Notes

1 Introduction

1. Glyn Stone, “The Degree of British Commitment to the Restoration of Democracy in Spain, 1939–1946,” in Christian Leitz and David J. Dunthorn, eds., Spaininan International Context, 1936–1959 (Oxford and : Berghahn Books, 1999), p. 210. 2. See e.g. Paul Preston, Franco: A Biography (New York: Basic Books, 1994), Chapters 13–20; Christian Leitz, Economic Relations Between Nazi Germany and Franco’s Spain, 1936–1945 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996); Christian Leitz, “Nazi Germany and Francoist Spain, 1936–1945,” in Sebastian Balfour and Paul Preston, eds., Spain and the Great Powers in the Twentieth Century (London and New York: Routledge, 1999); Norman J. W. Goda, “Germany’s Conception of Spain’s Strategic Importance,” in Christian Leitz and David J. Dunthorn, eds., Spain in an International Context, 1936–1959; Wayne H. Bowen, Spaniards and Nazi Germany: Collaboration in the New Order (Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 2000); Angel Viñas, Franco, Hitler y el Estallido de la Guerra Civil: Antecedentes y Consecuencias (: Alianza Editorial, 2007); and Stanley Payne, Franco and Hitler: Spain, Germany and World War II (New Haven: Press, 2009). 3. Paul Preston, Franco: A Biography, p. 522. Antonio Salazar’s photograph offered a silent rebuke to Franco for his folly in cozying up to the Axis, as the Portuguese dictator had pointedly maintained a benevolently pro-Allied neutrality, the prod- uct of both pragmatic calculation and the precedent of Anglo-Portuguese amity dating back to the 14th century. As a result, the Salazar regime, although far right-wing, faced none of the postwar ostracism that dogged . See e.g. Joaquim da Costa Leite, “Neutrality by Agreement: Portugal and the British Alliance in World War II,” American University International Law Review,v.14, n. 1 (1998), pp. 185–199; Christian Leitz, Sympathy for the Devil: Neutral Europe and Nazi Germany in World War II (New York: New York University Press, 2001), Chapter 6. 4. Letter from President Roosevelt to US Ambassador in Spain, March 10, 1945, quoted in E. Ralph Perkins, ed., Foreign Relations of the [FRUS] 1945, volume V, Europe (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1967), p. 667. 5. Quoted in David McCullough, Truman (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1992), p. 308. 6. Gallup Poll on US public attitudes toward Spain, August 15, 1945, in George H. Gallup, The Gallup Poll: Public Opinion 1935–1971 (New York: , 1972), pp. 519–520. 7. Franco would repeat this charm offensive modus operandi the following year in his interview with another American interviewer, Merwin K. Hart, in which he exhorted US tourists to visit Spain. See Chapter 2, introduction. 8. DeWitt Mackenzie, “Franco Wants Friendship of United States,” syndicated Asso- ciated Press article, in the Prescott Evening Courier, 1/24/46, p. 7, at Google News Archive.

200 Notes 201

9. Quoted in Stanley Payne, The Franco Regime: 1936–1975 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1987), p. 192. See also Christian Leitz, Nazi Germany and Neutral Europe During the Second World War (Manchester, UK: University of Manchester Press, 2000), Chapter 5 passim; Wayne H. Bowen, Spaniards and Nazi Germany, p. 119. 10. For an overview of Spain’s immediate post-war predicament see Florentino Portero, Franco Aislado: La Cuestión española (1945–1950) (Madrid: Editorial Aguilar, 1989). On the Madrid Pact see e.g. Theodore J. Lowi, “Bases in Spain,” in Harold Stein, ed., American Civil-Military Decisions: A Book of Case Studies (Birmingham: University of Alabama Press, 1963), passim; Carlos Collardo Seidel, “U.S. Bases in Spain in the 1950s,” in Simon W. Duke and Wolfgang Krieger, eds., U.S. Military Forces in Europe: The Early Years, 1945–1970 (Boulder: Westview Press, 1993), passim; Boris N. Liedtke, Embracing a Dictatorship: US Relations with Spain, 1945–53 (Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan Press, 1998), Chapters 6–14; Boris N. Liedtke, “Spain and the United States, 1945–1975,” in, Sebastian Balfour and Paul Preston, eds., Spain and the Great Powers in the Twentieth Century, pp. 234–241; Angel Viñas, En las Garras del Águila: Los Pactos con Estados Unidos, de Francisco Franco a Felipe Gonzalez (1945–1995) (Barcelona: Crítica, 2003), pp. 110–260; and Rosa Pardo Sanz, “US Bases in Spain Since 1953,” in Luís Rodrigues and Sergey Glebov, eds., Military Bases: Historical Perspectives, Contemporary Challenges (Amsterdam: IOS Press, 2009), pp. 56–61. 11. Paul Preston, Franco: A Biography, p. 597; R. Richard Rubottom and J. Carter Murphy, Spain and the United States Since World War II (New York: Praeger, 1984), p. 14. 12. Memorandum by the Assistant Secretary of State for European Affairs (Perkins) to the Secretary of State, November 25, 1950, in S. Everett Gleason and Frederick Aandahl, eds., FRUS 1950, vol. III, Western Europe (Washington, DC: US Govern- ment Printing Office, 1977), p. 1578; “Draft report by the Secretary of State to the National Security Council,” January 15, 1951, in William Z. Slany, ed., FRUS 1951, vol. IV, Europe: Political and Economic Developments, Part I (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1985), p. 773. 13. R. Richard Rubottom and J. Carter Murphy, Spain and the United States Since World War II, pp. 22–34; Antonio Marquina Barrio, España en la Politica de Seguridad Occidental (Madrid: Coleccion “Ediciones Ejercito,” 1986), pp. 375–357; and Boris N. Liedtke, Embracing a Dictatorship, pp. 108–213. 14. Quoted in Javier Tusell, Spain: From Dictatorship to Democracy, 1939 to the Present, transl. Rosemary Clark (Oxford: Blackwell, 2007), p. 113. 15. Memorandum from US Embassy in Madrid to US Dept. of State, “Spain’s Interna- tional Objectives,” 2/1/63, p. 2, in folder, “Pol 1 Gen Policy SP,” box 4044, NND 949607, Record Group 59, US Department of State Central Files [RG59], Central Foreign Policy Files, National Archives and Records Administration-Archives II, College Park, MD [NARA-A2]. 16. , Spain: The Gentle Anarchy (New York: Praeger, 1965), pp. 233, 293. 17. Arthur P. Whitaker, Spain and the Defense of the West: Ally and Liability (New York: American Book-Stratford Press, 1961), pp. 380–383. 18. Sebastian Balfour and Paul Preston, “Introduction: Spain and the Great Powers,” in Sebastian Balfour and Paul Preston, eds., Spain and the Great Powers in the Twen- tieth Century, p. 8; Boris Liedtke, “Spain and the United States, 1945–1975,” in same volume, pp. 237–238. 202 Notes

19. See Chapter 2, p. 29, for full quote, discussion and source. 20. Joseph S. Nye, Jr., Soft Power: The Means to Success In World Politics (Cambridge, MA: Perseus/PublicAffairs, 2004), p. 111 and passim. 21. Don W. Stacks, Primer of Public Relations Research, 2nd ed. (New York: Guilford Press, 2011), Chapters 2–3. 22. “Soft power” was first introduced in Joseph S. Nye, Bound to Lead: The Changing Nature of American Power (New York: Basic Books, 1990), pp. 32–33, 188–195. 23. See for example Jan Nederveen Pieterse, “Globalization as Hybridization,” Inter- national Sociology, June 1994; Arjun Appadurai, Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimen- sions of Globalization (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996); Roland Robertson, Social Theory and Global Culture (London: Sage Publications, 1992); Marwan M. Kraidy, “The Global, the Local, and the Hybrid: A Native Ethnography of Glocalization,” Critical Studies in Mass Communication, December 1999. 24. Jessica C.E. Gienow-Hecht, “Introduction,” in Jessica C.E. Gienow-Hecht, ed., Decentering America (Oxford and New York: Berghahn Books, 2007), p. 8. 25. Victoria de Grazia, Irresistible Empire: America’s Advance Through Twentieth-Century Europe (Cambridge, MA: Press, 2005). This is not to criticize de Grazia’s excellent volume, nor other such works over the past three decades including Frank Ninkovich, The Diplomacy of Ideas: U.S. Foreign Policy and Cultural Relations, 1938–1950 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1981); Frank Costigliola, Awkward Dominion: American Political, Economic and Cultural Relations with Europe, 1919–1933 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1984); Emily Rosenberg, Spreading the American Dream: American Economic and Cultural Expansion, 1890– 1945 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1982); Reinhold Wagnleitner, Coca-Colonization and the : The Cultural Mission of the United States in After the Sec- ond World War (Chapel Hill: University of Press, 1994); Richard F. Kuisel, Seducing the French: The Dilemma of Americanization (Berkeley: Univer- sity of California Press, 1997); Richard Pells, Not Like Us: How Europeans Have Loved, Hated and Transformed American Culture Since World War II (New York: Basic Books, 1997); Uta Poiger, Jazz, Rock and Rebels: Cold War Politics and American Cul- ture in a Divided Germany (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000); Michael L. Krenn, Fall-Out Shelters for the Human Spirit: American Art and the Cold War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005); Kenneth Osgood, Total Cold War: Eisenhower’s Secret Propaganda Battle at Home and Abroad (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2006); Penny M. Von Eschen, Satchmo Blows Up the World: Jazz Ambassadors Play the Cold War (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006); Laura Belmonte, Selling the American Way: U.S. Propaganda and the Cold War (: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008); Nicholas J. Cull, The Cold War and the United State Information Agency: American Propaganda and Public Diplomacy, 1945–1989 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2009); and Hugh Wilford, The Mighty Wurlitzer: How the CIA Played America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009), all of which focus largely on the outward flow of American soft power and which discuss other states primarily in terms of their responses on a reaction spectrum of submission through resistance to nego- tiation. There is nothing inherently wrong with this analytical approach—the US truly is a long-established global soft power juggernaut—but as Gienow-Hecht and this volume make clear, the US has been subject to other states’ soft power potential as well. 26. Herbert Schiller, Mass Communications and American Empire (New York: A.M. Kelly, 1969), p. 1; Antonio Gramsci, Selections from the Prison Notebooks, Quintin Hoare Notes 203

and Geoffrey Nowell-Smith, eds. (New York: International Publishers Co., 1971), p. 182. The Italian theorist famously recognized that consent could be gener- ated transnationally via the dissemination of ideas and culture, and that this transmission could have a substantial impact on local culture and politics. 27. Jose María Massip (US correspondent for ABC)column,ABC [Madrid], 12/14/49, p. 5, at ABC online Hemeroteca (archive) [ABCH]. 28. See the Conclusion, n. 27, for a brief comment on the fate of nation re-branding efforts in Qaddafi’s Libya and Assad’s Syria in 2011.

2 Be El Caudillo’s Guest: Postwar American Tourism to Franco Spain

1. See e.g. “Franco Thanks Americans,” New York Times [NYT], 2/21/39, at New York Times Online Archive [NYTA]. 2. Merwin K. Hart, “Spanish People Want America’s good Will, Declares Gen. Franco,” syndicated article, in the Milwaukee Sentinel, 8/21/47, p. 12, at Google News Archive [GNA]. 3. “Turismo Hacia España 1969” (Young and Rubicam Strategic Proposal); “Propuesta al Ilmo. Sr. Director General de Promocion del Turismo para Designar Agencia de Publicidad para 1.969”; letter from Manuel Fraga Iribarne to Juan Manuel García de Vinuesa, Young and Rubicam España, S.A., 11/23/68, all in sig- natura [S] 35473, signatura topográfica [ST] 23/43, fondo [F] 49.08, procedencia [P] “Cultura,” Archivo General de la Administración, Alcala de Henares, Spain [AGA]. 4. See Christopher Endy, Cold War Holidays: American Tourism in (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004), still the subfield’s benchmark; Dina Berger, Pyramids by Day, Martinis by Night: The Development of Mexico’s Tourism Industry (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006); Scott Laderman, Tours of Vietnam: War, Travel Guides, and Memory (Durham, NC: Press, 2009); Dennis Merrill, Negotiating Paradise: U.S. Tourism and Empire in Twentieth Century Latin America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009); Christine Skwiot, The Purposes of Paradise: U.S. Tourism and Empire in Cuba and Hawai’i (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2010); and Daniel Aaron Rubin’s doctoral dissertation “Suitcase Diplomacy: The Role of Travel in Sino- American Relations, 1949–1968” (University of Maryland, 2010). Neal Moses Rosendorf, “Be El Caudillo’s Guest: The Franco Regime’s Quest for Rehabilita- tion and Dollars After World War II Via the Promotion of U.S. Tourism to Spain” (Diplomatic History, June 2006) is among the seminal efforts and is still use- ful, although in many ways it is superseded by this study. And as an ur-text, see Orvar Löfgren’s, On Holiday: A History of Vacationing (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002). 5. Rob Kroes, “Feature Review: Tourism and Cold War Diplomacy,” Diplomatic History, June 2005, p. 561. 6. Ambassador Merry del Val quoted in Spanish Newsletter, 9/30/66, special attach- ment: “U.S.-Spain Trade.” 7. Sasha D. Pack, Tourism and Dictatorship: Europe’s Peaceful Invasion of Franco Spain (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006). 8. M. Barke and J. Towner, “Exploring the History of Leisure and Tourism in Spain,” inM.Barke,J.TownerandM.T.Newton,eds.,Tourism in Spain: Critical Issues (Wallingford: CAB International, 1996), pp. 4–15. 204 Notes

9. M. Barke and J. Towner, “Exploring the History of Leisure and Tourism in Spain,” pp. 15–16. 10. American Express Report from M. L. Widmer, Assistant to Vice President, London to Lynde Selden, Executive Vice President, New York, “Spain 1940,” 2/17/40, p. 16, in Spain File, American Express Archive, [AEA]. 11. M. Barke and J. Towner, “Exploring the History of Leisure and Tourism in Spain,” p. 16. 12. Sandie Holguín, “ ‘National Spain Invites You’: Battlefield Tourism During the Spanish Civil War,” American Historical Review, v. 10, no. 5 (December 2005), pp. 1399–1426; “Spanish Embassy Official Heads Western European Travel Body,” NYT, 4/27/57, at NYTA. 13. Sandie Holguín, “ ‘National Spain Invites You’,” p. 1417 and passim; M. L. Widmer to Lynde Selden, “Spain 1940,” p. 40. 14. M. L. Widmer to Lynde Selden, “Spain 1940,” p. 45. 15. “Propuesta 19 Dic., 1941”; “Orden del Ministerio de Hacienda de 27 de Marzo de 1942, por la que se autoriza a el Banco de Crédito Industrial para la concesión de préstamos a la industria hotelera, de acuerdo con la Dirección General del Turismo”; “Orden de la Presidencia del Gobierno de 13 de Mayo de 1942, por la que se aprueba el Reglamento para el Servicio de Crédito Hotelero,” all attached to letter from Luís A. Bolín, Secretary General of Tourism, to the Minister of Information and Tourism, 8/28/51, in S14415, ST22/57, F49.01, P “Cultura,” AGA. 16. Eric W. Stoetzner, “More Travel Dollars for You,” limited circulation pamphlet, undated (c. 1952), in S16076, ST22/62, F49.03, P “Cultura,” AGA. 17. “Las Grandes Rutas Aereas Internacionales del Futuro,” ABC (Madrid), 6/3/45, p. 7, in ABC Online Archive (Hemeroteca)[ABCH]. 18. “Homenaje a Mr. Harold M. Randall,” ABC, 3/1/46, p. 21; “Servicios Aereas con España: Hoy Llegara el Primer Avion de la Linea Nueva York-Madrid,” ABC, 5/3/46, p. 14, both at ABCH; “La Inauguración del Servicio Aéreo Nueva York-Azores-Lisboa-Madrid,” La Vanguardia (Barcelona) [LVG], 3/29/46, p. 4, at La Vanguardia Online Archive (Hemeroteca) [LVGH]; “Spanish Colonel Recent TWA Visitor,” Starliner magazine (TWA), 10/17/46, p. 3, at Trans World Airline Records, Western Historical Manuscript Collection, University of Missouri-Kansas City, Kansas City, MO [TWA-UMKC], online collection of TWA Skyliner magazines, at http://www.umkc.edu/whmckc/twa/twaskyliner .htm [Skyliner Collection]. 19. Advertisement, “La Pan American Anuncia un Nuevo Servicio Directo desde Barcelona a Nueva York,” LVG, 10/24/48, at LVGH. 20. Magazine advertisement, TWA “To Sunny Spain,” 1946, author’s collection. 21. “Howell Decorated for Promoting Spain Tours,” Skyliner magazine, 1/14/54, p. 1; photo with caption re MIT Minister Fraga decorating Frank Howell, Skyline magazine, 1/17/66, p. 5; “LaForce, Howell Fill Int’l Posts,” Skyliner magazine, 8/14/67, p. 3, all at TWA-UMKC, Skyliner Collection. 22. Letter from F. E. Howell, Director-General TWA Spain, to Don Mariano de Urzaiz, Spanish Director General of Tourism, 11 August 1954, with accompanying photograph, S16079, ST 22/62, F49.03, P “Cultura,” AGA. 23. Frank Howell profile: “Four Out of 600,000 Americans Abroad,” Parade maga- zine, in St. Petersburg Times (FL), 9/1/57, pp. 14–15, at GNA. 24. Frank Howell, “Visitor to Madrid Enjoys Mixture of Historic Past in Modern Surroundings,” Skyliner magazine, 8/24/50, p. 2, at TWA-UMKC, Skyliner Collection. Notes 205

25. Frank E. Howell, Let’s Visit Spain (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Co., 1954), p. 53; booklet, TWA Travel Tips: Spain, new rev. ed. (1958), p. 9. 26. Letter from Frank Howell to Don Mariano de Urzaiz, 4/26/57. 27. American Express Company internal report from Harry Gee, General Manager, Foreign Department, to G.C. Taylor, President, 10/18/16, quoted in “Memoran- dum: Proposed Office—Spain: History of Original Office at Barcelona,” 10/20/49, p. 1, Spain file, AEA. 28. Memorandum, “Proposed Office—Spain,” 10/20/49, pp. 2–10; “History of European Division: American Express Co. [undated, likely c. 1951],” Spain File, AEA. 29. M. L. Widmer to Lynde Selden, “Spain 1940,” p. 37. 30. Ibid., p. 34. 31. Ibid., p. 33. 32. Peter Z. Grossman, American Express: The Unofficial History of the Men Who Built the Great Financial Empire (New York: Crown Publishers, 1987), pp. 241–245. 33. Peter Z. Grossman, American Express, p. 249. 34. Memorandum from G.J Gilmore and R.B. White to R.T. Reed, “U.S. Tourist Travel,” 9/25/47, AEA. 35. Amex Memorandum from B.E. White, Vice President and General Manager, to R.T. Reed, “U.S. Tourist Travel,” 10/31/47, p. 3, AEA. 36. “The Quickest Way to Help Foreign Countries Earn American Dollars,” American Express limited circulation publication, 1947 (copy on file at AEA), pp. 9–13. 37. “The Quickest Way to Help Foreign Countries Earn American Dollars,” pp. 20–29. 38. Letter from Harry A. Hill to R.T. Reed, 9/8/49, Spain file, AEA. 39. “Llegada del Representante en Europa de la ‘American Express’,” LVG, 3/23/47, p. 10, at LVGH. 40. M.L. Widmer to Lynde Selden, “Spain 1940,” pp. 43–44. 41. “Report on Survey Trip of Spain made by Walter Rundle & Harry Hill,” attached to letter from H.A. Hill, Vice President and General Manager, American Express Office, Paris to Frank B. Harding, Vice President, New York, 5/13/50, Spain file, AEA. This report is at variance with the recollections of tourists to Spain during the early postwar years that “[t]he Civil Guard were ever-present observers of the movements of visitors.” (M. Barke and J. Towner, “Exploring the History of Leisure and Tourism in Spain,” pp. 17–18.) 42. M. L. Widmer to Lynde Selden, “Spain 1940,” p. 43. 43. “Report on Survey Trip of Spain made by Walter Rundle & Harry Hill,” p. 7. 44. M. L. Widmer to Lynde Selden, “Spain 1940,” pp. 33–34. 45. “Report on Survey Trip of Spain made by Walter Rundle & Harry Hill,” pp. 10–12. 46. “Report on Survey Trip of Spain made by Walter Rundle & Harry Hill,” p. 4. 47. See Ernest Walter Wimble, European Recovery, 1948–1951: A Report Prepared for the Oslo Conference of the International Union of Official Travel Organisations (London: British Travel Association, 1948); Tourism and European Recovery (Paris: Organi- sation for European Economic Co-Operation, 1951); Tourism in Europe: A Study Proposed by the Tourism Committee in the Organisation for European Economic Co- Operation, annual series 1953–61 (Paris: Organisation for European Economic Co-Operation, 1953–61). 48. See e.g. “Minutes of Meeting of Committee For Spain with Dr. Luis A. Bolin and Mr. H.A. Hill,” 10/2/50, Spain file, AEA; see as well “Other Company Meetings: American Express,” NYT, 5/23/51, at NYTA. 206 Notes

49. Memorandum from Ralph T. Reed to “All Offices of the American Express Com- pany, Inc. and Subsidiaries Around the World,” March 12, 1951, Spain file, AEA. 50. “ Spain Gains in Popularity With American Tourists,” Globe [BG], 3/25/51, p. A-7, at ProQuest Historical Newspapers [PQHN], Boston Globe Online Archive [BGA]. 51. Quoted in Going Places (American Express Company magazine), June 1951, p. 6, Going Places file, AEA. 52. Memorandum from José Coll to Luis Bolín, “Comprensiva de la labor Realizada por la oficina Espanola del Turismo en Nueva York Durante el Año 1949, 1/3/50,” in S62907, ST72/25, F49.22, Grupo de Fondos [GF] 3, AGA; series of letters from local NY PR/Ad agencies late 1949 re window design, same location; on the 500 Fifth Avenue Building, see http://www.emporis.com/building/500-fifth-avenue- new-york-city-ny-usa; José María Massip column, “ABC en Nueva York,” ABC, 12/14/49, p.5, at ABCH. 53. José María Massip column, “ABC en Nueva York,” ABC, 12/14/49, p.5; José Coll to Luis Bolín, “Comprensiva de la labor Realizada por la oficina Espanola del Turismo en Nueva York Durante el Año 1949,” 1/3/50. 54. José María Massip column, “ABC en Nueva York,” ABC, 12/14/49. 55. On Ulrich Calvosa, director of US tourism publicity outreach at the New York tourism office, see interview by Manuel del Arco, 1950 at http:// centenariomanolodelarco.blogspot.com/2009/07/ulrich-calvosa-3-mayo-1950. html; on Kelly Nason see below in this chapter, as well as Chapter 4 on the Franco regime’s media and messaging outreach to the US. 56. Letter from Robert R. Matthews, American Express, to Luis Bolín, 1/13/50, in S62907, ST72/25, F49.22, GF3, AGA; engraved invitation to 2/8/50 grand opening of NYC Spanish National Tourism Office, same location. 57. “Spain Seeks Tourists,” NYT, 2/8/50, at NYTA; Diana Rice, “News Notes from the Field of Travel,” NYT, 2/12/50, at NYTA. 58. “Manifestaciones del Señor Bolín,” ABC, 2/15/50, at ABCH; a contemporane- ous English-language Spanish government publication, the Tourist Guide-Book of Spain, offered a similar perspective for those contemplating a Spanish visit: “What one reads in the newspapers or hears over the radio, he might believe or not, but what one sees with one’s own eyes and learns by a personal visit to Spain, that’s different. The more tourists come to Spain, the more voluntary ambassadors will go back to their country, telling their friends of the Spain they have seen for themselves.” (Herbert W. Serra Williamson, compiler and ed., The Tourist Guide-Book of Spain, 1950–51 ed. (Madrid: Editorial Biografica Española, 1950), p. 53–54.) 59. See below in text. 60. “Se Inaugura en Nueva York la Oficina Española de Turismo,” ABC, 2/9/50, p. 8, at ABCH; memorandum from AmEmbassy Madrid to State, 12/7/50, “Request that American Express Company be Notified of Spanish Visa Requirements,” in folder 852.131/12-2050, box 5021, NND 842913, Record Group 59: General Records of the US Department of State [RG59], National Archives and Records Administration-Archives II, College Park, MD [NARA-A2]. 61. Ambassador Griffis to Secretary of State Dean Acheson, 4/11/51; Griffis to Acheson, 4/26/51, both in folder 852.131/12-2050, box 5021, NND 842913, RG59, NARA-A2; “New Trade Treaty Discussed,” NYT, 5/9/51, at NYTA; “El Embajador de los Estados Unidos Pronuncio en Barcelona un Discurso Sobre Notes 207

las relaciones Hispano-Norteamericanas,” ABC, 5/9/51/, pp. 11–12, at ABCH; see as well Stanton Griffis, Lying in State (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1952), p. 287. 62. “Memorandum of Conversation with Carrero Blanco,” 7/17/51, in folder 852.131/12-2050, box 5021, NND 842913, RG59, NARA-A2. 63. Spain was admitted at the same time as another European dictatorship that had aligned itself with the West, Yugoslavia. “Travel in Europe is Down Only 10%,” NYT, 10/26/51, at NYTA; see as well Brian Angus McKenzie, Remaking France: Americanization, Public Diplomacy and the Marshall Plan (Oxford and New York: Berghahn Books, 2005), p. 145, n. 126. 64. Griffis to Acheson, 1/7/52, in folder 852.131/12-2050, box 5021, NND 842913, RG59, NARA-A2. 65. Diana Rice, “News and Notes from the Field of Travel,” NYT, 1/27/52, at NYTA. 66. See Chapters 5 and 6. 67. Sasha D. Pack, Tourism and Dictatorship, p. 43. 68. American Embassy Madrid to Department of State, 2/27/59, p. 3, 852.00/2-2759; American Embassy Madrid to Department of State, 4/17/59, p. 5, 852.00/4-1759, both in box 4611, NND 949539, RG59, NARA-A2. 69. Report from José Coll to Luis Bolín, 3/1/52, in S62907, ST72/25, F49.22, GF3, AGA. 70. See Chapters 4 and 6 on the bitter rivalry between MIT and the Foreign Ministry from the mid-1950s through 1962. 71. Hervé Poutet, Images touristiques de l’Espagne: De la Propagande politique à la Pro- motion touristique (Paris: Éditions L’Harmattan, 1995), pp. 89–90, 98–102; Sasha D. Pack, Tourism and Dictatorship, p. 64; Arias Salgado quoted in José María García Escudero, Primera Apertura: Diario de un Director General (Barcelona: Editorial Planeta, 1978), p. 35. 72. Memorandum from US Embassy Madrid to Department of State, “Spanish Oppo- sition to Tourism,” 9/1/50, in folder 852.131/12-2050, box 5021, NND 842913, RG59, NARA-A2. 73. Welles, p. 88; Sam Pope Brewer, “Franco Shakes Up Spanish Ministry; Bid to West Seen,” NYT, 7/20/51; “World News Curb Has Grown Tighter,” NYT, 12/30/51, both in NYTA. 74. “Voice of Spain Broadcast, New Year’s Eve, 1951: text of Mr. R. H. Henry’s speech on program,” attached to letter from Richard A. Henry, manager, American Express Office, Madrid, to F.B. Harding, President [sic—actually vice president], American Express, 1/4/52, Spain file, AEA. 75. Eric W. Stoetzner, “More Travel Dollars for You,” limited circulation pamphlet, undated (c. 1952), in S16076, ST22/62, F49.03, P “Cultura,” AGA. 76. “Anteproyecto de Plan Nacional de Turismo,” July 1952, p. 2, S14415, ST22/54, F49.02, P “Cultura,” AGA. 77. “Anteproyecto de Plan Nacional de Turismo,” July 1952, pp. 4–5. 78. “PLAN NACIONAL DE TURISMO,” dated 1953, in S14417, ST22/54, F49.02, P “Cultura,” AGA. 79. Brian Angus McKenzie, Remaking France, p. 145, n. 134. 80. See e.g. “Excerpt from an address, ‘Hotels and Statesmanship,’ by Conrad N. Hilton, Delivered at a meeting of the Commonwealth Club of San Francisco, May 11, 1956,” in John Desmond Glover, Edmund P. Learned and Arthur B. Moss, “Hilton Hotels Corporation: Cases on Business policy and Adminis- tration,” v. 1 [unpublished Harvard Business School Case Study] 1958, section BP 569, p. 25. 208 Notes

81. Conrad Hilton speech, “Hotels and Statesmanship,” in Glover, Learned and Moss, “Hilton Hotels Corporation,” p. 25. 82. 82 “Homenaje a Miss Edith Turner,” ABC, 10/24/45; “Miss Edith Turner, a Norteamerica,” ABC, 10/26/45, p. 11, both at ABCH; Herbert W. Serra Williamson, compiler and ed., The Handbook of Spain (Madrid: Times of Spain/Editorial Biografica Española, 1947) p. 185; see as well Long, All About Spain (New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1951), p. 216; Aryear Gregory, TheTravelAgent:DealerinDreams(Upper Saddle River, NJ: Regents/Prentice Hall, 1992), p. 188. 83. US Embassy Madrid report to State Dept., “Tourism in Spain Shows Large Increases,” 9/1/50, in folder 852.131/12-2050, box 5021, NND 842913, RG59, NARA-A2. 84. Letter from John W. Houser in Madrid to Conrad N. Hilton, 1/27/52, in box 5, heading “Hilton International,” in Conrad Hilton Papers, Hilton College Hospi- tality Industry Archives, Massad Family Library Research Center, University of Houston, Houston, TX [CHP-Hilton Archive]. 85. Whitney Bolton, The Silver Spade: The Conrad Hilton Story (New York: Farrar, Straus and Young, 1954), p. 118; Letter from John W. Houser in Madrid to Conrad N. Hilton, 1/27/52, CHP-Hilton Archive. 86. Jane Cianfarra, “Hilton in Madrid: A New American-Operated Hotel Opens in Madrid,” NYT, 7/12/53, at NYTA; Itinerary, “Opening Festivities at Castellana Hilton,” Spain file, AEA. 87. Whitney Bolton, The Silver Spade, p. 123. 88. “Old Cowhand,” Time, July 27, 1953, p. 17. 89. Advertisement, Time, July 13, 1953 (published in Time throughout July). 90. “The Hilton Hotel Organization,” typed document dated February 1959, in box 4, heading “Hilton International,” CHP-Hilton Archive. 91. Castellana magazine v.1, n.2, May 1957, in Sala de Prensa y Revistas (localización D/7375), Biblioteca Nacional de España, Madrid [BNE]. 92. See e.g. Castellana magazine: “Notes on Spain,” v.1, n.7, 10/57, p. 13; “Tourists: Spain’s Got It,” v.2, n.9, 10/58, pp. 26–27; “Tourism in Spain,” v.3, n. 48, 3/61, p. 11; “Hollywood Stardust,” v.2. n.20, 11/58, pp. 37–38; “Movie Making in Spain,” v. 8, n.2, 2/64, p.21, all in BNE. ’s production exploits in Spain and his unique partnership with the Franco regime are discussed in Chapter 3. 93. “25 YEARS OF PEACE,” Castellana magazine, v.8, n.4, 4/64, pp. 10–11, in BNE. 94. “Conrad N. Hilton: First Foreigner to Receive Spanish Tourism Gold Medal,” Castellana magazine, v.8, n.3, 3/64, p. 35, in BNE; “La Medalla del Merito Turistico al Señor Hilton,” ABC-Blanco y Negro, 2/29/64, p. 55, at ABCH. 95. Aside from noted published sources, this section on Temple Fielding benefits mightily (and uniquely) from a series of lengthy, in-depth interviews with the travel writer’s son Dodge T. Fielding, as well as conversations with Temple Field- ing’s longtime researcher and writing collaborator Joseph Raff. My profound thanks to them both. 96. John McPhee, “Templex,” , 1/6/68, p. 32. 97. John McPhee, “Templex,” p. 52. 98. Ibid., pp. 39–40. 99. Author interviews with Dodge Fielding, fall 2011; Temple H. Fielding, “Tito: APortraitfromLife,”Harper’s magazine, 10/45, pp. 318–324. 100. Author interviews with Dodge Fielding, fall 2011; Henry Luce, “The American Century,” Life, 2/17/41, pp. 61–65. Notes 209

101. Author interviews with Dodge Fielding, fall 2011. 102. Ibid.; Saul Bellow, “A Letter from Spain,” Partisan Review, February 1948, pp. 217–230 passim, quote p. 230. 103. Author interviews with Dodge Fielding, fall 2011. 104. Temple Fielding, Fielding’s New Travel Guide to Europe (New York: William Sloane, 1948), pp. 363–364. “Fitzpatrick’s travelogue” refers to MGM- and Paramount- released travelogue short films (including several on Spain) produced by writer- director James Fitzpatrick in the 1920s–50s. See Fitzpatrick’s IMDb entry at http: //www.imdb.com/name/nm0280534/ 105. Author interviews with Dodge Fielding, fall 2011; Jane Howard, “The Tourist’s Tourist: Guidebook Guru Temple Fielding,” Life magazine, 5/3/68, p. 40. 106. Temple Fielding, Fielding’s New Travel Guide to Europe 1948 ed., pp. 364–366. 107. Temple Fielding, Fielding’s 1950 Travel Guide to Europe (New York: William Sloane, 1950), p. 549. 108. Temple Fielding, Fielding’s 1950 Travel Guide to Europe, pp. 158, 446, 474. 109. Temple Fielding, Fielding’s Travel Guide to Europe (New York: William Sloane, 1952), p. 608. 110. Temple Fielding, Fielding’s Travel Guide to Europe: 1954–55 Edition (New York: William Sloane, 1954), p. 634–635; author interviews with Dodge Fielding, fall 2011. 111. Letter from Temple Fielding to Don Mariano Urzáiz y Silva, Director general, Spanish Tourist Department, 8/17/54, in S16076, ST22/62, F49.03, P “Cultura,” AGA. 112. Copy of original typed letter from Temple Fielding to Look editor Gardner Cowles, 1/22/51, author’s collection. 113. Author interviews with Dodge Fielding, fall 2011. 114. Letter from Temple Fielding to Sr. D. Gabriel G. Loygorri, Secretary General, Spanish State Tourist Department, 12/20/54, in S16076, ST22/62, F49.03, P “Cultura,” AGA. 115. Diego Plata, “Un Buen Retrato de España,” ABC, 8/1/56, p. 25; “Concesion de Condecoraciones con Motivo del XX Aniversario de la Victoria,” ABC, 4/1/59, p. 33; “Condecoraciones con Motivo del 18 de Julio,” ABC, 7/20/65, p. 34; “Concesion de Condecoraciones con Motivo del 18 de Julio,” ABC, 7/18/69, p. 25, all in ABCH. 116. See e.g. Temple Fielding, Fielding’s Travel Guide to Europe, 1959–60 edition (New York: William Sloane Associates, 1959), pp. 729–730. 117. Jane Howard, “The Tourist’s Tourist,” p. 40. 118. Author interview with Joseph Raff, November 2011. 119. Author interviews with Dodge Fielding, fall 2011; John McPhee, “Templex,” p. 57; Fielding’s Travel Guide to Europe 1968 (New York: Fielding Publica- tions/William Morrow, 1968), p. 27. 120. Edwin McDowell, “Fielding’s 35-Year Tour of Europe,” NYT, 4/10/83, at http:// www.nytimes.com/1983/04/10/travel/fielding-s-35-year-tour-of-europe.html?scp =1&sq=%22Temple+Fielding%22&st=nyt; Edwin McDowell, “Temple H. Field- ing Is Dead at 69; Wrote Guides on Travel in Europe,” NYT, 5/19/83, at http:// www.nytimes.com/1983/05/19/obituaries/temple-h-fielding-is-dead-at-69-wrote- guides-on-travel-in-europe.html; author interviews with Dodge Fielding, fall 2011. 121. See e.g. Arthur Frommer, Europe On 5 Dollars a Day: A Guide to Inexpensive Travel (New York: Crown Publishers, 1957), p. 80; Arthur Frommer, Europe On 5 Dollars aDay, 1961–62 ed. (New York: Crown Publishers, 1961), p. 170; and Stanley 210 Notes

Mills Haggart, Spain on 5 Dollars a Day: An Arthur Frommer Publication (New York: Pocket Books, 1966), pp. 7, 25. 122. Eugene Fodor, ed., 1936 ...On the Continent ([e-book reprint of 1936 volume] New York: Fodor’s Travel/Random House, 2011), p. 250. 123. Eugene Fodor obituary, NYT, 2/19/91, at http://www.nytimes.com/1991/02/19/ obituaries/eugene-fodor-creator-of-guides-for-worldwide-travel-dies-at-85.html; “Eugene Fodor Feted as the Man Who Loved to Travel,” AP-MSNBC, 3/22/11, at http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/42215999/ns/travel-news/#.T-TPR44Vw7A; author interviews with Dodge Fielding, fall 2011; John McPhee, “Templex,” pp. 54, 57. 124. Eugene Fodor became especially sedulous when he inadvertently omitted an acknowledgement to the Duke of Luna, the Spanish Director-General of Tourism, who bluntly expressed his displeasure to Fodor. (Correspondence among Eugene Fodor, the Duke of Luna, and Cedric Salter, 12/21/54, 2/4/55, and 2/9/55, in S16076, ST22/62, F49.03, P “Cultura,” AGA.) 125. Eugene Fodor, ed., Spain and Portugal in 1952 (New York: David McKay, 1952), p. 39. 126. See e.g. Eugene Fodor, ed., Spain and Portugal 1956 (New York: David McKay, 1956), p. 37. 127. Eugene Fodor, ed., Spain and Portugal 1956, pp. 44–45. 128. Eugene Fodor and William Curtis, eds., Fodor’s Spain 1969 (New York: David McKay, 1969), p. 38. 129. Author interview with Patrick Sutton (Horace Sutton’s son), May 2011; Don Sider, “Travel Writer Scans Suncoast, is ‘Amazed’ at St. Petersburg,” St. Petersburg Times (FL), 2/13/57, p. 25, at GNA. 130. Author interview with Patrick Sutton, May 2011. 131. Ken Read-Brown, “Norman Cousins: Editor and Writer (1915–1990),” in Herbert Vetter, ed., Notable American Unitarians 1936–1961 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Square Library, 2007), pp. 57–59. 132. Frank J. Prial, “Horace Sutton, 72, Magazine Columnist and Travel Author,” NYT, 10/28/91 at http://www.nytimes.com/1991/10/28/obituaries/horace-sutton-72 -magazine-columnist-and-travel-author.html. 133. Letter from William D. Patterson, Associate Publisher, The Saturday Review, to Mariano de Urzaiz y Silva, Director General, State Tourism Department, dated 12 September 1953, in S16076, ST 22/62, F49.03, P “Cultura,” AGA; advertisement, “Come to Joyful Spain,” Saturday Review, 10/24/53, p. 53. 134. Horace Sutton, “The Spain of Madrid,” Saturday Review, 10/24/53, pp. 45–46. 135. Horace Sutton, Sutton’s Places (New York: Henry Holt, 1954), “Spain” chapter (pp. 98–113); Horace Sutton, “Travel With Me” syndicated column, in the St. Petersburg Times, 10/11/53, p. 6F, at GNA. 136. See e.g. Horace Sutton column, “Barcelona Bologna: Strain in Spain,” in the St. Petersburg Times, 6/2/57, at GNA; Horace Sutton column, “Madrid Takes On a Real Yankee Flavor,” BG, 12/1/57, p. B-17, at PQHN-BGA; Horace Sutton, “Pre- senting the Costa Brava,” Sports Illustrated, 7/28/58, at Sports Illustrated Online Archive, http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1002597/ index/index.htm. 137. Horace Sutton, “Democracy in Spain: Can the Impossible Dream Come True?” Saturday Review, 10/29/77, pp. 10–20, quote p. 10. 138. Fielding, Fielding’s Travel Guide to Europe, 5th ed., 1952–53, p. 614; press release by Homer McK. Reese, Spanish Tourism Office: “Travel News From Spain,” stamped January 2, 1957, in S16079, ST 22/62F49.03, P “Cultura,” AGA. Notes 211

139. See e.g. Time, April 10, 1950; advertisement: “The picture is bright for your vacation in sunny Spain,” Time, April 21, 1952, p. 58. For original preparatory artwork and copy by Kelly Nason, see materials located in S14413, ST 22/57, F49.03, P “Cultura,” AGA. 140. See series of reports with charts in S62907, ST72/25, F49.22, GF3, AGA. 141. Letter from José Coll in New York to Arturo Grau, Dirección General del Turismo, 7/6/50, forwarded to Luis Bolín, 7/10/50. 142. Letter from José M. Coll to Don Mariano de Urzáiz, Director General del Turismo, 1/23/56, in S16083, ST22/62, F49.03, P “Cultura,” AGA. 143. “Spanish Embassy Official Heads Western European Travel Body,” NYT, 4/27/57. 144. “Field of Travel: Bargain Railroad Pass for American Tourists in Europe Planned,” NYT, 9/21/58, at NYTA. 145. Mass letter from José Coll to US travel agents, 12/17/56, in S16083, ST22/62, F49.03, P “Cultura,” AGA. 146. Temple Fielding, “ASTA Spain Parley Big Merry-Go-Round,” Miami News, 11/3/57, p. 8C, at GNA; Harry Phillips, “Memo from the Publisher,” Sports Illus- trated, 10/21/57 at Sports Illustrated Online Archive, at http://sportsillustrated. cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1132978/index.htm; Ben Welles, “Travel Agents Meet in Madrid,” NYT, 10/27/57, at NYTA; “Un Congreso Mundial de Turismo, en Madrid,” ABC, 10/15/57, p. 5, at ABCH; Castellana magazine, August 1957, p. 28; Castellana magazine, October 1957, p. 10; Castellana magazine, November 1957, pp. 12–14; Castellana magazine issues at BNE. 147. Gabriel Arias Salgado ASTA Madrid Convention Speech, ASTA Travel News,v. 34, November 1957, p. 53; full text of speech, “ ‘Sois Servidores Nobilisimos de Posibilidades Crecientes de Paz y Concordia,’ ” ABC, 10/15/57, p. 17, at ABCH. 148. “INFORME FINAL DE LA VISITA DEL GRUPO DE TECNICOS ESPAÑOLES DE TURISMO A LOS ESTADOS UNIDOS DE AMERICA DESDE EL 26 DE JULIO AL 6 DE SEPTIEMBRE DE 1.957,” dated February 1958, in S14411, ST22/54, F49.02, P “Cultura,” AGA. 149. Kelly Nason report to Spanish Direction General of Tourism, “El Papel de Una Agencia en el Fomento del Turismo,” 8/11/59, S14413, ST22/57, F49.02, P “Cultura,” AGA. 150. Benjamin Welles, “The Gains in Spain,” NYT, 3/26/61, at NYTA. 151. Benjamin Welles, “Spain Remains Festive Despite Inflation,” NYT, 3/1/59; Benjamin Welles, “Spain to Harness Nation’s Outlays,” NYT, 3/14/ 59; “Spain’s Airports Prepare for Jets,” NYT, 12/13/59, all at NYTA. 152. Decree by Francisco Franco to Gabriel Arias Salgado re project of expanding Spanish National Tourism Office in New York, 7/20/61, in folder, “Nueva York— Local (Obras) 1949–1961,” S62908, ST72/25, F49.02, GF3, AGA. 153. Benjamin Welles, Spain: The Gentle Anarchy, pp. 96–97; Cristina Palomares, The Quest for Survival After Franco: Moderate Francoism and the Slow Journey to the Polls (Brighton, UK: Sussex Academic Press, 2004, 2006 [PB]), pp. 85–90; John Gilmour, Manuel Fraga Iribarne and the Rebirth of Spanish Conservatism 1939–1990 (Lampeter, UK/Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press, 1999), Chapters 2–3; Memo- randum of Conversation between Ambassador Woodward, et al., and Manuel Iribarne, 7/27/62, 752.13/7-2762, box 1811, Central Decimal File 1960–63, RG59, NARA-A2; Gabriel Arias Salgado Dead; Ex-Information Chief in Spain, NYT, 7/27/62, at NYTA. 154. Benjamin Welles, “Lawmakers Hail New Franco Aide,” NYT, 7/15/62, at NYTA; “Major realignment of the Spanish government,” Spanish Newsletter, August 1962, special section. 212 Notes

155. Memorandum of Conversation between U.S. Ambassador Woodward et al., and Manuel Fraga Iribarne, 7/27/62. 156. On Fraga’s American trips see Chapters 4 and 6. 157. “Spain Gets Space for Tourist Unit,” NYT, 4/6/64; NYT, “Spanish Office to Open,” NYT, 8/3/64, both at NYTA; “Minister Fraga Visits USA,” Spanish Newsletter, 10/31/64, pp. 2–3; “Bis España,” Progessive Architecture, v. 46, 1964, p. 214; for a full discussion of the New York World’s Fair Pavilion of Spain see Chapter 7. 158. Author interview with Ambassador Timothy Towell, November 2007. 159. See Chapter 6. 160. Author interview with Manuel Fraga Iribarne, July 2007; Sasha D. Pack, Tourism and Dictatorship, pp. 43, 103.

3 “Hollywood in Madrid”: The Franco Regime and the American Film Industry

1. E.g. the future Spanish cult film auteurs Jess Franco and Paul Naschy. Jess Franco was an uncredited extra in Mike Todd’s mammoth production Around the World in 80 Days (1956), served as an uncredited production assistant on King Vidor’s Solomon and Sheba (1959) and was a second-unit director on Orson Welles’ Chimes at Midnight (1966). Paul Naschy had a bit role in ’s films King of Kings (1961) and (1963). (See entries for Jesus Franco and Paul Naschy at the Encylopedia of Fantastic Film and Television website at http: //www.eofftv.com/names/f/fra/franco_jesus_main.htm, as well as their Internet Movie Database entries at http://www.imdb.com). 2. Joseph Nye explicitly included Hollywood as a factor in US soft power in the volume in which he introduced the idea, Bound to Lead: The Changing Nature of American Power (New York: Basic Books, 1990, 1991), p. 194. For a discussion of other countries’ anxieties, see e.g. Victoria de Grazia, Irresistible Empire: America’s Advance Through 20th-Century Europe (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Harvard, 2005); Richard H. Pells, Not Like Us: How Europeans Have Loved, Hated, and Transformed American Culture since World War II (New York: Basic Books, 1997); Geoffrey Nowell-Smith and Stephen Ricci, eds., Hollywood and Europe: Economics, Cul- ture, National Identity 1945–95 (London: British Film Institute Press, 1998); John Trumpbour, Selling Hollywood to the World: U.S. and European Struggles for Mastery of the Global Film Industry, 1920–1950 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2002); Ian Jarvie, Hollywood’s Overseas Campaign: The North Atlantic Movie Trade, 1920–1950 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1992). For a gen- eral discussion of “cultural imperialism,” the standard point of entry remains John Tomlinson, Cultural Imperialism: A Critical Introduction (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991). 3. Neal M. Rosendorf, “Social and Cultural Globalization: Concepts, History, and America’s Role,” in Joseph S. Nye and John D. Donahue, eds., Governance in a Globalizing World (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2000), pp. 118–119. 4. One can perceive analogous behavior over the past two decades by American media toward the People’s Republic of China (PRC), including News Corp./20th Century-Fox owner Fox Rupert Murdoch’s blocking the BBC in the mid-1990s from his Star satellite television network, which was being beamed into China, and the aid software companies Cisco Systems, Microsoft, Google and Yahoo have provided to the PRC in its efforts to control domestic access to reading and Notes 213

posting online content. The 2012 US science fiction film Looper gained a major Chinese co-production stake as well as the Chinese government’s approval of its time travel theme, which is frowned on by official censors, by setting much of the action in Shanghai, rather than in Paris as originally intended, and depicting the China of the 2070s as the number-one global superpower. See e.g. William Shawcross, “Rupert Murdoch,” Time, 10/25/99, online at http://www.time.com/ time/magazine/intl/article/0,9171,1107991025-33716-1,00.html; OpenNet Ini- tiative, Internet Filtering in China in 2004–2005: A Country Study, online at http: //www.opennetinitiative.net/studies/china/; Clive Thompson, “Google’s China Problem (and China’s Google Problem),” New York Times Magazine, 4/23/06, at http://www.nytimes.com/2006/04/23/magazine/23google.html?pagewanted =all&_r=0; Neal Rosendorf, “Popaganda: What Hollywood Can Do For (And To) China,” The American Interest, March/April 2009; Helen Pidd, “Sci-Fi Blockbuster Looper Achieves Chinese Box Office First,” (UK), 10/1/12, at http: //www.guardian.co.uk/film/2012/oct/01/looper-sci-fi-blockbuster-china; Zhang Zihan, “Hasta la Vista, Maybe?” Global Times (China), 10/14/12, at http://www. globaltimes.cn/content/738191.shtml. 5. Thomas Schatz, The Genius of the System: Hollywood Filmmaking in the Studio Era (New York: Pantheon, 1988), passim; Michael Conant, “The Impact of the Paramount Decrees,” in Tino Balio, ed., The American Film Industry (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1976), pp. 347–348, 362–363. 6. As Business Week noted at the time, “Set owners, millions of them, were not going to pay to see mediocre films; they could watch similar entertainment at home for nothing.” (“A Turn for the Bigger,” Business Week, 11/14/53, p. 149.) This is not to say that inexpensively produced films, or films about modest sub- jects, were abandoned by Hollywood. Marty, the story of a lonely Bronx butcher, filmed on a shoestring budget in black and white and scripted by television writer Paddy Chayefsky, won the 1955 Academy Awards for Best Picture, Best Actor and Best Screenplay (Tino Balio, : The Company That Changed the Film Industry (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1987), pp. 79–82). 7. Britain’s Eady Plan was perhaps the best-known and most lucrative of these schemes. See e.g. Jonathan Stubbs, “ ‘Blocked’ Currency, Runaway Production in Britain and Captain Horatio Hornblower (1951),” Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television, v. 28, n. 3 (August 2008); Jonathan Stubbs, “The Eady Levy: A Run- away Bribe? Hollywood Production and British Subsidy in the Early 1960s,” Journal of British Cinema and Television, v. 6, May 2009; and Bob Thomas, “British Film Industry Helped by Eady Plan,” Associated Press [AP] syndicated column, in the Daytona Beach Journal, 7/26/67, p. 8, at Google News Archive [GNA]. 8. For a full discussion of the respective merits of these overseas production des- tinations, see Neal Moses Rosendorf, “The Life and Times of Samuel Bronston, Builder of ‘Hollywood in Madrid’: A Study in the International Scope and Influ- ence of American Popular Culture” (Ph.D. Dissertation, Harvard University, 2000), Chapter 5: “Runaways, Independents and Blockbusters: Hollywood’s Shift Toward Foreign Movie Production in the 1950’s and 1960’s.” 9. Carlos F. Heredero, Las Huellas del Tiempo: Cine espanol, 1951–1961 (Valencia: Archivo de la Filmoteca de la Generalitat Valenciana, 1993), p. 29. 10. John Trumpbour, Selling Hollywood to the World, passim. 11. U.S. Embassy, Madrid to State Dept., 1/8/63, “Efforts of Motion Picture Export Association of America to Persuade Spanish Government to Liberalize Restric- tions on Distribution of United States Motion Pictures,” 852.452/1–863, box 214 Notes

2583 NND 959000, Record Group 59, US Department of State Central Files [RG 59], National Archives and Record Administration-Archives II, College Park, Maryland [NARA-A2]. For a discussion of the complicated US-French film industry/cinema culture relationship, see Vanessa R. Schwartz, It’s So French! Hollywood, Paris, and the Making of Cosmopolitan Film Culture (Chicago: Univer- sity of Chicago Press, 2007). 12. “Borrador Previo para un Estudio Sobre Fines y Medios de la Propaganda de España en el Exterior,” dated August 1960, p. 12, in signatura [S] 28353, signatura topográfica [ST] 22/19, fondo [F] 49.06, procedencia [P] “Cultura,” Archivo General de la Administración, Alcala de Henares, Spain [AGA]. For an in-depth discussion of the long imbroglio between the MPEA and the Franco regime in the postwar era, see Pablo León Aguinaga, Sospechos Habituales: El cine norteamericano, Estados Unidos y la España franquista, 1939–1960 (Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas, 2010). 13. Paramount vigorously denied both the widespread rumors of pressure and that it had subsequently pulled its punches in the final version—all the studio would admit to was that it had given a script draft to the Spanish Consul in San Francisco, whose suggestions for revisions, Paramount claimed, had been ignored utterly. “Off the Hollywood Wire,” New York Times, 2/14/43, in “For Whom the Bell Tolls” clipping file, Margaret Herrick Library of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, Beverly Hills, CA [MHL]. 14. Christine Ann Colgan, “Warner Brothers’ Crusade Against the Third Reich: A Study of Anti-Nazi Activism and Film Production, 1933 to 1941,” unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Southern California, 1985. 15. Bosley Crowther, review of Confidential Agent, NYT 11/3/45; Brendan Bernhard, “Agent Provocateur,” LA Weekly, 9/30/04, at http://www.laweekly.com/2004-09- 30/art-books/agent-provocateur/; Glenn Erickson, review of Confidential Agent, DVD Savant Website, 5/4/11, at http://www.dvdtalk.com/dvdsavant/s3522conf .html. 16. “Spanish Censure Hollywood Films: Academy of Medicine Also Finds Variety of Faults in American Psychiatry Methods,” , 1/23/50, p. 28, in “Spain—Motion Picture Industry 1950s” file, MHL. 17. “Cinematograph Regulations: Order dated at Madrid the Twentieth of October, 1939, issued by the Ministry of Industry and Commerce,” in Spain: Black Book Documents 1936–46, Series 1F—Black Books, box 9, folder 8 (Spain), United Artists Collection, Wisconsin Center for Film and Theater Research, Wisconsin Historical Society, Madison, WI. 18. Paul Preston, Franco: A Biography, pp. 417–418; Aurora Bosch and M. Fernanda del Rincón, “Dreams in a Dictatorship: Hollywood and Franco’s Spain, 1939– 1956,” in Reinhold Wagnleitner and Elaine Tyler May, eds., “Here, There and Everywhere”: The Foreign Politics of American Popular Culture (Hanover, NH, and London: University Press of New England, 2000), p. 100. 19. Carlos F. Heredero, Las Huellas del Tiempo, p. 20. 20. The Spanish Cinema (Madrid: Diplomatic Information Office, 1949), pp. 9–10, 21–22. 21. The Spanish Cinema, pp. 22–24. 22. Report from American Embassy, Madrid, to U.S. Department of State, “The Motion Picture Industry in Spain,” 2/8/60, p. 4, in folder 852.44/2-2660, Box 2583, NND 887406, RG 59, NARA-A2. 23. Report from American Embassy, Madrid, to U.S. Department of State, “The Motion Picture Industry in Spain,” 2/8/60, p. 22. Notes 215

24. Report from American Embassy, Madrid, to U.S. Department of State, “The Motion Picture Industry in Spain,” 2/8/60, p. 34. 25. The one masterpiece of Spanish cinema during this period was Luis Buñuel’s Viridiana (1960), in which the Franco regime got far more than it had bargained for when it briefly welcomed back the renowned director from his Mexican exile and received a brilliant exercise in anti-Catholic blasphemy in return. The film, which among other things depicts a saintly nun’s repeated rape, would win the Palm d’Or at Cannes, which theoretically burnished Spain’s reputation as a source of quality motion pictures. The regime, which fashioned itself as the defender of the , did not see it that way, banning the film, banishing the filmmaker and firing the Director General of Cinematography and Theater who had authorized the production. See US Embassy, Madrid Joint Weeka Report, 6/2/61, pp. 8–9, 752.00 (W)/6-261, in box 1810, NND 949539, RG59, NARA-A2. 26. Letter from Gwynne Ornstein (wife of George Ornstein and daughter of Mary Pickford) to Mary Pickford, 1/11/61, in folder, “Family: Gwynne and Bud Ornstein, #1, Mary Pickford Collection, Herrick Special Collections, MHL”; “Bud Ornstein Gets Honor From Spain,” Hollywood Reporter, 5/9/68, in “George Ornstein” clipping file, MHL. 27. For the studio’s history see Tino Balio, United Artists, passim. 28. Untitled clipping, New York Times, 1 August 1954, in “Alexander the Great” clipping file, MHL. 29. “Angles on ‘Alex’: Greece Couldn’t Handle Filming,” Variety, 21 December 1955. In an interesting sideline, another dictatorship, Yugoslavia, was under consid- eration, and Marshall Tito had even offered Rossen the services of his army for battle scenes. But Rossen still decided on Spain. “Alexander Conquers a New World,” This Week Magazine, 4 September 1955, both cites in “Alexander the Great” clipping file, MHL. 30. Memorandum from Chief of Service, Cinematographic Economic Order Service, Ministries of Industry and Commerce, to the Director-General of Cinema and Theater, Ministry of Information and Tourism, January 17, 1955, in “Alejandro Magno” file, film title files [FTF], Ministry of Information and Tourism records [MITR], Archivo General de la Administración, Alcalá de Henares, Spain [AGA]. 31. Photograph of Rossen being met in Spain by Ornstein, in “Alexander the Great” folder, Robert Rossen Collection, UCLA Arts Special Collections, Young Library, University of California-Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA [UCLA-ASC]; Advertisement, Variety, February 25,1955, in “Alexander the Great” clipping file, MHL. 32. “ ‘Alexander’ Band,” NYT, 4/24/55, at NYTA. 33. “Boy Who Took the World: Lavish Film Shows Alexander as a Complex Hero,” Life magazine, 11/14/55, pp. 79–85: see subheading, “Film’s Campaign Boon for Spain,” pp. 82–83. 34. “Boy Who Took the World,” pp. 82–83. 35. “Conditions in Spain Now Favorable for American Producers,” Hollywood Reporter, 11/22/55, in “Spain—Motion Picture Industry file 1950s,” MHL. 36. Draft of newspaper article by Vernon Scott [syndicated columnist], “For AM’s of Wednesday, Oct 24 [1956],” in folder, “Publicity: Blowitz-Markel,” box 14, Stanley Kramer Collection, UCLA-ASC. 37. Letter from Stanley Kramer to Don Manuel Torres Lopez, Director General of Cinema and Theater, Ministry of Information and Tourism, 9/16/55, in “Orgullo y Pasión” file, FTF, MITF, AGA. 216 Notes

38. Memorandum from Stanley Kramer Films, 3/9/56, in “Orgullo y Pasión” file, FTF, MITF, AGA. 39. Memorandum from Chief of Service, Ministry of Industry and Commerce, to the Director General of Cinema and Theater, Ministry of Information and Tourism, 1/17/56, in “Orgullo y Pasión” file, FTF, MITF, AGA. 40. Letter from the Minister of Information and Tourism (Gabriel Arias Salgado) to the Minister of the Army (Agustín Muñoz Grande), March 15, 1956, in “Orgullo y Pasión” file, FTF, MITF, AGA. 41. “Stan Kramer Takes Pride in $3,000,000 Saving Achieved by Shooting Pic in Spain,” Variety, 10/18/56, in “Pride and the Passion” clipping file, MHL. 42. Memorandum, “ ‘Orgullo y Pasión’—Informe sobre el guión y propuestas de modificación,” undated [probably April 1956], in “Orgullo y Pasión” file, FTF, MITF, AGA. 43. Memorandum, “Informe sobre ‘Orgullo y Pasión’,” undated [probably April 1956], in “Orgullo y Pasión” file, FTF, MITF, AGA. 44. Memorandum, “ ‘Orgulla y Pasión,’ ” from the Director General of Cinema and Theater to the managing director, Stanley Kramer Films Inc., May 25, 1956, in “Orgullo y Pasión” file, FTF, MITF, AGA. 45. Memorandum from Spanish ambassador, Delhi (Conde de Artaza), 6/17/58], in “Orgullo y Pasión” file, FTF, MITF, AGA. 46. “An Epic Tale of a Gun,” Life, 2/4/57, pp. 114–123; “Violent Sweep of Warfare in Spain,” Life, 7/8/57, pp. 57–61; Thomas M. Pryor, “Hollywood Treks,” NYT, 12/18/55; Jane Cianfarra, “On the Road with ‘Pride and the Passion,’ ” NYT, 5/13/56; “ ‘The Pride’ in Spain,” NYT, 12/30/56, all in NYTA; “The Pride and the Passion: One Cannon to Win a War!,” Dell Movie Classic Comic, no. 824, undated (1957). 47. Film review, Time, 4/6/59, p. 90. 48. Note from George Ornstein to the Ministry of Information and Tourism, undated (mid-1958), in “Salomón y Saba” file, FTF, MITF, AGA. 49. “Aim ‘Solomon and Sheba’ For Christmas Release; Richmond Due in N.Y.,” Variety, 5/27/59, attached to letter from George Ornstein, United Artists Corpo- ration, to José Muñoz Fontán, Director General of Cinema and Theater, 6/30/59, in “Salomón y Saba” file, FTF, MITF, AGA. 50. Letter from George Ornstein, United Artists Corporation, to José Muñoz Fontán, Director General of Cinema and Theater, June 30, 1959, in “Salomón y Saba” file, FTF, MITF, AGA. 51. “Who’s Who Overseas: George ‘Bud’ Ornstein,” The Film Daily, 6/9/60, in “George Ornstein” file, MHL. 52. “Spain Medals Bronston,” Variety, 10/30/63; “Spain Honors Bronston Work on Cultural Ties,” Film Daily, 10/28/63, both in “Samuel Bronston” clipping file, MHL. 53. Carlos Robles Piquer Deposition, Madrid, 1/12/71, re United States v. Samuel Bronston, 69 Cr. 696, US District Court, Southern District, New York City, in author’s collection (files originally stored in NARA facility, Lee’s Summit, MO, but subsequently destroyed as per standard policy). 54. Letter from Rear Adm. W.F. Boone, Superintendent, US Naval Academy, to Bronston, 2/16/56; letter from Adm. Arleigh Burke, CNO, to Bronston, 2/17/56; letter from Rear Adm. E.B. Taylor, Chief of Information, US Navy, to Bronston, 2/17/56—all in “John Paul Jones” file [JPJF], C.D. Jackson papers [CDJP], Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library, Abilene, KS [DDEL]. Notes 217

55. Letter from Ernest Gross to C.D. Jackson, 3/5/56, in JPJF, CDJP, DDEL. 56. Victor Oswald OSS file; testimony of Rudolph Littauer, Esq., 12/1/58, and Irwin Margulies, 12/1/58, in John Paul Jones Corporation-New Jersey v. Barnett Glassman, US District Court, Southern District, New York City, in author’s collection (files originally stored in NARA facility, Lee’s Summit, MO, but subsequently destroyed as per standard policy); “Contrato de Colaboración entre John Paul Jones, Prod., Inc. y Suevia Films—Cesario Gonzales, 2/22/58—copy sent to the Chief of the Service of Cinematographic Economic Arrangements, Spanish Government,” in “El Capitan Jones” file, FTF, MITF, AGA. 57. Paul Preston, Juan Carlos: Steering Spain From Dictatorship to Democracy (New York: Norton, 2004), pp. 29–30, 124; “Friendship’s End,” Time, 4/25/49, at http:// www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,856228,00.html. 58. Testimony of Samuel Bronston, 6/24/66, pp. 8–17, in Bankruptcy of Samuel Bronston, 64 B 464, US District Court, New York City, in author’s collection (files originally stored in NARA facility Lee’s Summit, MO, but subsequently destroyed as per standard policy); author interview with Paul Lazarus, Jr., former senior vice-president of Samuel Bronston Productions, Santa Barbara, CA, 1996; and Paul Lazarus, Jr., “The Madrid Movie Caper,” Focus (University of California Santa Barbara), v. 16 (1995), pp. 45–47. 59. See e.g. John Lowry, “Film About Naval Hero in Preparation in Spain,” CSM, 6/17/58, p. 1, at PQHN-CSMA; Phil Gersdorf, “Film ‘Armada’ in Spain,” NYT, 8/17/58, at NYTA; “John Paul Jones Historic Epic,” LAT, 9/21/58, p. E1, at PQHN- LATA; “Madrid Gains Stature as European Hollywood,” Boston Globe, 11/26/59, p. 82, at PQHN-BGA. 60. Author interview with Carlos Robles Piquer, July 2007. 61. “Bronston Raps His Ex-Accountant; Repeats ‘Harassment’ by Glassman Can’t Halt ‘John Paul Jones’ Dates,” Variety, 12/17/58, in “John Paul Jones” film clipping collection, MHL. 62. Pierre du Pont III affidavit, 9/8/70, pp. 2–3 and passim, in Pierre S. du Pont vs. Samuel Bronston, NYS Supreme Court 05679/1969, Court Archives, Center St., NYC; Rudolph Littauer testimony, 12/1/58, p. 174; “Total Bronston Operation Liabilities About $35 Mil, Court Documents Show,” Variety, 8/9/65, “Samuel Bronston” clipping file, Variety Editorial Offices, Los Angeles, CA; historical cur- rency conversion at http://www.measuringworth.com/uscompare/relativevalue .php. 63. “Pierre S. DuPont: High-Flyin’ Angel,” Variety, 1/20/60, in “Samuel Bronston” clipping file, Variety Editorial Offices. 64. Author interview with Carlos Robles Piquer, July 2007. 65. See memorandum from the Director General of Foreign Commerce, Ministry of Commerce to Samuel Bronston, “Asunto: Pago rodaje peliculas ‘El Hijo del Hombre’ y ‘Nelson,’ 2/2/59,” in “Rey de Reyes” file, FTF, MITF, AGA; also Samuel Bronston testimony, 6/20/66, in Bankruptcy of Samuel Bronston 64 B 464, pp. 10–11, and 8–17 passim; Bronston testimony 6/21/66, same file, pp. 28–30, in author’s collection. 66. Bronston testimony, 6/20/66, in Bankruptcy of Samuel Bronston 64 B 464, p. 8, in author’s collection; Memorandum from José Mario Armero, Spanish attorney for Samuel Bronston, to Jesse Moss, Samuel Bronston Productions, Inc., “Report on the Present Situation of Samuel Bronston Espanola, S.A.,” 6/12/63, in binder of same name (gift to author from Raymond Cheesman, CPA, accountant for Samuel Bronston Productions, Inc). 218 Notes

67. See documents contained in “Rey de Reyes” file, FTF, MITF, AGA; author inter- views: Irene Bronston (Samuel Bronston’s late daughter), Berkeley, CA, February 1996; Dr. William Bronston (Samuel Bronston’s son), Sacramento, CA, 1995–96; and Dorothea Bronston (Samuel Bronston’s late ex-wife), London, August 1996. 68. Paul Preston, Franco, pp. xvii, 9, 52, 181, 329, 641–642. 69. On Hispanidad and the Franco regime’s foundational film policy see “Cinematograph Regulations: Order dated at Madrid the twentieth of October, 1939, issued by the Ministry of Industry and Commerce,” in Spain: Black Book Documents 1936–46, Series 1F—Black Books, box 9, folder 8 (Spain), United Artists Collection, Wisconsin Center for Film and Theater Research, Wisconsin Historical Society, Madison, WI. 70. “Operación Politica Exterior: ‘PE,’ ” dated August 1960, annex, “Cinematografia,” in S28353, ST22/19, F49.06, P “Cultura,” AGA. 71. “Operación Politica Exterior: ‘PE,’ ” dated August 1960, annex, “Cinematografia.” 72. , who starred as Don Rodrigo, was met at the airport by the pro- ducer and marveled at “the immigration and customs clearance [Bronston had] arranged .... My bags were off-loaded directly into the trunk of his Rolls, and we whirled away to the best suite in one of Madrid’s grandest hotels.” Quoted in Heston, In The Arena: An Autobiography (New York: Berkley Publishing Group, 1997), p. 240. 73. Author interview with Carlos Robles Piquer, July 2007. 74. Author interview with Manuel Fraga Iribarne, July 2007. 75. “Hollywood Movie Set New Lure for Spanish Tourist Agencies,” West Hollywood Tribune, 4/6/61, in “El Cid” clipping file, MHL. 76. The Making of El Cid (Madrid: Campeador Press, 1962), passim; Samuel Bronston’s El Cid (Roadshow Souvenir Book, 1961), passim. 77. Author interviews with Charlton Heston, December 1995, and , February 1996. 78. Proclamation by the Minister of Information and Tourism, 1/30/62, in Box 327, “El Cid” file, FTF, MITF, AGA. 79. See censors’ reports on El Cid; letter “El Cid” from Director General of Film and Theater to Director General of Cultural Relations, 11/2/61, both in “El Cid” file, file, FTF, MITF, AGA; see Charlton Heston, In the Arena, pp. 245–246, for the actor’s recounting of his meeting with Pidal. 80. The Making of El Cid, p. 114, photograph with caption. 81. Deposition of Enrique Llovet, 1/13/71, p. 1 and passim, United States v. Samuel Bronston, 69 Cr. 696, US Federal Court, Southern District, New York City, author’s collection; Miguel Olid, “El guionista de Samuel Bronston,” El Pais, 11/19/00, at http://www.elpais.com/articulo/andalucia/LLOVET/_ENRIQUE/guionista/ Samuel/Bronston/elpepuespand/20001119elpand_23/Tes 82. Memorandum from José Mario Armero to Jesse Moss, “Report on the Present Situation of Samuel Bronston Espanola, S.A., 6/12/63.” 83. Enrique Llovet deposition, 1/13/71, p. 3. 84. Ibid., pp. 2–3 and passim. 85. “The Law of 24-XI-39 Ruling National Industry as applied to Cinematographic Production,” dual dates: 1/25/46, 4/27/46, in binder “Report on the Present Situation of Samuel Bronston Espanola, S.A.” 86. Proposal concerning the legal status of Samuel Bronston Espanola, S.A., 3/25/63, in binder “Report on the Present Situation of Samuel Bronston Espanola, S.A.” Notes 219

87. Reply from the Spanish Presidencia del Gobierno granting Bronston’s request, 5/9/63, in binder “Report on the Present Situation of Samuel Bronston Española, S.A.” 88. Carlos Robles Piquer deposition, 1/12/71, p. 12. 89. Ibid., p. 4. 90. Author interview with Carlos Robles Piquer, July 2007. 91. “Documentary about modern Spain, touristic and industrial.” Samuel Bronston films proposal to MIT for the production of Sinfonía Española, May 1963, in “Sinfonía Española” file, FTF, MITF, AGA. 92. Carlos Robles Piquer deposition, 1/12/71, p. 4. 93. Ibid., p. 3. 94. Deposition of Angel Sagaz, 1/14/71, p. 2, in US v. Samuel Bronston, 69 Cr 696, US District Court, Southern District NY, author’s collection. 95. Carlos Robles Piquer deposition, 1/12/71, p. 5. 96. Samuel Bronston films proposal to the MIT for the production of Sinfonía Española, May 1963. 97. Sinfonía Española, 1964, viewed at Filmoteca Española, Madrid, Spain. 98. Sinfonía Española lists of domestic and foreign exhibition venues, undated; see as well letter from Carlos Robles Piquer to Jaime Prades of Samuel Bronston Productions (and director of the film) concerning international exhibition plans, 2/12/65, both in “Sinfonía Española” file, FTF, MITF, AGA. 99. Carlos Robles Piquer deposition, 1/12/71, p. 6. See as well letter from Manuel Fraga Iribarne to Fernando Fuertes de Villavicencio, 4/10/64, in “Sinfonía Española” file, FTF, MITF, AGA: “The documentary ... is to be presented at the end of the month at a cinema in Madrid, with the maximum solemnity ... a program that will be widely exhibited in the Festivals of Spain to demonstrate the current panorama of our Country and of the progress reached during the XXV Years of Peace.” 100. “Note by His Excellency the Minister concerning the film ‘Sinfonia Espanola,’ ” 4/8/64, in “Sinfonía Española” file, FTF, MITF, AGA. 101. Letter from Manuel Fraga Iribarne to Fernando Fuertes de Villavicencio, 4/10/64. 102. Memorandum from Carlos Robles Piquer to the Director General of Cinema and Theater, 4/7/64, in “Sinfonía Española” file, FTF, MITF, AGA. 103. Carlos Robles Piquer deposition, 1/12/71, p. 6. 104. Enrique Llovet deposition, 1/13/71, p. 3. 105. See e.g. memorandum from Manuel Fraga Iribarne to Fernando Maria Castiella, Minister of Foreign Affairs, 9/7/65, which discusses the “great success” of the film’s presentation of in Mexico City. “Sinfonía Española” file, FTF, MITF, AGA. 106. Letter from Robles Piquer to the Director General of Cinema and Theater, 10/21/64 in “Sinfonía Española” file, FTF, MITF, AGA. 107. Letter from the Director General of Cinema and Theater to Manuel Fraga Iribarne, 4/21/64, in “Sinfonía Española” file, FTF, MITF, AGA. 108. Author interviews with Manuel Fraga Iribarne, Carlos Robles Piquer, July 2007. 109. Samuel Bronston, quoted by his former production aide Pancho Kohner, in an interview with Paul G. Nagle, 10/07 (interview transcript gift of Mr. Nagle); Memorandum from Doc Erickson to Vicente Sempere and Agustin Pastor, re “The Valley Project,” 1031/62, in papers of Nicholas Ray (gift of Bernard Eisenschitz). 110. Jim Bishop, “TV Sponsors Afraid Some Groups Might Be Offended,” syndicated column, in Richmond County Journal (NC), 9/13/62, p. 2, at GNA; “Los Obispos 220 Notes

Espanoles Asisten a un Acto Conmemorativo,” ABC, 11/12/63, p. 38; “Estreno de ‘El Valle de los Caidos’ en Londres,” ABC, 11/20/63, pp. 81–82, both at ABCH. 111. Objetivo 67 (1964), viewed at Filmoteca Española, Madrid; film script in “Objetivo 67” file, FTF, MITF, AGA. 112. Censor’s report on Objetivo 67, “Objetivo 67” file, FTF, MITF, AGA. 113. “Memorandum for the Files” by Richard Simmons of the Principal Creditors Group of his conversation with Simon Rifkind, Pierre du Pont III’s attor- ney, dated 10/6/66, in papers of Philip Yordan (private collection, gift of Faith Yordan—NB Philip Yordan’s papers have recently been transferred to the Academy of Motion Picture Art and Sciences Margaret Herrick Library in Beverly Hills). 114. “Memorandum of conference held today at the office of Dewey, Ballantine, Bushby, Palmer & Wood, attorneys for Pierre S. DuPont,” 12/21/64, p. 2, in Philip Yordan papers. 115. “Minutes of conference held this day at the offices of Cahill, Gordon, Reindel and Ohl,” 6/16/66, p. 21, in Philip Yordan papers. 116. “Memorandum: Conference held in Madrid, Spain from January 31, 1967 through February 9, 1967,” dated 2/10/67, p. 5 and passim, in Philip Yordan papers. 117. “Minutes of the Meeting held at the office of Paul, Weiss, Rifkind, Wharton & Garrison, October 4, 1966,” Philip Yordan papers. 118. Author interview with Ronald Neame, July 2002. 119. Ibid., Queen Isabella shooting scripts, author’s collection. 120. “Se Proyecta un Filme Sobre la Vida de la Reina Isabel la Catolica,” La Vanguardia (Barcelona), 2/21/71, p. 55. 121. “The Reign of Spain,” Time, 2/26/65, in “Spain—Motion Picture Industry” clip- ping file, MHL; Peter Besas, “Samuel Bronston, Who Pulled Spanish Pic Industry Out of Doldrums, Now Facing Arrest,” Variety, 8/6/73, in “Samuel Bronston” clipping file, Variety Editorial Offices. 122. “Bronston: Madrid Debt paid, Will Continue There,” Variety, 8/9/73, in “Samuel Bronston” clipping file, Variety Editorial Offices; Dorothea Bronston, William Bronston interviews. 123. Author interview with Philip Yordan, February 1996. 124. “Foreign Producers Pep Spain,” Variety, 5/19/65; “American Production on the Rise in Spain,” Box Office, 12/13/65, both in “Spain—Motion Picture Industry” clipping file, MHL. 125. Newspaper advertisement template, The Pleasure Seekers Pressbook; one-sheet film poster, both in author’s collection. 126. Pamela Tiffin’s slow-walk past and inspection of the poster-covered kiosks occurs at around the 17-minute mark. 127. The Pleasure Seekers Pressbook. 128. Two-page advertisement, Harper’s Bazaar January 1965, pp. 34–35. MIT Minister Fraga gave a medal to the magazine’s editor for her promotion of Spain in the issue—see Chapter 4. 129. “Estreno de la Pelicula ‘En Busco del Amor’ [‘The Pleasure Seekers’], a Beneficio de la Lucha Contra el Cancer,” ABC, 2/10/65, p. 44 in ABCH. 130. Cristina Palomares, The Quest for Survival After Franco, pp. 84–94. 131. For details on Allard Lowenstein’s political career, see William H. Chafe, Never Stop Running: Allard Lowenstein and the Struggle to Save American Liberalism (Princeton, NJ: Press, 1998). Notes 221

132. Drew Pearson, “Franco’s Police State Has Changed,” syndicated column, in the Nevada Daily Mail, 9/10/63, p. 2, at GNA; “Minister Fraga: Insult to Spain Justifies Ban,” Variety, 10/28/64, in “Behold a Pale Horse” clipping file, MHL. 133. See 13 pp. memorandum of Fred Zinneman’s meetings with Spanish expatriate anarchists and socialists living in France, June 1963, in folder, “Behold a Pale Horse # 34,” Fred Zinneman Collection, Special Collections, MHL; Zinneman’s handwritten notes of three meetings with Allard Lowenstein, in folder, “Behold a Pale Horse # 39,” same location as previous cite (Lowenstein described Fraga to Zinneman as “genteel, but mailed fist if they feel crossed. Fully but smartly protective of Franco.”); Sam Lesner article on BAPH controversy, Chicago Daily News, 9/26/64 (author’s clipping); “Spain Displeasure Over ‘Pale Horse’ results in Total ban of Col. Films, Shooting Affected Too,” Variety, 9/4/63; “Coun- try Keeps Bars Up After Viewing Film,” Variety, 8/11/64, both in “Behold A Pale Horse” clipping file, MHL; Behold a Pale Horse Columbia Press Book, 1964; author interview with S. Frederick Gronich, former MPEA vice-president, 1996. 134. “Spain Gets Tough On Title Credits,” Variety, 6/2/65, in “Spain—Motion Picture Industry” clipping file, MHL. 135. “In a Little Spanish Town ...,” Films and Filming, June 1965; “Foreign Producers Pep Spain,” Variety, 5/19/65, both in “Spain—Motion Picture Industry” clipping file, MHL. Fraga backed away from the controversial ruling in response to the outpouring of opposition in Hollywood. But it is clear his gesture was based in part on MGM representative Stan Goldsmith’s ability to point, in a letter he sent to Fraga, to copious amounts of publicity for the film that stressed its use of Spanish locations and studios. Untitled article, Variety, 8/4/65, in “Spain— Motion Picture Industry” clipping file, MHL. See as well the Doctor Zhivago souvenir book; “ ‘Zhivago’ Started in Spain,” Los Angeles Times, 1/2/65; and “ ‘Doctor Zhivago’ Moves to Spain,” NYT, 2/28/65, all in “Doctor Zhivago” clip- ping file, MHL. Doctor Zhivago’s penchant for generating controversy with the Franco regime extended to the MIT’s ban, eventually lifted, on the singing of the Socialist Internationale during a battle sequence. “The Reign of Spain,” Time, 2/26/65, in “Spain—Motion Picture Industry” clipping file, MHL. 136. “Fraga’s Formula For Good Will,” Variety, 10/21/64, in “Spain—Motion Picture Industry” clipping file, MHL. 137. “Spain ‘Forgives’ Columbia,” Variety, 1/26/66, in “Behold A Pale Horse” clipping file, MHL. 138. “Almeria—Movie Capital of the World: Says Here,” Hollywood Reporter, 2/15/68, in “Spain—Motion Picture Industry” clipping file, MHL. 139. Deadfall and The Magus 20th Century-Fox Pressbooks, both 1967, author’s collection. 140. Deadfall and The Magus 20th Century-Fox Pressbooks. 141. Peter Besas, “Top Pix Roll in ‘Safe’ Almeria,” Variety, 11/15/72, in “Spain— Motion Picture Industry 1970s” file, MHL; Peter Besas, “Spain Misses U.S. Gold-Rush Days,” Variety, undated clipping (1973), in “Spain—Motion Picture Industry 1970s” file, MHL. 142. Ibid.; “Specialists Rate Filming, Living in Spain; Main Flaw is Hiring Originates in London, Hollywood,” Variety, 5/9/73, in “Spain—Motion Picture Industry 1970s” file, MHL. 143. See Paul Preston, Franco, pp. 765–775; Paul Preston, Juan Carlos,Chapter6. 144. Paul Preston, Franco, pp., 744–748. 222 Notes

145. Peter Besas, “Spain Misses U.S. Gold-Rush Days”; Preston, Franco: A Biography, pp. 744–748. 146. “Specialists Rate Filming, Living in Spain; Main Flaw Is Hiring, Originates in London, Hollywood,” Variety, 5/9/73, in “Spain—Motion Picture Industry 1970s” file, MHL.

4 The Franco Regime’s Postwar US Public Relations Strategies: Media, Messages and Relationships in America

1. “PR,” as both practitioners and critics refer to the field, was defined at one point by founding father Edward Bernays as “[a]n applied social science that influences behavior and policy, when communicated effectively, motivates an individual or group to a specific course of action by creating, changing or reinforcing opinions and attitudes. Its ultimate objective is persuasion that results in a certain action which, to succeed, must serve the public inter- est.” One can quarrel with the self-serving clause concerning “the public interest,” but otherwise the definition holds up to this day and contin- ues to be embraced by prominent industry leaders—see e.g. Harold Burson [co-founder, Burson-Marsteller], “A ‘Modern’ Definition of Public Relations? Why?” at http://www.burson-marsteller.com/Innovation_and_insights/blogs _and_podcasts/harold_burson_blog/Lists/Posts/Post.aspx?List=6d4dbc50-37e1 -4c20-8040-703259fddd1f&ID=74. 2. Memorandum from US Embassy in Madrid to US Dept. of State, “Spain’s International Objectives,” 2/1/63, p. 2, in folder, “Pol 1 Gen Policy SP,” box 4044, NND 949607, Record Group 59, US Department of State Central Files [RG59], Central Foreign Policy Files [CFPF], National Archives and Records Administration-Archives II, College Park, MD [NARA-A2]. 3. Benjamin Welles, Spain: The Gentle Anarchy, pp. 233, 293. 4. Ibid., p. 91. 5. John Gilmour, Manuel Fraga Iribarne and the Rebirth of Spanish Conservatism, 1939–1990 (Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press, 1999), pp. 28–30, 68–70; Cristina Palomares, The Quest for Survival After Franco: Moderate Francoism and the Slow Journey to the Polls, 1964–1977 (Brighton, UK: Sussex Academic Press, 2004, PB 2006), pp. 72–73, 86. 6. For contrasting perspectives on whether foreign states’ utilization of inter- national public relations firms and stratagems helps tip US media coverage and public perceptions in a positive direction, see Jarol B. Manheim and Robert B. Albritton, “Changing National Images: International Public Relations and Media Agenda Setting,” American Political Science Review, September 1984, pp. 643, 656 and passim, which answers affirmatively; and James E. Grunig, “Public Relations and International Affairs: Effects, Ethics and Responsibility,” Journal of International Affairs, v. 47, n. 1 (1993), pp. 145, 157–159, which vig- orously argues that the answer is no. For articles down to the present that draw on and tend to confirm Manheim and Albritton, see e.g. David Okeowo and William N. Swain, “Valence Positioning and Increased Media Visibility: Biafra’s and Nigeria’s Wartime Publicity Activities,” World Communication, v. 28, n. 9 (1999); Juyan Zhang and Glen T. Cameron, “China’s Agenda Building and Image Polishing in the US: Assessing and International Public Relations Cam- paign,” Public Relations Review, n. 29 (2003); Melissa A. Johnson, “Five Decades of Mexican Public Relations in the United States: From Propaganda to Strategic Notes 223

Counsel,” Public Relations Review, n. 31 (2005); Suman Lee, Elizabeth Toth and Hochang Shin, “Cognitive Categorisation and Routes of National Reputation Formation: US Opinion Leaders’ Views on South Korea,” Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, n. 4 (2008); Suman Lee and Hyehyun Hong, “International Public Relations’ Influence on Media Coverage and Public Perceptions of Foreign Countries,” Public Relations Review, n. 38 (2012). 7. Michael Kunczik, Images of Nations and International Public Relations (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1997), Chapter 6; Susan Brewer, To Win the Peace: British Propaganda in the United States During World War II (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1997), passim. 8. Michael Kunczik, Images of Nations and International Public Relations,Chapter6; Brad E. Hainsworth, “Retrospective: Ivy Lee and the German Dye Trust,” Public Relations Review, v. 13, n. 1 (Spring 1987), pp. 35–44, passim; Kristin Semmens, Seeing Hitler’s Germany: Tourism in the Third Reich (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), p. 143. 9. Michael Kunczik, Images of Nations and International Public Relations,Chapter6, quote, p. 193; Stuart Ewen, PR! A Social History of Spin (New York: Basic Books, 1996), p. 446, n.4. 10. The Hamilton Wright Organization would be followed in focusing on inter- national public relations work by the Roy Bernard Agency, which also had a reputation as an interwar IPR pioneer. See David L. Lewis, “International,” in Howard Stephenson, ed., Handbook of Public Relations (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1960), p. 812. See the chapter passim for a midcentury overview of the state of IPR, as well as Douglass Cater and Walter Pincus, “The Foreign Legion of U.S. Public Relations,” The Reporter, 12/22/60. 11. Quoted in K.K. Gower, “The Fear of Public Relations in Foreign Affairs: An Exam- ination of the 1963 Fulbright Hearings into Foreign Agents,” Public Relations Review, n. 31 (2005), p. 42. 12. Letter from Hamilton Wright, Jr. to the Duke of Luna, Director, National Office of Tourism, 7/14/53, in procedencia [P] “Cultura,” signatura topográfica [ST] 22/62, signatura [S] 16076, carpeta [CA] “EXTRANJEROS: P-Z,” Archivo General de la Administración, Alcala de Henares, Spain [AGA]; K.K. Gower, “The Fear of Public Relations in Foreign Affairs,” passim; Scott M. Cutlip, The Unseen Power: Public Relations—A History (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1994), Chapter 4. For contemporaneous accounts of Senator J. William Fulbright’s investigation into foreign lobbying and public relations in the US, see e.g. Edward Neylan, “Foreign Advisors,” Copley News Service article, in the Lodi News (CA), 5/6/61, p. 4, at Google News Archive [GNA]; Tad Szulc, “Role of For- eign Lobbies,” New York Times [NYT] 7/15/62 at New York Times Online Archive [NYTA]; Louis Cassels, “U.S. Doesn’t Term Lobbying Illegal, But Scans Methods,” UPI wire story, in Reading Eagle (PA), 8/5/62, p. 9, at GNA; and “How the New Leader Got $3000 From Chiang Kai-Shek’s Press Agents,” I. F. Stone’s Bi-Weekly, 7/22/63, p. 2. An historiographic note: IPR tends to be analyzed by communications schol- ars; few international relations historians have even indirectly engaged the subject. Exceptions include Susan Brewer, To Win the Peace; William R. Keylor, “How They Advertised France,” Diplomatic History, July 1993; Manuela Aguilar, Cultural Diplomacy and Foreign Policy: German-American Relations, 1955–1968 (New York: Peter Lang, 1996); S. Jonathan Wiesen, “Germany’s PR Man: Julius Klein and the Making of Transatlantic Memory,” in Philipp Gassert and Allan 224 Notes

E. Steinweis, eds., Coping With the Nazi Past: West German Debates on Nazism and Generational Conflict, 1955–1975 (Oxford and New York: Berghahn, 2006); Brian C. Etheridge, “Die Antideutsche Welle: The Anti-German Wave, Public Diplomacy, and Intercultural Relations in Cold War America,” in Jessica C.E. Gienow-Hecht, ed., Decentering America (Oxford and New York: Berghahn Books, 2007); David Snyder, “The Problem of Power in Modern Public Diplomacy: The Information Bureau in World War II and the Early Cold War,” in Kenneth A. Osgood and Brian C. Etheridge, eds., The United States and Pub- lic Diplomacy: New Directions in Cultural and International History (Leiden and Boston: Brill/Martinus Nijhoff, 2010); Matthew Connelly integrates PR outreach to the US by both the French government and Algerian revolutionaries into his landmark study A Diplomatic Revolution: Algeria’s Fight for Independence and the Origins of the Post-Cold War Era (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), pp. x, 7, 33, 126–127, 132–133, 138, 230; similarly, Czechoslovak PR efforts in the US are integral to Andrea Orzoff’s equally significant study Bat- tle for the Castle: The Myth of Czechoslovakia in Europe 1914–1948 (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2009). However, while these are all useful works on the subject, none of them explicitly contextualize their subject matter within the larger phenomenon of IPR. 13. DeWitt Mackenzie, “Franco Wants Friendship of United States,” Prescott Evening Courier (AZ), 1/24/46, p. 7, at GNA; for a fuller discussion see the Introduction to this volume. 14. DeWitt Mackenzie, “Franco Denies Axis Got Help From Him,” NYT, 1/25/46, at NYTA. 15. C. L. Sulzberger, “Franco Urges U.S. Lend $200,000,000,” NYT, 11/12/48, at NYTA. 16. C. L. Sulzberger, “Franco Urges U.S. Lend $200,000,000,” NYT, 11/12/48. 17. Philip J. Kitchen, Public Relations Principles and Practice 6th ed. (London: Thomson, 2006), pp. 30–33. 18. See Harry S. Truman Presidential Library “Oral History Interview with Harold G. Robinson” [Chief Investigator for the Truman Senate Committee on the National Defense Program, 1941–45] by J.R. Fuchs, March 1971, available at http://www.trumanlibrary.org/oralhist/robinsoh.htm; Charles Patrick Clark obituary, NYT, 11/30/67, at NYTA. 19. Mark S. Byrnes, “ ‘Overruled and Worn Down’: Truman Sends an Ambassador to Spain,” Presidential Studies Quarterly, v. 29, n. 2 (June 1999), accessed via Questia (Cengage) at www.questia.com; Peter Edson, “Franco Spain Conducts Drive,” syndicated column, in the Meriden Daily Journal (CT), 3/31/49, p. 10, at GNA. 20. See Chapter 5 for a discussion of Spain’s official Catholicism. 21. Mark S. Byrnes, “ ‘Overruled and Worn Down’ ”; Michael J. Ybarra, Washington Gone Crazy: Senator Pat McCarran and the Great American Communist Hunt (Hanover, NH: Steerforth Press, 2004), pp. 473–476; Drew Pearson, “Washington Merry-Go-Round” syndicated column, in the Beaver Valley Times (PA), 6/14/52, p. 4, at GNA. 22. Drew Pearson, “Washington-Merry-Go-Round” syndicated column, in the Tuscaloosa News (AL), 11/5/55, p. 4, at GNA; Jerry Landauer, “Foreign Lobby- ing Here Grows, Draws Scrutiny of Senate Investigators,” Wall Street Journal, 1/21/63, p. 1, at ProQuest Historical Newspapers [PQHN] Wall Street Journal Online Archive. Unlike the Hamilton Wright Organization, Charles Patrick Clark was always proudly transparent concerning his activities on the Franco regime’s behalf. Notes 225

23. “The Press: Mayflower Punch,” Time, 6/30/52, at Time Online Archive, http:// www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,816553,00.html. 24. Report on Spain: October 1946 (Washington, DC: Spanish Embassy Office of Cultural Relations, 1946), p. 4. 25. Fifteen Years of Spanish Culture, 1938–1952 (Madrid: Diplomatic Information Office, 1952), pp. 17, 21. See as well e.g. Manuel Fraga Iribarne, How Spain Is Governed (Madrid: Diplomatic Information Office, 1950). 26. On early post-World War II US secularization trends see e.g. Patrick W. Carey, Catholics in America: A History (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2004), p. 97; and Bryan S. Turner, Religion and Modern Society: Citizenship, Secularisation and the State (Cambridge University Press, 2011), pp. 74–75. 27. Spanish Information Service (MIT), Spain (Madrid: Hauser and Menet, 1962), “History Synopsis” section: 1936; Subsecretaria de Turismo [Carlos Robles Piquer, ed.], Spain for You (Madrid: F.N.M.T., 1964), p. 54. 28. Author interview with Carlos Robles Piquer, July 2007. 29. On newsletters as an integral element of PR strategy, see William Ryan and Theodore Conover, Graphic Communications Today, 4th ed. (Clifton Park, NY: Delmar Learning/Thomson, 2004), Chapter 11; Barbara Diggs-Brown, Strategic Public Relations: An Audience-Centered Approach (Boston: Cengage/Wadsworth, 2011), pp. 290–292. 30. Jaime de Urzáiz, “The Modern Age of Spain,” in John Lee, ed., Diplomatic Per- suaders: New Role of Mass Media in International Relations (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1968), pp. 56–57. 31. Several copies of Facts in Review can be viewed online at Western Michigan University’s “World War II Propaganda Collections” Website: http://luna.library. wmich.edu:8180/luna/servlet/view/search?QuickSearchA=QuickSearchA&q= facts+in+review&sort=Date%2CTitle&search=Search. 32. Danie du Plessis, Introduction to Public Relations and Advertising (Lansdowne, SA: Juta Education, 2000), pp. 56–57. To be sure, in its early 20th century incar- nation the dividing line between propaganda and PR hovered between blurred and nonexistent, as exemplified by Edward Bernays’ now infamous Propaganda (New York: Horace Liveright, 1928); and figures like Jurgen Habermas continue to see little distinction between the two practices, both of which have “served to construct an illusory common interest” via “staged publicity” (Andrew Edgar, The Philosophy of Habermas (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2005), pp. 49–51). However, in the post-World War II period the PR profession self- consciously moved away from “propaganda” as a word and concept, given the term’s odious totalitarian connotations. See Kevin Maloney, Rethinking Public Relations, (Routledge, 2002, 2nd ed 2006), Chapter 4, “PR and Propaganda”. 33. Memorandum from Adolfo Martin-Gamero, undated but March 1962, “Asunto: Boletín informativo en Estados Unidos ‘Spanish Newsletter,’ ” in legajo [L] 9281, expediente [E] 22, “Spanish Newsletter,” Spanish For- eign Ministry Archive, Madrid [MAEA] (NOTE: as of the time of writ- ing this book, Foreign Ministry files are in the process of being trans- ferred to another location: see http://www.maec.es/es/menuppal/actualidad/ Documentacion/Paginas/ArchivosBibliotecasyCentrosdeDocumentacion.aspx); on McCann Erickson’s motto see http://mccann.com/about/story/. 34. Memorandum from Adolfo Martin-Gamero, undated but March 1962, “Asunto: Boletín informativo en Estados Unidos ‘Spanish Newsletter.’ ” 35. “Steel Demand Growing,” Spanish Newsletter, 7/31/65, p. 4; “Dynamic Progress,” Spanish Newsletter, 5/31/66, p. 4; re automobile manufacturing, 12/31/64, p. 4, 226 Notes

1/31/66, p. 2; Laureano López Rodó quoted in special section, “Spain’s Economy in 1965,” Spanish Newsletter, 2/28/66; on expanding liberties, etc., see e.g. special section, “Spanish Prison Statistics,” Spanish Newsletter, 1/31/64; special section, “The New Press Law,” Spanish Newsletter, 3/31/66; “From Tolerance to Freedom,” Spanish Newsletter, 3/31/67, pp. 2–3; Manuel Fraga Iribarne’s San Juan, Puerto speech highlights, Spanish Newsletter, 4/30/68, p. 4. 36. For Spanish Newsletter stories concerning US–Spanish space program coopera- tion, visits of US astronauts to Spain: see issues e.g. 4/1/62, p. 3; 3/1/63, p. 5; 2/29/64, p. 6; 7/31/65, p. 3; 10/31/65, p. 5; 11/30/65, p. 4; 4/30/66, p. 6; 8/31/66, p. 3; 10/31/66, p. 4; 12/31/66, p. 5; 2/28/67, p. 3; 2/28/69, p. 2; 8/31/68, p. 4; July–August 1969, p. 3. 37. For Spanish Newsletter stories concerning tourism, see issues e.g. 4/1/62, p. 4; 9/1/62, p. 3; 12/1/62, p. 5; 3/1/63, p. 6; 8/15/63, p. 4; 12/1/63, p. 8; 2pp. special section, 2/29/64 (“Tourism in Spain Reaches All Time High”); 8/31/64, pp. 5–6; 2/28/65, p. 2; 8/31/65, pp. 3, 5; 1/31/66, p. 2; 8/31/66, p. 6; 10/31/66, p. 8; 6/30/67, p. 4; 9/30/67, p. 7; 1/31/68, p. 2; 2/29/68, p. 7; 6/30/68, p. 6; 8/31/68, p. 3; 11/30/68, p. 6; 1/31/69, p. 4 (on both the “State of Exception” civil liberties curtailment and tourism figures). 38. For Spanish Newsletter stories concerning Hollywood, visiting celebrities and notables, and Spanish high fashion, see issues e.g. 7/1/63, pp. 7–8; 8/1/63, p. 8; 11/15/63, cover, pp. 7–8; 4/30/64, cover; 5/31/64, cover; 8/15/63, p. 5; 3/31/64, p. 8; 8/31/64, p. 7; 12/31/64, p. 4; 5/31/65, cover; 7/31/65, p. 7; 12/31/65, p. 8; 1/31/66, cover, p. 7; 7/31/66, cover, p. 3; 8/31/66, 2/28/67, p. 6; 1/31/68, p. 7; p. 8; 5/31/68, cover, p. 8; 7/31/68, p. 8; 3/31/69, p. 5; July–August 1969, p. 4. 39. Jaime de Urzáiz, “The Modern Age of Spain,” in John Lee, ed., Diplomatic Persuaders, p. 57. 40. There was, however, an oblique nod to the dangers of atomic fallout in Spain in a 2/28/66 Spanish Newsletter article on Madrid’s National Cancer Institute, which noted the facility’s “anti-nuclear shelter”: “The refuge will protect the institute’s staff against dangerous radiations. In the event of an atomic explosion, it could also be used to safeguard a large number of people.” (p. 5). 41. See e.g. “Newsman Loses rights in Spain,” Associated Press wire story, in the Spokane Daily Chronicle, 4/18/51, p. 20, at GNA; “Spain Voids Credentials of Times Correspondent,” NYT, 4/28/51, at NYTA; “The Press: Censorship in Spain,” Time, 4/30/51, at Time Online Archive (TOA); “U.S. Hits Spanish Memo on Reporter,” Christian Science Monitor [CSM], 5/2/51, p. 6, at PQHN Christian Science Monitor Online Archive [CSMA]. 42. “Spain Returns card to Barred Reporter,” NYT, 6/6/51, at NYTA. 43. Sam Pope Brewer, “Franco Shakes Up Spanish Ministry; Bid to West Seen,” NYT, 7/20/51, at NYTA. 44. Benjamin Welles, Spain: The Gentle Anarchy, pp. 92–93. 45. “Club for Foreign Press,” Spanish Newsletter, 12/1/62, p. 6. 46. For Operación PE see Chapter 3. 47. Letter from William W. Browne, Jr., Holiday magazine, to the Duke of Luna in Madrid, 6/11/53, with accompanying reply from the Duke of Luna to Browne, 6/19/53, in P “Cultura”, ST22/62, S16076, CA “EXTRANJEROS de la A a la F,” AGA. 48. V.S. Pritchett, “Spain,” Holiday, May 1954, quote p. 147. 49. Holiday, April 1965 passim (“An Entire Issue Devoted to Spain Today,” p. 3). 50. “Fraga Iribarne en Nueva York,” ABC, 4/3/68, p. 45, at ABC Online Archive (Hemeroteca)[ABCH]. Notes 227

51. Memo from Howell Rees, Kelly Nason Inc., to Director General, Spanish State Tourist Dept., “U.S. Publicity, Apr. 15–May 15, 1956,” 5/19/56, in P “Cultura”, ST22/62, S16079, AGA. There are numerous similar reports in these files. 52. J. P. Edwards, “New Roles for Spanish Women,” Cosmopolitan, October 1964, p. 58. 53. “Your Castle in Spain,” Seventeen, April 1963, pp. 112–125, 208; Ladies’ Home Journal, February 1965, series of photo features and articles, pp. 47–76, 98–102, 106–112, 116–119, “Casa Dali,” pp. 121–125; Bart McDowell and Albert Moldvay, “The Changing Face of Old Spain,” National Geographic, March 1965, pp. 291–341. 54. Various Spanish-themed articles and advertisements in Harper’s Bazaar,January 1965, passim; on The Pleasure Seekers see Chapter 3. 55. Spanish Newsletter, 8/31/65, p. 5. 56. “Surprises in Spain,” Canadian Club Whisky advertisement, 1946, author’s col- lection; “See-Level Is a Mile High When You Hunt Spain’s Ibex,” Canadian Club Whisky advertisement, Life magazine, 5/31/54, inside back cover. 57. Letter from Howell E. Rees, Kelly Nason, to Christine Edwards, Grey Advertising Agency Inc., February 27, 1956, in P “Cultura”, ST22/62, S16079, AGA. 58. Maidenform Bra advertisement, in e.g. McCall’s, March 1965, p. 18. 59. Jaime de Urzáiz, “The Modern Age of Spain,” in John Lee, ed., Diplomatic Persuaders, p. 59. 60. Walter Cronkite quoted in Tom Mackin, Brief Encounters: From Einstein to Elvis (Bloomington: AuthorHouse, 2008), p. 76. 61. Spanish Newsletter, 4/15/63, cover and pp. 4–5. 62. Ibid., pp. 4–5. 63. Spanish Newsletter, 4/30/68, p. 4. 64. Benjamin Welles, Spain: The Gentle Anarchy, p.30. 65. Marie-Andrée Jouve, Balenciaga (New York and Paris: Universe/Vendome, 1997), p.7; “Franco’s Daughter Becomes a Bride,” Life, 4/24/50, pp. 33–37; Spanish Newsletter, 4/30/64, p. 6. 66. e.g. “Spanish Fashions Keep Native Touch,” NYT, 8/10/53; “Virginia Pope, Pageant Preview Staged by Store,” NYT, 9/25/53, both at NYTA; “Grace Says Prince Has No Defects,” UPI wire story, in the Wilmington Star News (NC), 5/13/56, p. 13, at GNA. Princess Grace, at the time the world’s most famous newlywed, declared, “I want very much to see the Spanish fashion collections which are well known in the United States.” Her husband Prince Rainer added, “I was afraid of that.” 67. Patricia Peterson, “Spanish Pavilion Is Site of Gala Fashion Show,” NYT, 4/29/64; Marylin Bender, “Austria and Spain Show Styles at Fair,” NYT, 5/9/64; “Spain Parades Men’s Fashions,” NYT, 7/30/64; Enid Namy, “Fairgoers Given a Treat— Fashion with the Sangria,” NYT, 7/8/65, all at NYTA. 68. The Pleasure Seekers “Exhibitor’s Campaign Manual,” 1964, p. 6 (author’s collec- tion); see Chapter 3 for more on this film. 69. Eugenia Sheppard, “Pertegaz’s Fashions Reign in Spain,” Los Angeles Times [LAT], 1/23/68, p. C1, at PQHN Los Angeles Times Online Archive [LATA]; Myra McPherson, “Fashion Shows Attend a Party or Two,” NYT, 5/13/68, at NYTA; Spanish Newsletter, July–August 1969, p.4. 70. “Florida Milestone,” NYT, 11/18/62, at NYTA; “Preliminary Approval given for First Unit of Spanish Center in St. Augustine,” St. Augustine Record, 2/24/63, p. 1, at University of Florida Digital Collections, http://ufdc.ufl .edu/UF00091332/00014/1x?vo=21; Spanish Newsletter, 9/1/62, p. 8; Spanish 228 Notes

Newsletter, 10/1/62, p. 6; “Notes for Vice President Lyndon Johnson” provided by St. Augustine Historical Restoration and Preservation Commission, 2/27/63, in folder “3/11/63 Remarks by Vice President at Public Ceremonies in Saint Augustine, Florida,” in Box 77, “Statements of Lyndon Baines Johnson” [SLBJ] collection, Lyndon Johnson Presidential Library, Austin, TX [LBJL]. 71. Dan R. Warren, If It Takes All Summer: Martin Luther King, The KKK, and States Rights in St. Augustine, 1964 (Auburn: University of Alabama Press, 2008), pp. 1, 5: Taylor Branch, Pillar of Fire: America in the King Years, 1963–65 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1999), Chapter 3, “LBJ in St. Augustine”; Larry Goodwyn, “Anarchy in St. Augustine,” Harper’s, January 1965. 72. Text on 3x5 inch cards of LBJ’s St. Augustine dinner speech, 3/11/63, in folder “3/11/63 Remarks by Vice President at Dinner Commemoration, 400th Anniversary of Saint Augustine, Florida,” in in Box 77, SLBJ, LBJL. 73. Spanish Newsletter, 12/31/64, p. 5, “Much Ado Over Tag Hue,” St Petersburg Times (FL), 1/20/64, p. 6B, at GNA. 74. Spanish Newsletter, 9/30/65, cover, pp. 2–3; Benjamin Welles, Spain: The Gentle Anarchy, pp. 68–69; author interview with Carlos Robles Piquer, July 2007. 75. Photograph of Spanish Interior Minister Camilo Alonso Vega, Spanish Ambas- sador to the US Merry del Val, and OAS Secretary-General José Antonio Mora, at http://archives.rollins.edu/cdm/singleitem/collection/wpandcfl/id/822/rec/1; photograph of Camilo Alonso Vega, Secretary of the Interior Stuart Udall, and Florida Gov. Haydon Burns, at http://archives.rollins.edu/cdm/singleitem/ collection/wpandcfl/id/842/rec/1; both photographs from the Rollins Digital Collection, Rollins College, Winter Park, FL. 76. C.E. Wright, “Spanish Touch,” NYT, 2/20/66, at NYTA; Ben Funk, “St. Augustine Hopefully Planning 400th Anniversary Fete,” Associated Press wire story, in Eugene (OR) Register-Guard, 1/10/65, p. 9B, at GNA. 77. Author interview with Carlos Robles Piquer, July 2007. 78. Memorandum of conversation between President John F. Kennedy and Ambas- sador Antonio Garrigues re “US-Spanish Relations,” 5/3/63, in RG59, CFPF, box 4046, POL SP-US, folder “Pol-Political Affairs and Rel, SP-A,” NARA-A2. 79. “Father Serra Stamp Requested by Corman,” LAT, 11/4/62, p. SF5, at PQHN- LATA; “A Medal for Father Serra,” Lodi-News-Sentinel, 2/7/63, p. 3, at GNA. 80. Author interview with Carlos Robles Piquer, July 2007. 81. Commemorative brochure, CCL Aniversario del Nacimiento de Fray Junipero Serra/CCL Anniversary of the Birth of Fray Junipero Serra (Madrid: Ministerio de Información y Turismo, Servicio de Publicaciones, 1963), p. 2. 82. “El Director de Informacion Señor Robles en Washington,” ABC, 3/17/63, p. 103, at ABCH. The Spanish newspaper carried the news of Robles’ arrival in Washington DC on the same page as the announcement of Spain’s participation in St. Augustine’s reconstruction. 83. Carlos Robles Piquer press conference statement at Sheraton-Palace Hotel, San Francisco, 3/19/63, in folder, “Spain, Mallorca, 1963–1965,” box 61, collection “Personal File, 1864–1974,” Earl Warren Papers [EWP], Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington DC [MD-LOC]. 84. Letter from Manuel Fraga Iribarne to Earl Warren, 3/29/63, in folder, “Spain, Mallorca, 1963–1965,” box 61, collection “Personal File, 1864–1974,” EWP, MD-LOC. 85. Letter from Earl Warren to Manuel Fraga Iribarne, 4/20/63, in folder, “Spain, Mallorca, 1963–1965,” box 61, collection “Personal File, 1864–1974,” EWP, MD-LOC. Notes 229

86. See Chapter 3 for a detailed discussion of Samuel Bronston’s Spanish film operation and activities on the Franco regime’s behalf. 87. MIT-produced Junipero Serra Anniversary Pamphlet, 1963, in folder 5, box 177 (“Travel-Spain: 200th Anniversary Celebration of Father Serra, 1963”), in Glenn Anderson papers, California State University-Dominguez Hills, Archives and Special Collections Dept. 88. This description of Camino Real is based on the author’s July 2007 viewing of the film at the Filmoteca Española in Madrid. 89. Letter from Earl Warren to Samuel Bronston, 6/19/63, in folder, “Spain, Mallorca, 1963–1965,” box 61, collection “Personal File, 1864–1974,” EWP, MD-LOC. 90. Earl Warren Junipero Serra 250th Anniversary Commemoration keynote speech, undated (6/3/63), in folder, “Spain, Mallorca, 1963–1965,” box 61, collection “Personal File, 1864–1974,” EWP, MD-LOC. 91. Spanish Newsletter, 10/31/65, p. 2. 92. Author interview with Carlos Robles Piquer, July 2007. 93. Statistic cited in “Spanish New York,” Spanish Newsletter, 11/30/65, p. 3. 94. Full text of Ambassador Merry del Val’s letter to Senator Everett Dirksen, in Spanish Newsletter, 9/30/64, p. 4. 95. Martin Arnold, “Keating Mends Italian Fences,” NYT, 10/11/64; Walter Carlson, “Politicians Join Columbus March,” NYT, 10/13/64, both at NYTA. 96. See Chapter 7 for a full discussion of the Pavilion of Spain at the 1964–65 New York World’s Fair. 97. J. Ramirez de Lucas, “ ‘La Semana de España’ en Nueva York,” ABC—Blanco y Negro, pp. 18–23, at ABCH. 98. Manuel Fraga’s speech, complete text, in Spanish Newsletter, 10/31/64; “En Todos los Lugares que he Recorrido Encontre la Imagen de España,” ABC, 10/29/64, p. 59, at ABCH; Spanish Newsletter, 11/30/64, p. 4. 99. Michael Stern, “City Sheds Its Coats to Join the Outdoor Fun on a Sunday of Autumn Glory Under a 79-Degree Sun,” NYT, 10/10/66; David Bird, “Fifth Ave. (and Columbus) Turn Spanish for a Day,” NYT, 10/9/67; “City Gives Spain Week But Takes Away a Day,” NYT, 9/29/70, all at NYTA. 100. José María Massip, “Robert Wagner, Ex Alcalde de Nueva York, Nombrado Embajador norteamericano en España,” ABC, 5/24/68, p. 63, at ABCH. 101. Michael Krenn, review of Nicholas J. Cull, The Cold War and the United States Information Agency: American Propaganda and Public Diplomacy, 1945–1989,in H-Diplo Roundtable Reviews, v. IX, n. 6 (2009), online at http://www.h-net.org/ ∼ diplo/roundtables/PDF/Roundtable-XI-6.pdf, p. 23. 102. “Memorandum of Conversation with Carrero Blanco,” 7/17/51, in RG59, NND 842913, box 5021, folder, 852.131/12-2050, NARA-A2. 103. See the International Association for the Measurement and Evalua- tion of Communication’s “Barcelona Declaration of Measurement Prin- ciples,” final version dated 7/19/10, at http://www.amecorg.com/amec/ Barcelona%20Principles%20for%20PR%20Measurement.pdf.

5 The Oppression of Spain’s Protestants and Jews: Neutralizing the Franco Regime’s Key US Reputational Threat

1. Alberto de la Hera and Rosa Maria Martinez de Codes, eds., Spanish Legislation on Religious Affairs (Madrid: Ministerio de Justicia, Centro de Publicaciones, 1998), Parts I–II passim. 230 Notes

2. On press censorship see the discussion in Chapter 4; on the treatment of political prisoners, see e.g. the discussion of the widely condemned 1963 execution for war crimes of convicted communist figure Julian Grimau in Nuria Rodríguez Martin, “La Repercusión del Caso Grimau en la Prensa española e internacional,” in Manuel Bueno Lluch, ed., Comunicaciones del II Congreso de Historia del PCE: De la Resistencia antifranquista a la Creación de IU: Un Enfoque social (Madrid: FIM, 2007), as well as related contemporaneous US news articles such as Paul Hofmann, “Franco Defends Execution of Red,” New York Times [NYT], 4/21/63, New York Times Online Archive [NYTA]; “Death at Dawn,” Time, 4/26/63, Time Online Archive [TA]; Richard Mowrer, “Spain Patches Damaged Image,” Christian Science Monitor [CSM], 5/14/63, p. 2, ProQuest Christian Science Monitor Online Archive [CSMA]. 3. Benjamin Welles, Spain: The Gentle Anarchy, p. 233. 4. Michael Seidman, The Victorious Counterrevolution: The Nationalist Effort in the Spanish Civil War (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 2011), pp. 204–207. 5. DeWitt John, “Ruler Daubs Camouflage On Totalitarian Fortress,” CSM 5/9/46, p. 11, CSMA. 6. Stanton Griffis, Lying in State (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1952), p. 268; Drew Pearson, “Truman Firmly Anti-Franco,” synd. col., St. Petersburg Times, 2/29/52, p. 6, Google News Archive [GNA]; Harry S. Truman, Talking with Harry, Ralph E. Weber, ed., (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 2001), pp. 154, 2/50; Robert H. Ferrell, Harry S. Truman: A Life (Columbia, MO: Univ. of Missouri Press, 1994), p. 47. 7. DeWitt Mackenzie, “Franco Denies Axis Got Help From Him,” NYT, 1/25/46, NYTA; Merwin K. Hart, “Spanish People Want America’s Good Will, Declares Gen. Franco,” Milwaukee Sentinel, 8/22/47, p. 12, GNA. 8. See e.g. “Disabilities in Spain,” Commonweal, v. 55 (1951), p. 582, via Google Books [GBK]; for Cardinal Spellman’s criticism of the regime’s religious intol- erance see pp. 124–25 in this chapter; more typical were The Americas,whose editor emphatically stated in a lengthy 1948 letter to , “Certainly there is no ‘persecution’ against any religious body in Spain today, neither against Catholics, Protestants, Jews, Mohammedans, or any other reli- gious group” (letter from (Rev.) Dr. Roderick Wheeler, NYT, 9/20/48, NYTA), and the American Benedictine Review, which declared in 1951 that “our personal observations during a recent two-year stay in Spain showed us conclusively that no Protestants or other non-Catholics are persecuted there and that they enjoy freedom to worship as they please.” (v.2, 1951, [Spring issue] p. 298, GBK). 9. Abel Plenn, Wind in the Olive Trees: Spain From the Inside (New York: Boni & Gaer, 1946), pp. 90–92. 10. DeWitt John, “Ruler Daubs Camouflage On Totalitarian Fortress,” CSM, 5/9/46, p. 11, CSMA; “Chronology of the Franco Regime,” NYT, 4/18/46; Thomas J. Hamilton, “U.S. Calls on Franco to Quit, Or For Spain to Depose Him,” NYT, 12/3/46, NYTA. 11. Henry Smith Leiper, Christianity Today: A Survey of the State of the Churches (Morehouse-Gorham Co., 1947), pp. 86–87; “ Bishop Sees Religion In Peril,” NYT, 12/4/47, NYTA; “Catholics in Spain Hit Protestantism,” NYT 11/15/47, NYTA; Walter Yust, ed., 10 Eventful Years: A Record of Events of the Years Preceding, Including and Following World War II, 1937 Through 1946,v.1(Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica Press, 1947), p. 781. Notes 231

12. Clifton Daniel, “Spain’s Protestants Held Persecuted,” NYT, 9/10/48, NYTA; “New Protestant Churches Stir Spanish Cardinal,” CSM, 10/29/48, p. 15, CSMA; Joseph G. Harrison, “Protestant Persecution in Spain Stirs Critics,” CSM, 7/8/49, p. 7, CSMA. 13. The Situation of Protestantism in Spain: Six Studies on an Anti-Spanish Campaign of Defamation, 1st and 2nd eds. (Madrid: Diplomatic Information Office, 1950, 1955), pp. 9–10, 14, 36. 14. “Spain Denies Moves Imperiling Peace,” NYT, 5/29/46, NYTA; Merwin K. Hart, “Spanish People Want America’s Good Will, Declares Gen. Franco,” Milwaukee Sentinel, 8/22/47, p. 12, GNA. 15. Paul P. Kennedy, “Spain Bars Gentleman’s Agreement Movie; Church Censor Hits Film on Moral Grounds,” NYT, 9/30/48, NYTA. 16. See e.g. “Spellman Denies Catholics Hold Racial Prejudices,” AP wire story, Milwaukee Sentinel, 10/3/48, p. 2, GNA; “Spain Bans Gentleman’s Agreement; Film on Anti-Semitism Rejected on ‘Moral Grounds’,” Jewish Telegraph Agency wire story, 10/1/48, online at http://www.jta.org/1948/10/01/archive/spain -bans-gentlemans-agreement-film-on-anti-semitism-rejected-on-moral-grounds 17. Letter re “Banning of Movie in Spain” from Robert W. Searle, Dir. of Community Relations, Protestant Council of the City of New York, NYT, 10/2/48, NYTA; “Big- otry Seen in Film Ban,” Milwaukee Journal, 10/4/48, p. 1, GNA; “U.S. Catholics Hit Spanish Film Ban,” NYT, 10/1/48, NYTA. 18. “Spanish Official Explains Barring of American Film,” AP wire story, CSM, 10/8/48, CSMA; letter from Pablo Merry del Val re the “Spanish Government’s Stand,” NYT, 10/1/48, NYTA; editorial, “The Problem of Spain,” NYT, 10/7/48, NYTA; “Johnston Denies U.S. Movie Curbs,” NYT, 10/16/48, NYTA; Rafael de España, “Spain and the United States: A Cinematic Relationship,” Film-Historia, v.6, n. 3 (1996), p. 238. 19. “Move to Lift Curb on Spain Rejected by U.N. Assembly,” NYT, 5/17/49, NYTA. On Spanish officials’ perceptions of the capacity of US and international Jews to influence the U.N. vote outcome as part of a larger perception of Jewish sub rosa power derived from the spurious 1903 Russian publication The Protocols of the Elders of Zion, see Isabelle Rohr, The Spanish Right and the Jews, 1898–1945: Antisemitism and Opportunism (Sussex Academic Press, 2007), pp. 153–155. 20. “Move to Lift Curb on Spain Rejected by U.N. Assembly,” NYT, 5/17/49, NYTA. 21. Spain and the Jews (Madrid: Diplomatic Information Office, 1949), pp. 3, 12–14 and passim. 22. Sam Pope Brewer, “Falangists Hope War Will Aid Spain,” NYT, 7/16/50, NYTA. 23. Camille N. Cianfarra, “Spain Bans New Year Services For Jews in a Hotel in Madrid,” NYT, 9/28/54, NYTA; Richard Mowrer, “Spain Snubs U.S. on Religious Issues,” CSM, 10/12/54, p. 4, CSMA; “Rabbi Hits Madrid Ban,” NYT, 10/3/54, NYTA; “Madrid Jews Mark Day: Police Make Them Keep Voices Inaudible Outside Synagogue,” NYT, 10/8/54, NYTA. 24. Ibid. 25. “Jews in Spain,” Spanish Newsletter, 2/28/66, p.7; “Synagogue Spain’s First Since 1492,” Reuters wire story, Saskatoon [] Star-Phoenix, 10/3/59, p. 1, GNA; “Madrid Jews Pray in a New Synagogue,” NYT, 10/4/59, NYTA. 26. John David Hughey, Religious Freedom in Spain: Its Ebb and Flow (Nashville: Broadman Press, 1955), p. 167. 27. “Protestant Body Accused in Spain,” NYT, 4/22/50, NYTA; Camille M. Cianfarra, “Spanish Cardinal Denounces ‘Benevolence’ to Protestants,” NYT, 3/10/52, 232 Notes

NYTA; “Spanish Cardinal Chides U.S. Critics,” NYT, 10/7/52, NYTA; “Reports Strong Anti-Protestant Wave in Spain,” Youngstown (OH) Vindicator, 3/14/52, p. 13, GNA; Camille M. Cianfarra, “Primate of Spain Accepts U.S. Pact,” NYT, 11/2/53, NYTA; “Cardinal Is Admonished by Vatican,” AP-UPI wire release, St. Joseph (MO) News-Press, 3/27/55, p.3B, GNA; Camille M. Cianfarra, “Protestant Step in Spain Renewed,” NYT, 6/3/56, NYTA. 28. Herbert Matthews, The Yoke and the Arrows (New York: George Braziller, 1957), p. 160. 29. Camille M. Cianfarra, U.S. Would Give Church in Spain Veto on Marriages of Americans,” NYT, 12/26/54, NYTA; AP wire story, “Religious Rights of Americans in Spain Cause Much Controversy,” Daytona Beach Morning Journal, 12/28/54, GNA; “U.S. Says Church to Have Last Word in Marriages,” UPI wire release, Bridgeport (CT) Sunday Herald, 2/6/55, p.3, GNA; “Quarrel of Consciences,” Time, 1/10/55, TA. 30. Concordia Theological Monthly, v. 22 (1951), p.282, GBK; The Living Church,v. 124 (1952), p. xxxviii, GBK; National Council Outlook, v. 7–8 (1957), p. 174, GBK; National Council Outlook, v. 9 (1959), p. 25, GBK; editorial, United Church Herald, vols. 1–2 (1958), p. 11, GBK; Presbyterian Life, v. 8 (1955), pp. 19, 29— see as well e.g. “The Secret Life of Spanish Protestants,” Presbyterian Life,v.12 (1959), p. 30, GBK; for reviews of Jacques Delpech’s book The Oppression of Protes- tants in Spain, see e.g. Concordia Theological Monthly, v. 27 (1956), p. 316 and Encounter (Christian Theological Seminary, Indianapolis), v. 17 (1956), p. 303, GBK; for reviews of J. D. Hughey’s Religious Freedom in Spain: Its Ebb and Flow: see e.g. Presbyterian Life, v. 9 (1956), p. 35, GBK, and Liberty: A Magazine of Reli- gious Freedom (Seventh Day Adventist), v. 51, no. 4 (1956), pp. 28–29, available at Liberty Online Archive [LA], at http://docs.adventistarchives.org/documents. asp?CatID=58&SortBy=1&ShowDateOrder=True; see also Jacques Delpech, The Oppression of Protestants in Spain, trans. Tom and Delores Johnson (Boston: Beacon Press, 1955) and J. D. Hughey, Religious Freedom in Spain: Its Ebb and Flow—the book’s carefully moderate approach is the product of its having originated as the author’s Columbia University doctoral dissertation; see e.g. The Living Church, v. 138 (1959), p. 41, GBK; “Spanish Protestants Pray,” New Christian Advocate (Methodist), v. 3 (1959), p. 112, GBK; “Religion: Franco’s Protestants,” Time, 3/30/59, TA. 31. Memorandum from US Embassy Madrid to US State Department re “Denial of Residence Permit to Mr. Jewell C. Gholdston, Representative of the ‘Evangelical Alliance Mission’ of Chicago,” 11/15/54; letter from Clyde W. Taylor, Secretary of Affairs, National Association of Evangelicals, to John Wesley Jones, US State Department Office of Western European Affairs, 11/19/54, both in RG 59, NND 842913, box 5021, folder, 852.131/12-2050, NARA-A2. 32. See e.g. letters from William B. Macomber, Jr., US State Dept. Assistant Sec- retary for Legislative Affairs, to US Senator John Sherman Cooper, 2/5/59, to US Representative Catherine May, 2/25/59, to US Senator Lister Hill, 2/25/59, to US Representative George Huddleston, Jr., 3/6/59, to US Senator Russell B. Long, 3/20/59, and to US Senator Lyndon B. Johnson, in reply to their various letters expressing concern on behalf of US Protestant groups, all in RG-59, Box 4621, folder, 852.413/1-2659 NARA-A2. 33. Stanley Payne, The Franco Regime, pp. 349–350. 34. Ibid., p. 420. 35. Spain-Vatican Concordat, 8/27/53, Articles I-II, online at http://www .concordatwatch.eu/topic-34561.843. Notes 233

36. Fernando Castiella interview with Roland R. Hegstad, “The Spanish Religious Liberty Document,” Liberty: A Magazine of Religious Freedom, September–October 1966, p.10, LA. 37. Javier Tusell, Spain: From Dictatorship to Democracy, pp. 139–141; Julio Crespo MacLennan, Spain and the Process of European Integration, 1957–1985 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2001), pp. 21–23; Cristina Palomares, The Quest for Survival After Franco, pp. 14–17. 38. Herbert Matthews, TheYokeandtheArrows, pp. 154–155. 39. María Blanco, La primera ley española de libertad religiosa (Eunsa: Ediciones Universidad De Navarra, 1999), pp. 17, 42; Rosa Maria Martínez de Codes, “La Libertad Religiosa: Una Tematica Particular en la Produccion Cientifica de Alberto de la Hera,” in José Luis Soberanes Fernández and Rosa Maria Martínez de Codes, eds., Homenaje a Alberto de la Hera [Instituto de Investigaciones Jurídicas, serie Doctrina Jurídica, no. 430] (Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 2008), p. 475. 40. Roland R. Hegstad, “The Spanish Religious Liberty Document” (Fernando Castiella interview), Liberty, September–October 1966, p. 9, LA. 41. See Chapter 6 of this volume, passim; Benjamin Welles, Spain: The Gentle Anarchy, p. 72. 42. Roland R. Hegstad, “The Spanish Religious Liberty Document” (Fernando Castiella interview), Liberty, September–October 1966, p. 11, LA. 43. This point is seconded by Julio Crespo MacLennan, Spain and the Process of European Integration 1957–85, pp. 22–23. Stanley Payne, The Franco Regime, pp. 528, 572; Javier Tusell, Spain: From Dictatorship to Democracy, pp. 247–248; Charles T. Powell, “Spain’s External Relations 1898–1975,” in Richard Gillespie Fernando Rodrigo and Jonathan Story, eds., Democratic Spain: Reshaping Exter- nal Relations in a Changing World (London: Routledge, 1995), pp. 22–23; Angel Smith, Historical Dictionary of Spain (Scarecrow Press, 2009), p. 144, entry on Fernando Castiella; a more nuanced perspective concerning Castiella’s US poli- cies and attitudes is offered by Marcelino Oreja Aguirre, Antonio de Oyarzabal and Jose Joaquin Puig de la Bellacasa in their “General Introduction” to the recent edited volume on Castiella’s ministry, Marcelino Oreja Aguirre and Rafael Sanchez Mantero, eds., Entre la Historia y la Memoria: Fernando Maria Castiella y la Politica Exterior de Espana, 1957–1969 (Madrid: Real Academia de Ciencias morales y Politicas, 2007), although they nonetheless refer to Europe as “the true obsession of Castiella”, p. 14. 44. See “U.S. Affairs Department,” Spanish Newsletter 3/31/64, p.4. 45. Stanley Payne, The Franco Regime, p. 509; Manuel Espadas Burgos, “Las rela- ciones exteriores,” in Manuel Espadas Burgos, ed., La epoca de Franco,v.19–2 of Historia General de Espana y America (Ediciones Rialp, 1987, 2nd ed. 1991), Part II, pp. 316–317; Manuel Espadas Burgos, Franquismo y politica exterior (Ediciones Rialp, 1988), pp. 194–195, 202–204; Rosa María Martínez de Codes, “La Libertad Religiosa en la Época de Castiella: Una Visión Pionera (1957–1969),” in Marcelino Oreja Aguirre and Rafael Sanchez Mantero, eds., Entre la Historia y la Memoria, as well as her related chapter “La Libertad Religiosa: Una Tematica Par- ticular en la Produccion Cientifica de Alberto de la Hera,” in José Luis Soberanes Fernández and Rosa Maria Martínez de Codes, eds., Homenaje a Alberto de la Hera. 46. Stanton Griffis, Lying in State, p. 286. 47. Roland R. Hegstad, “The Spanish Religious Liberty Document” (Fernando Castiella interview), Liberty, September–October 1966, p. 9, LA. 234 Notes

48. Michael Phayer, The Catholic Church and the Holocaust, 1930–1965 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2000), p. 209; Peter Hebblethwaite, John XXIII: Pope of the Century (London: Continuum, 1984, 1994), p. 163. 49. Telegram from US Ambassador to Spain to US State Depart., 5/11/59, in RG-59, Box 4621, folder, 852.413/1-2659 NARA-A2. 50. Memorandum from Amb. Lodge to US State Dept., 5/14/59, pp. 2–3, in RG-59, Box 4621, folder, 852.413/1-2659 NARA-A2. 51. Memorandum from Amb. Lodge to US State Dept. 10/2/59, in RG-59, Box 4621, folder, 852.413/1-2659 NARA-A2; see as well Benjamin Welles, “Religious Rights Pressed in Spain,” NYT, 9/12/59, NYTA; and Richard Mowrer, “Protestants in Spain Scent Relaxation of Curbs,” CSM, 9/26/59, CSMA. 52. Memorandum of conversation, Dwight D. Eisenhower and Francisco Franco, Madrid, 12/22/59, doc. 318 in Ronald D. Landa et al., eds, Foreign Relations of the United States [FRUS], 1958–1960, v. VII, part II, Western Europe, online at http: //history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1958-60v07p2/d318#fn2; Benjamin Welles, Spain: The Gentle Anarchy, p. 175. 53. Benjamin Welles, Spain: The Gentle Anarchy, pp. 174–175. 54. Memorandum of Conversation, Dwight D. Eisenhower and Fernando Castiella [and others], Washington, DC, 3/23/60, doc. 327 in FRUS, 1958–1960, v. VII, part II, Western Europe, online at http://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/ frus1958-60v07p2/d327; Dwight D. Eisenhower, “Memorandum for the Record,” 3/23/60, in Louis Galambos and Duan van Ee, eds., The Papers of Dwight David Eisenhower, v. 20, The Presidency: Keeping the Peace (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press), part IX, chapter 21, doc. 1467. 55. H. Cornell Goerner, Hands Across the Sea (Nashville: Convention Press, 1961), pp. 11–12, 80. 56. Rosalind Allen Barker, Your Guide to Europe (Nashville: Convention Press, 1961), pp. 82–83 and Chapter 4 passim. 57. Virginia H. Hendricks, Teen Traveler Abroad (Nashville: Convention Press, 1961), pp. 8, 16, 20, 24–31, 42. 58. Lila P. Mefford, Sylvia Goes to Spain (Nashville: Convention Press, 1961), pp. 3, 29, 39, 47–50, 69. 59. Mark Massa, “Catholic-Protestant Tensions in Post-War America: Paul Blanshard, John Courtney Murray and the ‘Religious Imagination’,” Harvard Theological Review, v. 95, n. 3 (2002), p. 319. 60. Paul Blanshard, Freedom and Catholic Power in Spain and Portugal (Boston: Beacon Press, 1962), p. 1. 61. Ibid., pp. 3, 65, 70–77. 62. Ibid., pp. 87, 91, 193, 266. 63. Benjamin Welles review of Paul Blanshard, Freedom and Catholic Power in Spain and Portugal, NYT, 5/27/62, NYTA; see as well reviews in e.g. the Quaker Friends Journal, v. 8, (1962), p. 396, GBK; Kirkus Reviews (undated, 1962), online at https://www.kirkusreviews.com/book-reviews/paul-blanshard- 6/freedom-and-catholic-power-in-spain-and-portuga/#review); The Los Angeles Times [LAT], 8/12/62, p. A16, at ProQuest Los Angeles Times Online Archive [LATA]; Christian Science Monitor 6/19/62 (Joseph G. Harrison, reviewer), p. 9, CSMA. 64. María Blanco, La primera ley española de libertad religiosa, p. 42; Benjamin Welles, Spain: The Gentle Anarchy, pp. 175–177, Hugh Kay, “Spain in Transition,” Catholic Herald (UK), 12/14/62, pp. 4–5, online at http://archive.catholicherald.co.uk/ article/14th-december-1962/4/protestant-emancipation. Notes 235

65. Author interview with Carlos Robles Piquer, July 2007; Roland R. Hegstad, “The Spanish Religious Liberty Document,” Liberty, September–October 1966, p. 14; Paul Blanshard, Freedom and Catholic Power in Spain and Portugal, p.70; Benjamin Welles, Spain: The Gentle Anarchy, p. 176. 66. Richard Mowrer, “Protestants In Spain Find Relief In Courts,” 4/13/62, CSM, p. 1, CSMA; Joseph G. Harrison, review of Blanshard, CSM 6/19/62, p.9, CSMA. 67. Tullia Zevi, “The Jews in Spain,” Jewish Advocate (Boston), 2/1/62, p. A3, at ProQuest Jewish Advocate Online Archive [JAA]. 68. “Protestantism: Emancipation in Spain,” Time,2/8/63,TA;RichardMowrer, “Protestants in Spain See Better Days,” CSM, 4/6/63, p. 1, CSMA. 69. “U.S. to See Works of Sephardic Jews,” NYT, 2/14/63, NYTA. 70. The Lutheran v.1, 1963, p.27; The Christian v. 101, n. 26 (1963), p. 194; Presbyterian Survey, v. 53 (1963), p.51, all at GBK. 71. Fernando Ma. Castiella, “Non-Catholics in Spain,” America, 8/24/63, pp. 191–192 and passim. 72. Drew Pearson columns: “Spanish Churches Are Empty,” St. Petersburg Times, 9/12/63, p. 15-A, GNA; “Franco, Church Leaven Each Other,” St. Petersburg Times, 9/16/63, p. 11-A, GNA. 73. “Protestants Win in Spanish Court,” NYT, 2/22/64, NYTA; The Christian, v. 102, n. 26 (1964), p. 428; “Outlook Improving for Spanish Protestants,” National Christian Council Review, v. 84, 1/1/64, p. 47; The Lutheran, v. 2 (1964), p. 13, all at GBK. The one notable exception to this positive trend was Puerto Rican journalist Carmen Irizarry’s 1966 exposé, The Thirty Thousand: Modern Spain and Protestantism (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World), which recycled many of the points made by Paul Blanshard four years earlier in Freedom and Catholic Power in Spain and Portugal—but by this time the arguments and anecdotes seemed anachronistic in light of the progress that was clearly underway, a point tacitly but repeatedly made by the New York Times in its review of The Thirty Thousand. (James Finn review of Irizarry, NYT Book Review, 1/22/67, NYTA). 74. “Toledo, Spain to be Site of Jewish Museum-Library,” NYT, 4/12/64, NYTA; Alex L. Easterman, “Another ‘Golden Age’ For Spanish Jewry?” Jewish Advo- cate, 6/25/64, p. A3, JAA; J. I. Fishbein, “Jews Under Franco: How They Live in Sunny Spain,” The Sentinel (Chicago), 2/20/64, p. 1, reprinted in full in Spanish Newsletter, 4/30/64, special insert section. 75. “Spanish-Jewish Museum,” Spanish Newsletter, 4/30/64, p. 3; “Legal Status of Non-Catholics,” Spanish Newsletter, 9/30/64; “Inter-Faith Worship,” Spanish Newsletter, 2/28/65, p. 4; “Protestant Worship,” Spanish Newsletter, 12/31/65, p. 3; “Religious Freedom,” Spanish Newsletter, 8/31/66; Pedro Riera Vidal, The Jews in Toledo and Their Synagogues (Toledo, 1962; transl. J. MacNab), pp. 8–9. 76. María Blanco, La primera ley española de libertad religiosa, pp. 42–60; Paul Hofmann, “Pope Makes Plea to Spain’s Church,” NYT, 10/11/64, NYTA; Javier Tusell, Spain: From Dictatorship to Democracy, p. 206; Cristina Palomares, The Quest for Survival After Franco,p.57. 77. “Mensaje de Fin de Año del Jefe del Estado: Jamas tuvo España Perspectivas tan Esperanzadoras,” ABC (Madrid), 12/31/64, pp. 47–51, quotes passim, at ABC Online Archive (Hemeroteca) [ABCH]. 78. “Message of the Spanish Chief of State,” Spanish Newsletter, 1/31/65, spe- cial insert section; Paul Hofmann, “Franco Affirms Freedoms Pledge,” NYT, 12/31/64, NYTA; Richard Mowrer, “Religious Freedom in Spain? New Tolerance Seen,” CSM, 1/4/65, p. 6, CSMA; editorial, “Religion in Spain,” NYT, 1/13/65, NYTA. 236 Notes

79. Paul Hofmann, “Franco Receives Jews’ Spokesmen,” NYT, 1/25/65; Tad Szulc, “Jews Return to a Synagogue in Spain,” NYT, 10/17/66; Irving Spiegel, “B’nai B’rith Favors Spanish Link Under New Law,” NYT, 12/5/66; Tad Szulc, “Franco Sees U.S. Jewish Aides; Calls New Code ‘Act of Justice’,” NYT, 12/22/66, all NYTA; “Hebrew Taught Openly in Spain After 500 Years, AP wire story,” Meriden Journal (), 12/27/66, p. 17, GNA; Richard Mowrer, “Spain Yields to Protestants,” CSM, 6/7/65, p. 17, CSMA. 80. Tad Szulc, “Spain Due to Ease Curbs on Religion,” NYT, 11/29/65, NYTA; Robert H. Estabrook, “Spanish Foreign Policy Plays New, Active Role,” LAT 6/10/65, p. E8, LATA; Benjamin Welles, Spain: The Gentle Anarchy, p. 176. 81. Letter from Roland R. Hegstad, Liberty magazine, to Adolfo Martin Gamero, Dir. General, Oficina de Informacion Diplomatica, 6/6/66, signatura [S] 12034, expe- diente [E] 6, “Ley de la Libertad Religiosa en España,” Spanish Foreign Ministry (Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores) Archive, Madrid [MAEA]. 82. Roland R. Hegstad, “The Spanish Religious Liberty Document,” Liberty, (September–October 1966), pp. 4,7,9, 11, LA. 83. Ibid., p. 15, LA; Time magazine offered a similar perspective several months later, stating that “one of the most challenging problems for Spain’s Protestants will be to try and preserve the same fervor in their churches now that the period of official suppression has more or less ended.” (“Spain: Freedom at Last,” Time 3/3/67, TA.) 84. Editorial, “Another Step Forward in Spain,” CSM, 3/4/67, p. 20, CSMA; “Spain Close to New Era in Freedom,” AP wire story, St. Joseph News-Press (Missouri), 2/25/67, p. 2A, GNA; “Spain: Freedom at Last,” Time 3/3/67, TA; “Religious Liberty Near in Spain,” Jewish Advocate, 3/2/67, p. A3, JAA. 85. Tad Szulc, “Madrid Jews Join Catholics in Prayer,” NYT, 3/1/67, NYTA; transcripts of CBS Evening News broadcast, 3/1/67, and NBC-The Today Show, 3/2/67, Sig. 12034, Exp. 6, “Ley de Libertad Religiosa en España,” MAEA. 86. Dean Peerman, “Religious Liberty: Down the Drain in Spain,” Christian Century, 6/7/67, p. 742. 87. W. L. Emmerson, “A Bit of a Change in Spain,” Liberty, July–August 1967, pp. 17–19, LA. 88. Charles, Bartlett, “Franco’s Dilemma—He Must Now Force Change,” LAT, 6/4/67, p. A5, LATA. 89. “Grumbling Heard Over Spanish Laws,” CSM, 6-28-67, p. 7, CSMA. 90. Editorial, “Spanish Law a Disappointment,” Jewish Advocate, 6/29/67, p. A2, JAA. 91. Tad Szulc, “New Spanish Law Eases Curbs on Non-Roman Catholic Faiths,” NYT, 6/27/67, NYTA. 92. “Spain Gives Non-Catholic Faiths Status, AP wire story,” [CT], 6/27/67, p. B4, at ProQuest Historical Newspapers-Chicago Tribune Online Archive [CTA]. 93. Jaime de Urzaiz, “The Modern Age of Spain,” in John Lee, Diplomatic Persuaders: New Role of the Mass Media in Interational Relations (New York: John Wiley, 1968), pp. 63–64. 94. Tad Szulc, “Baptists in Spain Vote to Defy Law,” NYT, 9/30/67, NYTA; author interview with Rabbi Arthur Schneier, May 2013. 95. “Soviet Religion Held Freer Than Spain’s,” LAT, 9/2/67, p. B8, LATA. 96. At the same time, although US Ambassador to Spain assiduously followed Foggy Bottom’s instructions to facilitate the Appeal to Con- science Foundation’s investigation, he was privately gravely worried not about Notes 237

domestic pressure in the US, but rather that the delegation’s activities would themselves severely undermine the Madrid Pact renegotiations. However, Duke was pleasantly surprised at how discreetly salutary was the Foundation’s effect on the religious liberty issue, to the point, as he told Rabbi Schneier years later, that he wished to join the Foundation Board. Indeed, Duke not only became a Foundation board member—he eventually served as its chairman. (Author inter- view with Rabbi Arthur Schneier, May 2013.) Just as remarkably, while the most senior US diplomats in Madrid during the mid-1960s were of course fully aware of the Franco regime’s developing pol- icy shifts concerning religious liberty, this did not seem to filtering down the embassy’s ranks. Michael Aaron Rockland, from 1963-67 an embassy assistant cultural attaché and then director of the USIA’s Casa Americana, has told this author that lower-level personnel were completely unaware of the momentous changes in the works, a measure of the US Embassy-Madrid’s overall insularity at the time. (Author interview with Michael Aaron Rockland, August 2013.) 97. Appeal of Conscience Foundation “Report of Special Delegation of the Appeal of Conscience Foundation to Seek Clarification of the New Law of Reli- gious Liberty—Visit to Spain, December 9 through 14, 1967”; accompany- ing press release, “Religious Freedom for Non-Catholics Growing in Franco Spain,” 1/5/68, both in grupo de fondos [GF] 10, fondo [F] 26.02, signatura [S] 54/12509, folder, “Libertad Religiosa en España, 1968,” Archivo General de la Administración, Alcala de Henares, Spain [AGA]. 98. “Officials in Spain Hailed on New Law,” NYT, 1/17/68, NYTA. 99. Letter from Appeal of Conscience Foundation Special Delegation to Fernando Castiella, 1/12/68, in GF10, F26.02, S54/12509, folder, “Libertad Religiosa en España, 1968,”AGA. 100. Isabelle Rohr, The Spanish Right and the Jews, 1898–1945, p. 13. 101. Jane S. Gerber, The Jews of Spain: A History of the Sephardic Experience (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1992), p. 259. 102. Madrid Jewish community leader Max Mazin would later claim that his threat to cancel the planned inauguration of the new synagogue and embarrass the Franco regime internationally played a key role in the decision to void the 1492 edict. Certainly such a threat would have given Castiella and Oriol additional ammunition to argue for revoking the expulsion law. See Diana Ayton-Shenker, “The Jewish Community of Spain,” Jewish Political Studies Review,v.5,nos.3–4 (fall 1993), p. 174. 103. “Spain Recognizes Judaism After 476 Years,” UPI wire story, Milwaukee Journal, 12/17/68, p. 27, GNA; Richard Eder, “1492 Ban on Jews Is Voided by Spain,” NYT 12/17/68, NYTA; other newspapers are quoted in memorandum from Ambas- sador Merry del Val to Foreign Minister Castiella, 12/17/68, in GF10, F26.02, S54/12509, folder, “Libertad Religiosa en España, 1968,”AGA. 104. Philadelphia Office of the City Representative News Release re proclamation honoring Spain’s Jewish policy, 1/8/69; memorandum from Francisco X. Claro, Chargé d’Affaires at Philadelphia Spanish Consulate, to Ambassador Merry del Val, 1/3/69, in GF10, F26.02, S54/12509, folder, “Libertad Religiosa en España, 1968,”AGA. 105. Victor M. Pérez-Díaz, The Return of Civil Society: The Emergence of Democratic Spain (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993), pp. 167–169; Richard Gunther, Jose R. Montero and Juan Botella, Democracy in Modern Spain (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004), p. 161; and Adrian Shubert, A Social History of Modern Spain (Oxford: Routledge, 1992), p. 236. 238 Notes

6 The Spanish Pavilion at the 1964–65 New York World’s Fair: Franco Spain’s $7 Million US Outreach Summa

1. See budget-related entries for The Great Escape and Mary Poppins at IMDb. com: http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0057115/business?ref_=tt_dt_bus; http:// www.imdb.com/title/tt0058331/business?ref_=tt_dt_bus. 2. Will Straw, “Tabloid Expo,” in Rhona Richman Kenneally and Johanne Sloan, eds., Expo 67: Not Just A Souvenir (Toronto, University of Toronto Press, 2010), pp. 222–223. 3. Russell Kirk, “Spain has Improved Its Image,” syndicated article, in Sarasota Her- ald (FL), 11/19/64, p. 6, at Google News Archive [GNA]; J. Ramirez de Lucas, “ ‘La Semana de España’ en Nueva York,” ABC (Madrid), 1964, at ABC Online Archive (Hemeroteca)[ABCH]. 4. For a concise historical overview of international expositions, see Neal Rosendorf, “Expositions,” in Pierre-Yves Saunier and Akira Iriye, eds., Dictionary of Transnational History (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), pp. 370–376; for in-depth examinations of the exposition phenomenon see e.g. John Findling and Kimberly Pell, Encyclopedia of World’s Fairs and Expositions, 2nd ed. (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2008); Marcel Galopin, Les Expositions Internationales au XXe Siècle et le Bureau International des Expositions (Paris: L’Harmattan, 1997); Paul Greenhalgh, Fair World: A History of World’s Fairs and Expositions, From London to Shanghai 1851–2010 (Berkshire: Papadakis, 2011); Paul Greenhalgh, Ephemeral Vistas: The Expositions Universelles, Great Exhibitions and World’s Fairs, 1851–1939 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1988); Anna Jackson, Expo: Interna- tional Expositions 1851–2010 (London: Victoria and Albert Museum Press, 2008); Erik Mattie, World’s Fairs (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1998); and Robert W. Rydell, John Findling and Kimberly Pelle, Fair America: World’s Fairs in the United States (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 2000). 5. See e.g. Mauricio Tenorio-Trillo, Mexico at the World’s Fairs: Crafting a Modern Nation (Berkeley: University of California Press), 1996; Angus Lockyer, “ at the Exhibition, 1867–1970,” unpublished doctoral dissertation, Stanford University, 2000; Sibel Bozdogan,˘ “Turkish Pavilion in Expo ’58,” in Rika Devos and Mil de Kooning, eds., The Architecture of Expo ’58 (Brussels: Dexia-Mercatorfonds, 2006), pp. 1198–1213. 6. Ana Belén Lasheras Peña, España en Paris: La imagen nacional en las exposiciones universales, 1855–1900, unpublished doctoral dissertation, Universidad de Cantabria, 2009, sections 4–5 and passim; María Rosa Cal Martínez, “Los Ilustrados y el Origen de las Exposiciones en España,” Anuario del Departamento de Historia (Universidad Complutense de Madrid), n. 4 (1992). 7. Gary W. McDonogh, “Barcelona 1888,” in John Findling and Kimberly Pell, eds., Encyclopedia of World’s Fairs and Expositions, pp. 100–102. 8. Timothy Palmer, “Barcelona 1929–1930,” in John Findling and Kimberly Pell, eds., Encyclopedia of World’s Fairs and Expositions, pp. 252–254. 9. Quoted in Neal Rosendorf, “Expositions,” in Pierre-Yves Saunier and Akira Iriye, eds., Dictionary of Transnational History, p. 373. 10. Catherine Blanton Freedberg, The Spanish Pavilion at the Paris World’s Fair of 1937 (New York and London: Garland, 1986), vol. 1, Chapter 2 and passim. 11. See contents of folder “Feria Mundial de Nueva York,” 1939–40, in grupo de fondo [GF] 10, fondo [F] 26.02, caja [C] 54/12637, Archivo General de la Administración, Alcala de Henares, Spain [AGA]. Notes 239

12. Paul Greenhalgh, Fair World, p. 228; Neal Rosendorf, “Expositions,” in Pierre- Yves Saunier and Akira Iriye, eds., Dictionary of Transnational History, p. 373; Howard Taubman, “Fair Warning,” New York Times [NYT], 11/10/57, at New York Times Online Archive [NYTA]; Eddy Gilmore, “U.S. Showmanship Crown Is at Stake in Brussels,” AP wire story, in Charleston News and Courier (SC), 3/23/58, p. 3-C, at GNA. 13. Carmen Paya, “La Exposicion universal de Bruselas de 1958 sera la primera que se realiza despues de la ultima Conflagracion mundial,” ABC, 7-28-57, pp. 19–23, at ABCH. 14. José Olmo y Losada, “España en la Exposicion Universal de Bruselas,” ABC, 10/8/57, p. 15, at ABCH; David Darrah, “Spain’s Fair Building Youthful,” Chicago Tribune, 3/2/58, p. 32, at Chicago Tribune Online Archive [CTA], via ProQuest Historical Newspapers [PQHN]; Alfonso Muñoz Cosme, El Proyecto de Arquitectura: Concepto, Proceso y Representación (Barcelona: Editorial Reverté, 2008), pp. 78–79. 15. See e.g. memo from Laurence Harris to Governor Poletti on “Spain,” 11/13/61, in folder re Spain 1960–61, box 281, New York World’s Fair 1964–65 Corporation Records, 1959–71 [NYWFCR], Manuscripts and Archives Division, Humanities and Social Sciences Library, New York Public Library, New York City [NYPL]; for Alberto Ullastres’ programmatic opposition to pinning Spain’s economic development to tourism, see Sasha D. Pack, Tourism and Dictatorship: Europe’s Peaceful Invasion of Franco Spain (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), pp. 84–85. 16. Lawrence R. Samuel, The End of the Innocence: The 1964–1965 New York World’s Fair (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 2007), pp. 3–9. On Moses’ career see Robert Caro, The Power Broker: Robert Moses and the Fall of New York (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1974), passim. 17. Lawrence R. Samuel, The End of the Innocence,p.7;RobertCaro,The Power Broker, pp. 1092–1093. 18. Charles Poletti obituary, NYT, 8/10/02, at http://www.nytimes.com/2002/08/10/ nyregion/charles-poletti-dies-at-99-aided-war-ravaged-.html?pagewanted= all&src=pm. 19. Memorandum from Jaime Alba, Spanish Embassy, Washington, DC to Foreign Minister Castiella, Madrid, 8/2/60, in GF10, F26.02, C54/12674, AGA. 20. News clipping, “Se espera que la Feria de Nueva York sea visitada por 70 millones de personas,” Informaciones (Madrid), 9/6/60; letter from Robert Moses to Amb. John Davis Lodge, 9/29/60, with attached letter from Robert Moses to Foreign Minister Castiella, same date; letter from Amb. Lodge to Robert Moses, 10/7/60, all in folder re Spain 1960–61, box 281, NYWFCR, NYPL. 21. Letter from Charles Poletti to Richard C. Patterson, 12/15/60; telegram from Charles Poletti in Teheran to Amb. John Davis Lodge, 1/12/61; memorandum from Charles Poletti in Teheran to Robert Moses, 1/13/61; report by Dr. K.C. Li, “Mission to Spain,” submitted to Charles Poletti and Robert Moses, 1/27/61, p. 3, all in folder re Spain 1960–61, box 281, NYWFCR, NYPL. 22. Report by Dr. K.C. Li, “Mission to Spain,” pp. 1, 3–5, NYWFCR, NYPL. 23. Another of the several ways in which Fernando Castiella demonstrated his being attuned to non-traditional national promotion was his avid support in the 1960s of the phenomenally successful Real Madrid football team, which he referred to as “the best embassy we ever had.” Quoted in Simon Kuper and Stefan Syzmanski, Soccernomics: Why England Loses, Why Germany and Brazil Win, and 240 Notes

Why the U.S., Japan, Australia, Turkey—and Even Iraq—are Destined to Become the Kings of the World’s Most Popular Sport (New York: Nation Books, 2012), p. 163. 24. Report by Dr. K.C. Li, “Mission to Spain,” pp. 9–11, NYWFCR, NYPL. 25. Letter from Alberto Ullastres to Fernando Castiella, 1/18/61, in legajo [L] 8400 [“Feria Mundial de Nueva York (1960–66)”], expediente [E] 4, Spanish Foreign Ministry Archive, Madrid [MAEA] (NOTE: as of the time of writ- ing this book, Foreign Ministry files are in the process of being trans- ferred to another location: see http://www.maec.es/es/menuppal/actualidad/ Documentacion/Paginas/ArchivosBibliotecasyCentrosdeDocumentacion.aspx); report by Dr. K.C. Li, “Mission to Spain,” p. 13, NYWFCR, NYPL. 26. Letter from Richard C. Patterson in Lisbon to Robert Moses, 1/21/61; memoran- dum from Allen E. Beach to General [William E.] Potter, 1/23/61, with attached English translation of Spanish text of “Release to Spanish Press”; letter from Amb. John Davis Lodge to Charles Poletti, 1/27/61; press release 2/1/61 for 2/2/61; all in folder re Spain 1960–61, box 281, NYWFCR, NYPL. 27. Letter from Robert Moses to Foreign Minister Castiella, 2/20/61; Memorandum from Lionel Harris to Charles Poletti, 3/3/61, both in folder re Spain 1960–61, box 281, NYWFCR, NYPL; Ira Henry Freeman, “3 Nations Decline to Join Fair Here” [sub-headline, “3 Nations to Shun 1964 Fair in City”], NYT, 2/18/61, at NYTA. 28. Letter from Gates Davison, NYWF Corp., to Antonio Maria Aguirre, Spanish Consul General in New York City, 3/14/61, in folder re Spain 1960–61, box 281, NYWFCR, NYPL. 29. Memorandum to Fernando Castiella from unnamed senior figure in Directorate General of North American Affairs (by context Ángel Sagaz), 3/17/61, “Feria Mundial de Nueva York 1964–65,” in L8400, E4, MAEA. 30. Memorandum from Lionel Harris to Allen E. Beach, 3/27/61, re “Spain,” in folder re Spain 1960–61, box 281, NYWFCR, NYPL. 31. Memorandum from John F. Simmons to Charles Poletti, 6/23/61, re “Weekly report,” in folder re Spain 1960–61, box 281, NYWFCR, NYPL. 32. Letter from Charles Poletti to James A. Farley, 10/7/61, in folder re Spain 1960–61, box 281, NYWFCR, NYPL. 33. Memorandum from M. Quintero, Spanish Ministry of Commerce, to Com- mercial Counselor, Spanish Embassy Washington, 10/7/61, GF 10, F26.02, C54/12674, AGA; memorandum from Charles Poletti to Robert Moses, 10/30/61, re “Spain,” in folder re Spain 1960–61, box 281, NYWFCR, NYPL. 34. Memorandum from Charles Poletti to Robert Moses, 10/30/61, re “Spain”; letter from Charles Poletti to Robert McBride, Chargé d’Affaires, US Embassy Madrid, 11/4/61, both in folder re Spain 1960–61, box 281, NYWFCR, NYPL. 35. Memorandum marked “Highly Confidential” from Laurence Harris to Gov. Poletti, 11/13/61, in folder re Spain 1960–61, box 281, NYWFCR, NYPL. 36. Letter from Charles Poletti to Congressman Eugene J. Keogh, 11/22/61, in folder re Spain 1960–61, box 281, NYWFCR, NYPL. 37. Letter from Gates Davison to Electo Garcia Tejedor, First Secretary, Spanish Embassy, Washington DC, 1/30/62, in folder re Spain 1962, box 281, NYWFCR, NYPL. 38. Translation of letter from Francisco Franco to James A. Farley, attached to letter from Farley to Robert Moses, 2/9/62, in folder re Spain 1962, box 281, NYWFCR, NYPL. 39. See Chapter 5. Notes 241

40. Cable from Robert Moses to Charles Poletti, 2/13/62, in folder re Spain 1962, box 281, NYWFCR, NYPL. 41. Letter from James A. Farley to Charles Poletti, 3/23/62, in folder re Spain 1962, box 281, NYWFCR, NYPL. 42. Memorandum from Gates Davison to Charles Poletti, 5/8/62, in folder re Spain 1962, box 281, NYWFCR, NYPL. See as well attached letter from Davison to Antonio Espinosa, Chargé d’Affaires, Spanish Embassy, Washington DC, same location, original in GF10, F26.02, C54/12674, AGA. 43. Letter from US Rep. Eugene J. Keogh to Charles Poletti, 5/24/62; letter from Amb. Antonio Garrigues to Douglas Beaton, International Affairs and Exhibits, NYWF Corp., 6/7/62; memorandum from Charles Poletti to Robert Moses, 6/28/62, re “Spain”; letter from Douglas Beaton’s secretary to David Gordon, 7/9/62; letter from Douglas Beaton to James A. Farley, 8/6/62, all in folder re Spain 1962, box 281, NYWFCR, NYPL; “Nuestro Pais ira a la Feria mundial de Nueva York, 1964–65,” ABC, 9/27/62, p. 23, at ABCH. 44. Memorandum from Ángel Sanz-Briz, Spanish Consulate New York City, to Fernando Castiella, 7/3/62, L8400, E5, MAEA. 45. Letter from David Gordon to Douglas Beaton, NYWF Corp., 7/17/62; letter from David Gordon to Douglas Beaton, 9/18/62, both in folder re Spain 1962, box 281, NYWFCR, NYPL; “Nuestro Pais ira a la Feria mundial de Nueva York, 1964–65,” ABC, 9/27/62, p. 23, at ABCH. 46. Garrigues to Castiella, 11/16/62, in GF10, F26.02, C54/12674, AGA. 47. See e.g. “Politico-Economic Assessment for Spain: January-June 1963,” 8/30/63, pp. 11–16, in RG 59, Central Foreign Policy Files [CFPF], box 4045, folder, “Pol 2–3, Politico-Econ Reports SP,” NARA-A2. 48. Memorandum from Allen Beach to Douglas Beaton, 12/7/62; letter from Douglas Beaton to Amb. (ret.) John Davis Lodge, 12/11/62; letter from Ángel Sanz-Briz, Spanish Consul General, New York City, to Charles Poletti, 12/27/62, all in folder re Spain 1962, box 281, NYWFCR, NYPL. 49. “Soviets Sign Lease for Fair Site; All 15 Republics Will Exhibit,” NYT, 3/3/62; “Soviet [sic] Pulls Out of World’s Fair,” NYT, 10/3/62, both in NYTA; Lawrence R. Samuel, The End of the Innocence, pp. 142–143. 50. “El Mejor Lugar de la Feria Mundial de Nueva York, para España,” Arriba, 1/29/63, clipping in GF10, F26.02, C54/12674, AGA. 51. “España, en la Feria Mundial de Nueva York,” Ya, 1/29/63, clipping in GF10, F26.02, C54/12674, AGA. 52. “El Pabellon de España en la Feria Mundial de Nueva York,” ABC, 3/23/63, p. 51; “El Pabellon español en la Feria de Nueva York,” ABC, 4/5/63, p. 49, both at ABCH; memorandum from [Gen.] Jack Potter to Charles Poletti, 5/1/63, attached to letter from Charles Poletti to Amb. Antonio Garrigues, same date, in GF10, F26, C54/12674; Homer Bigart, “Rain Soaks Crowd,” NYT, 4/23/64; “Swedish and Spanish Pavilions are Dedicated in Contrasting Ceremonies at Fair,” NYT, 4/28/64, both at NYTA. 53. “Constitucion del Consejo Asesor para la Feria de Nueva York,” ABC, 3/28/63, p. 39; “Noticiario: España en Nueva York,” ABC, 4/13/63, both at ABCH; “California and Spain Plan Pavilions for World’s Fair,” NYT, 6/19/63, in NYTA; “The Jewel of the Fair,” LIFE magazine, 8/7/64, p. 80. 54. Memorandum of Amb. Antonio Garrigues’ presentation in Washington DC to Miguel Garcia Saez, Commissioner of Pavilion of Spain, and group of Spanish commercial attachés, 4/30/63: “Acta Resumida de las Convocadas por El Señor 242 Notes

Embajador de España Celebradas en Washington D.C. [etc.]”; plan for Trade Center of Spain in New York, 5/6/63 (“La Exposicion Permanente de Productos Españoles en Nueva York ... en Relacion con el Pabellon de España en la Feria Mundial en Nueva York”), with attached organizational chart, both in GF10, GF 26, C54/12674. 55. Letter from Manuel Ortuño to Douglas Beaton, 5/9/63, in folder re Spain January–June 1964, box 281, NYWFCR, NYPL. 56. Pavilion of Spain Groundbreaking Ceremony booklet, 1963; text and graphics available online at http://www.nywf64.com/spain02.html. 57. Scott R. Schmedel, “World’s Fair Woes,” Wall Street Journal [WSJ], 4/19/63, p. 1, at Wall Street Journal Online Archive [WSJA], via PQHN. 58. Horace Sutton, “Travel With Me” syndicated column: “See the World for $2,” Baltimore Sun, 3/1/64, p. D15, at Baltimore Sun Online Archive, via PQHN. 59. Anne Sloper, “Lights Go Up On Lavish Shows,” Christian Science Monitor [CSM], 4/15/64, p. B7, at Christian Science Monitor Online Archive [CSMA], via PQHN. 60. See e.g. John Canaday, “Spain’s Artistocratic Rival to ‘Pieta’,” NYT, 3/24/64; Robert Alden, “El Greco for Fair Splits Spaniards,” 3/25/64; “Franco Said to Hold Key in El Greco Rift,” NYT, 3/25/64; “Chances Dimming for El Greco Trip,” NYT, 4/5/64; “Spain Bars El Greco from Fair Because of Risks of Shipment,” NYT, 4/8/64, all in NYTA; “Spain Won’t Send El Greco; 2 Goyas to Go to Fair Instead,” AP wire story, Youngstown Vindicator [OH], 4/10/64, p. 21, at GNA. 61. Letter from Douglas Beaton, International Affairs and Exhibits, to Manuel Ortuño, 1/27/64, in folder re Spain January–June 1964, box 281, NYWFCR, NYPL. 62. “Declaración de Castiella al Inaugurar el Pabellon español,” ABC, 4/23/64, p. 50, at ABCH. 63. Memorandum from Poletti to Harold Blake, 4/16/64; see e.g. Bill Doll Co. press release issued through NYW Fair Corp, undated but c. 5/10/63, both in folder re Spain January–June 1964, box 281, NYWFCR, NYPL; see e.g. daily World’s Fair schedule sheets, in RG 40 [records of the Department of Commerce], box 07: “New York World’s Fair General correspondence, 1963–65,” folder, “N.Y. World’s Fair Corporation,” NARA-A2. 64. Official Guide: New York World’s Fair 1964/1965 (New York: Time, Inc., 1964), pp. 51, 138; Enrique Casamayor, ed., New Official Guide: Pavilion of Spain (Madrid: Office of the Commissioner of the Pavilion of Spain for the New York World’s Fair 1964–65, 1965), passim. 65. New Official Guide: Pavilion of Spain,p.11. 66. Ibid., pp. 187, 216. 67. Ibid., pp. 243, 279, 292–331 passim. 68. Quote from memorandum from Felix Fernandez-Shaw, Business Counselor, Dirección General de Politica Exterior Central y Suramerica, 7/14/64; see as well memorandum from Miguel Jabala Gonzalez, Business Counselor, Spanish Embassy „ to Fernando Castiella, 5/20/64; memorandum from Tomas Suñer y Ferrer, Spanish Ambassador to Chile, to Fernando Castiella, 6/9/64; all in L8400, E4, MAEA. 69. “Spain,” Ladies’ Home Journal, February 1965, p. 47. 70. Richard Mowrer, “Spain at the Fair,” CSM, 6/23/64, p. 16, at CSMA; Ada Louise Huxtable, “World’s Fair: International Scope,” NYT, 5/10/64, at NYTA; “Fairs: The World of Already,” Time, 6/5/64, at http://www.time.com/time/subscriber/ article/0,33009,938607,00.html. Notes 243

71. “The Jewel of the Fair,” Life magazine, 8/7/64, pp. 79–82. 72. Report from General Commission, Pavilion of Spain, to Council of Assessors, 10/6/64, “Periodo de los Meses de Julio, Agosto y Septiembre de 1.964,” in L8400, E7, MAEA. 73. See Chapter 4. 74. See e.g. Spanish Newsletter: 4/15/63, p.8; 5/15/63, p. 8; 12/15/63, p. 5; 3/31/64, pp. 5, 8; 4/30/64, pp. 2–3, 6, 8; 5/31/64, cover, p. 5, 7; 8/31/64, pp. 6–7; 10/31/64; 10/31/65, p. 7; Eric Felton, “Cool Punch for a Hot Day,” WSJ, 6/2/07, at http:// online.wsj.com/article/SB118074434224822136.html. 75. Ya, 9/12/64, clipping in L8400, E7, MAEA. 76. Restaurant Toledo souvenir booklet, author’s collection. 77. Spanish Newsletter, 5/31/64, p. 5; “Mrs. Johnson Lunches at Fair; Host Flustered by Surprised Visit,” NYT, 5/10/64, at NYTA. 78. Letter from Gates Davison to Manuel Ortuno, 7/17/64, letter from C. Cortes, Pavilion of Spain, to Gates Davison, 7/27/64, letter from Gates Davison to Mrs. Dean Rusk with attached recipe for “Filet of Sole Cortes,” all in folder re Spain June–December 1964, box 281, NYWFCR, NYPL. 79. Michael and Ariane Batterberry, On the Town in New York: The Landmark History of Eating, Drinking, and Entertainments from the American Revolution to the Food Revolution (London and New York: Routledge, 1999; orig. published by New York: Scribner, 1973), p. 290. 80. Albert Fisher, “NY World’s Fair Memories,” at http://www.lucilleball.net/lucyday .html. 81. Suzy Knickerbocker syndicated columns, Montreal Gazette, 11/29/66, p. 11 and Montreal Gazette, 12/5/66, p. 19, at GNA; Marilyn Hoffman, “Spanish Survivor Serves Spanish Cuisine,” CSM, 2/7/67, p. 6, at CSMA; Craig Claiborne, “The Spanish Pavilion: A Restaurant Among the Most Beautiful in Manhattan,” NYT, 12/13/66; John L. Hess, “A Bravo for the Authentic Spanish Food,” NYT, 6/8/73: Mimi Sheraton, “Depression Décor at Inflation Prices,” NYT, 10/15/76, all at NYTA. 82. See Chapter 4. 83. Memoradum from Merry del Val in DC to Fraga in Madrid, 7/31/64; detailed MIT internal itinerary, “Proyecto de Programa de Estancia en los Estados Unidos del Excmo. Sr. D. Manuel Fraga Iribarne, Ministro de Información y Turismo”; press kit pamphlet, “Program of the Visit to the United States of H.E. Manuel Fraga Iribarne, Minister of Information and Tourism, October 9 to 27, 1964”; Embassy of Spain Information Dept. transcript of Fraga speech at Pavilion of Spain gala, 10/12/64, all in GF10, F26, C54/12754, AGA; engraved invitation to Sinfonia Española premiere at the Pavilion of Spain, 10/14/64, in GF10, F26, C54/12674, AGA; Spanish press interview transcript undated, but late 1964, in GF re “Cultura,” F49.06, C27994, AGA. 84. José María Massip, “La Feria de Nueva York, Cuya Primera Fase termina Ya, ha sido la Feria de España,” ABC, 10/20/64, p. 17, at ABCH. 85. Russell Kirk, “Liberalism vs. the Spanish Pavilion,” National Review, 9/8/64, online at http://www.nationalreview.com/nroriginals/print/?q=MzYwYTdhMG FkM2QyMGM4Nzk1YzliYWY5NmU5ZTFjY2U=. 86. Memorandum from Bruce Nicholson to Allen E. Beach, 6/11/64; undated [c. 7/19/64] internal memorandum, William J. Donoghue Corporation, from George F. Winslow to Jerry Edelberg, re “Picket Alert, Spanish Pavilion, July 18” from J.J. Manning, Pinkerton Agency, to Col. John T. O’Neill, re 244 Notes

“Alleged Demonstration on July 18, 1964 at Spanish Pavilion—Abraham Lincoln Brigade”, all in folder re Spain June–December 1964, box 281, NYWFCR, NYPL. 87. The Fair officials for their part dismissed the Spaniards’ “ingratitude.” Memo- randum from Ester [sic] to Bruce Nicholson, 6/9/64; memo from Nicholson to Poletti, 6/23/64; memo to files from Nicholson, 8/5/64, all in folder re Spain June–December 1964, box 281, NYWFCR, NYPL. 88. Spanish General Commission for the New York World’s Fair, “Informe Sobre Presupuesto de 1.965,” and series of inter-ministerial committee documents— Foreign Ministry, Ministry of Information and Tourism, Commerce Ministry and Ministry of Finance—on question of whether to renew Pavilion for 1965, late fall 1964, all in MAE NYWF files L8400, E7, MAEA. 89. Letter from Manuel Alabart, Consul General, Spanish Consulate New York City to Ángel Sagaz, Director of North American Affairs, in Madrid, 10/6/64, in L8400, E7, MAEA. 90. “Pabellon de Espana, Feria Mundial de Nueva York 1964–1965: Estudio y Memoria General: II Periodo,” in L8400, E7, MAEA. 91. John Canaday, “Art: An Even Better Spanish Display,” NYT, 5/3/65, at NYTA. 92. Memorandum from Robert Moses to Charles Poletti, 8/7/64; memorandum from Robert Moses to Charles Poletti 8/10/64; letter from Charles Poletti to Amb. Robert Woodward, 10/13/64; telegram (unsent) from Allen Beach to William W. Walker, Chargé d’Affaires, US Embassy Madrid, 10/27/64; memorandum from Bruce Nicholson to Charles Poletti, 12/29/64; memorandum from Allen Beach to Charles Poletti, 1/21/65; letter from Charles Poletti to Miguel García de Sáez, 1/26/65, all in folder re 1965 Robert Moses Spain Trip, box 282, NYWFCR, NYPL. 93. Telegram from Miguel García de Sáez to Charles Poletti, 1/27/65; cable from Charles Poletti to Miguel García de Sáez, 1/27/65; letter from Bruce Nicholson to William Walker at US Embassy Madrid, 2/4/65; telex from Miguel García de Sáez to Charles Poletti, 2/9/65; memo from Robert Moses to Charles Poletti, 2/11/65; article clipping with attached translation, “Mr. Robert Moses: El Hombre de la Feria de Nueva York,” El Alcazar (Madrid), 2/19/65, p. 23, all in folder re 1965 Robert Moses Spain Trip, box 282, NYWFCR, NYPL. Bruce Nicholson, the World’s Fair’s director of Spanish-language exhibitions, wrote an often tenden- tious account of accompanying Robert Moses to his audience with Franco (Hi, Ho, Come to the Fair: Tales of the New York World’s Fair 1964–1965 (Huntington Beach, CA: Pelagian Press, 1989), part four: “Moses and Franco”); but he is spot-on concerning Moses’ Ahab-esque preoccupation with obtaining El Greco’s Count Orgaz. 94. E.g. “Mr. Robert Moses: El Hombre de la Feria de Nueva York,” El Alcazar (Madrid), 2/19/65, p. 23; “Entrevista: Sobre el Destino de los Pabellons de la Feria de Nueva York,” Arriba, 2/17/65, p. 3; “Lo Que a Mr. Moses le Gustaría,” Informaciones, 2/17/65, clippings all in folder re 1965 Robert Moses Spain Trip, box 282, NYWFCR, NYPL. 95. Dick Schaap column, “The Reign in Spain,” New York Herald-Tribune [NYHT], 2/16/65, with attached memo from Amb. Merry del Val in Washington DC to Fernando Castiella, 2/16/15, in L8400, E4, MAEA. 96. Robert Alden, “End of the Fair—Result Appraised,” NYT, 10/17/65, at NYTA. 97. “Spanish Pavilion Closes,” Spanish Newsletter, 10/31/65, p.7. 98. Letter from Manuel Alabart, Consul General, Spanish Consulate New York City, to Fernando Castiella, 10/20/65, “ASUNTO: Almuerzo de Clausura del Pabellon Español y despedida de sus empleados,” in L8400, E4, MAEA. Notes 245

99. “Tourism Booms,” Spanish Newsletter, 10/31/65, p.8. 100. The Spanish Pavilion’s allure, remarkable as it was, was evidently highly depen- dent on the New York World’s Fair’s location, fame and concomitant capacity to effortlessly draw huge crowds. When the city of St. Louis, Missouri, spent sev- eral million dollars to disassemble, transport and reassemble the pavilion near the newly inaugurated Jefferson Arch, only a small fraction of the anticipated 2.25 million annual visitors showed up, despite the Spanish MIT’s active par- ticipation and the presence of the revivified Restaurant Toledo. As the voluble Manuel Ortuño, once again the facility’s manager, told the New York Times as the Spanish International Pavilion was being shut down less than a year after it opened, “People here just don’t go out at night. They go to work, then they go home, drink beer and watch baseball.” See “St. Louis Gets Pavilion,” Spanish Newsletter, 11/30/65, p. 7; editorial, “To St. Louis, from Spain,” CSM, 11/12/65, p. 20, at CSMA; “Spanish Pavilion in St. Louis,” Spanish Newsletter, 10/31/66, p. 7; “Spanish Pavilion in St. Louis,” Spanish Newsletter, 11/30/68, p. 7; “Brillante Inauguración del Pabellon Hispano en San Luis,” ABC, 5/27/69, p. 37, at ABCH; and J. Anthony Lukas, “New York World’s Fair Hit Turns Into St. Louis Fiasco,” NYT, 6/30/70, at NYTA. 101. “International Exposition of 1968: By the President of the United States: A Proclamation,” 11/11/65, in GF3, F49.08, C35616, AGA. 102. “HemisFair ’68—Handy Facts,” undated but December 1965, in GF3, F49.08, C35616, AGA; HemisFair 1968 official invitations sent to various Spanish min- istries, 11/24/65, in the San Antonio Fair, Inc. Records, 1962–95 [SAFIR], Series 5: Visitor and Exhibitor Relations Department [S5], box 229, folder 3, at the University of Texas-San Antonio Library-Special Collections, San Antonio, TX [UTSAL]; letter from Joaquin Benitez Lumbreras, MIT, 11/30/65, same location; telegram from Gregorio Marañon to HemisFair, 4/21/68, same location; letter from Wayland Waters, Commercial Attaché, US Embassy Madrid, to William W. Phillips, HemisFair European Representative, Paris, 6/23/67, confirming ear- lier Commerce Ministry non-participation, same location; reports from William W. Phillips to Jack Newman, HemisFair Director of International Relations, 11/14/67, 11/17/67, in SAFIR, S5, box 191, folder 5, UTSAL. 103. Spanish Foreign Ministry Instituto de Cultura Hispánica memorandum to HemisFair Corporation, undated but 1967, re themes for Spanish exhibition, in SAFIR, S5, box 229, folder 3, UTSAL; letter from J.J. Newman, Director of HemisFair International Relations, to Enrique Garcia, Spanish National Tourist Office, New York City, 9/26/67, in SAFIR, S5, box 191, folder 5, UTSAL; let- ter from Antonio Garcia Rodriguez-Acosta, MIT, to San Antonio Mayor Walter McAllister, 10/11/67, same location; letter from Pic Swartz, HemisFair Director Of Cultural Exhibits, to MIT Minister Manuel Fraga Iribarne, 12/18/67, same location; MIT internal post-mortem memorandum, “HemisFair ’68-San Antonio, Tejas: Informe Sobre la Participacion de España,” 10/68, GF3, F49.08, C35616, AGA; R. P. Wall, chief editor, HemisFair 1968 Official Souvenir Guidebook (Dallas, TX: A.H. Belo Corp./Dallas Morning News, 1968), p. 101. 104. Memorandum, “Informe Sobre HemisFair de San Antonio—1968,” 12/12/67; memorandum from Jefe del Servicio Exterior, MIT to Manuel Fraga Iribarne, 12/15/67, both in GF3, F, 49.08, C35615, AGA; letter from Fraga to Jack Newman, Dir. HemisFair Intl. Relations, 1/17/68; letter from MIT Minister Fraga to San Antonio Mayor Walter McAllister, 2/5/68, both in SAFIR, S5, box 191, folder 6, UTSAL. 246 Notes

105. Undated photo of Fraga and Lady Bird Johnson (4/5/68), GF3, F49.09, C35627; “Fraga at Hemisfair Opening”, Spanish Newsletter, 4/30/68, p.3. 106. Transcript of Minister Fraga’s HemisFair “Spain’s Day” speech, 4/7/68, in GF3, F 49.08, C35617, inside blue folder. 107. MIT internal report, “HemisFair ’68-San Antonio, Tejas: Informe Sobre la Participacion de España,” 10/68; “HemisFair ’68-San Antonio, Texas: Impactos publicitarios obtenidos con la participacion de España,” 11/6/68; MIT internal report, “Informe Sobre el Pabellon de España en HemisFair 68,” undated (Octo- ber 1968); “Relacion de Personalidades que han Visitado el Pabellon” April– October 1968, all in GF3, F49.08, C35616, AGA; Spanish Newsletter, 7/31/68, cover story. 108. “Informe Sobre el Pabellon de España en HemisFair 68,” undated (October 1968), in GF3, F49.08, C35616, AGA. 109. Author interview with Carlos Robles Piquer, July 2007.

7 Conclusion: Success, Inertia, Death, Democracy and a Fallacy

1. For a concise listing in the larger Continental context of Spanish student and worker protest activities and the regime’s crackdowns in response, see Rolf Werenskjold, “Chronology of Events of Protest in Europe 1968,” in Martin Klimke, Jacco Pekelder and Joachim Scharloth, eds., Between Prague Spring and French May: Opposition and Revolt in Europe, 1960–1980 (New York and Oxford: Berghahn Books, 2011); see as well Jeremi Suri, Power and Protest: Global Revo- lution and the Rise of Détente (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005), Chapter 5. 2. On Luis Carrero Blanco’s unique standing with Franco see Javier Tusell with Genoveva García Queipo de Llano, Carrero: La Eminencia Gris del Régimen de Franco (Madrid: Ediciones Temas de Hoy, 1994); Stanley Payne, The Franco Regime, pp. 518–519; Cristina Palomares, The Quest for Survival After Franco, pp. 20–21. 3. Stanley Payne, The Franco Regime, p. 519. 4. Manuel Fraga Iribarne quoted in Spanish Newsletter, 1/31/69, p. 4. 5. D.S. Morris and R.H. Haigh, Britain, Spain and Gibraltar, 1945–90: The Eternal Triangle (London: Routledge, 1992), pp. 51–52 and Chapter 5 passim. 6. See e.g. various memoranda of conversations, memoranda and telegrams con- cerning the discussions between Castiella and US Secretary of State Dean Rusk in September 1968 over the terms of renewing the US–Spanish military pact, in FRUS 1964–68, v. XII, Western Europe, documents 218–224, at http://2001–2009. state.gov/r/pa/ho/frus/johnsonlb/xii/2263.htm. 7. Cristina Palomares, The Quest for Survival After Franco, pp. 72–73; Gabriel Tortella, “Spanish Banking History, 1782 to the Present,” in Manfred Pohl and Sabine Freitag, eds., Handbook on the History of European Banks (Aldershot, Hants: Edward Elgar, 1994), p. 872. 8. See Paul Preston, Juan Carlos: Steering Spain from Dictatorship to Democracy (New York: W.W. Norton, 2004). 9. See Chapter 2, p. 25. 10. Saturday Night Live’s initial “coverage” of Franco’s death in fact referred to El Caudillo as “Europe’s last fascist dictator” and displayed his photograph with Adolf Hitler at their infamous 1940 meeting at Hendaye. However, Franco was in subsequent “Weekend Update” segments transformed into the ridiculous, still dead “El Cadaver” and portrayed as Spain’s gold medal-winning contestant in Notes 247

the 1976 Montreal Olympics “cadaver-diving” competition. See Saturday Night Live “Weekend Update” video, 11/24/75, at http://www.myspace.com/video/ saturday-night-live/the-death-of-franco/21064659; as well as transcript for season 1, episode 24 at http://snltranscripts.jt.org/75/75xupdate.phtml. 11. The Times reassuringly replied that “most of Spain is as peaceful as ever, and the chances of stumbling on a demonstration are certainly slighter than the chances of being mugged in a large American city.” (“Letters: Is It Safe to Travel in Spain?” NYT, 10/17/76, at NYTA.) 12. José Amodia, Franco’s Political Legacies (London: Penguin, 1976), p. 204, quoted in Omar G. Encarnación, “Spain After Franco: Lessons in Democratization,” World Policy Journal, winter 2001/2002, p. 38. 13. See e.g. Cristina Palomares, The Quest for Survival After Franco, passim; Omar G. Encarnación, Spanish Politics: Democracy After Dictatorship (Cambridge, UK: Polity Press, 2008), passim. 14. Sima Lieberman, Growth and Crisis in the Spanish Economy 1940–93 (London: Routledge, 1995), Chapters 3–5. 15. Persuasive Brands Website: “What is a Brand?” at http://www.persuasivebrands .com/Topics_Brand_Definition.aspx. 16. James G. Hutton, “Defining the Relationship Between Public Relations and Mar- keting: Public Relations’ Most Important Challenge,” in Robert L. Heath, ed., Handbook of Public Relations (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications), p. 206; Craig Pearce, “Why PR is Good for Branding,” at http://craigpearce.info/marketing/ pr-good-branding/; Georgy Szondi, “Public Diplomacy and Nation Branding: Conceptual Similarities and Differences,” Discussion Papers in Diplomacy series (Netherlands Institute of International Relations “Clingendael,” 2008), p. 5. 17. “An Interview with Wally Olins: How to Brand a Nation,” Wally Olins Viewpoints, 2003, at http://wallyolins.com/includes/how_to_brand_a_nation.pdf. 18. “An Interview with Wally Olins,” Wally Olins Viewpoints, 2003. 19. Fiona Gilmore, “A Country—Can It Be Repositioned? Spain—The Success Story of Country Branding,” Journal of Brand Management, vol.9, nos. 4–5 (April 2002). 20. Peter Preston, “Branding Is Cool: It’s Tony Blair’s Favourite Pastime,” Guardian (UK), 11/14/99, online at http://www.guardian.co.uk/politics/1999/nov/15/ labour.labour1997to99; see as well Wally Olins, Trading Identities: Why Countries and Companies Are Taking On Each Others’ Roles (London: Foreign Policy Centre, 1999). 21. Keith Dinnie, Nation Branding: Concepts, Issues Practice (Oxford: Butterworth and Heinemann, 2007), p. 29; John A. Quelch and Katherine E. Jocz, Greater Good: How Good Marketing Makes for Better Democracy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Busi- ness Press, 2007), p. 308 n.9; Theresa Loo and Gary Davies pull together Gilmore and Olins as well, this time utilizing the latter’s 2003 book Wally Olins On Brand (London: Thames and Hudson), which simply recapitulates the argument in Olins’ 1999 Foreign Policy Centre pamphlet (Loo and Davies, “Branding China: The Ultimate Challenge in Reputation Management,” Corporate Reputation Review, vol. 9, no. 3 (2006), p. 205). 22. See e.g. Melissa Aroncyzk, “New and Improved Nations: Branding Identity,” in Craig Calhoun and Richard Sennett, eds., Practicing Culture (Oxford; Routledge, 2007), pp. 107–109; Teemu Moilanen and Seppo Rainisto, How to Brand Nations, Cities and Destinations: A Planning Book For Place Branding (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), pp.72–73; Vesna Damnjanovic,´ Milena Kravic and Tarek Abdul Razek, “Tourism Branding Strategy of the Mediterranean Region,” International 248 Notes

Journal of Euro-Mediterranean Studies, vol. 2, no. 1 (2009), p. 105; Thi Lan Huong Bui and Gerald S. A Perez, “Destination Branding: The Comparative Case Study of Guam and Vietnam,” Journal of International Business Research, vol. 9, no. 2 (2010) p. 95; Hanan Hazime, “From City Branding to e-Brands in Developing Countries: An Approach to Qatar and Abu Dhabi,” African Journal of Business Man- agement, vol. 5, no.12 (June, 2011), pp. 4734–4735; and perhaps most reflective of Gilmore’s pervasiveness in its oddity, Robert A. Saunders, The Many Faces of Sacha Baron Cohen: Politics, Parody, and the Battle Over Borat (Plymouth: Lexington books, 2008), pp. 115, 172. This very partial list does not include the numerous citations of Gilmore’s article in reference to her more general assertions about the efficacy of country branding. 23. Melissa Aroncyzk, “New and Improved Nations,” p. 107. 24. Ying Fan, “Branding the Nation: What Is Being Branded?” Journal of Vacation Mar- keting, vol. 12, no. 1 (January 2006), p. 7, online at www.commlex.com/kaneva/ YingFan.pdf. 25. Nicholas Cull, the foremost historian of public diplomacy, was appointed editor of the journal Place Branding and Public Diplomacy in 2012. The training of an aca- demic historian’s eye on the subject of nation branding happily portends greater historical rigor for a subfield too subject to ahistorical analyses. 26. Simon Anhalt, one of the most prominent place branding practitioner-thinkers, neatly sums up the fallacy of the quick fix: “National image ....is like a jug- gernaut without wheels, and imagining that it can really be shifted by so weak an instrument as marketing communications is an extravagant delu- sion. People don’t change their views about countries—views they may have held for decades—simply because a marketing campaign tells them to.” Simon Anhalt, “Public Diplomacy and Place Branding: Where’s the Link?” Place Branding, vol. 2, no. 4 (2006), p. 272. Muammar Qaddafi’s Libya and Bashar al- Assad’s Syria provide quintessential recent examples of autocracies with severe reputational deficits that embarked on re-branding programs with the aid of major US PR/public affairs organizations, but had no stomach for actually undertaking any of the political and social changes that would have made the re-branding efforts’ claims of reform, prosperity and stability credible. Thus, from virtually the moment the Libyan and Syrian regimes were con- fronted with domestic protests over political liberty in 2011 and reacted with hyper-violent crackdowns that in turn precipitated full-blown revolutions, it became readily obvious that their re-branding programs had been nothing more than a tissue of lies, and the Gaddafi and Assad dictatorships’ interna- tional reputations went into terminal free-fall. See e.g. Alison Pargeter, “Reform in Libya: Chimera or Reality?” German Marshall Fund Mediterranean Paper Series, 2010; Sharon J. Kirsch, Present Tense, vol. 2, no. 1 (2011), passim, at http://www.presenttensejournal.org/volume-2/pr-guns-for-hire-the-specter-of -edward-bernays-in-gadhafi%E2%80%99s-libya/; Tony Badran, “Syria’s Assad No Longer in Vogue,” Foreign Affairs, 3/25/11, at http://www.foreignaffairs.com/ articles/67677/tony-badran/syrias-assad-no-longer-in-vogue; Bill Carter and Amy Chozick, “Syria’s Assads Turned to West for Glossy P.R.,” NYT, 6/10/12, at http:// www.nytimes.com/2012/06/11/world/middleeast/syrian-conflict-cracks-carefully -polished-image-of-assad.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0; Joan Juliet Buck, “Syria’s Fake First Family,” / Daily Beast, 7/30/12, at http://www.thedailybeast. com/newsweek/2012/07/29/joan-juliet-buck-my-vogue-interview-with-syria-s -first-lady.html. Bibliography

Archives: United States:

Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences Margaret Herrick Library, Beverly Hills, CA: Special Collections Subject Clipping Files American Express Corporate Archive, New York City Spain Subject Files California State University-Dominguez Hills, Archives and Special Collections Depart ment: Glenn Anderson Papers Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library, Abilene, KS: Papers of C. D. Jackson Hilton College Hospitality Industry Archives, Massad Family Library Research Center, University of Houston, Houston, TX: Conrad Hilton Papers Lyndon Johnson Presidential Library, Austin, TX Statements of Lyndon Baines Johnson Collection Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington, DC: Earl Warren Papers Manuscripts and Archives Division, Humanities and Social Sciences Library, New York Public Library, New York City: New York World’s Fair 1964–65 Corporation Records, 1959–71 National Archives and Records Administration-Archives II, College Park, MD: Record Group 59, US Department of State Central Files University of Texas-San Antonio Library-Special Collections, San Antonio, TX: San Antonio Fair, Inc. Records, 1962–95 UCLA Arts Special Collections, Young Library, University of California-Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA: Stanley Kramer Collection Robert Rossen Collection Wisconsin Center for Film and Theater Research, Wisconsin Historical Society, Madison, WI: United Artists Collection

Spain:

Archivo General de la Administración, Alcala de Henares, Spain: Alphabetized motion picture files Procedencia “Cultura” Grupo de Fondos 3 (Cultura) Grupo de Fondos 10 (Asuntos Exteriores: Embajadas)

249 250 Bibliography

Archivo del Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores y de Cooperación, Madrid, Spain (NB as of this writing, MAE files are being transferred to the Archivo General de la Administración, Alcala de Henares as well as other locations; see notice at http://www.maec.es/es/menuppal/actualidad/Documentacion/Paginas/ ArchivosBibliotecasyCentrosdeDocumentacion.aspx) Biblioteca Nacional de España, Madrid, Spain Sala de la Prensa y Revistas Filmoteca Española, Madrid, Spain

Online Archives:

ABC (Madrid) Online Hemeroteca, at http://hemeroteca.abc.es/ Google Books, at http://books.google.com/ Google News Archive, at https://news.google.com/news/advanced_news_search?as _drrb= a IMDb [Internet Movie Database], at http://www.imdb.com/ JTA Jewish News Archive, at http://archive.jta.org/ Liberty (Seventh Day Adventist Magazine) Online Archive, at http://docs .adventistarchives.org/documents.asp?CatID= 58&SortBy= 1&ShowDateOrder= True New York Times Article Archive, at http://www.nytimes.com/ref/membercenter/ nytarchive.html New York World’s Fair 1964/1965 Website, at http://www.nywf64.com/ ProQuest Historical Newspapers, at http://www.pqarchiver.com/titles.html: Boston Globe Online Archive Chicago Tribune Online Archive Christian Science Monitor Online Archive Jewish Advocate (Boston) Online Archive Los Angeles Times Online Archive Wall Street Journal Online Archive Rollins Digital Collection, Rollins College, Winter Park, FL, at http://archives.rollins .edu/ Time Magazine Online Archive, at http://www.time.com/time/archive University of Florida Digital Collections, at http://ufdc.ufl.edu/ La Vanguardia (Barcelona) Online Hemeroteca, at http://www.lavanguardia.com/ hemeroteca/index.html Western Historical Manuscript Collection, University of Missouri-Kansas City, Kansas City, MO: Trans World Airline Records: online collection of TWA Skyliner Magazines, at http:// www.umkc.edu/whmckc/twa/twaskyliner.htm

Author Interviews

Irene Bronston (daughter of film producer Samuel Bronston), February 1996. Dr. William Bronston (son of film producer Samuel Bronston), December 1995, February 1996. Dodge T. Fielding (son of travel writer Temple Fielding), August–October 2011. Dr. Manuel Fraga Iribarne (Spanish Minister of Information and Tourism, 1962–69), July 2007. Bibliography 251

Charlton Heston (actor), December 1995. Amb. Erik Martel (Spanish career diplomat), December 2009–January 2010. Ronald Neame, CBE (film director), July 2002. Dr. Carlos Robles Piquer (Director General of Information under Manuel Fraga Iribarne), July 2007. Joseph Raff (editorial aide and collaborator to Temple Fielding), November 2011. Michael Aaron Rockland (Assistant Cultural Attaché, US Embassy Madrid and Director, Casa Americana, Madrid 1963–67), August 2013. Rabbi Arthur Schneier (Founder and President, Appeal to Conscience Foundation), May 2013. Patrick Sutton (son of travel writer Horace Sutton), May 2011. Amb. Timothy Towell (aide to US Amb. to Spain Angier Biddle Duke, mid-1960s), November 2007. Philip Yordan (script chief, advisor to film producer Samuel Bronston, 1959–64), February 1996.

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Note: The letter ‘n’ following locators refers to notes

Acheson, Dean, 4, 26 Castiella y Maíz, Fernando María, 6, 9, Alba, Jaime, 160 10, 11, 32, 46, 62, 80, 83, 88, 89, 91, Alexander the Great (film, 1955), 55–6 93, 119, 120, 131–7 passim, 140–54 Alfonso XIII, 15 passim, 159–72 passim, 174, 181, American Express, 8, 13, 15, 19–22 184, 186, 189–90, 192–3, 194, 239 n. passim, 23, 26 23 American Society of Travel Agents Clark, Charles Patrick, 85, 86–7, 165 (ASTA), 8, 43–4 Coll, José, 23, 24, 27, 42–3 Amodia, José, 195 Columbus Day US holiday lobbying Anhalt, Simon, 248 n. 26 effort (1964–1968), 113–17 passim Ann-Margret, 32, 75 Concordat, Spain-Holy See (1953), 131 Appeal to Conscience Foundation, 151–2 Connelly, John, 186 passim, 234–5 n. 96 Cooper, Gary, 30, 31 Areilza, José María de (Conde de Cronkite, Walter, 99–101 Motrico), 62, 64, 131, 195 Cull, Nicholas, 248 n. 25 Arias Salgado, Gabriel, 8, 27–8, 43, 44, Cutlip, Scott, 84 45, 46, 51, 57, 58, 64, 83, 94, 141, 144, 159, 161, 164, 165, 190 Dalí, Salvador, 92, 157, 176, 180 Avedon, Richard, 97, 99 Davison, Gates, 166, 168 De Grazia, Victoria, 7 Balenciaga, Cristóbal, 102, 178 Division Azul (Blue Division), 1 Ball, Lucille, 179 Doctor Zhivago (film, 1965), 77 Behold a Pale Horse (film, 1963), 76–8 Duke, Angier Biddle, 46, 160, 236–7 n. Bellow, Saul, 35 96 Bernays, Edward, 83, 84, 225 n. 32 Du Pont, Pierre III, 60, 62, 63, 72, 73 Blanshard, Paul, 139–40, 148 Bolín, Luis, 15, 23, 24, 27, 43 Brewer, Sam Pope, 93–4 Eban, Abba, 125 Bronston, Samuel, 9, 10, 32, 49, 54, 57, Economic Stabilization Plan (1959), 27 60–74 passim, 78–9, 92, 111–12, 155, Eisenhower, Dwight D., 10, 134, 135–7 157, 178, 180 El Caudillo, see Franco Bahamonde, Bureau Internationale des Expositions Generalissimo Francisco (BIE), 158, 160, 169, 184, 186 El Cid (film, 1961), 9, 49, 60, 64, 65–6, 68 Byoir, Carl, 83, 84 El Jefe del Estado (or “El Jefe”), see Franco Bahamonde, Generalissimo Camino Real (film, 1963), 111–12 Francisco Carrero Blanco, Admiral Luis, 8, 10, 11, European Community, 5, 133 14, 24–7 passim, 79, 88, 118, 144, 146, 149, 154, 192–3 Farley, James A., 86, 165, 166, 167 Carvajal Ferrer, Francisco Javier, 46, 171 Fashion-Spanish designers, 93, 101–4 Castellana Hilton, see Conrad Hilton Fielding, Dodge T. (son of Temple Castellana Magazine, 31–3 passim,43 Fielding), 34, 37

264 Index 265

Fielding, Nancy (wife of Temple Hilton, Conrad, 8, 13, 29, 30–3 passim, Fielding), 34, 35, 38 43, 61, 126 Fielding, Temple Hornaday, 8, 13, 33–8 Hilton Hotels, see Conrad Hilton passim, 39, 42, 43, 98 Hispanidad, 155, 169, 175, 187 Fodor, Eugene, 38–9, 42 Hitler,Adolf,1,2,3,4 Fraga Iribarne, Manuel, 6, 8, 9, 11, 45, Holiday Magazine, 95 46, 51, 70, 76, 77–8, 79, 80, 83, 88, Howell, Frank, 17–18 89, 91, 93, 94, 98, 101, 104, 106, Hughey, John David, 127–8, 130 108–9, 112, 115–17, 131, 141, 154, 169, 178, 180, 181, 183, 186, 187, John XXIII, 134, 144, 146 188 (fig.), 190, 192–3, 195 Johnson, Lady Bird, 11, 178, 179, 187, Franco Bahamonde, Generalissimo 188 (fig.), 189 Francisco,1,2,3,4,5,8,9,10,11, Johnson, Lyndon B., 11, 91, 104, 105–6, 13, 14, 16, 22, 26, 27–8, 35, 37, 42, 107 (fig.), 117, 130, 186, 187, 189 45, 46, 48, 52, 57, 58, 78, 79, 84, 85, Johnston, Eric, 125 91, 94, 97, 99–101, 119, 120, 121, Juan Carlos (as Prince of Asturias and 124, 125, 127, 132, 134, 135–7, 141, King of Spain), 89, 193 142, 144–45, 150, 153, 154, 162, 163, 165–7, 170, 183, 185 (fig.), 190, Katz, Labal Abraham, 142 192–4, 199, 200n. 7 Kelly Nason Associates, 20, 24, 42, 44, Franco y Polo, María del Carmen, 45, 95–6, 98–9, 118 Marquesa de Villaverde (Francisco Kennedy, John F., 89, 105, 108, 161, Franco’s daughter), 32, 76, 102, 178 164 Freedberg, Cathleen Blanton, 158 Kirk, Russell, 157, 180 Frommer, Arthur, 38–9 Kramer, Stanley, 9, 56–9, 63 “Frozen funds”, 50 Krenn, Michael, 118 Fuero de los Españoles (“Rights of the Kroes, Rob, 14 Spaniards”, 1945), 121, 122, 123, 127 Ley de la Libertad Religiosa (Religious Liberty Law, 1967), 10, 140–50 Gades, Antonio, 75, 178 passim Garrigues, Antonio, 105, 107 (fig.), 108, Lee, Ivy, 83, 84 110, 168, 169–70, 172, 173 Lequerica, José Félix, 85, 86 Gaviria, Mario, 14 Liberty, A Magazine of Religious Freedom (Seventh Day Adventist), 146, 147 Gentleman’s Agreement (film, 1947), (fig.), 148–9, 150 124–5, 126 Llovet, Enrique, 66, 70 Gienow-Hecht, Jessica, 7 Lodge, John Davis, 35, 43, 130, 134–5, Gilmore, Fiona, 197–8, 199 161, 162, 179 Goebbels,Josef,84 Loren, Sophia, 31, 56, 65–6 Gonzalez, Henry, 186 Lowenstein, Allard K., 76–7 Gordon, David, 168–9 Luce, Henry, 34, 35 Griffis, Stanton, 22, 25–6, 94, 134 Mackenzie, DeWitt, 2, 3, 6, 13, 85, Hamilton Wright Organization, 84 121 Harper’s Bazaar Magazine, 97–8 Madrid Pact (US-Spain, 1953), 4, 5, 9, 36, Hart, Merwin K., 13, 121, 124, 200 n. 7 129, 155, 159 Hayes, Carlton J. H., 2 Marañon, Gregorio, 167, 172 Hegstad, Roland, 148–9 Marshall, George C., see Marshall Plan Heston, Charlton, 32, 65–6 Marshall Plan, 12, 20 266 Index

Martín Artajo, Alberto, 26, 132, 159 Prat y Soutzo, Marques Pedro de, 26 Martín Gamero, Adolfo, 88–9, 101 Preston, Peter, 198 Martínez de Codes, Rosa María, 134 The Pleasure Seekers (film, 1964), 75–6, Massip, José María, 23, 178 102 Mazin, Max, 141, 143, 145, 151, The Pride and the Passion (film, 1957), 237 n. 102 56–9, 63, 65 McCann Erickson Agency, 88–9 McCarran, Patrick, 25, 86 Raff, Joseph (Temple Fielding’s Menéndez Pidal, Ramón, 66 researcher and editor), 38 Merry del Val, Pablo, 14, 115, 117, 125, Reed, Ralph T. (American Express 153, 179, 184 President), 20, 21, 22, 61 Miró, Joan, 92, 97, 158, 172, 195, 197, Robles Piquer, Carlos, 61, 63, 65, 68, 199 69–70, 76, 87, 105, 107 (fig.), Moses, Robert, 10, 155, 160, 167, 170, 108–13 passim, 141, 189, 195 172, 173, 174, 182–3, 185 (fig.) Rockland, Michael Aaron, 237 n. 96 Mussolini, Benito, 1, 2, 3 Roosevelt, Franklin D., 2, 34, 61, 121 Rossen, Robert, 55–6 NASA and the US Space Program, Rusk, Dean, 4, 89, 179 90–1 New Official Guide, Pavilion of Spain Sáez, Miguel García, 171, 174–5, 177, (guidebook, 1964–1965), 174–5, 182, 183, 185 (fig.), 186 178 Sagaz, Angel, 105, 133, 162, 163, 164–5, Nicholson, Bruce, 244 n. 93 169, 172, 181 Nimitz, Chester, 61–2 Salazar, Antonio, 2, 200 n. 3 North Atlantic Treaty Organization Schaap, Dick, 183–84, 186 (NATO), 5, 99, 133 Schiller, Herbert, 8 Nussbaum, Jean, 148 Schneier, Arthur, see “Appeal to Nye, Joseph, 6, 7, 191, 212 n. 2 Conscience Foundation” Serra, Fray Junipero 250th anniversary Olins, Wally, 196–7, 198, 199 event, Mallorca 1963, 89, 104, Organization for Economic Co-operation 108–13 and Development (OECD), 5, Sinfonía Española (“Spanish Symphony”; 198 film, 1964), 69–71, 180 Oriol, Antonio María, 151, 152, 153 The Situation for Protestants in Spain, Six Ornstein, George, 55, 59 Studies on an Anti-Spanish Campaign Ortuño, Manuel, 172, 181, of Defamation (pamphlet, 1950), 245 n. 100 123–4 Solomon and Sheba (film, 1959), 59 Pack, Sasha, 14, 27 Spain for You (pamphlet, 1964), 87 Palomares US nuclear bomber crash, Spanish Newsletter, 9, 81 (fig.), 83, 87–93 1966, 46, 88, 93 passim, 102, 117, 118, 133, 144, 178, Paul VI, 144 184–5 Payne, Stanley, 133, 192 “The Spanish Pavilion” Restaurant (New Pearson, Drew, 86, 142 York City, 1966–1975), 179 Picasso, Pablo, 92, 102, 157, 172 Spellman, Francis Cardinal, 86, 122, 124, Pius XII, 2, 131, 134 178 Plenn, Abel, 122 St. Augustine (FL) 400th anniversary Poletti, Charles, 160–1, 165–6, 167, 168, celebration, 1964–1965, 104–8 173, 182–83, 185 (fig.) passim Poutet, Hervé, 27 Straw, Will, 157 Index 267

Sulzberger,C.L.,85 Wagner, Robert F., Jr., 115–17, 178, Sutton, Horace, 38, 39–42 passim, 43, 173 180 Warren, Earl, 30, 89, 104, 108–13 passim, Trans-World Airlines (TWA), 8, 13, 16–19 114 (fig.) passim,26 Welles, Benjamin, 5, 9, 28, 82, 83, 94, Tito, Josip Broz, 34, 36 120, 136, 140, 146 Towel, Timothy, 46 Woodward, Robert, 45 Truman, Harry S., 2, 4, 121, 134 World Bank, 5 Turner, Edith, 30 Yordan, Philip, 74 Ullastres, Alberto, 89, 132, 159, 161–6, Yorty, Sam, 110, 113 169 passim, 170, 172, 181, 190 (UN), 1 Urzáiz, Jaime de, 88, 93, 151 Zinnemann, Fred, 76–7