsarebothremarkableand N A U L

I R C S G percent) ofnon-attendeesinthisagegroup,seeUNICEF(2016). S INNOCENTI REPORT CARD14 L I S a moreinequitable direction. the Republic ofKorea movedin France, Finland andparticularly Germany andTurkey, while in equityweremadeChile, and 2015,bigimprovements time. However, between2006 performance ispersistentover background oneducational The influenceofsocio-economic variation inacademicperformance. part becausetherewasasmaller influence onschoolresults–in economic backgroundhasleast Turkey isthecountrywheresocio- At theotherendofrange, years’ schooling. the equivalentofalmosttwo S A N M N A R H C R

41 GOAL 10 – REDUCE INEQUALITY WITHIN AND AMONG COUNTRIES

Box 5 Looking through the migration lens: including every child

Within Goal 10 on reducing inequality, Target 10.7 Basic education is a fundamental right guaranteed aims to “facilitate orderly, safe, regular and responsible to all children. Despite this, ‘Children on the Move’ migration and mobility of people, including through demonstrates that the quality, type and amount of the implementation of planned and well-managed education varies according to the legal status of the migration policies”. child, rather than according to her/his actual educational needs. Similarly, according to Around 50 million of the world’s children have been international law and the CRC, children in the uprooted, either across borders or within their own migration pathway should have access to appropriate countries. One refugee in every two is a child. In healthcare; yet in practice, entitlement to general Europe, one asylum application in four is from a minor. healthcare services is quite restricted. Access to These children may be migrants, refugees, internally social assistance is also restricted for migrant displaced or stateless. First and foremost, however, children, as all EU Member States require a valid they are children – no matter where they come from or residence permit before social security payments who they are. States have a shared responsibility and a can be made. This policy automatically disadvantages legal obligation to protect displaced children. The undocumented and irregular migrants. extent to which displaced children are protected from abuse and deprivation depends on how well migration The table below highlights some of the most severe is managed, on how migrant children are integrated instances of lack of legal entitlements for migrant into society and on their access to necessary services. and refugee children in European countries. Practical obstacles, combined with limited support measures, In the European context, national responses to mean that these children are frequently the recent inflow of children seeking sanctuary in disadvantaged, leaving them at risk of poverty. Europe were swift, using whatever resources were immediately available. While significant attention has been given to children on the move, the sheer number Undocumented migrant children excluded from schooling and scale of the increasing influx of children has Bulgaria, Finland, Hungary, Latvia and Lithuania resulted in enormous stress on European socio- No specific maternity-care provision for migrants political and economic systems. Despite the ratification of relevant international treaties and many examples of Bulgaria, Cyprus, Finland, Lithuania, Luxembourg, good practice in individual countries, there are chronic Poland and Slovakia deficiencies in all European Union members’ migration, Undocumented migrant children only entitled to asylum and child-rights structures, systems and emergency healthcare services that impede their ability to provide support Bulgaria, Cyprus, Finland, Lithuania, Luxembourg and services for children in need. Access to services and Slovakia varies and shifts according to children’s asylum status and/or place in the migration process, and some Source: UNICEF CEE/CIS (2016). ‘Children on the Move’ is an ongoing study of legal entitlements for migrant children. groups – such as unaccompanied minors – tend to Developed from data provided in Byrne, K. (2016, on file with be prioritized over others. authors) ‘Law, Policy and Practice Affecting Refugee and Migrant Children in Europe’. UNICEF’s study ‘Children on the Move’ (2016) offers an overview of the policy and practice environment affecting refugee and migrant children across Europe. The review covers the legal entitlements of various In order to meet SDG Target 10.7, which guarantees categories of children on the move: asylum seekers, safe, regular and responsible migration for every unaccompanied minors, undocumented migrants, child, it is necessary to break the link between refugees or those subject to return proceedings. entitlements and legal status for children on the Access to education, health and social services are move, and to provide services on the basis of their basic entitlements that should be provided to all rights and needs. Protection of Europe’s borders and children on the move, irrespective of their legal status. protection of children are not mutually exclusive.

Source for this box: Toczydlowska, E. and D’Costa, B. (2017). ‘Migration and Inequality: Making policies inclusive for every child’, Innocenti Research Brief 2017-14, UNICEF Office of Research – Innocenti, Florence; UNICEF CEE/CIS (2016). ‘Children on the Move’, an ongoing study of legal entitlements for migrant children. Developed from data provided in Byrne, K. (2016, on file with authors) ‘Law, Policy and Practice Affecting Refugee and Migrant Children in Europe’.

42 INNOCENTI REPORT CARD 14 GOAL 11 – MAKE CITIES INCLUSIVE, SAFE, RESILIENT AND SUSTAINABLE

GOAL 11 Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable

»»Half of all high-income countries studied fail to meet the safe levels for urban air quality established by the World Health Organization; children are especially vulnerable to such pollution. »»The average level of urban air-pollution concentration for the group of countries studied exceeds the safety threshold.

Figure G11 – Make cities safe Average country performance on one indicator: annual average concentrations of fine particle pollution (PM2.5μ) in urban areas, weighted by proportion of child population living in urban areas (0–19 years of age)

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Note: Missing countries: Latvia, Lithuania, Republic of Korea and Slovenia. The data point (2013) for Korea for annual average PM2.5 concentrations in urban areas, weighted for child population, is an outlier and has been excluded from the calculation of the results for Goal 11. The inclusion of the outlier would result in the Republic of Korea ranking 38th on Goal 11.

INNOCENTI REPORT CARD 14 43 polluted environments. more harmthangoodinheavily Outdoor playandexercisecan do damage tochildren’s braintissue. ultrafine particlescandopermanent of life,whilestudiesindicatethat the wombandduringfirstyears pollution bothwhiledevelopingin vulnerable todamagefromsuch than adults.Theirlungsareespecially in moreairperunitofbodyweight to airpollution,becausetheybreathe Children areparticularlysusceptible of manyurbanareas. that currentlyafflicttheinhabitants reducing thelevelsofairpollution for humanhabitationwillinvolve Making citiessustainableandsafe the effectsofairpollutionglobally. diseases causedorexacerbated by under theageof5dieannually from In addition,nearly600,000children proportion ofchildpopulation(0–19)livinginurbanareas Annual averagePM2.5µconcentrationspercubicmetrefor2013,2010and2005inurbanareas,weightedby Figure 11.1Children’s healthisthreatenedbyhighlevelsofairpollution 44 – MAKE CITIES INCLUSIVE, SAFE, RESILIENT ANDSUSTAINABLE RESILIENT SAFE, GOAL 11–MAKECITIESINCLUSIVE, Technology, vol.50,no.1,pp.79–88;UNDP(2017).‘UrbanandRuralPopulation byAgeandSex,1980–2015’. Available at:nin.tl/UNDP2017 Source: Braueretal.(2016).‘Ambient AirPollution ExposureEstimationfortheGlobalBurdenofDisease2013’,EnvironmentalScienceand Missing countries:Latvia, LithuaniaandSlovenia. in 2010were7.9,andfor2005–8.0.For Lithuaniadatafor2010were9.1,and2005–9.5.Data2013missingbothLatvia andLithuania. Urbanization ratesonaverageacrossthecountrygroupswere73.8 percentin2005,74.92010and75.42013.DataforLatvia Development Programme (UNDP)figures,thepopulationfor2013isaverage ofthe2010and2015reports(datareportedeveryfiveyears). Note: Dataareweightedtoaccountforthechildpopulation(aged0–19)livingin urban settings,accordingtothemostrecentUnitedNations PM 1 1 I INNOCENTI REPORT CARD14 4 C 11 1 N A 4 E F

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C R U S of healthproblems. the bloodstream,causingavariety inside thelungs,butalsotoenter that itisablenotonlytopenetrate of lessthan2.5microns–sofine particulate matterwithadiameter in concentrationsofPM2.5μ.Thisis OECD andEUcountries,measured average levelsofairpollutionin38 Figure 11.1showstheannual of fineparticulatematterincities. which measuresannualmeanlevels monitoring airpollutionis11.6.2, The officialSDGindicatorfor included in the sample, nearly half do included inthesample,nearly halfdo per cubicmetre.Ofthe38countries of below10microgramsPM2.5 established asafelevelofair quality The World HealthOrganization has living inurbanareas. proportion ofchildrenineachcountry been weightedtotake accountofthe U K M S P A C 30

The data have Thedatahave D 1 C 1 F 1 111

C RB 114 11 S significant progress. with theUnitedStatesalsomaking seen inMalta,MexicoandSpain, improvements overthisperiod were was adeterioration.Thebiggest Canada andTurkey, wherethere there wasnoimprovement,and Iceland andNewZealand,where the exceptionswereDenmark, high-income countriesstudied: 2005 and2013inalmostallthe that airqualityimprovedbetween One sourceofencouragementis pollution inEurope. cities facedthehighestlevelsofair Republic ofKorea. ChildreninBelgian in theurbanareasofIsraeland were morethantwicethesafelevel the safelevel.Levels ofairpollution international averageisjustover not meetthisstandard,whilethe 11 11 T 1 1 LI 1 1 M 14 N 14 14 C B 14 R K 11

4 GOAL 12 – ENSURE SUSTAINABLE CONSUMPTION AND PRODUCTION PATTERNS

GOAL 12 Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns

»»Young people in high-income countries are largely aware of today’s environmental challenges: an average of 62 per cent of 15-year-olds are familiar with at least five of a set of seven key environmental issues. »»Young people are most aware of air pollution and the extinction of plants and animals, and least familiar with genetically modified organisms and nuclear waste.

Figure G12 – Ensure sustainable consumption Average country performance on one indicator: students familiar with five or more environmental issues (15 years of age)

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Note: Missing countries: Cyprus, Germany, Malta and Mexico.

INNOCENTI REPORT CARD 14 45 » seven key environmentalproblems: explain well,eachofthefollowing they werefamiliarwith,orcould The 2015PISAasked studentsif towards sustainability. to contributeglobalprogress nature, themoretheywillbeable problems andhumans’impacton understanding ofenvironmental the greaterisyoungpeople’s It isaplausibleassumptionthat end ofsecondaryeducation. students astheyapproachthe awareness among15-year-old the levelofenvironmental and youth,sincethismeasures most directlyrelevanttochildren For SDG12,indicator12.8.8isthe 46 Percentage of15-year-old studentsfamiliarwith,orknowingsomethingabout,fivemoreenvironmentalissues intheOECDcountriesareawareofatleast fiveenvironmentalissues Figure 12.1Themajorityof15-year-olds GOAL 12–ENSURESUSTAINABLE CONSUMPTIONANDPRODUCTIONPATTERNS Source: OECDPISAsurvey2015. familiar with,orknewsomethingabout,fivemoreenvironmentalissues.Missing countries:Cyprus,Germany, MaltaandMexico. https://www.unicef.org/mexico/spanish/UNICEF_NFE_MEX.pdf. However, inMexico2015,60 percentof15-year-old studentswere school atthetimeofPISA2015tests(65 percent)–seeUNICEF(2016).‘Niños y niñasfueradelaEscuelaenMéxico’,p.29: Note: Germanyisexcludedonaccountofahighratemissingvalues.Mexico is excludedduetolowratesofenrolmentinupper-secondary » P 4 1 gases intheatmosphere the increaseingreenhouse P INNOCENTI REPORT CARD14 S B

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P L » » » » » » Bulgaria, Canada, Estonia, Ireland, Bulgaria, Canada,Estonia,Ireland, in tenhavethislevelofknowledge: countries, morethansevenstudents awareness; inafurtherseven stands out,with82 percent environmental issues.Portugal are atleastfamiliarwithfiveormore On average,62 percentofstudents across 37countries. Figure 12.1comparestheresults » » » » » » A N

water shortage. water shortage. extinction ofplantsandanimals air pollution forests forotherlanduse the consequencesofclearing nuclear waste organisms (GMOs) use ofgeneticallymodified C 4 4 I 4 S 4 A D U S 1 R S 1

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students abletoexplaintheproblem. in themiddle,with65 percentof the effectsofgreenhousegases fell waste (55 percent).Awarenessof GMOs (42 percent)andnuclear least acquaintedweretheuseof The issueswithwhichtheywere plants andanimals(79 percent). of it,followedbytheextinction of studentshavingsomeknowledge recognition, witharound83 percent air pollutionhadthehighestlevelof recognized thanothers.Ingeneral, Some issuesaremorewidely are thisaware. less than50 percentofstudents in Japan,NewZealandandRomania, At theoppositeendofscale, Lithuania, SloveniaandTurkey. 4 C I L S

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GOAL 16 – PROMOTE PEACEFUL AND INCLUSIVE SOCIETIES FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

GOAL 16 Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels

»»All high-income countries have to address high rates of violence affecting children, as they seek to develop peaceful and inclusive societies. »»Rates of child homicide are far higher in the Americas than in Europe – in Mexico the rate is nine times the average for the countries examined, while in the US it is four times the average. »»At least one child in ten in countries surveyed regularly experiences bullying, with the incidence particularly high in the Baltic States. »»On average, one woman in five reports having suffered physical violence from adults before the age of 15.

Figure G16 – Promote peace and justice Average country performance across two indicators: homicide rates (0–19 years of age) and bullying rates (11–15 years)

I I S S C R S I D C M S N U A L P F T R R I S P A F N L B N B E C C L C U S

Note: Missing country: Mexico. One data point (2014) for Lithuania has been excluded (children aged 11–15 who had experienced bullying at least twice in the past month); one data point for Mexico (2012/13) has been excluded (child homicide rate: deaths of children aged 0–19 by intentional assault per 100,000). These are outliers, and their inclusion in calculating the results for Goal 16 would result in Lithuania ranking 39th and Mexico ranking 41st.

INNOCENTI REPORT CARD 14 47 48 GOAL 16–PROMOTE PEACEFUL ANDINCLUSIVE SOCIETIESFORSUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT child homicideratesinthree were itnotforthemuchhigher average wouldalsobemuch lower countries, andtheinternational very lowindeedinmostEuropean child isunacceptable,butratesare Of course,eventhemurderofone conceals anextraordinaryvariation. deaths per100,000population,this the countriesincludedis0.65 While theinternationalaveragefor in 37high-incomenations. the numberofchildrenmurdered Figure 16.1adaptsthistoshow homicides per100,000people. tracks therateofintentional under Goal16is16.1.1,which The firstofficialSDGindicator Source: WHOmortalitydatabase,2016. three yearspreceding. Countryaverageisunweighted.Missingcountries:Greece,Iceland,SloveniaandSlovakia. than thecountryaverageasreportedhere.Figures averagesaroundtheyearinbrackets.Earlierestimatesarefor arethree-year Note: MexicoisexcludedfromthecompositeLeague Table, asitisanoutlierwithachild homiciderateoverthreestandarddeviationshigher Child homiciderate(deathsofchildrenaged0–19byintentionalassaultper100,000) Figure 16.1TheAmericashavehighratesofchildmurder C 1 1 4 LM 1 U 1 INNOCENTI REPORT CARD14 C 111

11 S 1 1 1 A 1 1 1 1 1 I 11 1 I 11 1 S 1 1 P 1 C 1 P 1 1 4 F 1 rising trendbetween2006and in EuropeisNorway, wherethe The highestchildhomiciderate gangs overthatperiod. violence relatedtoillegaldrug can beattributedtotherisein and to6in2012/13,atrendthat 100,000 in2006toalmost52009 the ratehasrisenfromunder3per since 2009.InMexico,bycontrast, these rateshavedeclinedslightly average forhigh-incomecountries; around threeandfourtimesthe child murderratesarerespectively In ChileandtheUnitedStates, the UnitedStatesandMexico. countries oftheAmericas:Chile, C R 1 E 11 S 1 1 1 B 11 N 1 D 11 A 1 R 11 B 11 4 4 T 1 R 1 4 L 11 4 and 2009. was alreadyrisingbetween2006 affected the2012figure,trend Island of22July2011musthave Although themassacreonUtøya should alsogivecauseforconcern. the mostrecentyearavailable Representative oftheSecretary- Office oftheUNSpecial resolution andareportfrom the focus ofaUNGeneralAssembly Bullying hasrecentlybeenthe basis intheformofbullying. experience violenceonaneveryday countries aremorelikely to Most childreninhigh-income Bullying: everydayviolence I 1 L 1 F 1 N 1 C 11 C 1 4 N 1 U SC 1 1 11 M 1 thoughts ofsuicide. outcomes, depressionand poorer educational low self-esteem, experiences ofbullyingtoill-health, as wellofaphysicalkind.Itlinks an emotionalandpsychological, that bullyingincludesviolenceof Children. Thereportmakes itclear General onViolenceagainst in nineexperiencesregularand An averageofaroundonechild times amonth. bullying atschooltwoormore who reportedhavingexperienced proportion ofchildrenaged11–15 of theproblem,showing gives someindicationofthescale Percentage ofchildrenaged11–15whohadexperiencedbullyingatleasttwiceinthepastmonth Figure 16.2Morethanonechildintenrichcountriesexperiences chronicbullying Source: HBSCstudy, variouswaves. Japan, RepublicofKorea, Mexico,NewZealand,Switzerland,Turkey andtheUnited States. butarenotincludedinthecomparisonabove.Missingcountries:Australia,Chile,Cyprus, Education ‘2013–15BullyingFollow-up Survey’, or hitkickedwhilepretendingtoplay(morethan23timesamonth)”,areavailable fromtheJapaneseNationalCenterforResearchon United Kingdom).DataforJapan,whichrecords14.3 percentof10–12-year-olds and13–15-year-olds bumped whoreporthavingbeen“lightly are basedonpopulationweightsforregionalsamples(excludingtheBrusselsregion forBelgium,andNorthernIrelandinthecaseof for Switzerland.CountriesmissingfromHBSCin2014includeTurkey andtheUnitedStates.EstimatesforBelgiumKingdom Note: Chronicbullyingreferstowhenchildrenhaveexperiencedtwoormoretimesinthepreviousmonth.Datafor2014arenotavailable P GOAL 16–PROMOTE PEACEFUL ANDINCLUSIVE SOCIETIESFORSUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 1 1 S C 141

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Figure 16.2 D

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2006 to6.4 percentin2014. rate declinedfrom22.9 percentin Greece, wherethechronicbullying over thisperiodhasbeenin though thebiggestimprovement at leastdeclinedsince2006, In Estonia,therateofbullyinghas have thenexthighestincidence. neighbours, EstoniaandLatvia, of 29.2 percent,anditsBaltic Lithuania hasastartlinglyhighrate less than5 percentofchildren, in SwedenandIcelandaffects countries. Whilechronicbullying significant differencesbetween the overallaverageconceals repeated bullying. However, A M N 1

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INNOCENTI REPORT CARD14 1 R 1 11 F 11 violence against girls aged under 15. violence againstgirlsagedunder 15. reflects thelevelsofadultphysical Agency forFundamental Rights that a surveybytheEuropeanUnion Figure 16.3showstheresultsof more detailedcomparativedata, exploitation. Intheabsenceof into prostitutionorotherformsof destination forchildrentrafficked which arealltoooftentheend exist inhigh-incomecountries, forms ofviolenceagainstchildren torture ofchildren.Allthese forms ofviolenceagainstand exploitation, traffickingandall Target 16.2aimstoendabuse, against children Stopping adultviolence P L 1

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50 GOAL 16–PROMOTE PEACEFUL ANDINCLUSIVE SOCIETIESFORSUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT over alongperiod–atleast two survey reflectsnationalexperience (40 percent). Thenatureofthe (45 percent) andFinland childhood, andishighestinEstonia recalled beingassaultedduring where 8 percentofwomen in theNetherlandsandSlovenia, The rateofsuchviolenceislowest of sexualviolence. questions aboutpastexperiences Figure 5.1usedcorresponding hitting, kicking, beatingorstabbing. such ashair-pulling, slapping, experienced violencefromanadult, if, beforetheageof15,theyhad Women aged18–29wereasked Source: FRA–EuropeanUnionAgencyforFundamental Rights,gender-based violenceagainstwomensurveydataset,2012. coverage toincludeincalculationofGoal16. Chile, Iceland,Israel,Japan,RepublicofKorea, Mexico,NewZealand,Norway, Switzerland,Turkey andtheUnitedStates.Insufficientcountry Note: Physicalviolencewasdefinedas:hair-pulling, slapping, hitting, kicking, beatingorstabbing. Missingcountries:Australia,Canada, Percentage ofwomenaged18–29whoreportedhavingexperiencedphysicalviolencebeforetheage15 Figure 16.3Onegirlinfiveundertheageof15 experiences physicalviolencefromadults P 4 4 1 1

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A 1 I L 1 1 B prohibiting itinthehome. October 2016)passedlegislation Slovenia, hasonlyrecently(in nation withthelowestincidence, punishment (in1983),whilethe European countriestobancorporal violence, wasoneofthefirst high rateofreportedphysical to notethatFinland, whichhasa decades. However, itisinteresting evidence suggeststhatboys are If anything, thelimitedinternational directed moreatgirlsthanboys. violence orcorporalpunishment is rather thanbecausephysical consequence ofdataavailability, The inclusionhereonlyofgirlsisa 1

A R 1 S 11 U I 1

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C C R 4 corporal punishment. marginally morelikely tosuffer occurring inlaterlife. the chancesofdomesticviolence be extremelydamaging, increasing children’s rights,butcanalso is notonlyaviolationofall The experienceofsuchviolence 4 S S L B F 34 33

L 1

4 F 4 E 44 GOAL 16 – PROMOTE PEACEFUL AND INCLUSIVE SOCIETIES FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Box 6 How national averages hide the vulnerable: the example of indigenous children

Values of non-discrimination and inclusion lie at the Goal 4: Quality Education Despite progress in heart of the Agenda for Sustainable Development, many countries, closing the education gap between reflected in its central promise of “leaving no one indigenous and non-indigenous children remains behind”. National averages, however, conceal forms a challenge. According to a 2015 Australian of vulnerability, often rendering invisible the most government report, Aboriginal and Torres Strait disadvantaged and excluded children. These may Islander children continued to lag behind their non- include indigenous children, Roma, undocumented indigenous peers in reading and numeracy, with low migrants, children with disabilities or those outside attendance being one of the critical factors behind family care. This box focuses on one such group, this achievement gap. Language is a factor in low by presenting selected statistics on indigenous school attendance, and preschool programmes have children from four geographically diverse countries an important role to play in supporting indigenous (Australia, Canada, Mexico and Norway). languages. For instance, in 2015, around half of the 1,000 Sami children enrolled in Norwegian preschool Goal 1: End Poverty Indigenous children face rates were in Sami-language kindergartens. Yet official of poverty higher than the national average. In 2010, statistics on the language of children leaving 38 per cent of all Aboriginal children (First Nations, kindergarten do not include the Sami language. Inuit and Métis) in Canada lived in income poverty, compared to 17 per cent of non-indigenous children. The SDG agenda is a window of opportunity to bring Further disaggregation by identity shows that half a dramatic change to the lives of not just indigenous the children of Status First Nations in Canada lived children and youth, but all excluded children. In in poverty. In Mexico, 78.6 per cent of children and efforts to improve data collection, attention should adolescents in indigenous households and 90.8 per be paid to the specific need for data on such groups, cent of those who spoke an indigenous language recognizing their particular cultural and linguistic were in poverty in 2014. This compared with 50.7 per contexts and ensuring respect for their rights. Such cent of non-indigenous children and adolescents. data and monitoring can support a stronger national focus on policy responses for inclusion and equity. Goal 3: Health and Well-being Indigenous children perform poorly on many health and well-being Source: Richardson, D., Bruckauf, Z., Toczydlowska, E. indicators. In 2011, 11 per cent of Aboriginal and and Chzhen, Y. (2017). ‘Comparing Child-Focused SDGs in High-Income Countries: Indicator development and overview’, Torres Strait Islander babies in Australia were born Innocenti Working Paper 2017-08, UNICEF Office of with low birthweight – more than twice the proportion Research – Innocenti, Florence. of non-indigenous babies. Data collected in 2014 showed that adolescent birth rates among the Sami people of Norway were more than double the national average. Aboriginal children in Canada experience higher rates of injury, suicide, obesity, infant mortality and health conditions, such as tuberculosis.

INNOCENTI REPORT CARD 14 51 CONCLUSION – BUILDING THE FUTURE

BUILDING THE FUTURE Conclusion

All the world’s countries came indicators, there are still gulfs spearhead changes in norms that together in 2015 to draw up a between them in other areas. are key to attaining the goals of roadmap to the more equitable, Countries differ most in their rates gender equality, peaceful societies inclusive and healthy world they of child poverty and food insecurity, and environmental sustainability. aspired to reach by 2030. This though there is also significant The surest route for countries Report Card delivers a child-centred variation in the rates of adolescent to attain the aspirations laid out in assessment of where high-income suicide and chronic bullying. the Agenda for Sustainable nations stand at the start of this National income levels are far from Development is to place children at journey towards sustainable explaining all of these differences: the centre of their policy priorities. development. It compares the for example, Slovenia is far ahead Leave no child behind performance of 41 OECD and EU of much wealthier countries on »» countries on 25 indicators, focusing many indicators. This demonstrates National averages often conceal on the goals and targets most that government policies and extreme inequalities and the severe relevant to children in high-income priorities matter if children are to disadvantage of groups at the countries and adapting the global make sustained progress. Countries bottom of the scale. Some children indicators according to the that rank high in the league table are left so far behind that they may availability of cross-country data. on reducing inequality also tend to be missing from available data: score well on ending poverty, There are many positive stories those that are undocumented, ensuring healthy lives, quality within these pages. The vast out of school or in institutional education and inclusive economies. majority of high-income countries care, to name but a few. Data- have seen declines in the rates Based on the evidence collated collection efforts should aim to be of neonatal mortality, adolescent in this Report Card, UNICEF calls as inclusive as possible, and be suicide, teenage births and for high-income countries to take sensitive to children who may drunkenness. Nearly all preschool action in five key areas. regularly be left out or who are children engage in organized invisible to official statistics. The »» Put children at the learning one year before the start data available should also allow heart of equitable and of compulsory schooling. Young for disaggregation by key individual sustainable progress people show a high level of characteristics. A first step towards environmental awareness nearly Improving the well-being of all future equality and sustainability everywhere. Child homicide rates children today is essential for is to identify those at the greatest are almost universally low. achieving both equity and risk of falling behind. sustainability. Advances on each Yet high-income countries are still »» Improve the collection of of the child-centred indicators far from delivering for their children comparable data, including presented in this Report Card the vision held out by the SDGs. on violence against children, should reinforce progress in others. Income inequality is growing, early childhood development, Policies that reduce gaps in adolescents’ mental health is migration and gender material well-being, health and worsening and child obesity is education among children today This Report Card has revealed that increasing. Not a single country will translate into a reduction in internationally comparable statistics does well on all indicators or has inequalities in adult life and on high-income countries are shown positive trends on all fronts. contribute to the well-being of lacking in four key SDG areas: Although countries have moved future generations of children. violence against children, early forward in unison on some The younger generation will childhood development, migration

52 INNOCENTI REPORT CARD 14 CONCLUSION – BUILDING THE FUTURE

Conclusion

and gender. In the first two areas, »» Honour the commitment rich countries lag behind their to global sustainable lower-income peers, which tend to development collect these data via internationally The overarching SDG framework comparable household surveys. engages all countries in a global Some of the most urgent child- endeavour. High-income countries rights violations in high-income are accountable not only for countries relate to migration – and their own performance in pursuing the SDG framework challenges the goals, but also for their all countries to respect the rights commitments to global of all children, irrespective of their environmental sustainability and migration status. Yet appropriate development assistance – on indicators that measure which the present and future performance in this domain are well-being of children worldwide lacking. Finally, given that girls unquestionably depends. tend to do better than boys on many childhood indicators, there is a paucity of data reflecting the processes that lead to women’s disadvantage in the labour market and under-representation in public life. »» Use these rankings to help tailor policy responses to national contexts

This Report Card shows that no country does well on all indicators of well-being for children covered here, and all countries face challenges in achieving these child- focused targets within the framework of the SDGs. The league table presented in this report indicates which countries come closest to achieving child-focused targets for each goal, and may allow other countries to craft policy responses that are appropriate to their own contexts. The rankings are to be read as an invitation to national discussions on what the appropriate policy responses should be.

INNOCENTI REPORT CARD 14 53 References

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54 INNOCENTI REPORT CARD 14 22. European Foundation for the 28. UNICEF (2016). Clear the Air for Improvement of Living and Working Children: The impact of air pollution Conditions (2012). ‘Young People Not in on children, UNICEF, New York, p. 6. Employment, Education or Training: 29. ibid. Characteristics, costs and policy responses in Europe’, Dublin; Bell, D. 30. World Health Organization (2016). and Blanchflower, D. (2011). ‘Young Ambient Air Pollution: A global People and the Great Recession’, Oxford assessment of exposure and burden of Review of Economic Policy, vol. 27, no. 2, disease, WHO, Geneva. http://who.int/ pp. 241–267. phe/publications/air-pollution-global- assessment/en/ 23. OECD (2011). Doing Better for Families, OECD Publishing, Paris. 31. UN Special Representative of the Secretary-General on Violence against 24. Schoon, I. et al (2012). Children (2016). Ending the Torment: ‘Intergenerational Transmission of Tackling bullying from the schoolyard Worklessness: Evidence from the to cyberspace, New York. http://srsg. Millennium Cohort and the Longitudinal violenceagainstchildren.org/sites/ Study of Young People in England’, default/files/2016/End%20bullying/ United Kingdom Department for bullyingreport.pdf Education Research Report DFE-RR234. http://natcen.ac.uk/media/134300 32. Global Initiative to End All /intergenerational-transmission.pdf Corporal Punishment of Children (2016). ‘Country Report for Slovenia’. 25. UNICEF Office of Research (2016). http://www.endcorporalpunishment.org/ ‘Fairness for Children: A league table progress/country-reports/slovenia.html of inequality in child well-being in rich countries’, Innocenti Report Card 13, 33. Lansford, J.E., Peña Alampay, L., UNICEF Office of Research – Innocenti, Al-Hassan, S., et al. (2010). ‘Corporal Florence. Punishment of Children in Nine Countries as a Function of Child Gender and Parent 26. ibid. Gender’, International Journal of 27. See: Bradbury, B., Corak, M., Pediatrics, 672780. https://www.ncbi.nlm. Waldfogel, J., et al. (2015). Too Many nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2952896/ Children Left Behind: The US achievement 34. FRA – European Union Agency for gap in comparative perspective, Russell Fundamental Rights (2014). Violence Sage Foundation, New York; Blanden, against Women: An EU-wide survey, p. J. and Machin, S. (2010). ‘Intergenerational 132. http://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/ Inequality in Early Years Assessments’, files/fra-2014-vaw-survey-main-results- in: Hansen, K., Joshi, H., and Dex, S. (eds), apr14_en.pdf Children of the 21st Century: The first five years, Policy Press, Bristol; Brooks-Gunn, J. and Duncan, G.J. (1997). ‘The Effects of Poverty on Children’, The Future of Children: Children and Poverty, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 55–71; Waldfogel, J. (2013). ‘Socio-Economic Inequality in Childhood and Beyond: An overview of challenges and findings from comparative analyses of cohort studies’, Longitudinal and Life Course Studies, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 268–275.

INNOCENTI REPORT CARD 14 55 Data Sources – the Background Papers

The original research for this report, Bruckauf, Z. and Hayes, N. (2017). Quality Richardson, D., Bruckauf, Z., including further methodological of Childcare and Pre-primary Education. Toczydlowska, E. and Chzhen, Y. (2017). explanations, can be found in the How do we measure it? Innocenti Comparing Child-focused SDGs in Innocenti Working Papers and Innocenti Research Brief 2017-13, UNICEF Office High-income Countries: Indicator Research Briefs detailed below and of Research – Innocenti, Florence. development and overview, Innocenti available at www.unicef-irc.org Working Paper 2017-08, UNICEF Office Bruckauf, Z. and Rees, G. (2017). of Research – Innocenti, Florence. Bruckauf, Z. (2017). Adolescents’ Mental Children’s Involvement in Housework: Health: Out of the shadows. Evidence on Is there a case of gender stereotyping? Toczydlowska, E. and D’Costa, B. (2017). psychological well-being of 11–15-year- Evidence from International Survey of Migration and Inequality: Making policies olds from 31 industrialized countries, Childrens’ Well-Being (ISCWeb), Innocenti inclusive for every child, Innocenti Innocenti Research Brief 2017-12, UNICEF Research Brief 2017-17, UNICEF Office of Research Brief 2017-14, UNICEF Office Office of Research – Innocenti, Florence. Research – Innocenti, Florence. of Research – Innocenti, Florence.

Bruckauf, Z. and Chzhen, Y. (2017). Is Chzhen, Y., Bruckauf, Z. and Toczydlowska, E. and Bruckauf, Z. (2017). University Education More Important for Toczydlowska, E. (2017). Sustainable Growing Inequality and Unequal a Boy than for a Girl? Social approval of Development Goal 1.2: Multidimensional Opportunities in Rich Countries, Innocenti unequal educational opportunity across child poverty in the European Union, Research Brief 2017-16, UNICEF Office of 21 countries, Innocenti Research Brief Innocenti Working Paper 2017-07, UNICEF Research – Innocenti, Florence. 2017-11, UNICEF Office of Research – Office of Research – Innocenti, Florence. Innocenti, Florence. D’Costa, B. and Toczydlowska, E. (2017). Bruckauf. Z. and Cook, S. (2017). “Not Refugee Children, Not Migrant Child-centred Approach to the Sustainable Children, But Children First”: Lack of a Development Goals (SDGs) in High- systematic and integrated approach, income Countries: Conceptual issues Innocenti Research Brief 2017-15, UNICEF and monitoring approaches, Innocenti Office of Research – Innocenti, Florence. Working Paper 2017-06, UNICEF Office of Research – Innocenti, Florence.

56 INNOCENTI REPORT CARD 14 International abbreviations

International abbreviations (ISO) for Abbreviations and acronyms countries covered in the Report Card

AT Austria CASEN La Encuesta de Caracterización Socioeconómica Nacional (Chile) AU Australia CIS Canadian Income Survey BE Belgium CRC Convention on the Rights of the Child BG Bulgaria ECEC early childhood education and care CA Canada ESCS economic, social and cultural status CH Switzerland EU European Union CL Chile EU-SILC European Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions CY Cyprus FIES Food Insecurity Experience Scale CZ Czech Republic GMO genetically modified organism DE Germany HBSC Health Behaviour in School-aged Children DK Denmark HILDA Household, Income and Labour Dynamics (Australia) EE Estonia ISCWeB International Survey of Children’s Well-Being ES Spain MCS-ENIGH El Módulo de Condiciones Socioeconómicas de la Encuesta Nacional de Ingresos y Gastos de los Hogares (Mexico) FI Finland MDG Millennium Development Goal FR France MICS Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey GR Greece MODA Multiple Overlapping Deprivation Analysis HR Croatia NEET not in employment, education or training HU Hungary OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development IE Ireland PISA Programme for International Student Assessment IL Israel SDG Sustainable Development Goal IS Iceland UNDP United Nations Development Programme IT Italy WHO World Health Organization JP Japan KR Republic of Korea LT Lithuania LU Luxembourg LV Latvia MT Malta MX Mexico NL Netherlands NO Norway NZ New Zealand PL Poland PT Portugal RO Romania SE Sweden SI Slovenia SK Slovakia TR Turkey UK United Kingdom US United States

INNOCENTI REPORT CARD 14 57 Acknowledgements

The Innocenti Report Card 14 project Kate Pickett (University of York) was coordinated by the UNICEF Office Tom Slaymaker (Senior Statistics and of Research – Innocenti and assisted Monitoring Specialist, Data and Analytics, by a panel of advisors and reviewers. UNICEF New York) Research was completed at the end of March 2017. The Report Card was Jan Vandemoortele (Independent Advisor) written by Chris Brazier.

The full text and the background UNICEF advisors papers can be downloaded from the Prerna Banati (Chief, Programme and UNICEF Office of Research website: Planning, UNICEF Office of Research) www.unicef-irc.org Sarah Cook (Director, UNICEF Office of Research) Research and data analysis Bina D'Costa (Migration Specialist, Zlata Bruckauf (Social and Economic UNICEF Office of Research) Policy Consultant, UNICEF Office of Research) Sudhanshu Handa (Former Chief, Social and Economic Policy Unit, UNICEF Office Yekaterina Chzhen (Social and of Research) Economic Policy Specialist, UNICEF Office of Research) Goran Holmqvist (Associate Director, UNICEF Office of Research) Jose Cuesta (Chief, Social and Economic Policy Unit, UNICEF Office of Research) Dale Rutstein (Chief, Communication Unit, UNICEF Office of Research) Dominic Richardson (Senior Education Specialist, UNICEF Office of Research) Administrative support at the UNICEF Emilia Toczydlowska (Social and Office of Research – Innocenti was Economic Policy Consultant, UNICEF provided by Cinzia Iusco Bruschi and Office of Research) Laura Meucci. Production was overseen by Eve Leckey. Advisory board

Romina Boarini (OECD Statistics Directorate)

Dorothy Currie (St Andrews University, HBSC network)

Dave Gordon (University of Bristol)

Bergsteinn Jónsson (Executive Director, UNICEF Iceland)

Eric Marlier (Luxembourg Institute of Socio-Economic Research)

Susan Nicolai (Development Progress Project, Overseas Development Institute)

58 INNOCENTI REPORT CARD 14 Previous issues in this series: Innocenti Report Card 1 A league table of child poverty in rich nations

Innocenti Report Card 2 A league table of child deaths by injury in rich nations

Innocenti Report Card 3 A league table of teenage births in rich nations

Innocenti Report Card 4 A league table of educational disadvantage in rich nations

Innocenti Report Card 5 A league table of child maltreatment deaths in rich nations

Innocenti Report Card 6 Child poverty in rich countries 2005

Innocenti Report Card 7 Child poverty in perspective: An overview of child well-being in rich countries

Innocenti Report Card 8 The child care transition: A league table of early childhood education and care in economically advanced countries

Innocenti Report Card 9 The children left behind: A league table of inequality in child well-being in the world’s rich countries

Innocenti Report Card 10 Measuring child poverty: New league tables of child poverty in the world’s rich countries

Innocenti Report Card 11 Child well-being in rich countries: A comparative overview

Innocenti Report Card 12 Children of the recession: The impact of the economic crisis on child well-being in rich countries

Innocenti Report Card 13 Fairness for children: A league table of inequality in child well-being in rich countries

Graphics: MCC, UK (mccdesign.com) Innocenti Report Card 14, 2017 Building the Future: Children and the Sustainable Development Goals in Rich Countries

ISBN: 978-88-6522-050-4 ISSN: 2519-108X

Sales no.: E.17.XX.1