Annual Report 2003–2004

s , social, historical, and institutional , social, historical, , and sociology reflect the current , and sociology reflect the current , and the humanities. he Max Planck Institute for Human Develop- Institute for Human Develop- he Max Planck

of dedicated to the study research establishment ment, founded in 1963, is a multidisciplinary and education. Its inquiries human development but concentrate on the are broadly defined, evolu-tionary as well as contexts of human development, life-course examining it from life-span and education, perspectives. The disciplines of psychology Institute’ directors’ backgrounds, but the by the work of scholarly spectrum is enriched mathematics, colleagues from such fields as evolutionary economics, computer science, biology is one of The Institute for Human Development by the Max about 80 research facilities financed of Science Planck Society for the Advancement Förderung der (Max-Planck-Gesellschaft zur support for which Wissenschaften e.V.), the core of Germany is provided by the Federal Republic and its 16 states. Research Report Research 2003–2004 Max-Planck-Institut für Bildungsforschung Max Planck Institute for Human Development

Max-Planck-Institut für Bildungsforschung Research Report 2003-2004 Max Planck Institute for Human Development

John R. Nesselroade – University of Virginia) Max Planck International Research Network on Aging Baltes) B. (Director: Paul Center for Educational Research (Director: Jürgen Baumert) the Study of the Life Course Center for Sociology and Ulrich Mayer) (Director: Karl Center for Lifespan Psychology Baltes/Ulman B. (Director: Paul Lindenberger) Independent Research Group (Head: Heike Solga) International Max Planck Research School LIFE Eccles – University of Michigan, Jacquelynne Baltes, B. (Co-chairs: Paul Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition Center for Adaptive Gigerenzer) (Director: Gerd Research Report Research 2003–2004

Max-Planck-Institut für Bildungsforschung (MaxnetAging) directed by Paul Baltes. (MaxnetAging) directed by Paul International Research Network on Aging involved in the establishment of a Max Planck research agenda. Continuity and change is also human behavior and cognitive plasticity to the emphasis on the study of the neural correlates of Lifespan Development (2004), adding a new Lindenberger as new director of the Center for generations is marked by the appointment of Ulman generations is marked by the appointment The latest development in the succession of The latest development in the succession program. as a signature profile of the Institute’s research research as a signature profile of the Institute’s develop-mental and life-course research were added develop-mental and life-course in a changing society. At the same time, life-span At the same time, in a changing society. nature of human development, education, and work nature of human development, questions of basic research associated with the questions of basic research associated the Institute has concentrated more and more on the Institute has concentrated research at Jürgen Baumert, 1996; Gerd Gigerenzer, 1997), Jürgen Baumert, 1996; Gerd Gigerenzer, (Paul B. Baltes, 1980; Karl Ulrich Mayer, 1983; Ulrich Mayer, Baltes, 1980; Karl B. (Paul generation of senior fellows and scientific directors generation of senior fellows and Since the 1980s and with the appointment of a third Since the 1980s and with the appointment (Roeder). classroom processes and school organization classroom processes and school development (Edelstein) and educational research on and educational research development (Edelstein) longitudinal research on child and adolescent longitudinal research educational processes. Primary emphases included Primary emphases included educational processes. basic research in human development and basic research in 1973) added to this framework a commitment to this framework a commitment 1973) added to (Wolfgang Edelstein, 1973, and Peter M. Roeder, M. Roeder, Peter Edelstein, 1973, and (Wolfgang The appointment of a second generation of directors of a second generation of directors The appointment

and educational policy was emphasized. and educational existence, the development of educational research of educational the development existence, of the Max Planck Society. In the first decade of its first decade of In the Planck Society. of the Max generation of scientific directors and senior fellows directors and senior of scientific generation (1964), and Saul B. Robinsohn (1964) as the first (1964) Robinsohn and Saul B. (1964), Goldschmidt (1964), Dietrich Edding Friedrich r, who was joined subsequently by subsequently was joined who Becke r, by Hellmut 1963 founded in Institute was he Research Report 2003–2004

Max-Planck-Institut für Bildungsforschung Max Planck Institute for Human Development Impressum © 2005 Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Berlin Design: Grafisches Atelier Rudolf J. Schmitt, Berlin Realization: Jürgen Baumgarten, Dagmar Gülow, Renate Hoffmann, Jürgen Rossbach, Erna Schiwietz, Peter Wittek of the Max Planck Institute for Human Development

Printed 2005 by DruckVerlag Kettler GmbH, Bönen/Westfalen, Germany Board of Directors Paul B. Baltes Jürgen Baumert (Managing Director, January 2003–June 2005) Gerd Gigerenzer Ulman Lindenberger Karl Ulrich Mayer

Board of External Scientific Advisers 2003–2004 Marlis Buchmann Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich Laura L. Carstensen Stanford University Leda Cosmides University of California, Santa Barbara Jacquelynne S. Eccles University of Michigan, Ann Arbor Klaus Fiedler University of Heidelberg Andreas Krapp Bundeswehr University, Munich Herbert W. Marsh University of Western Sydney, Penrith South Walter Müller University of Mannheim Denise Park University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign Manfred Prenzel Institute for Science Education at the University of Kiel Anik de Ribaupierre-Bobillier University of Geneva Frank Rösler University of Marburg Contents Introduction 6

Highlights 12

Cooperation with Universities 20 LIFE 23 Graduate Program 27

MaxnetAging 30

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition 32

Center for Educational Research 74

Center for Lifespan Psychology 152

Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course 214

Independent Research Group 276

Service Units 292

Appendix 300 Introduction

8 Introduction Introduction

The Max Planck Institute for Human Development is a multidisciplinary research establishment dedicated to the study of human development and education. Its inquiries are broadly defined, but concentrate on the evolutionary, social, historical, and institutional contexts of human development, as well as examining it from life-span and life-course perspectives. The disciplines of education, psychology, and sociology reflect the current directors’ backgrounds, but the Institute’s scholarly spectrum is enriched by the work of colleagues from such fields as cognitive neuroscience, mathematics, economics, computer science, evolutionary biology, and the humanities. The Institute is one of about 80 research facilities financed by the Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science (Max-Planck-Gesellschaft zur Förderung der Wissenschaften e.V.), the core support for which is provided by the Federal Republic of Germany and its 16 states. The total permanent staff at the Institute is 113, including 37 researchers, supplemented by a varying number of predoctoral, postdoctoral, and affiliate researchers and visiting fellows.

Research Centers in medicine, law, and education. Research into processes of human Each of these research areas empha- development is conducted primarily sizes the evolutionary foundations from the theoretical vantage points of behavior and cognition, in partic- offered by models of lifespan ular their domain specificity and psychology, bounded rationality and functional adaptiveness (pp. 32–73). adaptive behavior, life-course sociol- The Center for Educational Re- ogy, and conceptions of social- search (Director: Jürgen Baumert) historical change. examines learning and development The Institute is organized into four from an institutional point of view. research centers: Educational settings such as schools The Center for Adaptive Behavior offer a variety of developmental op- and Cognition (Director: Gerd portunities, but at the same time Gigerenzer) investigates human ra- exclude others. The impact of such tionality, in particular decision-mak- settings is investigated from three ing and risk perception in an uncer- perspectives: (1) the long-term con- tain world. Current research focuses sequences of schools’ opportunity on (1) bounded rationality, that is, structures on individual develop- the simple heuristics—cognitive, ment in terms of cognitive compe- emotional, and behavioral—that tencies as well as motivational and laypeople and experts use to make social resources, (2) international decisions under constraints of limit- comparison of the outcomes of ed time and knowledge, (2) social schooling in the fields of reading intelligence in cooperation and comprehension, mathematics and competition and (3) risk understand- science literacy, and cross-curricular ing and uncertainty management in competencies, and (3) improvement everyday life, including applications of learning and instruction in terms

Introduction 9 of the cognitive activation of stu- (2) Life Courses in the Transforma- dents, mainly in science and mathe- tion of Former Socialist Countries; matics (pp. 74–151). (3) Welfare State, Life Courses, and The Center for Lifespan Psychology Social Inequalities; and (4) Life- (Director: Paul B. Baltes/Ulman Course Research and Analysis: Theo- Lindenberger) is characterized by a ry, Methods, and Synthesis. The re- lifespan perspective and a concern search centers on the degree of in- with the optimization of human terdependence among the processes potential. The studies of children, of family formation, educational ca- adolescents, adults, and the elderly reers, and occupational trajectories concentrate primarily on the devel- in the life histories of members opment of cognition, memory, sen- of various birth cohorts that differ sorimotor functions, intelligence, in their historical situation as well motivation, personality, and self- as in their sociopolitical contexts hood, as well as on prominent con- (e.g., former East vs. West Germany). textual factors of life-long socializa- The methodology of sociostructural tion, such as interpersonal action analysis and the analysis of dynamic coordination and co-development. processes provide additional foci of In each of these areas, plasticity of activity (pp. 214–275). human behavior and successful An important collaborative effort development, including their societal that involves all four Centers at the and neural causes and effects, play Institute as well as universities in an important role in the conceptual Berlin and the United States is the and methodological design of the International Max Planck Research studies. Theory, methodology and School “The Life Course: Evolu- history of developmental psychology tionary and Ontogenetic Dynamics define an additional area of interest. (LIFE)“ co-chaired by Paul B. Baltes, The most important change during Jacquelynne S. Eccles/University of the period 2003–04 was Ulman Michigan, and John R. Nesselroade/ Lindenberger’s appointment as University of Virginia. This interdisci- Director of the Center for Lifespan plinary graduate program brings to- Development and successor to Paul gether doctoral students from the Baltes (July 2004). The Center’s new United States and Germany, but also research profile, balancing continu- from many other countries (see ity and innovation, is outlined in this pp. 23–26). Report (see pp. 152–213). Another international project that is In the Center for Sociology and organized by the Max Planck Society the Study of the Life Course but housed at the Institute is the (Director: Karl Ulrich Mayer), empiri- International Max Planck Research cal research is oriented toward the Network on Aging (MaxnetAging) analysis of social structure and in- which is directed by Paul B. Baltes stitutions in a multilevel, historical (Jacqui Smith, Deputy Director). The and comparative perspective. Cur- general focus is on research, theory, rently, this research is organized and method of the behavioral and around four major foci: (1) Educa- social science of aging. Specific ob- tion, Training, and Employment; jectives include the development of

10 Introduction new interdisciplinary research initia- The International Board of Scien- tives and providing a forum for pro- tific Advisers offers an important moting the careers of young scien- source of external review and advice tists interested in the study of ag- to both the Directors and the scien- ing. The institutional collaboration tific staff on matters of research at involves several Max Planck Insti- the Institute. Members are selected tutes, the Karolinska Institute, from an international circle of dis- Stockholm, and the University of tinguished researchers and appoint- Virginia (see pp. 30–31). Hosting the ed by the President of the Max new research network is a chance to Planck Society to four-year terms. further strenghten the Institute’s in- They meet biannually to discuss ternational relations. completed, ongoing, and future research projects at the Institute. Governance of the Institute A list of the current members can The Institute is governed by a Board be found on the frontmatter of this of Directors, currently consisting of report. the five members of the Institute who are Fellows (Wissenschaftliche Organization of the Annual Report Mitglieder) of the Max Planck This research report is organized in Society (Paul B. Baltes, Jürgen the following manner: Baumert, Gerd Gigerenzer, Ulman • The presentation of each research Lindenberger, Karl Ulrich Mayer). center begins with an introductory The Board is augmented by one overview summarizing its program. member from the Institute’s re- • The introduction is followed by search staff (Petra Stanat) and the descriptions of the center’s re- head of administration (Nina search areas and selected projects Körner). On a rotational basis, one along with a list of scientific pub- of the Directors is elected by the lications. Board to serve as Managing Direc- • The supportive activities of the tor, usually for a period of two years. service units—library and comput- Several in-house committees coming services—are described in a posed of representatives elected by special section at the end of the the entire scientific staff or by report (pp. 292–299). appointment advise the Board of • The appendix provides information Directors on matters of scientific on the research colloquia held at research and policy. One of the the Institute, the visiting scholars, major institute-wide committees is and the cooperation of the Insti- the Scientific Staff Committee tute’s scientific staff with projects (Mitarbeiterausschuss) which is outside the Institute. It also in- elected by all scientists. cludes an index of the scientific staff and their research interests (pp. 300–319).

Berlin, April 2005 For the Board of Directors: Jürgen Baumert

Introduction 11 Highlights Honors and Awards

Paul B. Baltes 2004 Prize for Lifetime Achievement, German Psychological Association Jürgen Baumert Order of Merit, Federal Republic of Germany Jürgen Baumert Arthur Burkhardt Prize of the Arthur Burkhardt Foundation Jürgen Baumert Member, Deutsche Akademie der Naturforscher Leopoldina Jürgen Baumert Honorary Doctor, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg Felix Büchel 2003 Emerald Literati Club Highly Commended Award Felix Büchel Adjunct Professor of Economics, Technical University of Berlin Wolfgang Edelstein Order of Merit, Federal Republic of Germany Gerd Gigerenzer 2004 Batten Fellow, Darden Business School, University of Virginia, Charlottesville Gerd Gigerenzer 2004 “Professor der Universitätsgesellschaft,“ University of Munich Gerd Gigerenzer 2003 Reckoning with Risk shortlisted for the Aventis Prize for Science Books Konstantinos Katsikopoulos 2003 New Investigator Award, Brunswik Society Ute Kunzmann & Antje Stange Best Poster Prize, German Psychological Association, Section for Developmental Psychology Ulman Lindenberger Honorary Professor of Psychology, Free University of Berlin Ulman Lindenberger Honorary Professor of Psychology, Humboldt University Berlin Ulman Lindenberger Honorary Professor of Psychology, Saarland University Ulman Lindenberger Member, Wilhelm Wundt Society Karl Ulrich Mayer Member, American Academy of Arts and Sciences Karl Ulrich Mayer Fellow, American Association for the Advancement of Science Frances McGinnity Best Junior Publication 2001-2003 based on SOEP data, German Institute for Economic Research, Berlin Jörg Rieskamp 2004 New Investigator Award, Brunswik Society Jacqui Smith Fellow, American Psychological Association Jacqui Smith Member, Academia Europaea, Section for Behavioral Sciences Jacqui Smith Honorary Professor of Psychology, Free University of Berlin Jacqui Smith New South Wales Return Award for Expatriate Researchers Elsbeth Stern Honorary Professor of Psychology, Technical University of Berlin Elsbeth Stern & Fritz Staub EARLI award for an outstanding publication in: Journal of Educational Psychology Henrik Saalbach & Elsbeth Stern Chinese Psychological Society award for an outstanding journal article in: Psychonomic Bulletin & Review Heike Trappe Fellow, Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study, Cambridge, MA Students Awards Will Bennis William E. Henry Memorial Award (for the best dissertation in the Committee on Human Development at the University of Chicago) Natalie Ebner Student Travel Award 2004 and Graduate Student Poster Award 2004 of the Society of Personality and Social Psychology Natalie Ebner APA Student Award of Division 20, Adult Development and Aging Anja Felbrich Junior Researcher Award, German Psychological Association, Section for Educational Psychology Marita Jacob Otto Hahn Medal of the Max Planck Society Nele McElvany 2003 Best Poster Award, Junior Researchers of EARLI Christina Limbird Junior Researcher Award, German Psychological Association, Section for Educational Psychology Florian Schmiedek Gustav A. Lienert Prize for young scientists of the German Psychological Association Ulrich Trautwein Otto Hahn Medal of the Max Planck Society Ulrich Trautwein Junior Researcher Award, German Psychological Association, Section for Educational Psychology Andreas Wilke 2004 Linda Mealey Young Investigator Award, International Society for Human Ethology

14 Highlights Where Have Our Researchers Gone? New Positions 2003–2004

Research Scientists Alexandra M. Freund 2005, University of Zurich, Full Professor of Psychology Anne Goedicke 2003, University of Duisburg, Assistant Professor Ralph Hertwig 2003, University of Basel, Associate Professor Steffen Hillmert 2003, University of Bamberg, Assistant Professor Ulrich Hoffrage 2004, University of Lausanne, Business School (Ecole des Hautes Etudes Commerciales, HEC), Full Professor Ralf-Thomas Krampe 2004, University of Leuven, Full Professor Ute Kunzmann 2004, International University Bremen, Jacobs Center, Junior Professor Stefanie Kurzenhäuser 2004, University of Basel, Dept. of Psychology, Assistant Professor Laura Martignon 2003, Ludwigsburg Teachers College, Professor of Mathe- matics and Mathematical Education Frances McGinnity 2004, Economic and Social Research Institute, Dublin, Research Scientist Antje Mertens 2005, Berlin School of Economics, Professor of Economics Matthias Pollmann-Schult 2004, University of Bielefeld, Assistant Professor Maike Reimer 2005, Bavarian State Institute for Research in Higher Education, Munich, Research Scientist Holger Seibert 2005, Institute for Labor Market and Employment Research, Berlin-Brandenburg, Research Scientist Tania Singer 2003, Wellcome Dept. of Imaging Neuroscience, London Heike Solga 2005, University of Göttingen, Dept. of Sociology, Full Professor Rainer Watermann 2005, University of Göttingen, Dept. of Educational Sciences, Full Professor

Postdoctoral Research Fellows Barbara Fasolo 2004, Operational Research Lecturer, London School of Economics and Political Sciences Konrad Halupka 2003, University of Wroclaw, Assistant Professor Juan Rafael Morillas 2003, CentrA: Fundación Centro de Estudios Andaluces, Granada Markus Raab 2003, University of Flensburg, Junior Professor Torsten Reimer 2003, University of Basel, Associate Professor Alessandra Rusconi 2004, University of Bremen, EMPAS, Assistant Professor Sandra Wagner 2004, Federal Ministry of Education and Science, Berlin, Educational Research, Reporting and Standards

Highlights 15 Annika Wallin 2004, University of Lund, Lecturer Lixia Yang 2003, University of Toronto, Postdoctoral Fellow

Predoctoral Research Fellows Ping-Huang Chang 2004, National Taiwan Normal University, Postdoctoral Researcher Anke Demmrich 2003, University of Jena Children's Hospital Thomas Dudey 2004, IT consultant, itelligence AG Anja Felbrich 2004, Humboldt University Berlin, Assistant Professor Yaniv Hanoch 2004, UCLA, Dept. of Public Health, Postdoctoral Fellow Anke Höhne 2005, University of Halle-Wittenberg, Assistant Professor Marita Jacob 2003, Institute for Labor Market and Employment Research (IAB), Nuremberg, Research Scientist Rocio Garcia-Retamero Imedio 2004, University of Granada, Predoctoral Research Grant Antje Stange 2004, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta Regina Wolf 2003, Vocational Training Academy, Plauen

16 Highlights Conferences Organized by Institute Researchers

Research in Teaching and Learning Summer School: Advanced From a Neuroscience Perspective Statistical Methods in Educational (MPI for Human Development on behalf of the and Developmental Research Federal Ministry of Education and Science) (MPI for Human Development & German Research November 2004 Foundation (DFG), Priority Program on the Quality (Organizer: Elsbeth Stern) of School (BIQUA)) July 2004 Jacobs Foundation Conference on (Coorganizers: Jürgen Baumert & Rainer Water- Educational Influences mann) (MPI for Human Development & King‘s College London) Self-Concept, Motivation and October 2004 Identity: Where to from here? (Coorganizers: Jürgen Baumert, Petra Stanat, Barbara Maughan, & Michael Rutter; Coordinator: Third International Biennial SELF Susannah Goss) Research Conference (MPI for Human Development & SELF Research Centre, University of Western Sydney) The Causes and Consequences of July 2004 Low Education in Contemporary (Coorganizers: Jürgen Baumert, Herbert W. Marsh, Europe Ulrich Trautwein, & Garry E. Richards; Coordinator: (MPI for Human Development & European Consor- Susannah Goss) tium for Sociological Research/EURESCO) September 2004 Dahlem Conference “Heuristics (Coorganizers: Paul M. de Graaf, Heike Solga, & Marlis Buchmann) and the Law” (MPI for Human Development & MPI for Research on Collective Goods) Brain-Behavior Dynamics Across April 2004 the Lifespan: Methods and (Directors: Gerd Gigerenzer & Christoph Engel) Concepts (MPI for Human Development) PISA 2000 Conference September 2004 “Instruction in Mathematics and (Coorganizers: Ulman Lindenberger & Shu-Chen Li; Coordinator: Conor Toomey) the Sciences” (MPI for Human Development, IPN Kiel, & Univer- sity of Oldenburg) Summer Institute on Bounded March 2004 Rationality in Psychology and (Coorganizers: Gundel Schümer, Jürgen Rost, & Economics Michael Neubrand; Coordinator: Andrea Derichs) (MPI for Human Development & MPI for Research into Economic Systems, Jena) August 2004 (Directors: Gerd Gigerenzer & Werner Güth; Coor- dinator: Guido Biele)

Highlights 17 International Max Planck Research Summer Institute on Bounded School Rationality in Psychology and The Life Course: Evolutionary and Economics Ontogenetic Dynamics (LIFE) Special Focus: Bounded Rationality and the Law LIFE Fall Academy 2004, October (MPI for Human Development, University of (MPI for Human Development, University Nottingham, & Universitat Pompeu Fabra) of Michigan, & University of Virginia) August 2003 (Directors: Paul B. Baltes, Jacquelynne S. Eccles, & (Directors: Gerd Gigerenzer, Chris Starmer, & Robin John Nesselroade; Coordinator: Julia Delius) Hogarth; Coordinator: Anja Dieckmann)

LIFE Spring Academy 2004, May Brain, Mind, and Culture: From (University of Michigan & MPI for Human Development) Interactionism to Biocultural Co- (Directors: Jacquelynne S. Eccles & Paul B. Baltes; Constructivism Coordinators: Janice Templeton & Julia Delius) (MPI for Human Development) August 2003 LIFE Fall Academy 2003, October (Coorganizers: Paul B. Baltes, Patricia Reuter- (MPI for Human Development & University Lorenz, & Frank Rösler; Coordinator: Julia Delius) of Michigan) (Directors: Paul B. Baltes & Jacquelynne S. Eccles; PISA 2000 Conference “Enhancing Coordinator: Julia Delius) Reading Competence” LIFE Spring Academy 2003, May (MPI for Human Development & University of (University of Michigan & MPI for Human Bielefeld) Development) June 2003 (Directors: Jacquelynne S. Eccles & Paul B. Baltes; (Coorganizers: Petra Stanat & Cordula Artelt; Coordinators: Janice Templeton & Julia Delius) Coordinator: Andrea Derichs)

Graduate Program “Neuropsychiatry and Psychology of Aging“ Dissertation Workshop (MPI for Human Development & Free University of Berlin) October 2003 (Directors: Paul B. Baltes & Isabella Heuser; Coor- dinator: Jacqui Smith)

18 Highlights Highlights 19

Cooperation with Universities Teaching and Academic Degrees

The Institute has always considered its cooperation with universities as very important, especially by participating in teaching activities. Researchers from our Institute teach courses at three universities in Berlin and at the University of Potsdam as well as at many other universities in Germany and abroad. In the years 2003–2004, more than 100 courses were taught by scientific staff members—directors, research scientists, postdoctoral as well as predoctoral fellows—of the Institute. In addition, Institute members were supported in completing their academic degrees in cooperation with the universities in Berlin and elsewhere. In the years 2003–2004, 3 habilitations and 22 doctoral dissertations were completed by scientific staff members of the Institute. All degrees are listed in the Appendix.

Exhibition in the Insti- tute’s entrance hall. Paint- ing by Peter Lindenberg.

22 Cooperation with Universities International Max Planck Research School The Life Course: Evolutionary and Ontogenetic Dynamics (LIFE)

This graduate program on the Life Course (LIFE) is part of the Max Planck Co-chairs Society's framework of International Max Planck Research Schools. It was Paul B. Baltes established in 2002 as a collaboration between the Max Planck Institute for (MPI for Human Human Development, Berlin, the Humboldt University in Berlin, the Free Development), University of Berlin, and the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, USA. The Jacquelynne S. University of Virginia, Charlottesville, USA, joined in October 2004. Eccles (University of Michigan), & The goal of the Research School is a series of Fall and Spring Acade- John R. advanced research training in the mies, and collaborative supervision Nesselroade (Uni- study of human behavior and insti- of research training. It also includes versity of Virginia) tutional systems over evolutionary opportunities for research abroad at and ontogenetic (life cycle) time. a cooperating institution. Three fel- Coordinator LIFE takes an integrative and inter- lows from Berlin and two from Ann Julia Delius (MPI disciplinary approach to understand- Arbor have made use of this since for Human Devel- ing human development in a chang- 2003, and further exchanges among opment) & Janice ing world, connecting evolutionary, the three locations are being Templeton (Univer- ontogenetic, historical, and institu- planned. sity of Michigan) tional perspectives. The strong interlocking components The target group of the Research are two annual week-long acade- www.imprs-life.mpg.de School are post-diploma or post- mies in which fellows and faculty master's graduate students who in- from each university participate. tend to pursue a doctorate in one of During the reporting year of 2004, the relevant disciplines (biology, two such academies took place. The psychology, sociology, anthropology, average number of participants in- educational science). As a collabora- cluding faculty was about 50. The tive Research School, LIFE offers LIFE Spring Academy 2004 was held students a unique education experi- in May at the University of Michi- ence: Discipline-based training in gan. It had a primary focus on the study of the life course/life cycle methodology and was followed by a that is enriched by interdisciplinary 5-day workshop on structural equa- and international perspectives. tion modeling taught by John J. The training program involves semi- McArdle and others from the Uni- nars at the participating institutions, versity of Virginia. The LIFE Fall

In total, 36 faculty (Berlin: 13; Ann Arbor: 16; Charlottesville: 7), 5 associate faculty, 35 full fellows and 12 associate (external) fellows (Berlin: 18 full, 12 external fellows; Ann Arbor: 12 full; Charlottesville: 5 full) are currently involved. Fellows from Europe, the Americas, and Asia joined the program on the following annual schedule: • 2002: 18 (Berlin: 14; Ann Arbor: 4) — 2 have submitted their dissertations and successfully completed the LIFE program in 2004 • 2003: 12 (Berlin: 7; Ann Arbor: 5) • 2004: 19 (Berlin: 10; Ann Arbor: 4; Charlottesville: 5)

Cooperation with Universities 23 Academy 2004 took place at the my is scheduled to take place at the Hotel Döllnsee-Schorfheide in Octo- University of Virginia in May 2005. ber. Participants included LIFE Fel- In addition, each participating uni- lows from Ann Arbor, Charlottesville, versity offers special courses reflect- and Berlin, along with Guest Fellows ing the special profile of its gradu- from the Chinese Academy of Sci- ate programs and selects a subset of ences in Beijing and the State Uni- fellows for the added specialization versity of Campinas, Brazil. The provided by LIFE. The Berlin ap- teaching faculty consisted of 31 fac- proach is to offer weekly seminars ulty members (8 from Ann Arbor, 15 at the MPI for Human Development from Berlin, and 5 from Char- taught throughout the academic lottesville as well as 3 guests from year by a varying team of faculty other institutions). The next Acade- from the three Berlin institutions.

Topics of the Berlin LIFE seminar included: • The Biology of Life History, Peter Hammerstein (HU) & guests • Contexts and Dynamics of Behavior and Cognition in the Life Course, Ralf Krampe (MPI), Shu-Chen Li (MPI), Peter Todd (MPI), & guests • The Life Course: Structures and Institutions, Martin Kohli (FU), Felix Büchel (MPI), Heike Solga (MPI), & guests • Developmental Methodology, Ulman Lindenberger (MPI-FU-HU) & guests • Norms and Development: Interdisciplinary Approaches, Monika Keller (MPI), Masanori Takezawa (MPI), & Gerd Gigerenzer (MPI-FU)

LIFE Fall Academy 2004

24 Cooperation with Universities MPI for Human Development University of Michigan Professorial Paul B. Baltes, Psychology & Toni C. Antonucci, Psychology Faculty Gerontology Kai S. Cortina, Psychology & 2004/2005 Jürgen Baumert, Educational Science Education Gerd Gigerenzer, Psychology Jacquelynne S. Eccles, Psychology & Ulman Lindenberger, Psychology Education Karl Ulrich Mayer, Sociology Richard Gonzalez, Psychology James S. Jackson, Social Psychology Free University of Berlin Daniel Keating, Psychology Martin Kohli, Sociology (currently Bobbi S. Low, Evolutionary & European University Institute, Behavioral Ecology Florence) Randolph M. Nesse, Psychology & Hans Merkens, Educational Science Psychiatry Ralf Schwarzer, Psychology Richard Nisbett, Psychology Patricia Reuter-Lorenz, Cognitive Humboldt University Berlin Psychology & Neuroscience Jens B. Asendorpf, Psychology Arnold Sameroff, Psychology Peter Frensch, Psychology John Schulenberg, Psychology Peter Hammerstein, Biology Twila Tardif, Psychology Gerd Kempermann, Neuroscience Henry M. Wellman, Psychology Rainer H. Lehmann, Educational Science University of Virginia (initiated in 2004) Faculty Associates Judy DeLoache, Developmental Alexandra M. Freund, Psychology, Psychology University of Zürich (formerly North- David L. Hill, Psychobiology western University) John J. McArdle, Quantitative & Shu-Chen Li, Psychology, MPI for Developmental Psychology Human Development John R. Nesselroade, Quantitative & Heike Solga, Sociology, University of Developmental Psychology Leipzig (formerly MPI for Human Timothy Salthouse, Cognitive Psy- Development) chology Peter Todd, Psychology, MPI for Eric Turkheimer, Quantitative & Human Development Clinical Psychology Oliver Wilhelm, Psychology, Timothy D. Wilson, Social Psychology Humboldt University Berlin

Cooperation with Universities 25 LIFE Doctoral Max Planck Institute for Human Humboldt University Berlin Fellows Development Tobias Bothe, Psychology 2004/2005 Guido Biele, Psychology Jaap J. A. Denissen, Psychology Yvonne Brehmer, Psychology Robert Gaschler (External LIFE Michaela Gummerum (External LIFE Fellow), Psychology Fellow), Psychology Nicole Hess, Biological Anthropology Stefanie Gundert (External LIFE Judith Lehnart (External LIFE Fellow), Fellow), Sociology Psychology Bettina von Helversen, Psychology Lars Penke (External LIFE Fellow), Oliver Huxhold, Psychology Psychology Dana Kotter (External LIFE Fellow), Dennis Rünger, Psychology Psychology Rui Mata, Psychology University of Michigan Andrea G. Müller, Educational Sean Duffy, Psychology Science Sarah Dunphy-Lelii, Psychology Gabriel Nagy (External LIFE Fellow), Katherine Leigh Fiori, Psychology Educational Science Jung-Hwa Ha, Sociology Thorsten Pachur (External LIFE Justin Jager, Psychology Fellow), Psychology Cristine Legare, Psychology Lisa Pfahl, Sociology Besangie Sellars, Psychology Christina Röcke, Psychology Jessica Garrett, Educational Science Sabine Schäfer (External LIFE Emily Messersmith, Psychology Fellow), Psychology Pablo A. Nepomnaschy, Anthropology Yee Lee Shing, Psychology Georges Potworowski, Psychology Yi-Miau Tsai, Educational Science Nicole Zarrett, Psychology Markus Werkle-Bergner (External LIFE Fellow), Psychology University of Virginia Andreas Wilke, Psychology Jesse C. Graham, Psychology Vanessa LoBue, Psychology Free University of Berlin Jamie Mangold, Psychology Rainer Heuer (External LIFE Fellow), Nilam Ram, Psychology Sociology Karen Siedlecki, Psychology Helen Krumme, Sociology Poldi Kuhl (External LIFE Fellow), Educational Science Christina Karlyn Limbird, Educational Science Jutta Wittig, Psychology

LIFE Alumni Natalie C. Ebner, External LIFE Fellow (2002–2004) at the MPI for Human Development, now postdoctoral fellow at the MPI Rebecca L. Utz, PhD, LIFE Fellow (2002–2004) at the University of Michigan, now Assistant Professor, Department of Sociology, University of Utah

26 Cooperation with Universities The Graduate Program (Graduiertenkolleg) on the Neuropsychiatry and Psychology of Aging

Neuropsychiatry and Members of the Center for Lifespan During the six years of our intensive Psychology of Aging Psychology involved include: involvement (October 1998 to Octo- Paul B. Baltes (Co-chair until ber 2004), this graduate training www.fu-berlin.de/age October, 2004) program represented an important Jacqui Smith (Scientific Coordinator cross-discipline collaboration to fos- and Member of the Steering Com- ter the careers of junior researchers. mittee until October, 2004) Five research groups were involved in the program: Free University of Together with predoctoral fellows in Berlin (Psychology, Ralf Schwarzer), the Center (2003–2004): University Medical School Benjamin Natalie C. Ebner Franklin (Psychiatry, Isabella Heuser, Denis Gerstorf Friedel Reischies) and ENT (Hans Daniel Grühn Scherer), the Max Delbrück Center Susanne Scheibe for Molecular Medicine (Berlin- Antje Stange Buch: Gerd Kemperman) and the Neurological Clinic of the Charité, This special program for doctoral Humboldt University Berlin (Arno training in psychological and psychi- Villringer), the Max Planck Institute atric gerontology located at the Free for Human Development, Center for University of Berlin was established Lifespan Psychology (Baltes, Smith). in October 1998 by the late Margret Together, these groups sought to M. Baltes and Hanfried Helmchen integrate medical, psychiatric, and with funding from the German Re- psychological research on aging and search Council (DFG). The program very old age. The graduate program was co-chaired by Hanfried involved regular seminars, work- Helmchen (Psychiatry) and Paul B. shops, and Fall academies in which Baltes (Psychology, Max Planck In- international researchers and doc- stitute for Human Development) toral fellows from other programs from March 1999 to March 2001. In participated. April 2001, Isabella Heuser (Psychia- In the period 1998 to 2004, a total try) took over the chair after the of 11 doctoral fellows based in the retirement of Helmchen. After Octo- Center for Lifespan Psychology have ber 2004, and as a function of the worked together with 18 fellows lo- career transition of Paul B. Baltes, cated in the other institutions (med- the Institute no longer plays a key icine and psychology) to further role in this program. However, sever- their studies in gerontology. By the al doctoral students located in the end of 2004, 18 dissertations were Center for Lifespan Psychology con- successfully completed in the pro- tinue in the program until 2005. gram, including 11 by fellows from This DFG Graduiertenkolleg is funded the Center for Lifespan Psychology until 2007, and now has a primary or supervised by Center researchers medical-biological focus. (see below for the list of disserta-

Cooperation with Universities 27 tions submitted in the period of this From 2004, research fellow at the report, 2003–2004). Many members University of Fribourg. of the program received national and international prizes for their Jopp, D. (2003). Erfolgreiches Altern: doctoral research and were success- Zum funktionalen Zusammenspiel ful in obtaining postdoctoral fellow- von personalen Ressourcen und ships to further their studies. Several adaptiven Strategien des Lebens- in the initial cohort have now estab- managements. Doctoral thesis, Free lished their own research groups University of Berlin. Available online: both in Germany and overseas (e.g., www.diss.fu-berlin.de/2003/50. England, USA). In 2003, research fellow, DZFA; from 2004: DFG-research fellow at Dissertations Completed Georgia Institute of Technology, Bondar, A. (2003). Balance and cog- Atlanta. nition: Resource allocation and its control in young and older adults. Lißmann, I. (2003). Intraindividuelle Doctoral thesis, Free University of Veränderungen von Extraversion und Berlin. Available online: Neurotizismus im hohen Alter: Die www.diss.fu-berlin.de/2003/48. Bedeutung sensorischer Beeinträch- From 2003 to 2004, postdoctoral tigung. Doctoral thesis, Free Univer- fellow, MPI for Human Development. sity of Berlin. Available online: www.diss.fu-berlin.de/2004/117. Ebner, N. C. (submitted 2004). Striv- (Thesis supervisors at the Free Uni- ing for gains and preventing losses: versity of Berlin: Jacqui Smith & Multi-method evidence on the dif- Paul B. Baltes). ferences in personal goal orientation From December 2002, research fel- in early and late adulthood. Doctoral low at the University of Marburg. thesis, Free University of Berlin. From 2004, postdoctoral fellow at Rapp, M. (2003). Dual-task perform- the MPI for Human Development. ance in memory and balance: The role of aging and Alzheimer’s disease. Gerstorf, D. (2004). Heterogeneity Doctoral thesis, Free University of and differential development in old Berlin. Available online: age: A systemic-wholistic approach. www.diss.fu-berlin.de/2003/188. Doctoral thesis, Free University of From 2003, research fellow at the Berlin. Available online: Department of Psychiatry, Mount www.diss.fu-berlin.de/2004/342. Sinai School of Medicine, New York. From 2004, postdoctoral fellow at the MPI for Human Development. Scheibe, S. (submitted 2004). Long- ing ("Sehnsucht") as a new lifespan Hoppmann, C. (2004). Interpersonal concept: A developmental conceptu- contributions to the pursuit of work- alization and its measurement in and family-related goals in middle adulthood. Free University of Berlin. adulthood. Doctoral thesis, Free Uni- From 2004, postdoctoral fellow at versity of Berlin. Available online: the MPI for Human Development. www.diss.fu-berlin.de/2005/24.

28 Cooperation with Universities Cooperation with Universities 29 MaxnetAging Based on deliberations in the Max MaxnetAging is conceived both as Director: Planck Presidential Committee on a forum in which communication Paul B. Baltes Aging, the Max Planck International and cooperation in the study of Research Network on Aging was aging is nurtured within the Human Collaboration: established in the Fall of 2004. The Sciences Section of the Max Planck Human Sciences initial time window for this Network Society and as a platform for inter- Section of the Max is five years (2005–2009). During national collaboration. Institutional Planck Society, this period, the substantive task of partnerships have been established Karolinska Insti- the Network is to focus on the with the University of Virginia and tute, Stockholm, behavioral and social sciences of the Karolinska Institute, Stockholm. University of aging, broadly defined, with topical Virginia emphases on research about aging Semiannual meetings on topics of reflected in such fields as cognitive human aging, ranging across the full and social neuroscience, demogra- spectrum of the behavioral and so- phy, psychology, law, history of sci- cial sciences and the humanities, ence, cultural studies, sociology, provide the primary basis for foster- economics, and the humanities. ing cross-disciplinary discussion and The primary goals are to: collaboration. Funds are available to (1) Signal and initiate the long- seed new research initiatives and range commitment of the Max special seminars. Planck Society to the topic of in- The Network consists of a core dividual and societal aging permanent group of Senior and (2) Open new lines of inquiry into Junior Fellows. In addition, Network the behavioral- and social sci- Affiliates and Observers are invited ence-study of aging to specific activities to ensure the (3) Foster cross-disciplinary discus- infusion of new ideas and emphases. sion about aging The main Network office is located (4) Provide a platform for inter- at the Max Planck Institute for national research collaboration Human Development in Berlin. (5) Attract excellent young scholars Jacqui Smith is the Deputy Director. to the field of gerontology

Cooperation with Universities 31

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition Contents

Introductory Overview ...... 35

Bounded Rationality ...... 37

Ecological Rationality ...... 45

Social Rationality ...... 56

Evolutionary Psychology ...... 60

Methods, Metaphors, and Theory Construction ...... 63

Publications 2003–2004 ...... 68

Scientific Staff 2003–2004

Uwe Czienskowski, Anja Dieckmann, Gerd Gigerenzer, Ralph Hertwig (as of 2003: University of Basel), Ulrich Hoffrage (as of 2004: University of Lausanne), John M. C. Hutchinson, Konstantinos Katsikopoulos, Monika Keller, Jörg Rieskamp, Lael Schooler, Peter M. Todd Postdoctoral Research Fellows Will Bennis, Henry J. Brighton, Barbara Fasolo (as of 2004: London School of Economics), Stephanie Kurzenhäuser (as of 2004: University of Basel), Shenghua Luan, Magnus Persson, Markus Raab (as of 2003: University of Flensburg), Torsten Reimer (as of 2003: University of Basel), Julia Schooler, Masanori Takezawa, Annika Wallin (as of 2004: University of Lund) Predoctoral Research Fellows Guido Biele (LIFE), Thomas Dudey (as of 2004: itelligence AG), Wolfgang Gaißmaier, Michaela Gummerum (LIFE), Yaniv Hanoch (as of 2004: University of California at Los Angeles), Bettina von Helversen (LIFE), Timothy Johnson, Rui Mata (LIFE), Thorsten Pachur (LIFE), Benjamin Scheibehenne, Andreas Wilke (LIFE), Jutta Wittig (LIFE)

34 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition Introductory Overview Truth is ever to be found in simplicity, The Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition (ABC) investigates reasoning and not in the mul- and decision making under uncertainty at the levels of both individuals and tiplicity and social groups. The research group consists of psychologists, mathematicians, confusion of computer scientists, evolutionary biologists, economists, and researchers things. from other fields. With different methodological abilities—such as experi- Isaac Newton mental methods, computer simulation, and mathematical analysis—they cooperate in solving the same problems. In this world noth- The ABC program combines a strong theoretical focus with practical applica- ing is certain but tions, that is, the research group both develops specific models and explores death and taxes. their applications. Those applications range from designing aids for web- Benjamin Franklin based decisions to teaching statistical thinking and improving statistical reasoning—for instance, of expert witnesses in law courts—by particular representations of numerical information about risks. The theoretical focus is on rationality and can be, albeit artificially, divided into three aspects: bounded, ecological, and social rationality.

Bounded Rationality that such a match exists, heuristics Models of bounded rationality at- need not trade accuracy for speed tempt to answer the question of and frugality. The simultaneous how people with limited time, focus on the mind and its environ- knowledge, money, and other scarce ment, past and present, puts re- resources make decisions. This pro- search on decision making under un- gram is an alternative to the domi- certainty into an evolutionary and nant optimization paradigm in cog- ecological framework, a framework nitive science, economics, and be- that is missing in most theories of havioral biology that poses the reasoning, both descriptive and nor- question of how Laplacean super- mative. In short, we study the adap- intelligences or near omniscient tation of mental and social strate- beings would behave. We study the gies to real-world environments proximal mechanisms of bounded rather than compare strategies to rationality, that is, the adaptive the laws of logic and probability heuristics that enable quick and theory. frugal decisions under uncertainty. This collection of heuristics and their Social Rationality building blocks is what we call the Social rationality is a variant of eco- adaptive toolbox. logical rationality, one for which the environment is social rather than Ecological Rationality physical or technical. Models of so- Models of ecological rationality de- cial rationality describe the structure scribe the structure and representa- of social environments and their tion of information in actual match with boundedly rational environments and their match with strategies people use. There is a vari- mental strategies, such as boundedly ety of goals and heuristics unique to rational heuristics. To the degree social environments. That is, in addi-

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition 35 tion to the goals that define ecologi- consensus. To a much higher degree cal rationality—to make fast, frugal, than for the purely cognitive focus and fairly accurate decisions—social of most research on bounded ration- rationality is concerned with goals, ality, socially adaptive heuristics in- such as choosing an option that one clude emotions and social norms can defend with argument or moral that can act as heuristic principles justification, or that can create a for decision making.

These three notions of rationality (according to which the present text is largely structured) converge on the same central issue: to understand human behavior and cognition as adaptations to specific environments, ecological and social, and to discover the heuristics that guide adaptive behavior. In a fourth section, we report on work that directly relates to evolutionary psychology, which, as a metatheoretical framework, lies behind the “adaptive” in our center’s name. The research reported in the last section relates to methodological, historical, and theoretical questions, in particular the influence of methodological preferences—such as linear models—on theories of cognition. Our reflections on methodologies constitute a source of ideas that is of central importance to modeling visions of rationality. The ABC program is an invitation to take a journey into an exciting territory. The journey ventures into a land of rationality that is different to the familiar one we know from the many stories in cognitive science and economics—tales in which humans with unlimited time and knowledge live in a world where the sun of enlightenment shines down in beams of logic and probability. The new land of rationality we set out to explore is, in contrast, shrouded in a mist of uncertainty. People in this world have only limited time, knowledge, and computational capacities with which to make inferences about what happens in their world. The notions of bounded, ecological, and social rationality are our guides to understanding how humble humans survive without following the heavenly rules of rational choice theory.

36 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition Bounded Rationality Key References Hutchinson, J. M. C., & Humans and animals must make inferences about unknown features of their Gigerenzer, G. (in press-b). Simple heuristics and rules world under constraints of limited time, knowledge, and computational of thumb: Where psychol- capacities. We do not conceive bounded rationality as optimization under ogists and behavioural biologists might meet. constraints, nor do we think of bounded rationality as the study of how peo- Behavioural Processes. ple fail to meet normative ideals. Rather, bounded rationality is the key to Gigerenzer, G. & Selten, R. understanding how people make decisions without utilities and probabilities. (Eds.). (2001a). Bounded rationality: The adaptive Bounded rationality consists of simple step-by-step rules that function well toolbox. Cambridge, MA: under the constraints of limited search, knowledge, and time—whether an MIT Press (377 p.). optimal procedure is available or not. Just as a mechanic will pull out specific wrenches, pliers, and spark-plug gap gauges to maintain an engine rather than just hit everything with a hammer, different domains of thought require different specialized tools. The notion of a toolbox full of unique single-function devices lacks the beauty of Leibniz’s dream of a single all- purpose inferential power tool. Instead, it evokes the abilities of a craftsman, who can provide serviceable solutions to almost any problem with just what is at hand.

The Adaptive Toolbox Fast and Frugal Heuristics This repertoire of specialized cogni- Fast and frugal heuristics generally Gigerenzer, G., Todd, P. M., & the ABC Research tive mechanisms, which include fast consist of three building blocks: sim- Group. (1999). Simple and frugal heuristics, were shaped by ple rules for guiding search for infor- heuristics that make us smart. New York: Oxford evolution, learning, and culture for mation (in memory or in the environ- University Press (416 p.). specific domains of inference and ment), for stopping search, and for reasoning. We call this collection of decision making. They are effective mechanisms the “adaptive toolbox.” when they can exploit the structures We clarify the concept of an adap- of information in the environment. tive toolbox as follows: That is, their rationality is a form of – It refers to a specific group of rules “ecological rationality” rather than or heuristics rather than to a gen- one of consistency and coherence. eral-purpose decision-making al- We have continued to explore how gorithm. fast and frugal heuristics mesh with – These heuristics are fast, frugal, diverse disciplines, such as biology, and computationally cheap rather economics, and cognitive psychology, than consistent, coherent, and and have applied them in the areas general. of consumer behavior, medicine, and – These heuristics are adapted to the law. For example, a review by particular environments, past or Hutchinson and Gigerenzer (in press- present, physical or social. b) compares ABC’s approach to biol- – The heuristics in the adaptive tool- ogists’ research into simple rules of box are orchestrated by some thumb used by animals. A primary mechanism reflecting the impor- goal of the paper is to highlight what tance of conflicting motivations each school might learn from the and goals. other. For instance only a few papers

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition 37 Key Reference in biology recognize that simple rules signed to the coronary care unit or a Martignon, L., Foster, M., might outperform more complex regular nursing bed? In a Michigan Vitouch, O., & Takezawa, ones, and biology lacks ABC’s theo- hospital, doctors sent 90% of their M. (2003). Simple heuristics versus complex pre- retical perspective on how the best patients to the coronary care unit. dictive instruments: Which method of combining information This defensive decision making lead is better and why? In D. Hardman & L. Macchi from several cues depends on the to a reduction in the quality of care (Eds.), Thinking: Psycholog- statistical structure of the environ- because of overcrowding in the ical perspectives on reasoning, judgment and deci- ment. ABC might learn from biologi- coronary care unit. An expert system sion making (pp. 189–211). cal examples of the order in which and logistic regression did a better Chichester: Wiley. cues are inspected, which seems to job of triage than the physicians, but depend not so much on validity, but the doctors did not take to these on the cost of inspecting different systems because they did not under- cues and when each becomes appar- stand how they worked. To find a ent as the animal approaches. solution, researchers and the Univer- In the following, we will selectively sity of Michigan Hospital (Green & report on some of the new findings Mehr, 1997) used the building blocks and new areas of applications of Take The Best to design the simple classification tree depicted in Fast and Frugal Trees Figure 1. A man is rushed to the hospital with The Green and Mehr (1997) tree is serious chest pains. The doctors sus- an example of a fast and frugal tree, pect a myocardial infarction (heart a concept introduced by Martignon, attack) and need to make a quick Forster, Vitouch, and Takezawa decision: Should the patient be as- (2003). These trees are simple se- Figure 1. A fast and frugal quential heuristics for assigning ob- tree for coronary care unit allocation. jects to one of two categories based on the values of a small number of Fast and frugal tree: Coronary care unit decisions binary cues. Even though they require little information, they still ST segment changes? produce accurate classifications. In the heart disease example, the no yes heuristic first asks whether the ST segment in the electrocardiogram is Chief complaint Coronary of chest pain? care elevated or not. If it is, the patient is unit immediately classified as being at a yes no high risk. If the ST segment is not elevated, the value of a second cue is Regular Any one other factor? inspected, and so on. The important (NTG, MI, ST , ST , T) nursing ⇔ ⇔ bed point is that after each cue is looked no yes up a classification can be made without consulting additional cues. Understanding why these simple Regular Coronary nursing care trees perform so well and how they bed unit relate to other heuristics is currently an active area of research in the Source. Based on Green & Mehr, 1997. group. The simplicity of these trees

38 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition produces pedagogical benefits as option-generation process. In hand- Key References well. Fast and frugal trees can be ball, for instance, a player generates Dhami, M. K. (2003). Psy- drawn simply, making them easy for options under time pressure: pass the chological models of professional decision-making. practitioners to see how they work. ball to the player on the left, the Psychological Science, 14, In another application, Dhami (2003) right, or take a shot. Do players make 175–180. used fast and frugal trees to describe better decisions if they have more Johnson, J. G., & Raab, M. (2003). Take the first: Op- the process by which jurors in Eng- time to generate more options? tion-generation and re- land make bail-or-jail decisions. Johnson and Raab (2003) placed sulting choices. Organiza- tional Behavior and Human experienced handball players in Decision Processes, 91, Coping With Too Much Choice realistic situations that they might 215–229. For many fast and frugal heuristics, encounter during play and asked including the trees described above, the athletes what they would do. the number of alternatives in the Figure 2 shows that the quality of choice set is fixed, and the focus is the options, as rated by experts, de- on how information about these al- teriorates with each successive op- ternatives is processed. We now turn tion generated. to a set of studies where the focus is on situations in which there are Decision-Facilitating Websites many options to choose from. The number of options is not only an issue in sports, but even more so for Take the First consumers: Most decisions nowa- Research into decision making often days present us with the “tyranny” uses tasks in which participants are of too much information and too presented with alternatives from much choice. One dramatic example which they must choose. Although is shopping online, where one is eas- tasks of this type may be useful in ily confronted with hundreds, if not determining measures (e.g., prefer- thousands, of products characterized ence) related to explicitly stated al- by dozens of attributes. To assist ternatives, they neglect an important these difficult choices, a number of aspect of many real-world decision- “decision-facilitating websites,” such making environments, namely, the as www.activebuyersguide.com have

16.00 Figure 2. Frequency of “appropriate” decisions, as 14.00 rated by experts, summed over participants and 12.00 trials, for the generated options in each serial 10.00 position, with standard- 8.00 error bars. The result illustrates that a decision

Frequency 6.00 based on the first alternative that comes to mind 4.00 is often better than one based on generating many 2.00 alternatives. 0.00 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th Serial position Source. Johnson & Raab, 2003.

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition 39 Key References appeared on the Internet. Curiously, designs: frugality and transparency, Fasolo, B., McClelland, G. there appear to be two prevailing on the one hand, and ability to inte- H., & Lange, K. A. (in designs of decision-facilitating web- grate conflicting attributes, on the press). The effect of site design and inattribute cor- sites: those that facilitate fast and other. Fasolo, McClelland, and Todd relations on interactive frugal decisions that do not require (in press) examine one such algo- web-based decisions. In C. P. Haugtvedt, K. Machleit, compensation between a bad and a rithm that could be implemented in & R. Yalch (Eds.), Online good attribute (noncompensatory future decision-facilitating websites. consumer psychology: Un- derstanding and influenc- sites); and those that draw on the By means of simulations, they show ing behavior in the virtual normative decision process of Multi- that, in the presence of two con- world. Mahwah, NJ: Erl- baum. Attribute Utility Theory, and let good straints, consumers can make good Fasolo, B., McClelland, G. and bad attributes compensate for choices despite neglecting most of H., & Todd, P. M. (in each other (compensatory sites). the available product attributes. In press). Escaping the First appearing in the US, decision- particular, only one attribute is tyranny of choice: When fewer attributes make facilitating websites gradually mi- enough to select a good option—one choice easier. Marketing grated to Europe. Fasolo, Motta, and within 90% of the highest value Theory (Special issue on Judgement and Decision Misuraca (in press) review and com- possible—as long as either the at- Making). pare decision-facilitating websites tributes are all positively correlated, Hutchinson, J. M. C. popular in the US and in Europe, or they are of unequal importance to (2005). Is more choice always desirable? Evidence focusing on Italy. The review high- the decision maker. and arguments from leks, lights the greater popularity of non- food selection, and environmental enrichment. compensatory sites because of their Biological Examples of Excessive Biological Reviews, 80, greater transparency and user- Choice 73–92. friendliness, compared to compensa- Hutchinson (2005) reviewed evi- tory websites. dence in animals of whether too Fasolo, McClelland, and Lange (in much choice is ever aversive. The press) ran experiments to compare three key questions were whether consumers’ perceptions and choices animals prefer to visit sites where on compensatory and noncompen- there is more choice, whether they satory sites. They found that liking are more likely to choose an item at and quality of choices on the two such sites, and whether the items sites depended on the structure of chosen at more diverse sites are bet- the choice environment. When ter. For instance, a reanalysis of data choices presented trade-offs among on mating skew in leks (aggregations conflicting attributes (i.e., where at- of males) of different sizes sug- tributes were negatively correlated), gested that the probability of choos- the compensatory site was better ing one of the top n% of males liked, but choice was perceived as might be highest at intermediate lek difficult. Vice-versa, when trade-offs sizes. were not present (attributes were positively correlated), the noncom- Modeling the Hindsight Bias With pensatory site was better liked and Fast and Frugal Heuristics choice was perceived as easy. Some years ago, the work on fast This work highlighted the need to in- and frugal heuristics was extended vestigate compensatory multiattrib- to model a well-known phenomenon ute algorithms that could combine of memory research, the hindsight the advantages of the two website bias. Hindsight bias can occur when

40 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition people make a judgment or choice bias. This work was included in a Key References and are later asked to recall what special issue on the hindsight bias, Hertwig, R., Fanselow, C., their judgment had been. If, in the which appeared 2003 in & Hoffrage, U. (2003). Memory, Hindsight bias: How interim, they are told what the cor- with Ulrich Hoffrage and Rüdiger knowledge and heuristics rect judgment should have been, Pohl as guest editors. affect our reconstruction of the past. Memory, 11, their memory for their own judg- 357–377. ment tends to become biased toward The Benefits of Cognitive Limits Hertwig, R., & Todd, P. M. the new information. To explain this The premise that human informa- (2003). More is not always phenomenon, Hoffrage, Hertwig, and tion-processing capacity is limited is better: The benefits of cognitive limits. In D. Gigerenzer (2000) developed the usually accompanied by another as- Hardman & L. Macchi RAFT model (Reconstruction After sumption, namely, that these limita- (Eds.), Thinking: Psycholog- Feedback with Take The Best). The tions pose a liability: They constrain ical perspectives on reasoning , judgment, and core assumption of the model is that our cognitive potential. These limita- decision making (pp. 213– new information updates the knowl- tions bar us from performing feats, 231). Chichester: Wiley. edge base, which, in turn, will be such as reciting the Iliad from mem- Hoffrage, U., & Pohl, R. F. (Eds.). (2003). Hindsight used to reconstruct the initial re- ory or, for many of us, remembering bias. Special Issue of sponse. the three things we were to pick up Memory (Vol. 11, Issue 4/5, pp. 329–504; Recently, Hertwig, Fanselow, and at the store. Even more sinister, 11 articles). Hoffrage (2003) put this model to a though, is that these cognitive limits further test. Although typically con- are also suspected of being culpable sidered to be a robust phenomenon, for lapses of reasoning. The link be- the hindsight bias is subject to mod- tween cognitive limitations and rea- erating circumstances. A well-known soning errors, more generally, and meta-analysis of the phenomenon human irrationality can be found in revealed that the more experience such disparate research programs as people have with the task under Piaget’s theory of the cognitive de- consideration, the smaller is the re- velopment of children, Johnson- sulting hindsight bias. This observa- Laird’s mental model theory, and tion is one benchmark against which Kahneman and Tversky’s heuristics- Hoffrage, U., Hertwig, R., the explanatory power of the process and-biases program. By bringing to- & Gigerenzer, G. (2000). models of hindsight bias can be gether ideas on cognitive limits from Hindsight bias: A by-prod- measured. Can the RAFT model ac- a variety of fields, Hertwig and Todd uct of knowledge updating? Journal of Experimen- count for this “expertise effect”? Yes. (2004) challenge the seemingly tal Psychology: Learning, Specifically, using computer simula- obligatory connection between cog- Memory, and Cognition, 26, 566–581. tions of the RAFT model, Hertwig, nitive limitations and human irra- Fanselow, and Hoffrage observed tionality. While not doubting that that the more comprehensive deci- limits can exact a price, they ques- sion makers’ prior knowledge is, the tion their exclusively negative status. smaller is their hindsight bias. In First, the thesis is put forth that de- addition, they made two counter- cision-making strategies that take intuitive observations: First, the rela- limitations into account need not be tion between prior knowledge and less accurate than strategies with hindsight bias appears to be inde- little regard for those limitations; in pendent of how knowledge is pro- fact, in psychologically important cessed. Second, even if prior knowl- contexts, simple strategies can actu- edge is false, it can reduce hindsight ally outperform “unbounded” strate-

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition 41 Key References gies. Second, it is argued that limita- of cognition, specified to such a de- Schooler, L. J., & Hertwig, tions in processing capacity can ac- gree that phenomena from percep- R. (in press). How forget- tually enable rather than disable im- tual search to the learning of alge- ting aids heuristic inference. Psychological portant adaptive functions. Third, it bra can be modeled within the same Review. is suggested that some of the rea- framework. In particular, ACT-R of- Goldstein, D. G., & soning errors produced by the mind’s fers a plausible model of memory Gigerenzer, G. (2002). Models of ecological ra- cognitive limits fulfill important that is tuned to the statistical struc- tionality: The recognition adaptive functions. Finally, the as- ture of environmental events. heuristic. Psychological Review, 109, 75–90. sumption is challenged that simple This model of memory was central to decision-making strategies have Schooler and Hertwig’s (in press) im- evolved in response to the cognitive plementation of the recognition limitations of the human mind. The heuristic and the fluency heuristic, reverse causality is suggested and both of which depend on phenome- the thesis is submitted that capacity nological assessments of memory re- constraints may, in fact, be a by- trieval. The former operates on product of the evolution of simple knowledge about whether a stimulus strategies. can be recognized, while the latter relies on an assessment of the flu- How Forgetting Aids Heuristic ency, the speed, with which a stimu- Inference lus is processed. By grounding these Forgetfulness is amongst our most memory-based heuristics in a cogni- troublesome cognitive limitations. tive architecture, they aimed to pre- Why don’t we have the perfect recall cisely define these heuristics and an- of a computer memory chip? A few alyze whether and how loss of infor- theorists have argued that forgetting mation—that is, forgetting—fosters should not be seen as a limitation, their performance. Using computer but as key to the proper working of simulations, the authors demon- human memory. Essentially, forget- strated that forgetting boosts the ting prevents outdated information accuracy of the recognition heuristic from interfering with more recent (Goldstein & Gigerenzer, 2002), information that is likely to be more which relies on systematic failures of relevant. Schooler and Hertwig (in recognition to infer which of two press) propose that forgetting may, objects scores higher on a criterion in addition, prove beneficial for in- value. Similarly, simulations of the ference heuristics that exploit fluency heuristic, which arrives at mnemonic information, such as the same inference on the basis of recognition and retrieval fluency. To the speed with which the two ob- explore the mechanisms that link jects are recognized, indicate that loss of information and heuristic forgetting helps maintain the dis- performance, they implemented the criminability of recognition speeds. recognition heuristic (Goldstein & Thus, the ignorance that forgetting Gigerenzer, 2002) and the fluency brings can, paradoxically, enhance heuristic (e.g., Jacoby & Dallas, inferences about real objects in the 1981) in ACT-R (Anderson & Lebiere, world. 1998). The ACT-R research program strives to develop a coherent theory

42 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition How Emotions Aid Fast and Frugal by the executive or by the courts. All Key References Heuristics these formal institutions function Engel, C., & Gigerenzer, G. Following Herbert Simon’s claim that under complex procedural rules that (Eds.). (in press). Heuristics and the law. Cambridge, a complete explanatory account of do not seem open for parsimonious MA: MIT Press. human rationality must identify the context-specific decision rules. On Muramatsu, R. & Hanoch, significance of emotions for choice closer inspection, however, one finds Y. (in press). Emotion as a mechanism for bounded behavior, Muramatsu and Hanoch (in legislators responding to scandal, rational agents: The fast press) propose a strategy to study administrators taking one-reason and frugal way. Journal of the significance of emotion in deci- decisions, and courts cutting Economic Psychology. Hanoch, Y., & Vitouch, O. sion-making processes. They argue through complex cases by relying on (2004). When less is more: that emotions exert systematic in- what they perceive to be their Information, emotional arousal and the ecological fluence on thinking and choice. They salient features. Research in psy- reframing of the Yerkes- alter one’s goal prioritization, deter- chology has identified situations in Dodson Law. Theory and mine the relative salience of aspects which heuristics can Psychology, 14 (4), fast and frugal 427–452. of a task, shape cost–benefit assess- lead to more accurate decisions than ments, often tell us when to stop more elaborate strategies that use processing information, and render more information, time, and re- unthinkable many options for the sources. Can a less-is-more ap- decision maker. proach be applied to law as well? Hanoch and Vitouch (2004) chal- When are fewer rules better than lenge the idea that high levels of more? Should legal rules be designed emotional arousal are necessarily so that the authorities entrusted detrimental for performance, which with their application need less in- is a common interpretation of the formation? How many tax laws does Yerkes-Dodson Law. In contrast to a society need? prevailing assumptions that having These results can provide a new per- more information available is neces- spective and stimulation for two im- sarily preferable to having less infor- portant programs. The law and eco- mation, they show that the adaptive nomics movement offered rational value of high emotional arousal choice theory as a descriptive ac- stems precisely from its ability to count of human behavior and social restrict agents’ attention. By this or aggregate utility maximization as process agents are able to perform two vital functions: (i) focus their Dahlem Workshop on Heuristics and the Law attention on the most urgent and In June 2004, 40 scholars from law, psychology, economics, and related fields vital information within the environ- participated in a five-day Dahlem workshop to clarify the role of heuristics in the ment while overlooking peripheral law. The workshop was organized by Christoph Engel, of the Max Planck Institute for Research on Collective Goods in Bonn, and Gerd Gigerenzer, and centered on information and (ii) mobilize the four key questions: Are heuristics a problem or a solution? What is the role of body to deal quickly with urgent heuristics in making law? What is the role of heuristics in court? How do heuris- problems. tics mediate the impact of law on behavior? As in all Dahlem workshops, the conference was not based on a series of talks. Rather, the editors asked 16 of the participants to write a paper on a specified Heuristics and the Law topic, and these were distributed months before the workshop to all participants. Most lawyers would posit “heuristics The participants were then asked to comment on the papers whose topics they and the law” to be a nonissue. In felt competent on, and these comments were also distributed before the workshop started. The five days of meetings were spent exclusively on intensive dis- continental law, rules are generated cussion and on writing the four group reports, addressing the four key questions. by Parliament, and they are applied The revised chapters will be published by MIT Press.

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition 43 a prescriptive goal for the design of work of the heuristics and biases legal rules. However, many scholars program. This has been enormously in the law and economics tradition fruitful research, but has been in- became dissatisfied with a standard clined to share the same half- of individual utility maximization empty-glass perspective displayed by that sometimes ran dangerously the judgment and decision-making close to being nonfalsifiable. This literature more generally. Behavioral had particular salience in areas such law and economics scholars have as smoking or obesity, where large tended to extrapolate from the portions of the policy community heuristics and biases research with- simply refused to accept the idea out appreciating the way in which that individual choices were not that research’s aim of identifying amounting to a problem, even for “general-purpose heuristics” might the individual choosers themselves. not be well suited to the purpose of The second project, behavioral law making domain-specific policy rec- and economics, has been heavily in- ommendations. fluenced by the conceptual frame-

The ABC Research Group in 2004

Left to right, front row to back row: Monika Keller, Rocio Garcia Retamero, Gerd Gigerenzer, Henry Brighton, John Hutchinson; Michaela Gummerum, Tim Johnson, Benjamin Scheibehenne, Shenghua Luan; Lael Schooler, Bettina von Helversen, Anja Dieckmann, Masanori Takezawa; Ulrich Hoffrage, Nathan Berg, Jörg Rieskamp; Rui Mata, Will Bennis, Wolfgang Gaißmaier, Thorsten Pachur; Magnus Persson, Andreas Wilke, Jutta Wittig, Guido Biele, Peter Todd (not pictured: Uwe Czienskowski, Yaniv Hanoch, Konstantinos Katsikopoulos, Julia Schooler).

44 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition Ecological Rationality

Fast and frugal heuristics can perform as well, or better, than algorithms that involve complex computations. Even if humans had the mental computational power to use such complex algorithms, they would not gain much, if anything at all, by using them. The astonishingly high accuracy of these heuristics indicates their ecological rationality; fast and frugal heuristics exploit the statistical structure of the environment, and they are adapted to this structure. Our upcoming group book, the follow-up to Simple Heuristics That Make Us Smart, will focus on ecological rationality by exploring the ways that simple decision mechanisms fit with particular information structures in their environment. The book will cover heuristic building blocks and decision trees, social and nonsocial environments, as well as how people structure their own environments for easier cognition, and it will feature decision domains ranging from medical diagnosis to choosing a parking space. Navigating through the environment puts people into the business of making bets: Bets about the structure of the environment and about the risks they face. In this section, we highlight the costs that can be paid when people place bad bets about the risks of travel, and explore the processes that people use to assess risk.

The Risky Business of Avoiding These high-consequence, but low- Key Reference Risks probability events are called dread Gigerenzer, G. (2004a). Catastrophic events, such as the ter- If Americans avoided the dread Dread risk, September 11, risks. and fatal traffic accidents. rorist attack on September 11, 2001, risk of flying after the terrorist attack Psychological Science, 15, in which many people are killed at and instead drove some of the miles 286–287. one point in time, as opposed to sit- not flown, one would expect an in- uations where the same number of crease in traffic fatalities—a second people are killed over a longer pe- toll of lives that has apparently gone riod, tend to generate great fear. unnoticed. But has this happened? Figure 3. Number of fatal traffic accidents in the United States in 1996 3,600 through 2000 versus 2001. The blue line represents 3,400 the means for the years 1996 through 2000, the 3,200 vertical black bars indicate the highest and lowest val- 3,000 ues for those years, and the red squares indicate 2,800 the values for 2001. Note the increase of fatal traffic 2,600 accidents in the three 2001 months following Septem- 2,400 1996–2000 ber 11. During these Number of fatal traffic accidents months an estimated 350 2,200 Americans lost their lives Jan Feb Mar Apr MayJun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec on the road, presumably in the attempt to avoid the Source. Gigerenzer, 2004a. risk of flying.

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition 45 Key References After September 11, millions of exposed to the fact that driving a car Hertwig, R., Pachur, T., & Americans stopped, or reduced, their for 12 miles is as risky as one non- Kurzenhäuser, S. (in air travel. According to the Air stop flight (even after September 11). press). Judgments of risk frequencies: Tests of possi- Transport Association, the national Thus, if one arrives safely at the air- ble cognitive machanisms. revenue passenger miles decreased port with the car, the most danger- Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, in October, November, and December ous part of the trip may already be Memory, and Cognition. 2001 by 20%, 17%, and 12%, past. To prevent a similar secondary Pachur, T., Rieskamp, J., & respectively. Reports of increased ve- toll of lives happening again in the Hertwig, R. (in press). The social circle heuristic: Fast hicle miles from the American Office future, the public should be better and frugal decisions based of Highway Policy Information sug- informed about psychological reac- on small samples. In K. Forbus, D. Gentner, & T. gest that a number of these Ameri- tions to catastrophic events and the Regier (Eds.) Proceedings cans instead chose to drive: Com- potential risk of avoiding risk. of the 26th Annual Confer- pared with 2000, monthly miles ence of the Cognitive Science Society. Mahwah, driven were on average 0.9% higher Sample-Based Inferences About NJ: Erlbaum. before September 2001, but 2.9% Risk Hertwig, R., Barron, G., higher in the three months follow- When trying to infer the frequency Weber, E. U., & Erev, I. (2004). Decisions from ex- ing. In the last three months of the of occurrence of events in real-world perience and the effect of year, the largest traffic increase oc- environments, people cannot typi- rare events in risky choice. Psychological Science, 15, curred on rural interstate highways cally consult frequency tables that 534–539. (5.3%), which is consistent with the provide summary statistics. Instead, hypothesis that there was an in- they need to make such inferences crease in long-distance travel by car. on the basis of limited information. As Figure 3 shows, the number of fa- Such information can come in two tal crashes from January through forms—either in terms of cues or in August 2001 closely followed the terms of samples of the event in numbers for the five preceding years, question. Most heuristics in the whereas from October through De- adaptive toolbox embody cue-based cember 2001, it consistently rose at inferences, but recently ABC has be- or above the upper range of the pre- gun to consider models for sample- vious years. A more detailed analysis based inferences. Pachur, Rieskamp, (Gigerenzer, 2004a) estimated that and Hertwig (in press) developed and 350 people lost their lives by trying tested the social circle heuristic, a to avoid the risk of flying in the heuristic for judging which of two three months following September events (e.g., health risks) occurs 2001. This number is higher than the more often in the population. The total number of passengers and crew heuristic relies exclusively on the killed on the four fatal planes. number of occurrences of the events Preventing terrorist attacks is diffi- in a person’s social circle (i.e., self, cult, but avoiding the second, psy- friends, family, acquaintances), chologically caused toll of lives is which are searched sequentially. As possible, and should become a focus soon as enough occurrences of the of security policy. The pictures of the events are recalled to discriminate planes striking the twin towers between the frequencies of the —shown again and again on TV— events, search is stopped. The appealed to emotion and increased heuristic implies that frequency fear. In contrast, few citizens were judgments are often made based on

46 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition very small samples. In computer sim- sequential sampling rather than in a ulations Pachur et al. demonstrated summary format was studied by that the heuristic is ecologically Hertwig, Barron, Weber, & Erev rational: That is, in particular real- (2004) in a context in which people world environments, it makes as ac- are asked to decide between two curate judgments as models that rely lotteries (e.g., A: Get $4 with proba- on much larger samples. bility .8, $0 otherwise, or B: Get $3 To what extent do people use infor- for sure). The most prominent mation about the frequency of descriptive theory of how people events in their social networks to decide between such lotteries is the make inferences about the frequency prospect theory (Kahneman & of occurrence of health risks, such as Tversky, 1979; Tversky & Kahneman, cancer, tornados, motor vehicle acci- 1992). This theory posits that, rela- dents, or tuberculosis? To investigate tive to the objective probabilities what mechanisms people use when with which an outcome can be judging risk frequencies, Hertwig, expected to occur, people make Pachur, and Kurzenhäuser (in press) choices as if small-probability events asked participants to pick out of two receive more weight than they de- health risks the more frequent one in serve and as if large-probability Germany, and to estimate the num- events receive less weight than they ber of people who are annually af- deserve. Hertwig et al. (2004) argued fected by the risks. The authors that—in contrast to the standard specified predictions for four differ- paradigm for studying decisions be- ent candidate mechanisms to ac- tween gambles, in which people are count for these judgments. Of the provided with a symbolic, usually four candidates, two mechanisms written descriptions about the prob- accounted for people’s judgments abilities of the outcomes of gambles best. The first, similar in spirit to the (decision by description)—we rarely social-circle heuristic, makes fre- have complete knowledge of the quency judgments based on the possible outcomes of our actions and number of cases in a person’s social their probabilities. Instead, we rely network (availability-by-recall); and on the experience that we have ac- the second, a mechanism that as- cumulated over time. Hertwig et al. sumes that frequencies are moni- referred to this kind of choice as a tored automatically and people’s es- decision from experience. To find out timates accurately reflect actual fre- whether people behave differently quencies (though slightly regressed when deciding from experience op- toward the mean; regressed-fre- posed to deciding from description, quency). The superior fit of these Hertwig et al. (2004) created an ex- mechanisms thus suggest that peo- perimental environment in which ple have a relatively good sensitivity people had to learn the outcome to the frequencies of health risks. probabilities associated with pairs of Sampling-based heuristics have dif- lotteries by sampling from either ficulty picking up on extremely rare distribution as many times as they events. The consequences of obtain- wished. After they stopped sampling, ing probabilistic information by they were asked which lottery they

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition 47 Key Reference wanted to play for real payoffs. As it this out, Hoffrage, Weber, Hertwig, Hoffrage, U., Weber, A., turned out, compared to the choices and Chase (2003) placed 44 children Hertwig, R., & Chase, V. of respondents who received written on the curb of a busy one-way street (2003). How to keep children safe in traffic: descriptions of each option, the in Munich where there was no traf- Find the daredevils early. choices by respondents who were fic light or crosswalk. They then Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 9, allowed to sample the possible out- asked them to indicate when they 249–260. comes freely and repeatedly sug- thought it was safe to cross the gested that rare events had less im- street. As expected, some children pact than they deserved (given their were more likely than others to say objective probability)—the opposite they could still cross the street when of the predictions from the prospect it was potentially dangerous to do theory. so. Did children’s willingness to take To account for the dramatic differ- risks in the street correlate with ence between decisions from de- their willingness to take risks in the scription and decisions from experi- laboratory? ence, Hertwig and colleagues cited The researchers played two games two factors—small samples and a with the children, a gambling game recency effect. First, the experience and a computer game. In the gam- group tended to rely on small sam- bling game, each child was pre- ples of outcomes, which meant that sented with ten wooden boxes, nine they either never encountered the of which contained coveted stickers; rare event or encountered it less fre- the tenth box contained a little quently than expected on the basis devil. The children were told to of its objective probability. Second, choose and open the boxes one-by- they paid more attention to recently one. If they chose the box with the experienced outcomes. In contrast, devil, the game ended and they lost having read about the rare events, their stickers; but if they stopped the the description group tend to exag- game before they found the devil’s gerate their importance. box, they were allowed to keep the stickers they had found. Children Individual Differences in Risk who stopped early were classified as Taking risk avoiders, while those who The topic of the next three sections pressed their luck were labeled risk is individual differences with respect to risk taking, and the development of measures to predict and to assess people’s willingness to take risks.

How to Identify the Young Daredevils in Traffic We start with the youngest age group that we studied: 5- to 6-year- olds. The risky activity under consideration is crossing the street in front of oncoming vehicles. Is each young pedestrian similarly at risk? To find

48 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition takers. In the computer game, the Individual Differences in Risk Taking Key Reference real-traffic scenario was simulated in Sports Raab, M., & Johnson, J. as closely as possible. Children were Individual players differ in the de- (2004). Individual differences of action-orienta- seated in front of a computer moni- gree to which they are willing take tion for risk-taking in tor that depicted—from an aerial risky decisions. A popular view is sports. Research Quarterly and Exercise Sport, 75, view—a stream of oncoming vehi- that such risky decisions can be ex- 326–336. cles, with gaps of varying size be- plained by differences in personality tween them. With a key press, the traits. Rather than simply identifying children sent a pedestrian across the differences in risk-taking behavior street. They were told that for every between individuals, Raab and John- successful crossing they would re- son (2004) explored the mechanisms ceive a piece of candy, whereas for that may underlie such differences. every accident they would lose three. A basketball task was used in which The classification of risk takers ver- participants had four options dis- sus risk avoiders was based on their played on a video screen that varied accident rates in this task. in the degree of associated risk. For It turned out that those children example, shooting to the basket was who were risk takers in the gambling considered a high-risk option, while task made more crossing decisions, passing to a play maker entails rela- especially when the gaps between tively little risk. Different versions of cars were of medium size—a time a computational model of decision when it is often unclear whether a making, Decision Field Theory, were child could safely cross. Second, they compared to evaluate whether be- tolerated shorter time intervals behavioral differences depend on such tween initiation of the crossing deci- factors as the focus of attention, the sion and arrival of the next vehicle, initial preference for particular be- and were more likely to cause a (hy- haviors, or an approach-avoidance pothetical) accident. Third, they interpretation of the task. In basket- made decisions more quickly than ball, risky shooting behavior can be risk avoiders. Finally, while boys were best explained by differences in the more likely than girls to make risky initial preferences for risky and safe decisions, whether a child was a risk options. taker according to the gambling game was a far better predictor of Is Risk Taking a Domain-General their street-crossing behavior than Phenomenon? gender. The computer game, in con- How to adequately measure risk- trast, did not predict behavior in the taking propensity has long been de- real-traffic situation, which may be bated among researchers in psychol- explained by the compensatory pay- ogy, economics, and other fields re- off structure: Candies lost with acci- flecting the importance of the dents could be compensated for with construct not only to researchers but successful crossings. Finding the also to policy making. Two of the devil’s box, however, was noncom- main problems researchers have run pensatory and led to loss of every- into are that, first, people tend not thing accumulated so far—as in the to be as generally risk seeking (or real-traffic situation. avoiding) as is often assumed, but

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition 49 Key References rather show differential risk taking way, namely, by studying the ques- Gigerenzer, G., Hertwig, across domains (e.g., a mountain tion of representation. Representa- R., van den Broek, E., climber who buys fire insurance) and tional formats constitute environ- Fasolo, B., & Katsiko- poulos, K. (in press). A second, that some typical risk–taking ments for cognition. This research 30% chance of rain to- measurements (e.g., assessing risk has practical relevance in many morrow. How does the public understand proba- propensity via choices made be- domains, such as diagnostic infer- bilistic weather forecasts? tween monetary gambles) do not ex- ence or risk assessment in legal Risk Analysis.. tend well to other risk domains or to cases, where the external represen- Zhu, L., & Gigerenzer, G. (in press). Children can behavior outside of the laboratory. tation of diagnostic information solve Bayesian problems: Recently, Weber, Blais, and Betz influences physicians’, counselors’, The role of representation in computation. Cognition. (2002) overcame these limitations by and lawyers’ performances. Johnson, J. G., Wilke, A., & hypothesizing domain-related with- Probabilities and percentages are Weber, E. U. (2004). Be- in-individual differences in attitudes representations of uncertainty that yond a trait view of risk- toward risk and developed a new were devised only a few hundred taking: A domain-specific scale measuring risk per- psychometric instrument to distin- years ago and still cause people ceptions, expected bene- guish risk-taking attitude and be- problems today. For instance, con- fits, and perceived risk attitude in German-speaking havior in different domains. Now, sider the statement: “There is a 30% populations. Polish Psycho- Johnson, Wilke, and Weber (2004) chance of rain tomorrow.” To investi- logical Bulletin, 35, 153–163. translated and validated the English gate what this means to people, Hoffrage, U., Lindsey, S., version of this domain-specific risk- Gigerenzer, Hertwig, van den Broek, Hertwig, R., & Gigerenzer, taking scale on more than 500 Ger- Fasolo, and Katsikopoulos (in press) G. (2000). Communicating statistical information. man participants. This German- surveyed citizens living in five cities Science, 290, 2261–2262. language scale assesses tendencies of five countries: New York, Amster- Gigerenzer, G., & to engage in risky behaviors as well dam, Berlin, Milan, and Athens, Hoffrage, U. (1995). How as perceptions of risks and expected where probabilities of rain were in- to improve Bayesian reasoning without instruc- benefits from such behaviors in six troduced in 1965, 1975, 1990, on tion: Frequency formats. distinct domains of risk taking: the Internet only, and not yet, re- Psychological Review, 102, 684–704. ethical, recreational, health, social, spectively. They approached pedes- investing, and gambling. As in the trians in public squares and asked English version, risk-taking as well them to indicate which of three al- as perceptions of risks and benefits ternatives is the most and the least were domain-specific, while per- appropriate interpretation of the ceived risk attitudes were more simi- statement “There is a 30% chance of lar across domains, thus supporting rain tomorrow.” The alternatives the use of a risk-return framework were (i) “It will rain tomorrow in for interpreting risk-taking propen- 30% of the region,” (ii) “It will rain sity. The translation has enabled tomorrow for 30% of the time,” and cross-cultural studies on domain- (iii) “It will rain on 30% of the days specific risk. For example, one study like tomorrow.” How does the public underway explores how risk taking in understand a quantitative probabil- different domains is used as a possi- ity of rain? Figure 4 shows that two ble cue in human mate choice. thirds of the participants in New York chose “days” as the correct ref- Information Representation erence, about one quarter chose We have pursued the issue of eco- “time,” and a few “region.” In con- logical rationality in yet another trast, in none of the European cities

50 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition 70 Figure 4. First Choice. Peo- Time ple in New York (n = 103), 60 Region Amsterdam (n = 117), Days Berlin (n = 219), Milan (n = 203), and Athens (n = 50 108) were asked what the statement "There is a 30% 40 chance of rain tomorrow” refers to. The three alter- 30 natives were "It will rain tomorrow for 30% of the time,” "in 30% of the re- 20 gion,” and "on 30% of the Proportion of first choice days like tomorrow.” Note 10 that most Europeans mis- understood that the "30%” is intended to refer 0 to the class of events of New York Amsterdam Berlin Milan Athens "days like tomorrow.” Source. Gigerenzer, Hertwig, van den Broek, Fasolo, & Katsikopoulos, in press. did we find a majority for “days.” The gists communicate risks in terms of favored interpretation in Amsterdam, single-event probabilities, they leave in Berlin, in Milan, and in Athens open what class of events this per- was “time.” centage refers to. Why does the public understand The ambiguity of a single-event probabilities in such multipe ways? probability in risk communication A forecast, such as “There is a 30% and the resulting possibility of mis- chance of rain tomorrow” conveys a communication is not limited to single-event probability, which by probabilities of rain. The same prob- definition leaves open the reference lem occurs, for instance, when sin- class (region, time, or days) to which gle-event probabilities are used by it refers. For the National Weather expert witnesses to explain DNA evi- Service, which defines the probabil- dence in the court, and by medical ity of precipitation “as the likelihood organizations that publicize state- of occurrence (expressed as a per- ments, such as “If a woman partici- cent) of a measurable amount of liq- pates in mammography screening, uid precipitation … during a speci- she reduces her risk of dying from fied period of time at any given breast cancer by 25%,” and women point in the forecast region,” a 30% systematically misunderstand this chance of rain does not mean that it percentage. Consider another med- will rain tomorrow in 30% of the re- ical scenario in which a physician gion or during 30% of the time. needs to infer the probability that an Rather, it means that it will rain in asymptomatic man has colorectal 30% of the days with similar cancer (C) after he received a posi- weather constellations as tomorrow. tive hemoccult test result (pos) in a The problem, however, is not simply routine screening. In terms of proba- the public’s lack of understanding; it bilities, the relevant information is the ambiguous communication of (concerning a population of men risk to the public. When meteorolo- aged 50) is a base rate for colorectal

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition 51 Key References cancer p(C) = 0.3%, a sensitivity serving cases that have been repre- Hoffrage, U., Lindsey, S., p(pos|C) = 50%, and a false positive sentatively sampled from a popula- Hertwig, R., & Gigerenzer, rate p(pos|C) = 3%. Whereas the tion. The same information repre- G. (2000). Communicating statistical information. Bayesian answer is 4.7%, typically sented in terms of natural frequen- Science, 290, 2261–2262. most lay-people (and also doctors) cies is: “Thirty out of every 10,000 Gigerenzer, G., & estimate this probability at approxi- people have colorectal cancer. Of Hoffrage, U. (1995). How to improve Bayesian rea- mately 50% or higher. This result these 30 people with colorectal can- soning without instruc- has been interpreted as the “base- cer, 15 will have a positive hemoc- tion: Frequency formats. Psychological Review, 102, rate neglect.” cult test. Of the remaining 9,970 684–704. To evaluate and understand the per- people without colorectal cancer, formance of the human mind, one 300 will still have a positive hemoc- needs to look at its environment cult test.” Natural frequencies sim- and, in particular, at the external plify Bayesian computations and, as representation of the information. a consequence, help people gain in- For most of the time during which sight into Bayesian reasoning. This the human mind evolved, informa- was demonstrated both with lay- tion was encountered in the form of people (Gigerenzer & Hoffrage, natural frequencies, that is, absolute 1995) and in different fields of pro- frequencies as they result from ob- fessional decision making (Hoffrage,

Gigerenzer, G. (2002). Calculated Risks/Reckoning With Risk/Das Einmaleins der Skepsis Calculated risks: How to At the beginning of the 21st century, most children have learned to read and write, but many adults know when numbers still do not know how to reason about uncertainties and risk. As this book repeatedly demonstrates, deceive you. New York: Simon & Schuster. physicians or legal experts often do not understand the risks either. This problem has been called innumeracy, and this book offers a remedy. UK edition: Reckoning The book provides experts and lay-people with mind tools for understanding risks and communicating with risk: Learning to live these effectively to others. These tools are easy to learn, and can turn innumeracy into insight. They with uncertainty. Penguin Books, 2003 can help reduce the widespread uninformed consent in medical, legal, and everyday situations, from mammography screening to understanding the meaning of a DNA match in a legal trial. German translation: Das The book, published by Penguin in the UK and Simon & Schuster in the US, was nominated in 2003 for Einmaleins der Skepsis. the Aventis prize that recognizes science books targeted at a general readership. The German transla- Über den richtigen Umgang mit Zahlen und Risiken. tion (Das Einmaleins der Skepsis: Über den richtigen Umgang mit Zahlen und Risiken) has been selected Berlin Verlag, 2002 the Most Informative Book of the Year by Bild der Wissenschaft, a major German science magazine. Japanese and Italian translations have been published, and Chinese and Portuguese translations are Italian translation: Quando underway. i numeri ingannano: Imparare a vivere con l'incertezza. Raffaelo Cortina, 2003 Japanese translation: Hayakawa Publishers, 2003. Chinese translation: CITIC Press, in press Portugese translation: Gradiva, in press.

52 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition Lindsey, Hertwig, & Gigerenzer, when information is provided, it is Key References 2000). Moreover, Zhu and Gigerenzer frequently given in terms of vague Hoffrage, U. (2003). (in press) found that even fourth, verbal descriptions rather than in Risikokommunikation bei Brustkrebsfrüherkennung fifth, and sixth graders showed a precise numbers. It should thus not und Hormonersatztherapie better performance with natural fre- come as a surprise that there is also [Risk communication in the early identification of quency problems than adults with confusion in the normal population breast cancer and hor- probability problems. about the meaning of numbers de- mone-replacement therapy]. Zeitschrift für scribing costs and benefits of medi- Gesundheitspsychologie, Representations of Risk Reduction cal interventions. Hoffrage (2003) 11, 76–86. Natural frequencies are also benefi- conducted a survey among 50- to Kurzenhäuser, S. (2003b). Welche Informationen ver- cial for a related problem, namely, to 60-year-old women that has re- mitteln deutsche Gesund- understand the benefit of a therapy vealed substantial deficits in under- heitsbroschüren über die or of participation in a screening standing the difference between ab- Screening-Mammogra- phie? Zeitschrift für program. Consider again the state- solute and relative risks in the con- ärztliche Fortbildung und ment that mammography screening text of hormone replacement Qualitätssicherung, 97, 53–57. reduces the risk of dying from breast therapy. cancer by 25%. Does that mean that from 100 women who participate in Applications in Law the screening, 25 lives will be saved? Judges also must make decisions Although many people believe this based on probabilities. Does the rep- to be the case, the conclusion is not resentation of numerical information justified. This percentage, in fact, in natural frequencies foster means that from 1,000 women who Bayesian reasoning in court? Profes- do not participate in the screening, sionals and law students in Germany 4 will die from breast cancer within evaluated two criminal court case ten years, whereas from 1,000 files involving rape and forensic evi- women who participate, 3 will die. dence of a DNA match. Expert testi- The difference between 3 and 4 is mony reported the statistical infor- the 25% “relative risk reduction.” mation of DNA profiles and the rates Expressed as an “absolute risk reduc- of technical and human mishaps tion,” however, this means that the leading to false-positive results. This absolute benefit is 1 in 1,000, that information was presented in two is, 0.1%. Cancer organizations and different formats, one stated as health departments typically inform probabilities and the other as natu- women of the relative risk reduction, ral frequencies. When these statis- which gives a higher number—25% tics were expressed as probabilities, compared to 0.1%—and makes the only 13% of the professionals and benefit of screening appear larger less than 1% of the law students than if it were represented in ab- correctly inferred the probability solute risks. Kurzenhäuser (2003b) that the defendant was actually the analyzed 27 brochures that informed source of the trace. But when the women about mammography identical statistics were stated as screening. The main result was that natural frequencies, 68% and 44% the relevant statistical information of these same participants made the about risks and benefits are, for the correct inference. Perhaps more sig- most part, poorly explained. Even nificantly, the different ways of ex-

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition 53 Key Reference pressing the same statistical infor- as natural frequencies (Lindsey, Lindsey, S., Hertwig, R., & mation altered the verdicts in each Hertwig, & Gigerenzer, 2003). When Gigerenzer, G. (2003). case. When the information was verdicts hinge on statistical evi- Communicating statistical DNA evidence. Jurimetrics, presented as probabilities, 45% of dence, understanding that evidence 43, 147–163, VII-IX. the professionals and 55% of the is crucial, and pursuing such simple students rendered a verdict of guilty, methods of fostering statistical but only 32% and 33% did so when insight could contribute to that goal. the same statistics were expressed

How to Solve the Monty Hall ment, reasoning becomes not only Problem more accurate but also more consis- Base-rate neglect is an example of a tent with statistical or probability so-called bias, typically revealed un- norms, such as Bayes’ rule. Here is der conditions that differ from peo- another example: Suppose you are ple’s natural environments. By repre- on a game show and you are given senting (statistical) information in a the choice between three doors. Be- way that better fits how we en- hind one door is a car; behind the counter information in the environ- others are goats. You pick, for exam-

Figure 5. Explanation of the solution to the Monty Hall problem: In two out of three possible car-goat Arrangement 1: arrangements the contestant would win by switch- Here the contestant ing; therefore she should wins by switching. switch.

first then Monty choice Hall opens

Arrangement 2: Here the contestant wins by switching.

first then Monty choice Hall opens

Arrangement 3: Here the contestant wins by staying, no matter what Monty Hall does.

first choice

54 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition ple, door number 1, and the host, tematically give the wrong answer, Key Reference who knows what is behind the doors, and (...) insist on it, and are ready to Krauss, S., & Wang, X. T. opens a different door, for example, berate in print those who propose (2003). The psychology of the Monty Hall problem: door number 3, to reveal a goat. He the right answer.” Discovering psychological then asks you, “Do you want to Krauss and Wang (2003) were able mechanisms for solving a tenacious brain teaser. switch to door number 2?” Is it to to shed light into this “mental tun- Journal of Experimental your advantage to switch your nel” by formulating the problem in Psychology: General, 132, choice? What contestants should do an ecologically appropriate manner: 3–22. in this situation (known as the By asking “In how many of the pos- Monty Hall problem or the three- sible arrangements would the con- door problem) sparked a heated pub- testant win by switching and in how lic debate. Although it is to the ad- many would she win by staying?” vantage of the contestant to switch, they allowed their participants to until now, all experimental studies reason in a frequentist manner (see on the Monty Hall problem led to Figure 5). By implementing further similar results: The vast majority of manipulations into the problem’s participants believes that switching wording (e.g., a perspective change and staying are equally good alter- from the perspective of the contest- natives. ant to the perspective of the game Piattelli-Palmarini singled out the show host), they could bring a sub- Monty Hall problem as the most ex- stantial portion of the participants pressive example of the “cognitive to a full understanding of the brain- illusions” or “mental tunnels” in teasers’ underlying mathematical which “even Nobel physicists sys- structure.

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition 55 Social Rationality

Some of the most ambitious decisions faced by social species are those arising from an environment comprised of the decisions of conspecifics. Social environments are characterized by the speed with which they can change, and by the need to consider the decisions being made by others. These two features make social rationality an important and distinct form of ecological rationality.

Key References Understanding Relationships and pects of close friendship, for exam- Keller, M. (2004b). Self in Moral Norms in a Cross-Cultural ple. the friend as a therapist (Keller, relationship. In D. K. Laps- Perspective 2004b). ley & D. Narvaez (Eds.), Moral development, self, One focus of our research is on the and identity (pp. 267-298). development of the understanding of Development of Moral Emotions in Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. moral obligations and interpersonal a Cross-Cultural Perspective Keller, M., Gummerum, M., Wang, X. T., & Lindsey, responsibilities in a cross-cultural Moral emotions, such as guilt that S. (2004). Understanding context from childhood into late are associated with the conse- perspectives and emotions in contract violation: De- adolescence. The developmental quences of moral transgressions, are velopment of deontic and course of understanding in China important cues for the motivational moral reasoning. Child De- velopment, 75, 614–635. and Western countries, in particular acceptance of moral norms. While Keller, M., Lourenço, O., Iceland, reveals striking similarities older children attribute guilt to a Malti, T., & Saalbach, H. in conceptions and the sequence of moral violator, younger children have (2003). The multifaceted developmental levels both in general been defined as “happy victimizers” phenomenon of “happy victimizers”: A cross-cul- and situation-specific reasoning because in spite of moral knowledge, tural comparison of moral about close friendship and parent- they attribute positive feelings to emotions. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, child relationship. Children of differ- moral rule violators. However, this 21, 1–18. ent age groups focus on different shift in attributions has not been defining properties of relationships, found consistently. We tested in a and seem to rely on a limited num- cross-cultural study whether a self- ber of defining relationship struc- other differentiation may be an ex- tures (or cues), which lead to differ- planation for these inconsistent ent behavioral responses, such as findings. Six- and nine-year-old Ger- moral decisions and evaluations. In man and Portuguese children had to spite of the general similarities, cul- attribute emotions to a rule violator, ture modulates the specific meaning both in the role of self and hypo- of obligations and responsibilities in thetical other (Keller, Lourenço, close relationships (Keller & Gumme- Malti, & Saalbach, 2003). The find- rum, 2003). In the transition from ings revealed a developmental shift early into late adolescence, under- in both roles, but moral feelings standing of close friendship in both were attributed much more fre- societies reveals a developmental quently to self as violator than to path from relationship intimacy to the hypothetical other. Thus, a self- autonomy. However, young Chinese other differentiation only partly ac- see the self and friendship embedded count for inconsistent results in the into society, while Icelandic adoles- attribution of emotions to others. cents focus on the psychological as- We are presently analyzing Chinese

56 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition data in which no emotional shift ob- ling systematically for type of rela- tained for other. Thus, our research tionship and type of contract. shows that not only different age groups but children from different The Roles of Cognition and cultures rely on different cues in the Emotion in Cooperation interpretation of the emotional con- The details of what cues and algo- sequences of moral transgressions. rithms are involved in altruism, Two other studies have been per- friendship, and general good will as formed to follow up on the phenom- well as the potential functions of enon of moral emotions in different emotional states in these algorithms, contexts. The first study intercon- have been the subject of a good nects deontic reasoning about con- amount of speculation and research. tracts and contract violation with For a recent Dahlem Conference vol- the attribution of emotions in a de- ume, McElreath et al. (2003) re- velopmental perspective (Keller, viewed the empirical evidence and Gummerum, Wang, & Lindsey, 2004). theory about the cognitive nature of Already, young children from the age heuristics for cooperation, and the of 5 to 6 years on can understand role of emotion and affect in regu- contract violation from the two dif- lating such behaviors. This literature ferent perspectives of the contrac- has important implications for inter- tors in parent-child and peer rela- preting natural history (for animals tionships. However, relationship cues ranging from bats to hermaphrodite influence the understanding of emo- fish), and for predicting the effects tions of contract violators. In the of institutional design on patterns of symmetrical peer relationship, older human cooperation. children attributed moral feelings much more frequently than the Honor and the Regulation of younger children. In the asymmetri- Conflict cal parent-child relationship this lin- In many societies, people value their ear increase was supported for the public standing or “honor,” and other attribution of guilt feelings to the individuals recognize this standing mother as contract violator. How- as predictive of how others will be- ever, even the oldest children tended have when threatened or exploited. to attribute positive feelings to the Such cultures of honor have existed child who is a violator. We con- in many places and times, seem to cluded that moral feelings in the arise quickly, and have enduring case of contract violation are spe- properties. Yet the logic of honorable cific to the type of relationship. strategies is poorly understood. So- Thus, we cannot conclude that there cial strategies of this type are im- is one cheating detection device possible for individuals to decide which helps identify contract viola- upon rationally: When individuals tion in all kinds of relationships, but pay attention to the behavior of that this device has to be adapted to others, the distributed effects of the domains of different relation- individual actions are very complex. ships. This question is presently fol- A good amount of speculation and lowed up in a further study control- induction from historical and ethno-

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition 57 Key References graphic cases exists, but deductive nous uncertainty on food acquisition Reimer, T., & Hoffrage, U. analysis of these arguments has (Kameda, Takezawa, & Hastie, 2003). (in press). Can simple been lacking. Thus, the function and We further extended the results, and group heuristics detect hidden profiles in ran- value of the attitudes that generate hypothesized that this environment domly generated environ- cultures of honor are unclear. structure may work as a cue to in- ments? Swiss Journal of Psychology. McElreath (in press) analyzed a for- duce a sharing behavior: When a re- Reimer, T., & Katsikopou- mal model of conflict management source acquisition is framed as un- los, K. V. (2004). The use strategies that track and value per- certain, people may tend to share of recognition in group decision making. Cognitive sonal honor, to explore the material such a resource with the others. This Science, 28, 1009–1029. incentives and community structures hypothesis was confirmed in differ- that might lead to and maintain ent cultures under different settings them. The analyses indicate that, (vignette and laboratory experiments unlike models of public standing for in Japan and the US; Kameda, regulating cooperation, simple Takezawa, Tindale, & Smith, 2001). honor-attentive strategies perform In a new project by Keller, Takezawa, well even when information about and Gummerum, the sharing of re- the standing of others is poor. The sources is studied with children in results may also explain the persist- the context of cooperative games. ence of cultures of honor in situations where the material incentives Recognition and Group Decision that may have lead to the values Making arising are no longer present. Reimer and Katsikopoulos (2004) studied how recognition affects Adaptive Foundations of an group decision making, by conduct- Egalitarian Social Norm ing a laboratory experiment in which One of the important problems of three individuals discussed and in- social rationality is to explain how a ferred as a group which of two cities social norm will emerge from the in- has a larger population. First, they teractions among socially rational asked whether members who use the agents who adopt their behaviors recognition heuristic have more, less, and cognitions in response to cur- or equal influence in the combina- rent social environments. As an illus- tion of individual inferences, com- tration, we focused on the emer- pared to members who do not use gence of an egalitarian distributive the heuristic. Overall, the recognition norm widely observed in primordial heuristic was more accurate than societies. It has been argued that other cues, and users of the heuristic communal sharing has emerged be- were more influential. For example, cause it is a social device reducing consider the case where one individ- uncertainty that is inherent in re- ual is partially ignorant, recognizing source acquisition, but this cannot only city A, while two individuals explain how the so-called free-rider recognized both cities A and B; fur- problem is solved. Through a series thermore, both more knowledgeable of evolutionary computer simula- members inferred that B was larger. tions, it was shown that communal The group decided that A was larger sharing norms can emerge, and are in 59% of the comparisons. The au- sustained when there is asynchro- thors found less-is-more effects in

58 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition group decision making. For example, member has more arguments in fa- a group that recognized only 60% of vor of candidate B. Are groups able the cities was correct on 83% of the to detect the hidden profile, that is, comparisons, while a group that rec- are they able to detect that there are ognized 80% of the cities was cor- more arguments in favor of candi- rect on 75% of the comparisons. date A overall? Experimental evi- Consistently, the data revealed that dence suggests that the answer is lower recognition rates were corre- “no”—in the present example, most lated with higher levels of accuracy. groups would decide for candidate B. It was formally shown that less-is- According to the most prominent more effects are predicted by a explanation for this so-called hid- range of ways of aggregating indi- den-profile effect, groups fail to pool vidual inferences. and integrate all available pieces of How does group decision making information. However, the question compare to individual decision mak- of how the information should be ing? This question has been exten- processed by the group has been sively studied with the “hidden-pro- rarely asked in this literature. In sev- file” paradigm. Consider the follow- eral of our own simulation studies, it ing situation: Two candidates, A and turned out that a group version of B, apply for a position, and a four- Take The Best very effectively identi- member committee has to select one fies concealed alternatives in the of them. Overall, most arguments are hidden-profile task, thereby demon- in favor of candidate A. However, no strating that the detection of a hid- single group member is aware of this den profile does not necessarily re- because information is distributed quire exhaustive information pro- among the committee members in a cessing (Reimer & Hoffrage, in biased way, such that each group press).

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition 59 Key References Evolutionary Psychology Hoffrage, U. (in press-a). Evolutionäre Ansätze in Evolutionary psychology lies at the heart of many research projects under- der kognitiven Psychologie. In P. Frensch & J. Funke taken by the ABC research group, providing a motivation for bounded ration- (Eds.). Handbuch der Psy- ality, supporting the significance of the environment in ecological rationality, chologie: Kognition. Göttingen: Hogrefe. and emphasizing the importance of the social interactions that lead to evo- Todd, P. M., Billari, F. C., & lutionary change in social rationality. At the same time, evolutionary psy- Simão, J. (in press). Mod- chology is grounded in ecological rationality: It assumes that our minds were eling the emergence of social marriage patterns pro- designed by natural selection to solve practical problems in an efficient and duced by individual mate- effective manner. While evolutionary psychology focuses specifically on an- search heuristics. Demography. cestral environments and practical problems with fitness consequences, eco- Todd, P. M., Hertwig, R., logical rationality additionally encompasses decision making in present envi- & Hoffrage, U. (in press). ronments without privileging problems with fitness consequences. Recently, Evolutionary cognitive Hoffrage and Vitouch (2002) wrote a chapter on these and other issues in psychology. In D. Buss (Ed.), Handbook of Evolu- evolutionary psychology for a textbook on general psychology, which is no- tionary Psychology. table for being one of the first accounts of this topic in such a German text- Hutchinson, J. M. C., & book (see also Hoffrage, in press-a). Halupka, K. (2004). Mate choice when males are in As Todd, Hertwig, and Hoffrage (in press) argue in a new chapter upcoming patches: Optimal strate- in an important handbook of evolutionary psychology, a set of broad forces gies and good rules of thumb. Journal of Theo- operating on multiple domains can also impact on the design of specific retical Biology, 231, cognitive systems. They discuss how the costs of gathering information, and 129–151. of using too much information, can be reduced by decision mechanisms that Hoffrage, U., & Vitouch, O. (2002). Evolutionspsy- rely on as little information as possible—or even a lack of information—to chologie des Denkens und come to their choices. They also explore how the pressures to use small Problemlösens. In W. Prinz amounts of appropriate information may have produced particular patterns & J. Müsseler (Eds.), All- gemeine Psychologie of forgetting in long-term memory and particular limits of capacity in short- (pp. 734–794). Heidelberg: term memory. Finally, they show how selection for being able to think about Spektrum Akademischer Verlag. past sets of events has given us humans reasoning mechanisms best able to handle information represented as samples or frequencies of experience rather than as probabilities—another recurring theme of the ABC group’s research.

Mate Choice tion of this idea to the evolution of One of the most evolutionarily im- rhythmic songs as mate quality sig- portant decisions is mate choice. By nals; Miranda, Kirby, & Todd, 2003, definition, sexual reproduction en- for related investigations). For many tails combining one’s own genes species, including humans, potential with another individual’s genes to mates are not encountered simulta- produce offspring. Through mate neously, but rather sequentially. choice decisions made on the basis When individuals find a potential of perceived cues, individuals can in- mate, they must decide whether the fluence the quality of the genes prospect is good enough to have off- passed on to their offspring, and the spring with. This sequential search quality of the parental care their problem can be addressed through offspring will receive (see van den the use of simple satisficing heuris- Broek, & Todd, 2003, for an applica- tics, which establish a threshold as-

60 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition piration level that enables the highly personal and individual straightforward judgment of the ac- choice. We may feel that we are ceptability of a given potential mate. considering options and weighing Simão and Todd (2003) have ex- possibilities that nobody else has plored ways in which this aspiration ever had to think about in the same level can be set, based on the experi- way. Furthermore, much research ence of the individual searching for has pointed out the societal and a mate, finding that simple thresh- economic constraints that impact on old-adjustment mechanisms can even these personal decisions. In- outperform complex optimizing deed, when viewed from the aggre- methods in this domain, as in others. gate level, the distribution of the The decision mechanisms that may ages at which people first get mar- have evolved to help us solve adap- ried shows surprising regularity tive problems, such as mate choice, across populations, following a rely on the structure of the environ- right-skewed bell shape (see Fig- ment to make appropriate choices, ure 6, showing the similarly-shaped and they will not work as well when pattern across different countries the environment is different from and times, despite differences in what they expect (i.e., constantly be- overall marriage rates that affect the ing confronted with images of beau- maximum height of the curve). tiful people through mass media Somehow, what people are doing in may skew our mate preferences in the mating game at the individual ways that lead to poorer individual level seems to be following system- choices). atic rules that generate distinct pat- In modern Western societies, decid- terns at the population level. But ing when to get married seems like a how? And how can we find out?

0.16 Figure 6. Hazard function for marriage (Number of Norway men, 1998 0.14 first marriages of people Norway women, 1998 who attain a given age x Norway men, 1978 in a year by the number of 0.12 Norway women,1978 still-unmarried individuals Romania men, 1998 of age x-1 at the begin- 0.10 Romania women, 1998 ning of the year). These curves show a similar pattern across different coun- 0.08 tries and times, despite differences in overall mar- 0.06 riage rates that affect the maximum height of the curve. Todd, Billari, & Probability of first marriage 0.04 Simão (in press) demonstrate that curves like 0.02 these can emerge when large numbers of simulated agents choose mates 0.00 according to simple and 18 23 28 33 38 43 48 psychologically plausible Age rules. Source. Todd, Billari, & Simão, in press.

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition 61 Todd, Billari, and Simão (in press) ac- close the loop from environment counted for these patterns by devel- structure to evolved behavioral oping agent-based models that sim- mechanisms, back to behaviorally in- ulate the aggregate behavior of indi- fluenced environment structure, fur- viduals searching for marriage ther strengthening the connection partners. In contrast to past models that evolutionary psychology focuses from demography and economics as- on, between the mind and the world. suming fully rational agents with Hutchinson and Halupka (2004) re- complete knowledge of the marriage visited the problem of sequential market, their simulated agents use mate choice, introducing the realis- psychologically plausible simple tic complication that in many heuristic search rules that adjust as- species males occur in clumps. The piration levels on the basis of a se- paper first derived the optimal be- quence of encounters with potential havior in a simplified environment partners. They found that while when there should be just two quali- these simple rules could indeed ac- ty thresholds above which a male count for demographic-level out- should be accepted, one when there comes in terms of aggregated indi- are males left to inspect in the cur- vidual behaviors, substantial indi- rent patch and a lower one when in- vidual variation had to be included specting new males requires moving in the models to account for the to a patch. Optimal policies in more demographically observed age-at- complex and realistic environments marriage patterns. were derived, and their performance This work shows that decision mech- compared with that of the two- anisms not only exploit environment threshold policy and of other simple structure, they also initially help to heuristics proposed in the literature. create it: In this case, mate-choice Usually the best heuristic was the mechanisms affect the population of simple two-threshold policy, sug- available mates for others to choose gesting that deriving heuristics from from, which in turn can be seen in optima in simplified environments population-level measures of mating might sometimes be superior to success, such as the age at which in- more ad hoc approaches. dividuals mate. Studies such as this

62 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition Methods, Metaphors, and Theory Construction

In spite of the fact that most scientists search for universal truths, scientific “truths” are contingent in important ways on the statistical and experimental tools used to discover and test them. From different starting points and based on different case studies, we converge on the same general issue in this project area, namely, the detection and understanding of the limitations and powers of scientists’ tools.

Where Do Cognitive Theories theory; Neyman-Pearson’s statistics, Key References Come From? which turned into signal detection Sturm, T., & Gigerenzer, G. Scientific inquiry is often divided theory, multidimensional scaling (in press). How can we use the distinction between into two great domains, the context turned into exemplar theories of discovery and justification? of discovery and the context of justi- categorization; and the digital com- On weaknesses of the strong programme in the fication. Philosophers, logicians, and puter, which provided the structure sociology of science. In J. mathematicians claimed justification of Simon’s mind-as-computer view Schickore & F. Steinle (Eds.), Revisiting discovery as a part of their territory and dis- (Gigerenzer, 2003). In each case, and justification. missed the context of discovery as scientific practice preceded theory Dordrecht, Netherlands: none of their business, or even as generation; methods of justification Kluwer. Gigerenzer, G. (1991). “irrelevant to the logical analysis of inspire discovery. In recent work, From tools to theories: A scientific knowledge” (Popper, Sturm and Gigerenzer (in press) ana- heuristic of discovery in 1935/1959, p. 31). Discovery contin- lyzed the implications of this work cognitive psychology. Psy- chological Review, 98 (2), ues to exist in a mystical darkness on the philosophical discussions of 254–267. where imagination and intuition the discovery/justification distinction reign, or so it is claimed. In earlier as well as on the attacks on it by work, Gigerenzer (1991) argued that Thomas Kuhn and others. If new the mystical veil can be lifted. methods inspire new theories, which Specifically, new tools for data in turn inspire new kinds of data, analysis (justification) can inspire this process sets the importance of new theories. This tools-to-theories scientific practice in the foreground thesis is twofold: and provides new insights into a – Generation of new theories: The deep circularity in the relationship tools a scientist uses can suggest between method, theory, and data. new metaphors, leading to new theoretical concepts and princi- We Need Statistical Thinking, Not ples. Statistical Rituals – Acceptance of new theories within Future historians of psychology will scientific communities: The new be puzzled by an odd ritual: the rou- theoretical concepts and assump- tine testing of null hypotheses, tions are more likely to be ac- which largely eliminates statistical cepted by the scientific community thinking. Textbooks and curricula al- if the members of the community most never teach the statistical are also users of the new tools. toolbox, which contains tools, such Examples include Fisher’s analysis of as descriptive statistics, Tukey’s ex- variance, which provided the struc- ploratory methods, Bayesian statis- ture for Kelley’s causal attribution tics, Neyman-Pearson’s decision the-

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition 63 Key References ory, and Wald’s sequential analysis. points), given that the null hypothe- Berg, N. (2004). No-Deci- Instead, texts tend to feature one sis H is true, defined in symbols as sion classification: An 0 alternative to testing for single 3 step procedure: p(D|H0). The most frequent illusions statistical significance. The Null Ritual: include that the p-value specifies Journal of Socio-Econom- ics, 33, 631–650. (1) Set up a statistical null hypothe- the probability that the null hypoth- Gigerenzer, G. (2004e). sis of “no mean difference” or “zero esis is correct, that the alternative Mindless statistics. Journal correlation.” Don’t specify the pre- hypothesis is correct with 99% of Socio-Economics, 33, 587–606. dictions of your research hypothesis probability, or that if one repeated Gigerenzer, G., Krauss, S., or of any alternative substantive hy- the experiment many times, a signif- & Vitouch, O. (2004). The potheses. icant result would be obtained in null ritual: What you al- (2) Use 5% as a convention for re- 99% of the cases. ways wanted to know about significance testing jecting the null. If significant, accept After successfully completing one or but were afraid to ask. In your research hypothesis. Report the more statistics courses in which sig- D. Kaplan (Ed.), The Sage handbook of quantitative result as p < .05, p < .01, or p < .001, nificance testing was taught, 100% methodology for the social whichever comes next to the ob- of the students believed in at least sciences (pp. 391–408). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. tained p-value. one of these illusions (n = 44). But (3) Always perform this procedure. 90% of lecturers and professors of This procedure (also called Null Hy- psychology (n = 39), and 80% (!) of pothesis Significance Testing, NHST) statistics teachers (n = 30) also be- is inconsistent with every existing lieved into at least one of the illu- statistical theory, including Fisher’s sions. The ritual and its associated theory of null hypothesis testing illusions seem to be culturally trans- with which it is often confused mitted from those who teach statis- (Gigerenzer, 2004e). tics in psychology departments (who Gigerenzer argued that the Null typically have no degree in statistics) Ritual undermines the theoretical to the students. Gigerenzer (in press) progress in psychology by giving re- reviewed the attempts of statisti- searchers no incentive to specify cians, editors, and outside observers their hypotheses. By focusing only (such as the physicist Richard Feyn- on significance, researchers tend to man) to replace the existing statisti- have a blind spot for effect size, cal rituals by statistical thinking. power, and other relevant properties Berg (2004) proposes a constructive of data—and the exclusive reliance technique for eliciting key scientific on significance tends to foster col- judgments from the user. The tech- lective illusions about what signifi- nique addresses the question of cance actually means. Gigerenzer, which of two theories is better sup- Krauss, and Vitouch (2004) tested ported by a given set of data, while whether students and teachers from allowing for the possibility of draw- six German universities understand ing no conclusion at all. Procedurally what a p-value means. “Suppose you similar to the classical hypothesis use a simple independent means t- test, the proposed No-Decision Clas- test and your result is significant (t = sification technique features three, 2.7, df = 18, p = .01).” as opposed to two, mutually exclu- The correct answer is that this p- sive data classifications: reject the value is the probability of the ob- null, reject the alternative, and no served data (or of more extreme data decision. In contrast to the classical

64 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition hypothesis test, No-Decision Classi- detect the signal when it is present). Key References fication allows users to control both Moreover, when the data are sparse, Hoffrage, U., & Hertwig, Type I and Type II errors by specify- a analysis can also lead to incor- R. (in press). Which world d’ should be represented in ing desired probabilities for each. rect interpretations of data. The au- representative design? In Thus, No-Decision Classification in- thors suggest analysis methods that K. Fiedler, & P. Juslin (Eds.), Information sampling and tegrates judgments about the eco- help to remedy these problems. adaptive cognition. Cam- nomic significance of estimated bridge, NY: Cambridge magnitudes and the shape of the The Role of Representative Design University Press. Schooler, L. J., & Shiffrin, loss function into a familiar proce- in an Ecological Approach to R. M. (in press). Efficiently dural form. Cognition measuring recognition memory performance with Half a century ago, Egon Brunswik sparse data. Behavior Re- We Need to Use the Appropriate stressed that psychological processes search Methods, Instru- Performance Measures are adapted to the uncertain envi- ments, & Computers. Whether a particular measure used ronments in which they evolved and Dhami, M., Hertwig, R., & Hoffrage, U. (2004). The to assess experimental data is ap- function. He argued that psychol- role of representative de- propriate depends on the processes ogy’s accepted methodological para- sign in an ecological approach to cognition. Psy- that generated the data. Schooler digm of systematic design was inca- chological Bulletin, 130, and Shiffrin (in press) explore what pable of fully examining the 959–988. happens when the measure does not processes of vicarious functioning match the underlying processes. and achievement. As an alternative, Through extensive simulations, they he proposed the method of represen- demonstrate that such mismatches tative design. Representative design can lead to the misinterpretation of involves randomly sampling real experimental results. They generated stimuli from the environment or cre- hypothetical experimental data, ac- ating stimuli in which environmental cording to the model underlying a d’ properties are preserved. Thus, it de- analysis (Green & Swets, 1966). parts from the tradition of system- There, the assumption is that each atic design endorsed in research stimulus results in a single numerical texts. Dhami, Hertwig, and Hoffrage value that is used as evidence. If this (2004) reviewed the development of value exceeds a criterion, subjects representative design, from respond “signal,” and if it falls below Brunswik’s original ideas, and how this point they respond “noise.” they were adapted and modified by Many researchers, including some neo-Brunswikians and others. who hold to the d’ model, analyze In the second part of this paper, such signal detection experiments by Dhami et al. focused on the research subtracting false alarms (e.g., saying practices of those who have been the stimulus was present, when it committed to the notion of repre- was not) from hits (e.g., saying the sentative design. Two major findings stimulus was present, when in fact it emerged from the review of neo- was). Such a mismatch could lead Brunswikian policy-capturing re- researchers to incorrectly interpret search. First, most of the studies that what are differences in response bias presented participants with real (i.e., how prone subjects are to say cases satisfied Brunswik’s recom- that a signal is present) to differ- mendation of probability or non- ences in sensitivity (i.e., the ability to probability sampling of stimuli. Sec-

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition 65 ond, there was a striking discrepancy cluded that captured policies were between Brunswik’s ideal and the re- independent of the representative- search practices of most neo- ness of the stimuli. To date, the Brunswikian studies that presented strongest evidence for the effect of participants with hypothetical cases. representative stimulus sampling Neo-Brunswikians often failed to stems from research on the overcon- represent important aspects of the fidence effect and on hindsight bias. ecology toward which their general- With regard to the former, a recent izations were intended. review of studies that manipulated In the third part, they discussed the sampling procedure of experi- whether or not representative sam- mental stimuli demonstrated that pling matters for the results ob- representative item sampling re- tained. Unfortunately, only a small duces, in fact, almost eliminates, the body of research has compared judg- overconfidence effect—although ment policies captured under repre- Hoffrage and Hertwig (in press) have sentative and unrepresentative con- shown that this not only depends on ditions, and their results are mixed. the sampling procedure but also on Whereas some studies reported that a factor that has most often been representative conditions affected overlooked, namely, the size of the judgment policies, for instance, in reference class from which the stim- terms of cue weights, others con- uli are sampled.

Key Reference Experts in Science and Society Kurz-Milcke, E., & How do experts balance their commitment to Gigerenzer, G. (Eds.). (2004). Experts in science science with that to society? How does a soci- and society. New York: ety actually determine who counts as an ex- Kluwer. pert? What makes new forms of expertise emerge? These and related questions are addressed in Experts in Science and Society (edited by Elke Kurz-Milcke and Gerd Gigerenzer), a book based on a Schloessmann Seminar sponsored by the Max Planck Society. One recurring focus of the book is on the cultural differences of the environment in which the expert acts –social, historical, and legal. The arguments made include that in many areas, including criminal law, expertise is not wanted, and experts are mainly called in when the scientific basis is weak; and that we will witness an emerging new profession, the philosopher as a moral coach. The topics examined include experts in the fields of politics, science, medicine, and the law.

66 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition Future Directions A major goal for the near future is to finish our collective new book on the match between heuristics and environments, thereby highlighting the interconnection between research on bounded rationality and ecological rationality. Another goal is to explore how heuristics are shaped and shape institutions. For example, what are the legal implications of (the use of) heuristics and the way information is communicated. To this end, we continue our active collaboration with the Max Planck Institute for Research on Collective Goods in Bonn. With this institute and Max Planck Institute for Research Into Economic Systems in Jena, we are developing a proposal for an international Max Planck Research School on Bounded Rationality. In collaboration with Max Planck Institute for Human Cogni- tive and Brain Sciences in Leipzig, we have begun to search for neural correlates of the use and application of the recognition heuristic. We hope to expand this promising avenue of research by thoroughly grounding the heuristics we study in basic cognitive and brain processes.

Summer and Winter Institutes on Bounded Rationality The Summer and Winter Institutes on Bounded Rationality promote a view of decision making that is anchored in the psychological possibilities of humans rather than in the fictional construct of homo economicus. The third Summer Institute in 2003, in collaboration with Pompea Fabra University, Barcelona, and the University of Nottingham, UK, with support from the VW Stiftung, focused on applications in the law. In 2004, the fourth Summer Institute, supported by the Deutsche Forschungs- gemeinschaft, was in collaboration with Max Planck Institute for Research Into Economic Systems, Jena, where the fifth Summer Institute is scheduled to be hosted in the summer of 2005. For the first time, members of the ABC group, with the support of Der Deutsche Akademische Austausch-Dienst, held a Winter Institute on Bounded Rationality in Psychology and Management at the Indian Institute of Management in Bangalore. Students and professors came together from across India for this two- week intensive course.

Winter Institute on Bounded Rationality in Bangalore, India.

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition 67 Publications 2003–2004

Barrett, H. C., Todd, P. M., & (Eds.), Proceedings of the 26th Gaißmaier, W. (in press). deceive you [In Portugese]. Blythe, P. W. (in press). Accu- Annual Conference of the Cog- Learning and strategy selection Gradiva. rate judgments of intention nitive Science Society. Mahwah, in probabilistic environments • (in press-d) Heuristics. In C. from motion cues alone. Evolu- NJ: Erlbaum. [Abstract]. In C. D. Schunn, M. Engel & G. Gigerenzer (Eds.), tion and Human Behavior. C. Lovett, C. Lebiere, & P. Munro Heuristics and the law. Cam- Engel, C., & Gigerenzer, G. (Eds.), Proceedings of the Sixth bridge, MA: MIT Press. Betsch, T., Hoffmann, K., (Eds.). (in press). Heuristics and International Conference on • (in press-e). I think, therefore Hoffrage, U., & Plessner, H. the law. Cambridge, MA: MIT Cognitive Modeling I err. Social Research. (2003). Intuition beyond recog- Press. (pp. 406–407). Mahwah, NJ: • (in press-f). What's in a sam- nition: When less familiar Erlbaum. ple? In K. Fiedler & P. Juslin events are liked more. Experi- Fang, G., Fang, F.-X., Keller, M., (Eds.), In the beginning there is mental Psychology, 50, 49–54. Edelstein, W., Kehle, T. J., & Gaißmaier, W., Schooler, L., & a sample: Information sampling Bray, M. A. (2003). Social moral Rieskamp, R. (in press-a). A as a key to understand adaptive Baumert, J., Gigerenzer, G., & reasoning in Chinese children: critique of the small sample ac- cognition. Cambridge, UK: Martignon, L. (Eds.). (2004). A developmental study. Psy- count of covariation detection Cambridge University Press. Stochastisches Denken. Unter- chology in the Schools, 40, [Abstract]. In K. Forbus, D. • (2005). Is the mind irrational richtswissenschaft, 32 (1) 125–138. Gentner, & T. Regier (Eds.), Pro- or ecologically rational? In (Themenheft). ceedings of the 26th Annual F. Parisi & V. L. Smith (Eds.), Fasolo, B. (in press). The role of Conference of the Cognitive The law and economics of irra- Borges, B., Goldstein, D. G., & attribute correlations in online Science Society. Mahwah, NJ: tional behavior (pp. 37–67). Gigerenzer, G. (in press). decisions. European Advances in Erlbaum. Stanford, CA: Stanford Univer- Recognition heuristic: A fast Consumer Research. • (in press-b). Lernen von sity Press. and frugal way to investment Zusammenhängen in einer dy- • (2004a). Dread risk, Septem- choice? In C. R. Plott & V. L. Fasolo, B., McClelland, G. H., & namischen Umwelt [Abstract]. ber 11, and fatal traffic acci- Smith (Eds.), Handbook of ex- Lange, K. A. (in press). The ef- In T. Rammsayer, S. Grabia- dents. Psychological Science, perimental economics results. fect of site design and inattrib- nowski, & S. Troche (Eds.), 15, 286–287. Amsterdam: Elsevier/North- ute correlations on interactive 44. Kongress der Deutschen • (2004b). Die Evolution des Holland. web-based decisions. In C. P. Gesellschaft für Psychologie: statistischen Denkens. Unter- Haugtvedt, K. Machleit, & 100 Jahre Deutsche Gesellschaft richtswissenschaft, 32, 4–22. Brand, S., Reimer, T., & Opwis, R. Yalch (Eds.), Online consumer für Psychologie. Lengerich: • (2004c). Fast and frugal K. (2003). Effects of metacogni- psychology: Understanding and Pabst. heuristics: The tools of bounded tive thinking and knowledge influencing behavior in the • (in press-c). Wie kann der rationality. In D. Koehler & acquisition in dyads on individ- virtual world. Mahwah, NJ: Zusammenhang zwischen N. Harvey (Eds.), Blackwell ual problem solving and trans- Erlbaum. Gedächtniskapazität und Ko- handbook of judgment and fer performance. Swiss Journal variationslernen erklärt wer- decision making (pp. 62–88). of Psychology, 62, 251–261. Fasolo, B., McClelland, G. H., & den? [Abstract]. In D. Kerzel, V. Oxford, UK: Blackwell. Todd, P. M. (in press). Escaping Franz, & K. Gegenfurtner (Eds.), • (2004d). The irrationality Czienskowski, U. (2003). Meta- the tyranny of choice: When Beiträge zur 46. Tagung experi- paradox. Behavioral and Brain Analysis—Not just research syn- fewer attributes make choice mentell arbeitender Psycholo- Sciences, 27, 336–338. thesis! In R. Schulze, H. Holling, easier. Marketing Theory (Spe- gen. Lengerich: Pabst. • (2004e). Mindless statistics. & D. Böhning (Eds.), Meta- cial Issue on Judgement and The Journal of Socio-Economics, analysis: New developments Decision Making). Gerhardus, A., Christ, M., 33, 587–606. and applications in medical and Gadzicki, D., Haverkamp A., • (2004f). Striking a blow for social sciences (pp. 141–152). Fasolo, B., Misuraca, R., & Hoffrage, U., Krauth, C., et al. sanity in theories of rationality. Göttingen: Hogrefe & Huber. McClelland, G. H. (2003). Indi- (in press). Die molekular- In M. Augier & J. G. March vidual differences in adaptive genetische Diagnostik des (Eds.), Models of a man: Essays Demmel, R., & Schrenk, J. choice strategies. Research in erblichen Brust- und Eierstock- in memory of Herbert A. Simon (2003). Sensory evaluation of Economics, 57, 219–233. krebs—BRCA: Beratungs- (pp. 389–409). Cambridge, MA: alcohol-related and neutral prozesse—Testverfahren— MIT Press. stimuli: Psychophysical assess- Fasolo, B., Motta, M., & Kosten. Ein Health Technology • (2004g). Wie kommuniziert ment of stimulus intensity. Ad- Misuraca, R. (in press). Processi Assessment für den Bundesver- man Risiken? Gen-ethischer dictive Behaviors, 28, 353–360. e modelli decisionali online: band der AOK. Hannover: Medi- Informationsdienst, 161, 6–8. Rassegna di studi empirici e zinische Hochschule Hannover. • (2003a). The adaptive toolbox Dhami, M. K., Hertwig, R., & “decision websites” statunitensi and life span development: Hoffrage, U. (2004). The role of ed italiane. Giornale Italiano di Gigerenzer, G. (in press-a). Common questions? In U. M. representative design in an Psicologia. Bounded and rational. In R. Staudinger & U. Lindenberger ecological approach to cogni- Stainton (Ed.), Contemporary (Eds.), Understanding human tion. Psychological Bulletin, Fiddick, L. (2004). Domains of debates in cognitive science. development: Dialogues with 130, 959–988. deontic reasoning: Resolving Oxford, UK: Blackwell. lifespan psychology (pp. 423– the discrepancy between the • (in press-b). Calculated risks: 435). Boston: Kluwer. Dieckmann, A., & Todd, P. M. cognitive and moral reasoning How to know when numbers • (2003b). Calculated risks: How (in press). Simple ways to literatures. The Quarterly Jour- deceive you [In Chinese]. CITIC. to know when numbers deceive construct search order. In K. nal of Experimental Psychology, • (in press-c). Calculated risks: you [In Japanese]. Tokyo: Forbus, D. Gentner, & T. Regier 57A, 447–474. How to know when numbers Hayakawa.

68 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition Gigerenzer, G., Hoffrage, U., Goldstein, D. G., & Gigerenzer, Henrich, J., …, McElreath, R., Martignon, L., Czerlinski, J., G. (in press). Ignorance-based et al. (2004). Overview and Goldstein, D. G., & Rieskamp, J. decision making and the less- synthesis. In J. Henrich, R. Boyd, (in press). One-reason decision is-more paradox. In C. R. Plott S. Bowles, C. Camerer, E. Fehr, making. In C. R. Plott & V. L. & V. L. Smith (Eds.), Handbook & H. Gintis (Eds.), Foundations Smith (Eds.), Handbook of ex- of experimental economics of human sociality: Economic perimental economics results. results. Amsterdam: Elsevier/ experiments and ethnographic Amsterdam: Elsevier/North- North-Holland. evidence from fifteen small- Holland. scale societies (pp. 8–54). Gula, B., & Raab, M. (in press). Oxford: Oxford University Gigerenzer, G., Krauss, S., & Hot hand belief and hot hand Press. Vitouch, O. (2004). The null rit- behavior: A comment on ual: What you always wanted Koehler and Conley. Journal of Henrich, J., & McElreath, R. to know about significance Sport and Exercise Psychology, (2003). The evolution of cul- testing but were afraid to ask. 26, 167–170. tural evolution. Evolutionary In D. Kaplan (Ed.), The Sage Anthropology, 12, 123–135. handbook of quantitative Gummerum, M., Keller, M., methodology for the social sci- & Takezawa, M. (in press). A Hertwig, R., Barron, G., Weber, • (2003c). Quando i numeri in- ences (pp. 391–408). Thousand stage for the rational tail of the E. U., & Erev, I. (2004). Deci- gannano: Imparare a vivere con Oaks, CA: Sage. emotional dog: Roles of moral sions from experience and the l'incertezza. Milano: Cortina. reasoning in group decision- effect of rare events in risky • (2003d). Where do new ideas Gigerenzer, G., & Kurzen- making. In P. M. Kappeler, C. choice. Psychological Science, come from? A heuristics of dis- häuser, S. (2005). Fast and fru- Fichtel, & M. Schwibbe (Eds.), 15, 534–539. covery in the cognitive sci- gal heuristics in medical deci- Proceedings of the 4th Göt- ences. In M. C. Galavotti (Ed.), sion making. In R. Bibace, J. D. tinger Freilandtage on Coopera- Hertwig, R., Fanselow, C., & Observation and experiment in Laird, K. L. Noller, & J. Valsiner tion in Primates and Humans: Hoffrage, U. (2003). Hindsight the natural and social sciences (Eds.), Science and medicine in Mechanisms and Evolution. bias: How knowledge and (pp. 99–139). Dordrecht: dialogue: Thinking through par- heuristics affect our recon- Kluwer (Boston Studies in the ticulars and universals Hanoch, Y. (in press-a). Im- struction of the past. Memory, Philosophy of Science 232). (pp. 3–15). Westport, CT: proving doctor-patient under- 11, 357–377. • (2003e). Why does framing Praeger. standing of probability in com- influence judgment? Journal of municating cancer-screening Hertwig, R., & Ortmann, A. General Internal Medicine, 18, Gigerenzer, G., Martignon, L., test findings. Journal of Health (2003). Economists‘ and psy- 960–961. Hoffrage, U., Rieskamp, J., Communication. chologists‘ experimental prac- Czerlinski, J., & Goldstein, D. G. • (in press-b). One theory to fit tices: How they differ, why they Gigerenzer, G., & Edwards, A. (in press). One-reason decision them all: The search hypothesis differ, and how they could con- (2003). Simple tools for under- making. In C. R. Plott & V. L. of emotion revisited. The British verge. In I. Brocas & J. D. Carillo standing risks: From innumer- Smith (Eds.), Handbook of re- Journal for the Philosophy of (Eds.), The psychology of eco- acy to insight. British Medical sults in experimental econom- Science. nomic decisions: Vol. 1. Ration- Journal, 327, 741–744. ics. Amsterdam: Elsevier/North- ality and well-being (pp. 253– Holland. Hanoch, Y., & Pachur, T. 272). Oxford: Oxford University Gigerenzer, G., & Gaißmaier, (2004). Nurses as information Press. W. (in press). Denken und Ur- Gigerenzer, G., & McElreath, providers: Facilitating under- teilen unter Unsicherheit: Kog- R. (2003). Social intelligence in standing and communication of Hertwig, R., Pachur, T., & nitive Heuristiken. In J. Funke games: Comment. Journal of In- statistical information. Nurse Kurzenhäuser, S. (in press). (Ed.), Enzyklopädie der Psycho- stitutional and Theoretical Eco- Education Today, 24, 236–243. Judgments of risk frequencies: logie, C-II-8: Denken und Prob- nomics, 159, 188–194. Tests of possible cognitive lemlösen. Göttingen: Hogrefe. Hanoch, Y., & Vitouch, O. mechanisms. Journal of Experi- Gigerenzer, G., & Sturm, T. (2004). When less is more: In- mental Psychology: Learning, Gigerenzer, G., Hertwig, R., (in press). Tools = theories = formation, emotional arousal Memory, and Cognition. Hoffrage, U., & Sedlmeier, P. data? On some circular dynam- and the ecological reframing of (in press). Cognitive illusions ics in cognitive science. In M. G. the Yerkes-Dodson law. Theory Hertwig, R., & Todd, P. M. reconsidered. In C. R. Plott & V. Ash & T. Sturm (Eds.), Psychol- and Psychology, 14, 427–452. (2003). More is not always L. Smith (Eds.), Handbook of re- ogy’s territories: Historical and better: The benefits of cognitive sults in experimental econom- contemporary perspectives Hanoch, Y., & Wallin, A. limits. In D. Hardman & ics. Amsterdam: Elsevier/North- from different disciplines. (2003). The “wicked“ and the L. Macchi (Eds.), Thinking: Holland. APA Press. “kind“ [Review of the book Psychological perspectives ”Educating intuition“]. Applied on reasoning, judgment and Gigerenzer, G., Hertwig, R., Gigerenzer, G., & Todd, P. M. Cognitive Psychology, 17, decision making (pp. 213–231). Van den Broek, E., Fasolo, B., & (in press). Rationality the fast 122–124. Chichester, UK: Wiley. Katsikopoulos, K. (in press). "A and frugal way: Introduction. In 30% chance of rain tomorrow": C. R. Plott & V. L. Smith (Eds.), Hell, W., Fiedler, K., & Hertwig, R., & Wallin, A. (in How does the public under- Handbook of experimental eco- Gigerenzer, G. (Eds.). (in press). press). Out of the theoretical stand probabilistic weather nomics results. Amsterdam: Kognitive Täuschungen. Heidel- cul-de-sac. Behavioral and forecasts? Risk Analysis. Elsevier/North-Holland. berg: Spektrum. Brain Sciences, 27 (3).

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition 69 Hoffrage, U. (in press-a). Evo- Understanding the results of Hutchinson, J. M., & Halupka, soziale Partizipation. In D. lutionäre Ansätze in der kogni- medical tests: Why the repre- K. (2004). Mate choice when Sturzbecher & H. Grossmann tiven Psychologie. In P. Frensch sentation of statistical informa- males are in patches: Optimal (Eds.), Soziale Partizipation im & J. Funke (Eds.), Handbuch der tion matters. In R. Bibace, J. D. strategies and good rules of Vor- und Grundschulalter: Psychologie: Kognition. Göttin- Laird, K. L. Noller, & J. Valsiner thumb. Journal of Theoretical Grundlagen (pp. 143–172). gen: Hogrefe. (Eds.), Science and medicine in Biology, 231 (23), 129–151. München: Reinhardt. • (in press-b). Heuristics. In dialogue: Thinking through par- B. Everitt & D. Howell (Eds.), ticulars and universals (pp. 83– Johnson, J. G., & Raab, M. Keller, M., & Gummerum, M. Encyclopedia of statistics in 98). Westport, CT: Praeger. (2003). Take the first: Option- (2003). Freundschaft und Ver- behavioral science. Chichester, generation and resulting wandtschaft—Beziehungs- UK: Wiley. choices. Organizational Behav- vorstellungen im Entwick- • (in press-c). Heuristics: Fast ior and Human Decision lungsverlauf und im Kulturver- and frugal. In B. Everitt & D. Processes, 91, 215–229. gleich. sozialer sinn, 1, 95–121. Howell (Eds.), Encyclopedia of statistics in behavioral science. Johnson, J. G., Wilke, A., & Keller, M., Gummerum, M., Chichester, UK: Wiley. Weber, E. U. (2004). Beyond a Wang, X. T., & Lindsey, S. • (2004). Overconfidence. In R. trait view of risk taking: A do- (2004). Understanding perspec- F. Pohl (Ed.), Cognitive illusions: main-specific scale measuring tives and emotions in contract A handbook of fallacies and bi- risk perceptions, expected ben- violation: Development of ases in thinking, judgement and efits, and perceived-risk atti- deontic and moral reasoning. memory (pp. 235–254). Hove: tudes in German-speaking pop- Child Development, 75, Psychology Press. ulations. Polish Psychological 614–635. • (2003). Risikokommunikation Bulletin, 35, 153–163. bei Brustkrebsfrüherkennung Keller, M., & Krettenauer, T. und Hormonersatztherapie. Kameda, T., Takezawa, M., & (in press). Moral im Kulturver- Zeitschrift für Gesundheitspsy- Hastie, R. (2003). The logic of gleich. In G. Trommsdorf & H. J. chologie, 11, 76–86. social sharing: An evolutionary Kornadt (Eds.), Enzyklopädie der game analysis of adaptive norm Psychologie: Kulturvergleichen- Hoffrage, U., & Gigerenzer, G. Hoffrage, U., & Pohl, R. F. development. Personality and de Psychologie. Göttingen: (2004). How to improve the di- (2003). Research on hindsight Social Psychology Review, 7, Hogrefe. agnostic inferences of medical bias: A rich past, a productive 2–19. experts. In E. Kurz-Milcke & G. present, and a challenging Keller, M., Lourenço, O., Malti, Gigerenzer (Eds.), Experts in sci- future. Memory, 11, 329–335. Katsikopoulos, K. V., & Engel- T., & Saalbach, H. (2003). The ence and society (pp. 249–268). • (Eds.). (2003). Special issue on brecht, S. E. (2003). Markov multifaceted phenomenon of New York: Kluwer/Plenum. hindsight bias. Memory, 11, decision processes with delays “happy victimizers“: A cross- 329–505. and asynchronus cost collec- cultural comparison. British Hoffrage, U., & Hertwig, R. (in tion. IEEE Transactions on Journal of Developmental Psy- press). Which world should be Hoffrage, U., & Reimer, T. Automatic Control, 48 (4), chology, 21, 1–18. represented in representative (2004). Models of bounded ra- 568–574. design? In K. Fiedler & P. Juslin tionality: The approach of fast Krämer, W., & Gigerenzer, G. (Eds.), Information sampling and frugal heuristics. Manage- Keller, M. (in press). Pädagogik (in press). How to confuse with and adaptive cognition. Cam- ment Revue, 15 (4), 437–459. und Ethik. In D. Horster & J. statistics: The use and misuse bridge, NY: Cambridge Univer- Oelkers (Eds.), Moralentwick- of conditional probabilities. sity Press. Hoffrage, U., Weber, A., lung und moralische Sozialisa- Statistical Science. Hertwig, R., & Chase, V. M. tion. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Hoffrage, U., Hertwig, R., & (2003). How to keep children Souialwissenschaften. Krauss, S. (2003). Wie man das Fanselow, C. (2003). Modeling safe in traffic: Find the dare- • (2004a). A cross-cultural per- Verständnis von Wahrschein- the hindsight bias. In F. Detje, devils early. Journal of Experi- spective on friendship-research. lichkeiten verbessern kann: Das D. Dörner, & H. Schaub (Eds.), mental Psychology: Applied, 9, ISSBD Newsletter, 46, 10–11, 14. “Haufigkeitskonzept“. Stochas- The logic of cognitive systems: 249–260. • (2004b). Self in relationship. tik in der Schule, 23, 2–9. Proceedings of the Fifth Inter- In D. K. Lapsley & D. Narvaez national Conference on Cogni- Hutchinson, J. M. C. (2005). Is (Eds.), Moral development, self, Krauss, S., & Atmaca, S. (2004). tive Modeling (pp. 259–260). more choice always desirable? and identity (pp. 267–298). Wie man Schülern Einsicht in Bamberg: Universitäts-Verlag. Evidence and arguments from Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. schwierige stochastische Prob- leks, food selection, and envi- • (2003a). Die Entwicklung von leme vermitteln kann. Eine Fall- Hoffrage, U., Hertwig, R., & ronmental enrichment. Biologi- Verpflichtungen und Verant- studie über das “Drei-Türen- Gigerenzer, G. (in press). Die cal Reviews, 80 (1), 73–92. wortungen in Beziehungen: Problem”. Unterrichtswis- ökologische Rationalität ein- Eine kulturvergleichende Per- senschaft, 1, 38–57. facher Entscheidungs- und Hutchinson, J. M. C., & spektive. In W. Schneider & M. Urteilsheuristiken. In H. Siegen- Gigerenzer, G. (in press-a). Knopf (Eds.), Entwicklung, Krauss, S., & Wang, X. T. thaler (Ed.), Evolution, Tradition Response to commentaries. Lehren und Lernen: Zum (2003). The psychology of the und Rationalität. Tübingen: Behavioural Processes. Gedenken an Franz Emanuel Monty Hall problem: Discover- Mohr Siebeck. • (in press-b). Simple heuristics Weinert (pp. 147–165). ing psychological mechanisms and rules of thumb: Where psy- Göttingen: Hogrefe. for solving a tenacious brain Hoffrage, U., Kurzenhäuser, chologists and biologists might • (2003b). Moralische Entwick- teaser. Journal of Experimental S., & Gigerenzer, G. (2005). meet. Behavioural Processes. lung als Voraussetzung für Psychology: General, 132, 3–22.

70 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition Kurzenhäuser, S. (2003a). Nat- Machery, E. (in press-a). Caté- trees. In D. Hardman & L. et al. (2003). Group report: The ural frequencies in medical risk gorisation et attribution de Macchi (Eds.), Thinking: Psycho- role of cognition and emotion communication: Applications of propriétés. Les Cahiers logical perspectives on reason- in cooperation. In P. Hammer- a simple mental tool to improve Philosophiques de Strasbourg, ing, judgment and decision stein (Ed.), The genetic and cul- statistical thinking in physicians Concepts et Catégories, 17, making (pp. 189–211). tural evolution of cooperation and patients. Doctoral disserta- 119–147. Chichester, UK: Wiley. (pp. 125–152). Cambridge, MA: tion, Free University of Berlin. • (in press-b). Pour une ap- MIT Press. • (2003b). Welche Informatio- proche évolutionniste de la Mata, R. (in press). How the nen vermitteln deutsche cognition animale. Dialogue, central system works? It uses Miranda, E. R., Kirby, S., & Todd, Gesundheitsbroschüren über 43 (4), 1–15. fast and frugal heuristics. In K. P. M. (2003). On computational die Screening-Mammographie? • (in press-c). You don’t know Forbus, D. Gentner, & T. Regier models of the evolution of mu- Zeitschrift für ärztliche Fortbil- how you think: Introspection (Eds.), Proceedings of the 26th sic: From the origins of musical dung und Qualitätssicherung, and language of thought. The Annual Conference of the Cog- taste to the emergence of 97, 53–57. British Journal for the Philoso- nitive Science Society. Mahwah, grammars. Contemporary Music phy of Science. NJ: Erlbaum. Review, 22, 91–111. Kurz-Milcke, E., & Gigerenzer, G. (Eds.). (2004). Experts in Marsh, B., Todd, P. M., & Mata, R., Wilke, A., & Todd, P. Muramatsu, R., & Hanoch, Y. science and society. New York: Gigerenzer, G. (2004). Cogni- M. (in press). Adding the miss- (in press). Emotion as a mecha- Kluwer/Plenum. tive heuristics: Reasoning the ing link back into mate choice nism for bounded rational fast and frugal way. In J. P. research: Commentary on agents: The fast and frugal way. Leighton & R. J. Sternberg D. Schmitt, Sociosexuality from Journal of Economic Psychology. (Eds.), The nature of reasoning Argentina to Zimbabwe. A 48- (pp. 273–287). New York: Cam- nation study of sex, culture, Pachur, T., Rieskamp, J., & bridge University Press. and strategies of human mat- Hertwig, R. (in press). The so- ing. Behavioral and Brain cial circle heuristic: Fast and Martignon, L. (in press-a). A Sciences. frugal decisions based on small Bayesian view on fast and samples. In K. Forbus, D. frugal decision schemes. Inter- McElreath, R. (2004). Commu- Gentner, & T. Regier (Eds.), Pro- national Journal of Artificial nity structure, mobility, and the ceedings of the 26th Annual Intelligence in Education. strength of norms in an African Conference of the Cognitive • (in press-b). The debate over society: The Sangu of Tanzania. Science Society. Mahwah, NJ: cognitive illusions. Synthese. In J. Henrich, R. Boyd, S. Erlbaum. • (in press-c). Fast and frugal Bowles, C. Camerer, E. Fehr, & trees for categorization and de- H. Gintis (Eds.), Foundations of Raab, M. (2003). Decision mak- cision: A mathematical charac- human sociality: Economic ing in sports: Influence of com- terization. IEEE: Transactions on experiments and ethnographic plexity on implicit and explicit Systems, Man and Cybernetics. evidence from fifteen small- learning. International Journal scale societies (pp. 335–355). of Sport and Exercise Psychol- Martignon, L., Foster, M., Oxford: Oxford University Press. ogy, 1, 406–433. Vitouch, O., & Takezawa, M. • (2003). Reputation and the (2003). Simple heuristics versus evolution of conflict. Journal of Raab, M., & Gigerenzer, G. (in Kurz-Milcke, E. M., Gigerenzer, complex predictive instruments: Theoretical Biology, 220, press). Intelligence: The adap- G., & Hoffrage, U. (2004). Which is better and why? In 345–357. tive toolbox. In R. J. Sternberg Representations of uncertainty D. Hardman & L. Macchi (Eds.), & J. Pretz (Eds.), Cognition and and change: Three case studies Thinking: Psychological per- McElreath, R., Boyd, R., & intelligence: Identifying the with experts. In K. Smith, spectives on reasoning, judg- Richerson, P. J. (2003). Shared mechanisms of the mind. New J. Shanteau, & P. Johnson (Eds.), ment and decision making norms and the evolution of York: Cambridge University Psychological investigations of (pp. 189–211). Chichester, UK: ethnic markers. Current Anthro- Press. competence in decision making Wiley. pology, 44, 122–129. (pp. 188–225). Cambridge, UK: Raab, M., & Johnson, J. (in Cambridge University Press. Martignon, L., & Krauss, S. McElreath, R., & Camerer, C. press). Individual differences of (2003). Can l'homme eclairé be (2004). Appendix: Estimating action-orientation for risk-tak- Kurzenhäuser, S., & Lücking, A. fast and frugal? Reconciling risk-aversion from ultimatum ing in sports. Research Quar- (2004). Statistical formats in Bayesianism and bounded ra- game data. In J. Henrich, R. terly and Exercise Sport. Bayesian inference. In R. F. Pohl tionality. In S. Schneider & J. Boyd, S. Bowles, C. Camerer, E. (Ed.), Cognitive illusions: A Shanteau (Eds.), Emerging per- Fehr, & H. Gintis (Eds.), Founda- Raab, M., & Magill, R. A. handbook of fallacies and bi- spectives on judgment and deci- tions of human sociality: Eco- (2003). Motorisches Gedächt- ases in thinking, judgement and sion research (pp. 108–122). nomic experiments and ethno- nis, Behalten und Vergessen. In memory (pp. 61–77). Hove: Psy- Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Uni- graphic evidence from fifteen H. Mechling & J. Munzert (Eds.), chology Press. versity Press. small-scale societies Handbuch Bewegungswis- (pp. 436–438). Oxford: Oxford senschaft—Bewegungslehre Lindsey, S., Hertwig, R., & Martignon, L., Vitouch, O., University Press. (pp. 231–241). Schorndorf: Gigerenzer, G. (2003). Commu- Takezawa, M., & Forster, M. R. Hofmann. nicating statistical DNA evi- (2003). Naive and yet enlight- McElreath, R., Clutton-Brock, dence. Jurimetrics, 43, ened: From natural frequencies T. H., Fehr, E., Ressler, D. M. T., Reimer, T. (2003). Direkte und 147–163, VII-IX. to fast and frugal decision Hagen, E. H., Hammerstein, P., indirekte Effekte der Argument-

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition 71 qualität: Der Einfluss der Argu- genetischen Beratung bei [Review of Robert Rowe: Ma- Amsterdam: Elsevier/North- mentstärke auf die wahr- Hochrisiko-Familien für erbli- chine Musicianship]. Musicae Holland. genommene Expertise eines chen Brust- und Eierstockkrebs. Scientiae. Kommunikators. Zeitschrift In A. Gerhardus, M. Christ, D. Van den Broek, E., & Todd, P. für Sozialpsychologie, 34, Gadzicki, A. Haverkamp, U. Todd, P. M., & Billari, F. C. M. (2003). Piep piep piep—ich 243–255. Hoffrage, C. Krauth, et al. (Eds.), (2003). Population-wide mar- hab‘ Dich lieb: Rhythm as an Die molekulargenetische riage patterns produced by in- indicator of mate quality. In Reimer, T., & Hoffrage, U. (in Diagnostik des erblichen Brust- dividual mate-search heuristics. W. Banzhaf, T. Christaller, press). Can simple group und Eierstockkrebs—BRCA: In F. C. Billari & A. Prskawetz P. Dittrich, J. T. Kim, & J. Ziegler heuristics detect hidden profiles Beratungsprozesse—Testverfah- (Eds.), Agent-based computa- (Eds.), Advances in artificial in randomly generated environ- ren—Kosten. Ein Health Tech- tional demography: Using simu- life: 7th European conference ments? Swiss Journal of Psy- nology Assessment für den lation to improve our under- proceedings (ECAL 2003) chology. Bundesverband der AOK. standing of demographic (pp. 425–433). Berlin: Springer. • (2003). Information aggrega- Hannover: Medizinische behaviour (pp. 117–137). tion in groups: The approach of Hochschule Hannover. Heidelberg: Physica-Springer. Wilke, A., Hutchinson, J. M. simple group heuristics (SIGH). C., & Todd, P. M. (in press). In R. Alterman & D. Kirsch Schooler, L. J., & Hertwig, R. Todd, P. M., Billari, F. C., & Testing simple rules for human (Eds.), Proceedings of the (in press). How forgetting aids Simão, J. (in press). Modeling foraging in patchy environ- Twenty-Fifth Annual Confer- heuristic inference. Psychologi- the emergence of social mar- ments. In K. Forbus, D. Gentner, ence of the Cognitive Science cal Review. riage patterns produced by in- & T. Regier (Eds.), Proceedings Society (pp. 1–6). Mahwah, NJ: dividual mate-search heuristics. of the 26th Annual Conference Erlbaum. Schooler, L. J., & Shiffrin, R. M. Demography. of the Cognitive Science Society. (in press). Efficiently measuring Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Reimer, T., & Katsikopoulos, K. recognition memory perform- Todd, P. M., & Gigerenzer, G. V. (2004). The use of recogni- ance with sparse data. Behav- (in press). Social rationality. In Wilke, A., & Mata, R. (2004). tion in group decision-making. ior, Research Methods, Instru- C. R. Plott & V. L. Smith (Eds.), Review of how homo became Cognitive Science, 28, 1009– ments and Computers. Handbook of results in experi- sapiens: On the evolution of 1029. mental economics. Amsterdam: thinking by Peter Gärdenfors. Simão, J., & Todd, P. M. (2003). Elsevier/North-Holland. Evolutionary Psychology, 2, Reimer, T., Mata, R., & Emergent patterns of mate • (2003). Bounding rationality 24–27. Stoecklin, M. (in press). The use choice in human populations. to the world. Journal of Eco- of heuristics in persuasion: Artificial Life, 9, 403–417. nomic Psychology, 24, 143–165. Yongfang, L., Gigerenzer, G., & Deriving cues on communicator Todd, P. M. (2003). Fast and expertise from message quality. Sturm, T., & Gigerenzer, G. (in Todd, P. M., Hertwig, R., & frugal heuristics: Simple deci- Social Psychology, 10, 69–83. press). How can we use the dis- Hoffrage, U. (in press). Evolu- sion rules based on bounded tinction between discovery and tionary cognitive psychology. and ecological rationality [In Reise, H., Hutchinson, J. M. C., justification? On weaknesses of In D. Buss (Ed.), Handbook of Chinese]. Chinese Journal of & Robinson, D. G. (in press). Two the strong programme in the evolutionary psychology. Psychological Science, 26, introduced pest slugs: Tandonia sociology of science. In J. Chichester, UK: Wiley. 56–60. Budapestensis new to the Amer- Schickore & F. Steinle (Eds.), icas, and Deroceras panormi- Revisiting discovery and justifi- Todd, P. M., & Miranda, E. (in Zhu, L., & Gigerenzer, G. (in tanum new to the Eastern USA. cation. New York: Kluwer. press). Putting some (artificial) press). Children can solve life into models of musical Bayesian problems: The role of Rieskamp, J., Busemeyer, J. R., Takezawa, M., Gummerum, creativity. In I. Deliege & G. representation in mental com- & Laine, T. (2003). How do peo- M., & Keller, M. (in press). A Wiggins (Eds.), Musical creativ- putation. Cognition. ple learn to allocate resources? stage for the rational tail of the ity: Current research in theory Comparing two learning theo- emotional dog: Roles of moral and practise. Psychology Press. ries. Journal of Experimental reasoning in group decision- Psychology: Learning, Memory, making. Journal of Economic Todd, P. M., Rieskamp, J., & and Cognition, 29, 1066–1081. Psychology. Gigerenzer, G. (in press). Social heuristics. In C. R. Plott & V. L. Schlegelberger, B., & Hoffrage, Todd, P. M. (in press). A new AI Smith (Eds.), Handbook of ex- U. (in press). Implikationen der meets the machine musician perimental economics results.

72 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition 73

Center for Educational Research Contents

Introductory Overview ...... 77

Research Area I Opportunity Structures of School and Individual Development in Adolescence and Young Adulthood . . . . . 80

Research Area II Establishing a Monitoring System for Educational Performance: Foundational Studies ...... 91

Research Area III Promoting Language Skills and Reading Literacy: Intervention Studies ...... 103

Research Area IV Learning and Instruction: Cognitive Activation and Cognitive Tools ...... 117

Projects of W. Edelstein, Director Emeritus ...... 142

Publications 2003–2004 ...... 144

Scientific Staff 2003–2004

Cordula Artelt, Jürgen Baumert, Ilonca Hardy, Helmut Köhler, Stefan Krauss, Mareike Kunter, Oliver Lüdtke, Detlef Oesterreich, Thomas Rochow, Gundel Schümer, Petra Stanat, Elsbeth Stern, Ulrich Trautwein, Rainer Watermann Predoctoral Research Fellows Martin Brunner, Ping-Huang Chang (until 2004), Anke Demmrich (as of 2003: University of Jena, Children’s Hospital), Anja Felbrich (as of 2004: Humboldt Uni- versity Berlin), Nicole Husemann, Kai Maaz, Nele McElvany, Andrea Müller (LIFE), Gabriel Nagy (LIFE), Michael Schneider, Yi-Miau Tsai (LIFE), Regina Wolf (as of 2003: Vocational Training Academy, Plauen) Visiting Scientist Roland H. Grabner

76 Center for Educational Research Introductory Overview

The specific concern of the Center for Educational Research is the study of development and learning from the perspective of institutionalized education. Educational settings, such as schools, are conceived as providing a specific structure of opportunities and constraints for learning and development. This structure offers a variety of developmental opportunities, but, at the same time, excludes others. How do aspects of schooling affect learning within, and across, subject domains, impact on the intra- and interindividual differentiation of personality traits, and guide career-forming processes? Such questions are explored by a multidisciplinary team which includes educational scientists, psychologists, mathematicians, and sociologists. A strong theoretical focus is combined with an applied approach in the fields of system monitoring, professionalization of teaching, and improvement of learning and instruction.

Conceptual Orientation: The more educational institutions try Schooling as a Cultural Artifact to integrate authentic everyday ex- and an Authentic Part of Life periences into their programs, the The Center's research program is in- more obvious the paradox becomes. stitutional as well as developmental The acquisition of knowledge in edu- in orientation. This calls for a multi- cational institutions is confined by level research perspective: the structural properties of the insti- (1) With regard to the social struc- tution, regardless of whether or not ture of societies, formal education authentic learning is emphasized. can be conceived as a career-form- This constitutes the difference being process, even in its initial stages. tween learning inside and outside of (2) From an institutional perspective, school-like institutions. the focus is on facilitating and fos- At the same time, however, school is tering cumulative learning within, a central part of the student's life, and across, subject domains. and impacts strongly on cognitive (3) From an individual point of view, activities, beliefs, and behavior out- learning development can be con- side of school. Educational institu- ceptualized as a process of inter- tions command a large part of the and intraindividual differentiation. time of children, adolescents, and The Center's research agenda is young adults, and thus constitute shaped by each of these perspec- social environments in their own tives. right. The social rules and regula- It is a structural paradox of formal tions of educational institutions not education that the experiences made only create the conditions for sys- available within institutions of for- tematic instruction and learning but malized education are always vicari- provide the setting for immediate ous—selected and prepared with the everyday experiences. In our aim of facilitating learning processes research program, this effect which the learner must nevertheless of schooling is taken into particular perceive as personal and authentic. consideration in longitudinal studies,

Center for Educational Research 77 exploring individual development in Center, and provide a representative terms of cognitive competencies, overview of the four areas of our motivational and social resources, current research. and value commitment. Research Area I focuses on the rela- The way in which educational insti- tionship between the opportunity tutions have structured content structure of schools, and the opti- areas into different academic sub- mization of individual development jects determines the high domain- in terms of cognitive competencies, specificity of knowledge acquisi- motivational and social resources, tion. This is taken into account in value commitment, and successful our research on the structure of transitions to university education, knowledge—including domain-spe- vocational training, and the labor cific epistemological beliefs—ac- market. Two longitudinal studies quired in school. In large-scale as- form the basis for this research pro- sessment studies, classroom studies, gram. The ongoing, multi-wave, and experimental training studies, multiple-cohort study Learning Pro- we focus on domains of knowledge cesses, Educational Careers, and which represent basic cultural Psychosocial Development in Ado- tools and, as such, are critical for lescence and Young Adulthood individual development in modern (BIJU) was initiated in 1991 with a societies. Mathematics and science sample of more than 5,000 13-year- education and reading compre- olds. Data from six measurement hension constitute main areas of points are now available for the research. Special emphasis is placed main cohort. The longitudinal Trans- on the question of how cognitive formation of the Upper Secondary activation and self-regulation can School System and Academic be stimulated and supported by Careers (TOSCA) study started in instructional environments. 2002; a second measurement took In all our research on the interaction place in 2004. The homework proj- between the individual learner and ect, which uses data from multiple the institutional educational setting, sources (e.g., BIJU, PISA), establishes the learner is perceived as the pro- a link between Research Areas I ducer of his or her own develop- and II. ment—not only in the constructivist Research Area II comprises projects sense of active and idiosyncratic ac- representing the first steps toward quisition of knowledge but also in the establishment of a national the sense that he or she proactively monitoring system to gauge the selects and shapes the developmen- performance of the German school tal environment. system. These foundational studies combine basic research and system Summary Outline monitoring in an international The following summary of the Cen- comparative perspective. The major ter's research program is not com- project in this research area is the prehensive. Rather, research projects OECD’s Programme for Interna- have been selected to illustrate the tional Student Assessment (PISA). major lines of inquiry pursued in the In addition to international coopera-

78 Center for Educational Research tion, the project has intensified col- rocal learning approach, a study of Key References laboration between researchers at a training program targeting meta- Prenzel, M., Baumert, J., different universities and institutes memory and reading strategies Blum, W., Lehmann, R., Leutner, D., Neubrand, M., within Germany. At our Institute, our within the family context, and an Pekrun, R., Rolff, H.-G., involvement in the PISA study has examination of the role of phono- Rost, J., & Schiefele, U. (Eds.). (2004). PISA 2003: prompted the development of a logical awareness in the language Der Bildungsstand der closely associated research program development of bilingual children. Jugendlichen in Deutsch- land—Ergebnisse des that underpins the methodology of Finally, the Jacobs Summer Camp zweiten internationalen the PISA study and supplements its Project investigates the role of im- Vergleichs. Münster: findings. This program includes stud- plicit and explicit language learning, Waxmann. Schiefele, U., Artelt, C., ies designed to investigate the role with a particular focus on profi- Schneider, W., & Stanat, P. of test motivation and coaching, the ciency in school-related academic (Eds.). (2004). Struktur, validity of the translations used in language. Entwicklung und Förderung von Lesekompetenz: Vertie- international comparisons, and theo- Research Area IV consists of proj- fende Analysen im Rahmen retical dimensions of reading liter- ects on learning and instruction with von PISA 2000. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozial- acy. Furthermore, the Center has an experimental or quasi-experi- wissenschaften. played a leading role in developing mental approach. Most of these Köller, O., Watermann, and evaluating measures for the as- studies address research questions R., Trautwein, U., & Lüdtke, O. (Eds.). (2004a). sessment of self-regulated learning. that have emerged directly from the Wege zur Hochschulreife in These measures have now become first and second areas of research. Baden-Württemberg: an integral component of the inter- They are conducted either in the lab- TOSCA—Eine Untersuchung an allgemein bildenden national PISA project. The large- oratory (ENTERPRISE) or as longitu- und beruflichen Gym- scale assessments have also been dinal studies in school environments nasien. Opladen: Leske + Budrich. used to demonstrate how the evalu- with a strong emphasis on teacher Cortina, K. S., Baumert, J., ation of comprehensive school expertise (COACTIV). In the field of Leschinsky, A., Mayer, K. reform measures can be combined mathematics education, the Center U., & Trommer, L. (Eds.). (2003). Das Bildungswesen with national reference data. closely collaborates with the Center in der Bundesrepublik The research questions being ad- for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition. Deutschland. Strukturen und Entwicklungen dressed within Research Area III Building on a strong theoretical im Überblick. Reinbek: draw on a key finding of PISA 2000. background, these studies have Rowohlt. In Germany, at least 25% of the up- practical implications for the opti- coming generation represent a po- mization of classroom instruction tential at-risk group as far as read- and teacher training. ing literacy is concernced. Most of the projects in this Research Area have been designed to investigate, from the theoretical and empirical perspectives, the functional mechanisms underlying intervention programs aiming to foster metamemory and learning strategies in the domain of reading comprehension. The studies are experimental or quasi- experimental in design. They include an investigation of an experimental training program based on the recip-

Center for Educational Research 79 Key References Research Area I Marsh, H. W., Trautwein, U., Lüdtke, O., Köller, O., Opportunity Structures of School and Individual & Baumert, J. (2005). Development in Adolescence and Young Adulthood Academic self-concept, interest, grades and standardized test scores: Reci- procal effects models of Educational Institutions as Developmental Environments causal ordering. Child The successful development of human beings across the entire life span is Development, 76, 397–416. dependent both on their individual internal characteristics and on external Nagy, G., Trautwein, U., socializers, such as significant others and social institutions. The relative im- Köller, O., Baumert, J., & portance of internal and external promoters varies across the life span and Garrett, J. (in press). Gen- der and course selection in between areas of individual functioning. While parents play a dominant role upper secondary educa- in their children’s development during infancy, childhood, and early adoles- tion: Effects of academic cence, for example, their influence decreases during adolescence and often self-concept and intrinsic value. Educational Re- ceases entirely in adulthood. The social institution of the school also plays a search and Evaluation. major role during childhood and adolescence, particularly in the domain of Baumert, J., Trautwein, academic learning and, more generally, cognitive development. Furthermore, U., & Artelt, C. (2003). Schulumwelten—institu- schools have an impact on the formation or development of motivation, tionelle Bedingungen des emotions, attitudes, and other personal characteristics. Lehrens und Lernens. In J. Baumert, C. Artelt, E. Klieme, M. Neubrand, M. Given its theoretical focus on insti- ies that collect data at school, class, Prenzel, U. Schiefele, K.-J. Tillmann, & M. Weiß (Eds.), tutional influences on human devel- and individual levels, cover more PISA 2000: Ein differen- opment, the research conducted at than one knowledge domain, and al- zierter Blick auf die Länder the Center for Educational Research low both intraindividual change der Bundesrepublik Deutschland (pp. 261– entails longitudinal, multilevel stud- across domains and interindividual 331). Opladen: Leske + Budrich.

The BIJU Study—Aims and Data Collection BIJU has four guiding components: (1) providing institutional and individual baseline data on the integration of the East and West Ger- man educational systems; since 1991; (2) analyzing domain-specific learning as a function of personal resources and institutional opportunity structures; (3) analyzing long-term trajectories of psychosocial development in adolescence and young adulthood; (4) analyzing ways of coping with the transition from school to vocational training or university. Data collection began with a survey of the main cohort (longitudinal cohort 1) in the 1991/92 school year (see Figure 1). Data was gathered from 7th graders at three measurement points. The first point of measurement coincided with the transformation of the unitary school system of the former East Germany to the tracked system adopted from West Germany. The fourth wave of data collection was conducted in Spring 1995, when the main cohort students were in the final grade of lower secondary school. The fifth wave took place in Spring 1997, when participants were either in vocational education or in the academic track of upper secondary level. The sixth wave of data collection was conducted in 2001, and focused on how students had mastered the transition from school to university or from vocational education to the labor market. The sample of school classes comprises some 8,000 students from 212 secondary schools of all types in the states of Berlin, Mecklenburg-West Pomerania, North Rhine-Westphalia, and Saxony-Anhalt. In Spring 1993, the sample was supplemented by a second longitudinal cohort of 1,330 students in the final grade of lower secondary schooling. In order to provide a baseline for an East-West comparison at the end of lower secondary education, a separate cross-sectional study of approximately 1,600 10th graders was also carried out. This study concentrated on issues of political socialization, and the transition to vocational training and working life. www.biju.mpg.de

80 Center for Educational Research differences in patterns of intraindi- Opportunity Structures and the The BIJU Research vidual change to be investigated. The Development of Self-Concept and Team two flagship studies in Research Interest in Upper Secondary Area I, Learning Processes, Educa- Schools Jürgen Baumert tional Careers, and Psychosocial De- In recent years, ample evidence has Rainer Watermann velopment in Adolescence and Young been accumulated to confirm that Ulrich Trautwein Adulthood (BIJU), and Transforma- motivational components, such as Oliver Lüdtke tion of the Secondary School System self-concept and interest, are pow- and Academic Careers (TOSCA) were erful predictors of students’ achieve- Gabriel Nagy designed to investigate the effects of ment and achievement-related be- Kai Maaz learning contexts in high-school and havior. Moreover, several studies Nicole Husemann college environments on human de- have shown how factors at the per- (predoctoral velopment, bearing in mind the re- son level and features of the learn- fellows) quirements of multilevel longitudinal ing environment impact on a stu- designs. Recently, the TOSCA and dent’s motivation to learn. The longi- Associated BIJU studies have been supple- tudinal BIJU study (see Figure 1 for scientists: mented by a set of studies allowing an overview of the research design) Olaf Köller in-depth analyses of the effects of provides an excellent opportunity to (Institut zur Quali- homework assignments and home- examine the dynamic interplay be- tätsentwicklung im work completion on academic tween self-concept, interest, and Bildungswesen, achievement. In the following, some achievement (e.g., Marsh, Trautwein, Berlin) current research from BIJU, TOSCA, Lüdtke, Köller, & Baumert, 2005). The Kai S. Cortina and the homework project is pre- wealth of information that has been (University of sented in more detail. compiled on educational opportunity Michigan, Ann structures within the BIJU study also Arbor, USA) permits in-depth analyses of how composition and context factors in- In collaboration with Jacquelynne Eccles, 1991Year 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 Michigan Study of Education Adolescent Life Grade 7 21 3 L 1: Longitudinal cohort 1 Transitions—MSALT L 2: Longitudinal cohort 2 (University of Grade 8 C 1: Cross-sectional cohort 1 Michigan, Ann Arbor, USA) Grade 9 L 1

Grade 10 1 4 C 1 1 Grade 11/vocational education L 2

Grade 12/vocational 2 5 education Grade 13/vocational 5a education University/vocational education/job 3 6 Figure 1. Research design of the BIJU project.

Center for Educational Research 81 (a) Classical BFLPE Model effect.” Individuals tend to construct their frames of reference from the people close to them. Very often, the School mean achievement frame of reference is simply the – physical environment: classmates, + members of the same athletic club, Individual + Self-concept people who work in the same insti- achievement tution. In education, frame of reference effects result in students developing (b) Extended BFLPE Model comparably low self-concepts in high-achieving groups and compara- School mean bly high self-concepts in low- achievement – achieving groups. Herbert Marsh has + coined the term “Big-Fish-Little- Pond Effect” (BFLPE) to describe the Individual + Self-concept + achievement finding that students in high-achieving groups develop lower self-con- + cepts than equally proficient stu- + dents in low-achieving environ- Course level ments. The classical BFLPE model is illustrated in Figure 2(a). According to the BFLPE, students’ self-concepts Figure 2. The Big-Fish- Little-Pond Effect (BFLPE). are strongly influenced by the act of comparing or contrasting their own fluence human development (e.g., performance with that of their class- Baumert, Trautwein, & Artelt, 2003; mates. For this reason, researchers Nagy, Trautwein, Köller, Baumert, & have also used the term contrast ef- Garrett, in press; also see Lüdtke, fect to describe the negative path Köller, Marsh, & Trautwein, in press). coefficient from school-average For example, a series of analyses has achievement to students’ self-con- been conducted with the BIJU data cepts. to investigate the influence of the In recent years, however, educational mean performance level of a class on researchers have begun to ask the self-concept of the individual whether the contrast effect really members of that class (e.g, Köller, does tell the whole story. Does mem- 2004a; Marsh, Köller, & Baumert, bership of a high-status group not 2001; Marsh & Köller, 2004). These have any positive effects at all? Is and many other studies illustrate there no “basking in reflected glory” that a person’s self-concept of abil- or “assimilation” effect of being ity is heavily influenced by the placed in a high-achieving group? In achievement of others in his or her other words, might self-concept in immediate environment, and less so fact be enhanced by membership of by his or her objective standing. This groups that are positively valued by phenomenon is now commonly held the individual? This kind of assimila- to result from a “frame of reference tion effect might counterbalance the

82 Center for Educational Research negative effects experienced by stu- advanced courses in addition to their Key References dents in academically selective core classes. Thus, in contrast to the Lüdtke, O., Köller, O., classes who use their classmates as US, for example, even students who Marsh, H. W., & Trautwein, U. (in press). a basis of comparison. Thus, a (nega- perform well across the board are Teacher frame of reference tive) contrast or social comparison forced to specialize. Although cer- and the big-fish-little- pond effect. Contemporary effect (e.g., “A lot of students are tain restrictions apply, students can Educational Psychology. better than I am, so I can’t be as choose from a wide range of sub- Trautwein, U., Köller, O., good as I thought”) might compete jects. Importantly, poor prior Lüdtke, O., & Baumert, J. (in press). Student tracking with a (positive) assimilation effect achievement does not preclude en- and the powerful effects (e.g., “I must be smart because I am rollment in a specific subject al- of opt-in courses on self- concept: Reflected-glory in a selective course”)—this phenom- though, in practice, high achieve- effects do exist after all. In enon is illustrated in Figure 2(b). To ment is a major predictor of course H. W. Marsh, R. G. Craven, date, very little empirical support selection. Advanced courses differ & D. M. McInerney (Eds.), International advances has been found for assimilation ef- from basic courses in several ways. in self research (Vol. 2). fects, though studies of the phe- They involve five lesson hours per Greenwich, CT: Informa- tion Age Press. nomenon have been rather sparse. week, compared to two lesson hours Köller, O. (2004a). Konse- We investigated possible assimila- for basic courses; they cover more quenzen von Leistungs- tion effects in the last two years of material and do so on a more chal- gruppierungen. Münster: Gymnasium schooling (Trautwein, lenging level. Waxmann. Marsh, H. W., & Köller, O. Köller, Lüdtke, & Baumert, in press) Once enrolled in an advanced course, (2004). Unification of by capitalizing on a specific feature students find themselves in a new theoretical models of academic self-concept/ of upper secondary education in “pond” of students “specializing” in achievement relations: Germany: the differentiation be- that subject. This leads to a higher Reunification of East and tween basic and advanced courses. overall level of achievement in ad- West German school systems after the fall of the Course selection is an integral part vanced courses than in basic Berlin Wall. Contemporary of the last two years (grades 12 and courses. Given the contrast effect Educational Psychology, 29, 264–282. 13) of the Gymnasium, the most ac- typically found in high-achieving Marsh, H. W., Köller, O., & ademically competitive college- settings, one might expect a stu- Baumert, J. (2001). Reuni- bound track in Germany, with student’s self-concept in a subject to fication of East and West German school systems: dents selecting two (and only two) decline when he or she embarks on Longitudinal multilevel modeling study of the big- fish-little-pond effect on academic self-concept. American Educational Re- search Journal, 38, Time 1 321–350. Self-concept .59 Time 1 R2 = .46 Individual achievement .13 Time 2 Self-concept Time 1 –.08 School-average achievement

.14 Course level (Time 2) Figure 3. Regressing (0 = basic, 1 = advanced) grade12 self-concept on four predictors: Results of multilevel modeling.

Center for Educational Research 83 The TOSCA an advanced course in that subject. Opportunity Structures and the Research Team At the same time, however, given the Transition From School to Work or high general level of achievement in University Jürgen Baumert advanced courses, attending a Like the BIJU study, the TOSCA proj- Ulrich Trautwein course of this type might have posi- ect addresses both educational and Rainer Watermann tive effects on the student’s self- psychological research questions. Oliver Lüdtke concept in that subject. Moreover, From the educational perspective, Ping-Huang Chang course selection is a part of identity TOSCA examines the opportunity (until 2004) formation. Seen from the perspective structures open to students from Helmut Köhler of well-being and psychological different backgrounds, the educa- growth, it makes sense to “self- tional standards attained in German Gabriel Nagy enhance” in areas that play an im- upper secondary schools, and the Kai Maaz portant role in one’s life. comparability of the school-leaving Nicole Husemann We used data from the fourth and qualifications awarded across Ger- (predoctoral fifth waves of the BIJU study to ex- many. It also attempts, on the basis fellows) amine the effects of advanced math of multiple measures and assess- course selection on math self-con- ments, to predict the academic Associated cept. The key results of a set of mul- choices that students from different scientist: tilevel regression analyses are shown backgrounds are likely to make. From Olaf Köller in Figure 3. A student’s math self- the psychological perspective, a (Institut zur Quali- concept in grade 12 was strongly strong focus of the TOSCA study is tätsentwicklung im predicted by his or her math self- on self-selection versus socialization Bildungswesen, concept two years earlier. Grade 10 processes during the transition from Berlin) math achievement also impacted school to work or university. Among positively on grade 12 math self- other constructs, we examine per- www.tosca.mpg.de concept. Most importantly, we found sonal goals, academic and nonacad- a negative effect of school-average emic self-concepts, vocational inter- math achievement on math self- ests, and personality. concept (the typical BFLPE) as well as a positive effect of course level on Social Background math self-concept, indicating that The extent to which differences in assimilation effects are also in oper- students’ backgrounds impact on ation. their academic outcomes varies from This pattern of results illustrates the one school system to the next. The powerful effects of educational op- findings of the PISA study, for exam- portunity structures on the develop- ple, show that there is a link be- ment of student motivation. For the tween social background and per- development of student motivation formance in all participating coun- to be fully understood, in-depth tries, but that nowhere is this analyses of the student environ- relationship as strong as it is in Ger- ment—including institutional struc- many. One reason for this is the tures and educational practices—are strict ability grouping of the German essential. three-tier secondary school system, and the fact that students’ chances of attending the most attractive school type (Gymnasium) hinge on

84 Center for Educational Research 70 Figure 4. Parents’ occupational prestige by type of Gymnasium school (means 60 and standard deviations).

40 Mean SIOPS score

20 Traditional Vocational Traditional Vocational Key References Gymnasium Gymnasium Gymnasium Gymnasium Chang, P. H. (2005). Mother’s occupational prestige Father’s occupational prestige Transformation of vocational secondary schools: A study of the vocational Gymnasium in Germany. their social background. In recent enrolled in vocational and traditional Opladen: Barbara Budrich. decades, efforts have been made to Gymnasium schools (Maaz, Nagy, Köller, O., Baumert, J., Cortina, K. S., Trautwein, weaken the link between student Trautwein, Watermann, & Köller U., & Watermann, R. backgrounds and academic out- (2004). Whereas the mean occupa- (2004). Öffnung von Bil- dungswegen in der Sekun- comes in Germany by establishing tional prestige score for the fathers darstufe II und die comprehensive schools and voca- of students at traditional Gymna- Wahrung von Standards: Analysen am Beispiel der tional Gymnasium schools (Chang, sium schools was M = 54.31 (SD = Englischleistungen von 2005; Köller, Baumert, Cortina, 12.95), the mean score for fathers of Oberstufenschülern an In- Trautwein, & Watermann, 2004; students at vocational Gymnasium tegrierten Gesamtschulen, beruflichen und allgemein Köller, Watermann, Trautwein, & schools was M = 48.85 (see Fig- bildenden Gymnasien. Lüdtke, 2004a). One of the stated ure 4). A similar pattern emerged for Zeitschrift für Pädagogik, 50, 679–700. goals of vocational Gymnasium the mothers. Köller, O., Watermann, schools was to open up alternative Marked differences were also ob- R., Trautwein, U., & routes to higher education for tal- served in the parents’ educational Lüdtke, O. (Eds.). (2004a). Wege zur Hochschulreife in ented students from less privileged qualifications. Overall, the parents Baden-Württemberg: backgrounds who had not trans- had a high level of education, but TOSCA—Eine Untersuchung an allgemein bildenden ferred to a traditional Gymnasium significant differences were again und beruflichen Gym- immediately after primary school. discerned according to the type of nasien. Opladen: Leske + How successful have vocational Gymnasium school attended by their Budrich. Gymnasium schools been in these children. 44% of students at tradi- Maaz, K., Nagy, G., Trautwein, U., Water- attempts? In TOSCA, parents’ occu- tional Gymnasium schools reported mann, R., & Köller, O. pations were coded on the Standard that at least one of their parents (2004). Institutionelle Öff- nung trotz bestehender International Occupational Prestige was a university graduate. The corre- Dreigliedrigkeit: Auswir- Scale (SIOPS), thus providing an in- sponding figure for students at vo- kungen auf Bildungs- beteiligung, schulische sight into students’ social back- cational Gymnasium schools was Kompetenzen und Beruf- grounds. As shown in Figure 4, sig- only half the size, at 24%. saspirationen. Zeitschrift für Soziologie der nificant differences were found be- These results confirm that vocational Erziehung und Sozialisa- tween the parents of students Gymnasium schools do, to a certain tion, 24, 146–165.

Center for Educational Research 85 Data Collection in TOSCA At Time 1, the TOSCA project encompassed a representative sample of 4,730 students in their last year of upper secondary education (aged about 17-19 years) sampled between March and May 2002. All students were attending either traditional Gymnasium schools or one of the five forms of vocational Gymnasium school that have been established in the state of Baden-Wuerttemberg. More than 60% of these students consented to be recontacted for follow-up studies. The second wave of data collection took place from February to May 2004. A total of 2,316 students participated in this follow-up; most of them had since gone on to higher education. Measures used in TOSCA focus on academic achievement variables (e.g., TIMSS tests, TOEFL scores) and cognitive abilities (indicators of IQ). Additional instruments include student self-reports on motivation and personal goals, academic and nonacademic self-concept, interests, and family background. Finally, the students’ school and family context was further investigated using teacher, head teacher, and parent questionnaires.

extent, attract students who are not (1) We explore whether any differ- the “typical” clientele of the tradi- ences in the prestige of respondents’ tional Gymnasium in terms of their long-term career aspirations can be parents’ educational levels or occu- discerned as a function of the type pational prestige. Vocational Gymna- of Gymnasium attended. (2) Respon- sium schools are thus contributing dents’ long-term career goals are to increased heterogeneity of stu- compared with their parents’ occu- dent backgrounds in the group of pational prestige to obtain a meas- school leavers qualifying for higher ure of aspired social mobility (differ- education. ence between the two prestige Given that the vocational Gymna- scores). The aspired social mobility of sium is indeed offering students the school leavers is then set in rela- from less privileged homes access to tion to the type of Gymnasium at- university entrance qualifications, it tended. is interesting to explore how stu- First, inspection of the mean prestige dents exploit these new opportuni- scores of the students’ career goals ties. In other words, how do stu- shows that students at traditional dents’ social backgrounds and the Gymnasium schools (see Figure 5) type of Gymnasium attended relate aspire to jobs with higher mean oc- to the prestige of their long-term cupational prestige than do their career goals? This question is ap- peers at vocational Gymnasium proached from two perspectives: schools. If students at vocational Figure 5. Aspired social 60 Gymnasium mobility by type of schools prove Gymnasium attended. 58 to come from lower socioe- 56 conomic status groups than 54 their peers at traditional 52 Traditional Gymnasium Vocational Gymnasium Gymnasium Occupational prestige (SIOPS) schools, this 50 Parents’ Students’ aspired weak effect of occupational prestige occupational prestige the type of

86 Center for Educational Research Gymnasium might indicate that dif- ents of students in traditional Gym- Key References ferences in social background that nasium schools. The difference in the Lüdtke, O. (in press). Per- already exist at entry to upper sec- prestige scores of the careers aspired sönliche Ziele junger Erwachsener. Münster: ondary schooling are perpetuated in to by the students is much smaller, Waxmann. students’ career aspirations. at just b = –1.57 points (p < .001), Klusmann, U., Trautwein, For any conclusions about the repro- consistent with the differences ob- U. & Lüdtke, O. (2005). Intrinsische und extrin- duction of social inequality or differ- served in aspired social mobility (see sische Lebensziele: Relia- ences in social mobility to be drawn, Figure 5). Given that marked differ- bilität und Validität einer deutschen Fassung des parents’ occupations must also be ences in social background charac- Aspirations Index. Diag- taken into account. We define stu- teristics were ascertained at the be- nostica, 51, 40–51. dents’ aspired social mobility to be ginning of upper secondary school- Lüdtke, O., Trautwein, U., Nagy, G., & Köller, O. the difference between the prestige ing, these results indicate that (2004). Eine Vali- scores of their long-term career as- vocational Gymnasium schools serve dierungsstudie zum NEO- pirations and the prestige scores of to reduce inequality. Figure 5 shows FFI in einer Stichprobe junger Erwachsener: Ef- their parents’ occupations. We are the social background, occupational fekte des Itemformats, particularly interested in any differ- prestige of the long-term career faktorielle Validität und Zusammenhänge mit ences in aspired social mobility that goal, and aspired social mobility of Schulleistungsindikatoren. can be discerned as a function of the the two student groups. Further Diagnostica, 50, 134–144. type of Gymnasium attended. analyses will investigate the role of The mean occupational prestige of different occupational fields and the careers aspired to by students at university courses for the occupa- traditional Gymasium schools is M = tional prestige attained by the 2.31 points (p < .001) higher than TOSCA respondents over time. the prestige of their parents’ careers (more specifically, of their mother’s Personal Goals of Students at or father’s career, depending on Gymnasium Schools which scores higher on the prestige One of the central psychological scale). On average, the aspired social components of the TOSCA study in- mobility scores of students at voca- volves the in-depth investigation of tional Gymnasium schools exceed students’ personal goals. Two meth- those of their peers at traditional ods were applied. First, students Gymnasium schools by b = 3.45 (p < were asked to rate their agreement .001). Hence, students at vocational with a list of goals (“To be rich and Gymnasium schools aspire to jobs famous. How important is this goal scoring an average of 5.76 points to you?”) presented in a question- higher on the prestige scale than naire (Klusmann, Trautwein, & their parents’ jobs. This finding in it- Lüdtke, 2005). Second, students self could be interpreted as an indi- were asked to name six goals they cation of upward social mobility. It is planned to pursue in the coming also interesting to examine parents’ months and years (Lüdtke, in press). occupational prestige scores as a In the next step, they were asked to function of the type of Gymnasium rate these goals on various dimen- that their children attend. Parents of sions; for example, how difficult it students in vocational Gymnasium would be to achieve each goal, and schools score b = –5.02 points (p < why they wished to pursue it (e.g., .001) lower on this scale than par- self- vs. other-determined goals).

Center for Educational Research 87 Figure 6. Personal goal rat- 0.9 ings: Variance at the goal and the student level. 0.8 Goals Students 0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3 Proportion of total variance 0.2

0.1

0.0 Difficulty Effort Intrinsic motivation

Here, it is interesting to explore analysis for three selected goal at- whether an individual rates all of his tributes are documented in Figure 6. or her goals in the same kind of way. What are the implications of these Do individuals rate all their goals to findings for research on personal be similarly difficult, for example, or goals? In terms of content, it can be do they simultaneously pursue goals argued that there are significant dif- of varying difficulty levels? Do peo- ferences in respondents’ ratings at ple pursue some goals for other-de- the goal level. These differences are termined reasons (e.g., because their neglected when data are aggregated parents and friends expect it of at the person level, as is very often them) and others for self-determined the case in research on personal reasons? When addressing this ques- goals. It is thus important to explore tion, it is important to remember whether, and to what extent, these that personal goals have a multilevel differences at the goal level consti- structure analogous to that familiar tute theoretically relevant variance from school research: Goals are that is related to key outcome meas- nested within individuals in the ures. From a psychometric perspec- same way as students are nested tive, though, it is important to note within schools. In a multilevel analy- that, even with large differences in sis (HLM), we thus split the variance goal ratings, satisfactory reliabilities in goal ratings into two components: for aggregated person scores can be variance between individuals (i.e., at attained by means of the aggrega- the student level) and variance tion principle provided that data are within individuals (i.e., at the goal aggregated over a sufficiently large level). It emerged that most (be- number of goals. The conclusion to tween 65% and 78%) of the vari- be drawn is that future research in- ance was within individuals. The re- volving personal goal ratings should sults of the variance components provide a breakdown of variance.

88 Center for Educational Research Learning Opportunities Provided as (partially) mediated by motiva- The Research by Homework tional predictors. Likewise, effects of Team Our work on the effects of home- the instructional environment (e.g., work assignments and homework homework quality and control) are Ulrich Trautwein completion originated from analyses expected to be partially mediated by Jürgen Baumert conducted within the BIJU study homework motivation. (e.g., Trautwein, Köller, Schmitz, & Among the questions addressed by In cooperation with Baumert, 2002; Trautwein & Köller, the homework project, several are of Alois Niggli (Päda- 2002), and has become an additional great practical interest to teachers, gogische Hoch- field of interest within Research students, and their parents (e.g., schule Fribourg) Area I that forges a strong link to Trautwein & Köller, 2003e; Trautwein as well as Inge Research Area II. The homework & Kropf, 2004). For instance, do Schnyder and Rico project draws on data sets from dif- homework assignments improve stu- Cathomas (Univer- ferent sources, such as PISA 2000, dent achievement? Our studies (e.g., sity of Fribourg) PISA 2003, and a study conducted in Trautwein, Köller, Schmitz, & collaboration with the University of Baumert, 2002) indicate that fre- Fribourg, Switzerland. quent homework assignments in From a conceptual and methodologi- 7th-grade mathematics are posi- cal point of view, homework re- tively associated with achievement search calls for a multilevel perspec- gains on the class level, but that tive (Trautwein & Köller, 2003b) in long time-consuming assignments which the effects of homework as- do not show positive effects. Focus- signments (teacher variables) and of ing on individual students within the www.homework.mpg.de homework completion (student vari- same classroom, those who put a lot ables) are separated. Trautwein and of effort into their mathematics Köller (2003e) have proposed a homework (but do not necessarily multilevel homework model as a report long study times) fare better general framework for homework re- than those who invest less effort. In Key References search. According to this model, stu- contrast to common beliefs, home- Trautwein, U., & Köller, O. (2003b). The relation- dents’ homework behavior impacts work control by teachers and parents ship between homework on their achievement, whereby effort is only loosely connected to the ef- and achievement—still much of a mystery. Educa- and the use of learning strategies fort invested in homework. tional Psychology Review, are predicted to be more important A second question of great practical 15, 115–145. than the time spent on homework. relevance is whether—as some Trautwein, U., & Köller, O. (2003e). Was lange Moreover, in line with the predic- teachers claim—students’ homework währt, wird nicht immer tions of expectancy-value theory, as behavior is largely dependent on sta- gut: Zur Rolle selbstregu- described in the work of Jacquelynne ble personality characteristics of the lativer Strategien bei der Hausaufgabenerledigung. Eccles, homework behavior is be- students and less so on the charac- Zeitschrift für Pädago- lieved to be heavily influenced by teristics of a specific academic sub- gische Psychologie, 17, 199–209. motivational predictors (e.g., belief ject or the quality of homework. Our Trautwein, U., Köller, O., in being able to solve homework results only partially support this Schmitz, B., & Baumert, J. problems, perceived utility of home- view. On the one hand, there is in- (2002). Do homework assignments enhance work problems). The effects of cog- deed a substantial significant corre- achievement? A multilevel nitive abilities and personality as lation between students’ homework analysis of 7th grade mathematics. Contempo- well as the impact of the family con- behavior across domains. On the rary Educational Psychol- text and parental behavior are seen other hand, the strength of this cor- ogy, 27, 26–50.

Center for Educational Research 89 Some results of the Home- work Study as featured by the German daily paper die tageszeitung, December 1, 2004.

0 Annoying Parents Anyone who has ever been to school knows that homework is a pain. But now there is scientific evidence to confirm that homework is particularly annoying when Mom (or even Dad) sits down uninvited at the table, offering help and motivation. Educational scientist Ulrich Trautwein has investigated the educational value of homework and identified the main motivational problems facing young people. These include the interference of overly concerned parents—and the time that homework takes. The longer kids spend at home puzzling over math problems, the less fun they have—and the less they learn. But teachers also make mistakes when setting homework. Instead of giving students individualized assignments, they expect their charges to continue drilling what has been learned in the lesson, mechanically applying set routines. So is homework pointless? No, says Key References Trautwein, researcher at the Max Planck Institute, with homework it’s a case of “no pain, no gain.” Trautwein, U., & Kropf, M. It’s just important to realize that, in this case, pain does not mean the amount of time spent on (2004). Das Hausauf- homework, but “the effort made to do it properly.” gabenverhalten und die Hausaufgabenmotivation von Schülern—und was ihre Eltern darüber wissen. Psychologie in Erziehung relation leaves room for factors Students’ perceptions of homework und Unterricht, 51, 285–295. other than stable personality charac- quality have a significant impact on Trautwein, U. & Köller, O. teristics as well. Data from more their homework motivation (ex- (2002). Der Einfluss von than 80 classrooms with French as a pectancy and value) which is, in Hausaufgaben im Eng- lisch-Unterricht auf die second language (joint project with turn, associated with a higher per- Leistungsentwicklung und the University of Fribourg) revealed centage of homework tasks com- das Fachinteresse. Em- pirische Pädagogik, 16, teacher effects on both homework pleted (e.g., Trautwein & Köller, 285-310. motivation and homework effort. 2003e).

90 Center for Educational Research Research Area II The Research Establishing a Monitoring System for Educational Team Performance: Foundational Studies Cordula Artelt Jürgen Baumert Germany is one of the few industrial states which has only recently begun to Gundel Schümer establish a national system of quality control to monitor the outcomes of Petra Stanat educational processes. The Center for Educational Research’s involvement in large-scale assessments and studies on associated methodological and con- Martin Brunner tent-related topics is an integral part of this process of establishing a moni- Nele McElvany toring system for educational performance in Germany. The country’s partici- (predoctoral pation in TIMSS and PISA has provided reliable data on the performance of fellows) selected cohorts of students in curricular and cross-curricular domains (Stanat & Lüdtke, in press). After conducting the first cycle of the PISA study In cooperation with in 2000, the Center handed over responsibility for future large-scale assess- other Institutions: ments, particularly the second wave of PISA (PISA 2003), to the Leibniz Insti- National PISA 2000 tute for Science Education at the University of Kiel. consortium: Jürgen Baumert The Programme for International tries’ education systems and for (MPI for Human Student Assessment (PISA) gauging the effects of measures Development), In 1997, the OECD launched a pro- taken to improve learning outcomes. Eckhard Klieme gram to monitor the outcomes of PISA allows for in-depth analyses of (German Institute education systems in terms of stu- the outcomes of educational systems for International dent achievement, and to provide in- within and across the participating Educational ternationally comparable indicators countries. The project is designed to Research), of performance in key domains on a yield three types of indicators: Michael Neubrand regular basis. All 16 of the German – Profiles of the knowledge and skills (University of states are participating in PISA. The acquired by students approaching Oldenburg), Center for Educational Research the end of compulsory education Manfred Prenzel headed the consortium responsible in curricular and cross-curricular (Leibniz Institute for the management of PISA 2000 in domains. These profiles pinpoint for Science Edu- Germany. The Center is also involved the strengths and weaknesses of cation, Kiel), in the 2003 assessment, using it educational systems and locate Ulrich Schiefele mainly as a vehicle for research. areas requiring action. (University of PISA is designed to provide informa- – Contextual indicators relating per- Bielefeld), tion on the outcomes of school sys- formance to student and school Wolfgang Schneider tems in the participating countries. characteristics. Information on (University of The project assesses the knowledge, these relationships can shed light Würzburg), skills, and competencies of 15-year- on the effectiveness of educational Klaus-Jürgen old students in reading, mathemat- systems and draw attention to Tillmann (Univer- ics, and science as well as in cross- possible points of intervention. sity of Bielefeld), curricular domains. Because the as- –Trend indicators showing how re- Manfred Weiß sessments take place on a regular sults change over time. (German Institute basis, with three-year cycles, the Data collection for the first cycle of for International study presents a tool for monitoring PISA took place in the year 2000, Educational changes in the performance of coun- and a total of nine reports were sub- Research)

Center for Educational Research 91 Key References sequently published by the PISA ple perspectives with representative Stanat, P., & Lüdtke, O. 2000 consortium as well as members samples of students (see Table 1). (in press). Internationale of the Center. The second cycle of In addition to the three curricular Schulleistungsvergleiche. In G. Trommsdorff & H.-J. PISA was conducted in 2003, with domains of reading literacy, mathe- Kornadt (Eds.), Enzyklo- the first report being published in matical literacy, and science literacy, pädie der Psychologie: Kul- turvergleichende Psycholo- 2004 (Prenzel et al, 2004). the research design covers cross- gie: Vol. 2. Kulturelle Deter- Based on theoretical approaches curricular competencies. The Center minanten des Erlebens und Verhaltens. Göttingen: from psychology, sociology, and edu- played a leading role in establishing Hogrefe. cation, the Center for Educational (Baumert et al., 1998; Artelt et al., Prenzel, M., Baumert, J., Research has systematically ex- 2000) and evaluating (Artelt, Blum, W., Lehmann, R., Leutner, D., Neubrand, M., tended the international design of Baumert, Julius-McElvany, & Pekrun, R., Rolff, H.-G., the project, allowing us to explore Peschar, 2003) a framework for a Rost, J., & Schiefele, U. basic research questions from multi- self-report measure to assess cross- (Eds.). (2004). PISA 2003. Der Bildungsstand der Ju- gendlichen in Deutsch- land—Ergebnisse des zweiten internationalen Table 1 Vergleichs. Münster: Some national supplements to the international PISA design for analyses of Waxmann. knowledge structures and their determinants

Cross-curricular Student Reading Mathematics Science competencies background

• Assessment • Fine-grained • More com- • Assessment • Assessment of learning differentia- prehensive of general of mental from texts as tion and de- assessment problem- ability as a a component scription of of under- solving skills control of reading competency standing of and valida- variable for literacy dis- classes scientific tion of the estimating tinct from concepts to construct effects of • Addition of a working with test the dis- individual- broader • Assessment texts tinction be- level and range of of aspects of tween con- school-level • Assessment items assess- social com- cept and factors of proximal ing aspects petence process com- antecedents of mathe- • Assessment ponents of • Exploration of text com- matical of additional scientific lit- of the role prehension to literacy not indicators for eracy schools play identify pos- covered by students’ in the devel- sible points the interna- • Identification social back- opment of for inter- tional test and descrip- ground cross-curric- vention tion of com- • Ratings of ular compe- • More differ- petency lev- items based tencies entiated els on a theory assessment of cognitive • Differentia- of families’ demands tion of five migration cognitive history • Identification competencies of effects of • Assessment defined in curricular of peer- terms of pro- and didac- group char- cesses in tical tradi- acteristics working out tions on science knowledge problems structures

92 Center for Educational Research curricular competencies, particularly matic report on the structure, devel- Key References affective constructs related to self- opment, and teaching of reading lit- Schiefele, U., Artelt, C., regulated learning. The implementa- eracy, edited by Schiefele, Artelt, Schneider, W., & Stanat, P. (Eds.). (2004). Struktur, tion of the scales developed Schneider, and Stanat (2004). Entwicklung und Förderung (Baumert et al., 1998) was optional von Lesekompetenz: Vertiefende Analysen im for the countries participating in Mathematical Literacy Rahmen von PISA 2000. PISA 2000, but has become a perma- Mathematical literacy was a minor Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für nent component of future PISA domain in the first survey cycle, but Sozialwissenschaften. cycles and of other large-scale became the major domain of the assessments. 2003 assessment. The international PISA framework for the assessment Reading Literacy of mathematical literacy is strongly Each cycle of the international PISA influenced by the “realistic mathe- program focuses on one of the three matics” approach introduced by assessment domains. In the first Hans Freudenthal. The approach cycle, this major domain was read- starts with the assumption that ing. The international framework for mathematical concepts and ideas the assessment of reading literacy is have primarily been developed as largely based on a structural model tools for grasping and structuring developed by Kirsch and Mosenthal phenomena of the physical, social, Neubrand, M. (Ed.). (2004). (1998), which strongly influenced and mental world. In line with this Mathematische Kompeten- zen von Schülerinnen und both the US National Assessment of assumption, the international PISA Schülern in Deutschland. Educational Progress (NAEP) and the test consists mainly of items that Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften. OECD’s International Adult Literacy require students to apply their Study (IALS). For the purposes of re- knowledge and skills in authentic porting, three scales were con- situations. Moreover, the composi- structed, summarizing students’ per- tion of the test reflects the idea that formance in retrieving information, problems involving modeling and in interpreting texts, and in reflect- application present the best indica- ing and evaluating. tors for mathematical understand- The PISA reading assessment covers ing. The “realistic mathematics” a broad range of text types. In addi- approach reflects current ideas on tion to continuous texts, which are constructivist teaching and situated typically organized in sentences and learning that are quite popular in paragraphs (narratives, etc.), it also research on instruction. Detailed includes noncontinuous texts, such analyses of the international test as graphs, tables, and forms, that conception as well as the German present information in a variety of extension assessments (see Table 1) different ways. Thus, PISA adopts a have been published in a thematic relatively broad notion of what con- report examining mathematical lit- stitutes a text. In-depth analyses of eracy among students in Germany both the international reading liter- (Neubrand, 2004). acy tests and the German extension assessments (of learning from texts Scientific Literacy and additional proximal antecedents, Scientific literacy was also a minor see Table 1) are presented in a the- component of the first PISA cycle. It

Center for Educational Research 93 Key References will be the major domain of the third Besides the relatively low perform- Rost, J. Prenzel, M., cycle, which will take place in 2006. ance of German students in the Carstensen, H. C., Senkbeil, In line with the Anglo-American no- 2000 PISA assessment, other aspects M. & Groß, K. (Eds.). (2004). Naturwissen- tion of scientific literacy, as de- of the results sparked widespread schaftliche Bildung in scribed in documents, such as the debate. While there is a link between Deutschland. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozial- Benchmarks for Science Literacy social background and achievement wissenschaften. published by the American Associa- in all PISA countries, nowhere is this tion for the Advancement of Science, relationship as strong as it is in the international PISA framework Germany. PISA covers a broad range emphasizes process skills. It defines of student background indicators. A processes as “mental (and sometimes thematic report provides in-depth physical) actions used in conceiving, analyses of the role of student back- obtaining, interpreting, and using ground, in terms of both socioeco- evidence or data to gain knowledge nomic status and migration back- or understanding“ (OECD, 1999, ground. p. 61) and distinguishes five such In response to the PISA results, the processes: (1) recognizing scientifi- Center has established a new Re- cally investigable questions, (2) search Area (see Research Area III) to Baumert, J., Stanat, P., & Watermann, R. (Eds.) (in identifying evidence needed in a sci- analyze effective ways of improving prep.). Herkunftsbedingte entific investigation, (3) drawing or reading and language comprehen- Disparitäten im Bildungs- evaluating conclusions, (4) commu- sion, focusing particularly on the wesen: Differenzielle Bil- dungsprozesse und Prob- nicating valid conclusions, and (5) needs of students from migration leme der Verteilungs- demonstrating the understanding of backgrounds and families with low gerechtigkeit. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozial- scientific concepts. Although some socioeconomic status. wissenschaften. scientific knowledge is needed for all In the following, we outline key five processes, only the fifth prima- findings on the topics of school-ef- rily focuses on this particular aspect fectiveness, reading literacy, and of scientific literacy. In other words, cross-curricular competencies, and the understanding of scientific con- present three analyses of method- cepts is not intended to be the main ological research questions in the challenge posed by the items de- area of large-scale assessment. signed to assess the first four of the processes covered in the interna- School-Effectiveness Research in tional PISA test. the Context of Large-Scale The scientific framework was supple- Assessments mented by items (see Table 1) that al- Using the instruments developed lowed for further differentiation of within large-scale assessment proj- cognitive competencies, also in terms ects, our Center has carried out sev- of the curricular domains of chem- eral studies to evaluate innovative istry, biology, and physics. An over- school programs. These studies view of the international and national demonstrate how system monitoring test conceptions and the main results and research on whole-school reis provided in a thematic report on form—two traditions that, for a long science education in Germany, pub- time, were considered to be largely lished by Rost, Prenzel, Carstensen, incompatible—can be linked. Build- Senkbeil, and Groß (2004). ing on an investigation of five com-

94 Center for Educational Research prehensive schools in the Land of structural changes implemented by Key References Hesse using instruments from TIMSS the Laborschule, some of which are Watermann, R., Thurn, S., and BIJU (Köller & Trautwein, quite similar to Scandinavian school Tillmann, K.-J., & Stanat, P. (Eds.). (in press). Die 2003c), we performed an extensive systems, cannot necessarily be ex- Laborschule im Spiegel evaluation of the Laborschule Biele- pected to result in improved per- ihrer PISA-Ergebnisse: Pädagogisch-didaktische feld. The Laborschule is one of the formance. Instead, the crucial factor Konzepte und empirische most interesting and controversial seems to be quality of instruction, Evaluation reformpäda- gogischer Praxis. Wein- schools in Germany, having imple- which is apparently higher in some heim: Juventa. mented substantial structural domains of the Laborschule than in changes. It is a comprehensive others. school that aims at attracting a heterogeneous student body, adopts an Reading: Comparison of experience-oriented approach to Performance on Narrative and teaching and learning, and gives Nonnarrative Texts learning reports instead of grades as In Germany, the PISA results also performance feedback. Due to its prompted a discussion on the ade- strong emphasis on developing the quacy of the reading literacy assess- skills and orientations necessary to ments implemented in the study. It function as an autonomous citizen, was speculated that the relatively moreover, the school tries to provide high proportion of noncontinuous Köller, O. & Trautwein, U. an environment that functions like a texts and the low proportion of con- (Eds.). (2003c). Schulquali- tät und Schülerleistung: small society and gives students the tinuous narratives might have re- Evaluationsstudie über opportunity to experience being part sulted in German students’ perform- innovative Schulentwick- lung an fünf hessischen of a democratic system. We explored ance being underestimated, given Gesamtschulen. Weinheim: the extent to which this kind of set- that German curricula/standards tra- Juventa. up can succeed in meeting the ditionally pay relatively little atten- school’s stated goals in the domains tion to noncontinuous texts and— of personality development and civic especially in higher grades—concen- education as well as learning goals trate on literature rather than on in the curricular domains of reading, other text genres. mathematics, and science. The find- As a first step, we tested whether ings indicate that the school is in- these two dimensions could be dis- deed very effective in developing tinguished. Previous research has students’ competencies, interests, shown that there are good reasons and attitudes in political and social for distinguishing narratives from domains. In terms of curricular other text genres, particularly those achievement, however, the picture is that include graphs and pictures, mixed. In reading and science, the when it comes to reading and text students at the Laborschule reached comprehension (Schnotz & Dudtke, levels of proficiency that one would 2004). Dimensionality analysis of the expect them to reach on the basis of reading items confirms that reading their background (value-added literacy can be differentiated along analyses). In mathematics, however, these dimensions. Of the 129 read- they clearly lagged behind compara- ing items that were administrated in ble peers in other schools. This pat- PISA 2000, 17 items referred to 4 tern of findings suggests that the narrative texts, 70 items to other

Center for Educational Research 95 Key Reference types of continuous texts, and the tinuous texts) shows that, overall, Artelt, C., & Schlagmüller, remaining 42 items to noncontinu- German students did not do better M. (2004). Der Umgang ous texts, like maps, graphs, etc. The on narrative texts, but in fact permit literarischen Texten als Teilkompetenz im Lesen? task demands of the different text formed relatively worse on these Dimensionsanalysen und genres proved to differ. As expected, tests than on the other text types. Ländervergleiche. In U. Schiefele, C. Artelt, W. the lowest correlations among the Table 2 lists means and standard er- Schneider, & P. Stanat three factors were found between rors for the three reading factors (Eds.), Struktur, Entwick- lung und Förderung von narratives and noncontinuous texts broken down by countries. Note that, Lesekompetenz: Ver- (Artelt & Schlagmüller, 2004). due to the study design, the country tiefende Analysen im Rahmen von PISA 2000 Comparison of mean student per- means of countries with special edu- (pp. 169–196). Wiesbaden: formance on the three separate cation schools are overestimated. VS Verlag für Sozial- reading literacy factors (narratives, Because the test booklets for special wissenschaften. other continuous texts, and noncon- education students did not cover all

Table 2 Mean student performance on the three reading factors (narrative texts, continuous texts, noncontinuous texts) by country

Narrative texts Continuous texts Noncontinuous texts Country Mean SE Country Mean SE Country Mean SE Finland 540 2.6 Finland 558 3.2 Finland 558 2.6 Canada 529 1.9 Canada 537 1.9 New Zealand 545 3.0 Korea 526 3.1 Korea 534 2.7 Australia 545 3.6 Ireland 521 3.8 Australia 533 3.9 Canada 540 1.9 New Zealand 520 3.2 Japan 531 5.6 Ireland 537 3.9 Norway 518 3.7 New Zealand 531 3.5 United Kingdom 537 2.5 United Kingdom 516 3.0 Ireland 528 3.9 Sweden 529 2.9 Australia 513 4.0 Sweden 524 2.5 Korea 525 2.9 Sweden 511 2.7 United Kingdom 519 3.0 Belgium1 525 3.5 Iceland 509 2.5 Belgium1 517 3.6 Japan 522 5.7 Austria 509 3.2 Iceland 515 2.0 Norway 520 3.5 Japan 505 4.3 Austria 513 3.2 France 518 3.1 Hungary1 505 4.2 Norway 507 3.5 Iceland 515 2.5 Czech. Republic1 502 2.6 United States 507 7.1 Denmark 512 3.0 OECD Mean 499 0.8 OECD Mean 506 0.7 United States 510 6.8 Belgium1 497 3.6 France 502 3.4 OECD Mean 508 0.8 United States 497 7.6 Switzerland 502 4.8 Czech. Republic1 507 2.9 Portugal 496 4.9 Denmark 501 3.2 Austria 505 2.8 Russ. Federation 492 4.2 Germany1 499 3.0 Germany1 500 2.7 Spain 488 3.4 Italy 495 3.3 Spain 498 3.4 Germany1 485 3.6 Czech. Republic1 495 3.0 Switzerland 497 4.7 Greece 485 5.0 Spain 494 2.8 Hungary1 490 4.7 Denmark 483 3.0 Hungary1 487 4.4 Italy 486 3.5 France 483 3.4 Greece 482 6.3 Portugal 466 5.1 Italy 477 3.2 Portugal 472 4.8 Russ. Federation 458 4.7 Switzerland 475 4.4 Latvia 463 5.6 Greece 458 5.4 Latvia 472 5.5 Russ. Federation 461 4.6 Latvia 456 5.4 Luxembourg 445 3.0 Luxembourg 443 2.3 Luxembourg 447 2.3 Mexico 435 3.5 Mexico 427 3.8 Mexico 406 4.3 Brazil 416 3.5 Brazil 396 3.5 Brazil 369 4.0 1 Without students from special education schools. Countries marked in grey: Not statistically different from the OECD mean. SE = Standard error.

96 Center for Educational Research three factors, these students had to measurement of knowledge and Key References be excluded from this analysis, re- skills in curricular domains and at- Artelt, C. (in press-a). sulting in reduction of 4% of the tempts to capture so-called cross- Cross-cultural approaches to measuring motivation. age cohort in Germany (and an over- curricular competencies that can be Educational Assessment. estimation of the combined reading applied in a broad range of situa- Artelt, C., Baumert, J., literacy scale of about 10 points). tions. This approach follows the gen- Julius-McElvany, N., & Peschar, J. (2003). Learners Some countries, including the Russ- eral idea that the goals of formal ed- for life: Student ap- ian Federation, Brazil, Portugal, and ucation are not restricted to maxi- proaches to learning. Results from PISA 2000. Hungary, score higher on the narra- mizing curriculum-based knowledge. Paris: OECD. tives factor than on the combined The approach taken to measure af- reading literacy scale. Germany is fective constructs related to self- among the 17 countries that score regulated learning is based on lower on the narratives factor than Boekaerts’ (1997) model of self-reg- on the combined reading literacy ulated learning, which assigns equal scale (Artelt & Schlagmüller, 2004). status to the cognitive and motiva- What are the implications of these tional components of learning. findings? For one thing, it is clear Boekaerts defines self-regulated that the low coverage of narrative learning as a complex interactive texts in the PISA test does not mean process involving motivational as that the overall performance of 15- well as cognitive self-regulation. year-olds in Germany is underesti- Ideally, at the end of their school mated. Given that narratives and lit- career, students should have ac- erature are a major focus of German quired not only competencies in language arts classes, the findings school subjects but also the ability also indicate that the approach to evaluate whether their ap- taken in German schools does not proaches to learning are effective, seem to help students to interpret and to gauge their own levels of in- narratives and literature. terest, motivation, and proficiency. Motivation is vitally important for Assessment of Cross-Curricular young people leaving school. Simi- Competencies larly, the capacity to evaluate one’s Our Center has contributed substan- own effectiveness and learning tially to the development of large- strategies is relevant for working life scale assessments by drawing up a as well as for leisure activities. A framework for the assessment of positive self-concept, finally, helps cross-curricular competencies and individuals to overcome barriers in developing a brief self-report meas- such activities. ure of affective constructs, covering By analyzing students’ approaches to processes relevant to lifelong and learning, namely their motivation, self-regulated learning. their use of learning strategies, and their academic self-concepts, PISA What is the Rationale for Assessment focuses on central prerequisites for Cross-Curricular Competencies effective self-regulation and lifelong Within Large-Scale Assessments? learning. Given that almost no affec- PISA is the first international assess- tive scales have been used in former ment study that goes beyond the large-scale assessments, the evalua-

Center for Educational Research 97 tion of scale equivalence across only in a few countries that students nations had to be analyzed system- who express an interest in reading atically. As could be shown with also seem to be motivated to study multi-group structural equation because they think it will improve models as well as comparisons of their career prospects. It seems that, model fits within each country, the in general, the two types of motiva- factor structure of the scale does tion are by no means antagonistic. hold (Artelt et al, 2003; Marsh et al., It was assumed that motivation de- submitted). termines the decision to become en- The data obtained from the 26 coun- gaged in a task and that strategies tries that participated in the assess- are the tools used to actually ac- ment of affective constructs offer a complish a task. Indeed, in all coun- variety of opportunities to address tries, students’ motivation to learn— basic research questions. For exam- especially their instrumental motiva- ple, we investigated the invariance tion—has a profound impact on their of structural (functional) relations use of control strategies. In addition, between intrinsic and extrinsic moti- this mediation model lends strong vation, and students’ use of learning support to the hypothesis that stu- strategies as well as their perform- dents will only control their learning ance on the reading literacy tests if they are well motivated. Since across countries. Although intrinsic control of the learning process (like and extrinsic motivation are often motivation to learn) is, to some ex- seen as antagonists, both might be tent, an outcome in its own right, important in the regulation of actual helping students to become lifelong learning behavior. Indeed, both are learners, this finding is important. It part of the task value component of suggests that in all countries, adopt- Eccles’ expectancy-value model of ing an effective learning strategy achievement-related behavior depends not just on having cognitive (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). In most tools (knowing how to learn) but countries, extrinsic and intrinsic mo- also on having certain attitudes and tivation to learn proved to vary inde- dispositions (wanting to learn). pendently of each other, and it is Figure 1 summarizes these results,

Figure 1. Illustration of the functional relationships (SEM, county average) Interest in between motivation, con- reading .27 trol strategies, and reading literacy. .26 Control Reading literacy .11 strategies .21 (combined scale) .58

Instrumental motivation

98 Center for Educational Research presenting average path coefficients vation play an important role in the across countries. learning process, although possibly What are the effects of interest in via different mechanisms. reading and instrumental motivation on reading performance? Interest in Validity of Large-Scale reading has a particularly strong link Assessments with performance, which is largely A second focus of research at the independent of the fact that good Center for Educational Research is readers are more likely to adopt cer- concerned with the methodological tain strategies. On the other hand, aspects of large-scale assessment. students motivated by external fac- Research findings related to the fol- tors like getting a good job perform lowing three questions are presented better only where they have other below: strengths, such as controlling their (1) How do different incentives af- learning. Students who take a self- fect test motivation, effort, and per- evaluative perspective to learning, formance on the PISA assessment? that is, make frequent use of control (2) Is students’ performance on a strategies, tend to far outperform low-stakes test sensitive to coach- their peers. The effect of instrumen- ing? tal motivation on performance in the (3) Are PISA test scores comparable reading literacy assessment can thus across countries? primarily be considered a mediated effect (Artelt, in press). (1) How do Different Incentives Thus, even where it proves hard to Affect Test Motivation, Effort, and engender a strong love of learning Performance on the PISA for its own sake among students Assessment? who have not had this message re- Large-scale assessments like PISA inforced in their home and social en- are often low-stakes tests. In other vironment, the evidence shows that words, performance on the test has students driven by factors, such as no direct consequences for the stu- job prospects, are more likely to set dents themselves. Given also that and monitor learning goals and neither high-stakes nor low-stakes therefore give themselves a better assessments are very common chance of performing well. among German students, we were Although there are differences be- interested in whether different in- tween the 26 participating countries, centives would affect students’ mo- the picture to emerge from the find- tivation or test performance. We ings is relatively consistent across conducted an experiment to test the the countries. Within the individual effects of different types of test mo- educational systems, students who tivation on student performance, in- have acquired the prerequisites for vestigating the impact of (1) social self-regulated learning in terms of incentives associated with partici- motivation and learning strategies pation in an international study, (2) are at a relative advantage in devel- informational feedback on perform- oping academic competencies. Both ance, (3) grades, and (4) perform- intrinsic and extrinsic forms of moti- ance-contingent financial rewards.

Center for Educational Research 99 Key References The findings suggest that all of these potential effects of authentic coach- Brunner, M., Artelt, C., conditions make various components ing by a class teacher, and thus in- Krauss, S., & Baumert, J. of test motivation equally salient. vestigated the effects of coaching (submitted). Coaching for the PISA test. Accordingly, no differences were activities that might actually have Baumert, J., & Demmrich, found with respect to either in- been implemented by the teachers of A. (2001). Test motivation tended and invested effort or test students participating in PISA 2003. in the assessment of student skills: The effects of performance (Baumert & Demmrich, Coaching and pretest effects were incentives on motivation 2001). studied for each content domain and performance. Euro- pean Journal of Psychology separately in a pre-/posttest quasi- of Education, 16, 441–462. (2) Is Students’ Performance experimental design. To examine the on a Low-Stakes Test Sensitive differential effects of academic to Coaching? tracks, samples were drawn from Coaching is known to improve stu- German Hauptschule and Gymna- dent performance on tests with high sium schools (a total of 1,323 stu- personal relevance (high-stakes dents from 66 classes). Teachers pretests). To our knowledge, however, pared their students for the PISA as- there is no research on whether sessment during regular lessons in coaching prescribed by outside the week between the pre- and agents (low-stakes situations) pro- posttest based on the insights they duces similar effects to coaching had gleaned from the published programs that students elect to join frameworks, the released test items, in order to boost their test scores and the mathematics and reading and hence enhance their future literacy chapters of the German PISA prospects (high-stakes situations). 2000 report. We thus explored whether student Results show that only the combined performance on the reading and effects of pretesting and coaching mathematics tests of the PISA as- have substantial positive effects on sessment can be fostered by coach- student performance. The incremen- ing (and administering a pretest). tal effects of coaching and pretest- More specifically, we explored the ing in high-stakes tests are slightly

Table 3 Means and standard deviations at pre- and posttest and effect size of differences broken down by subject, school type, and treatment condition

Pretest Posttest Treatment condition M (SD) M (SD) d Reading Hauptschule Coaching and pretest 426 (81) 422 (93) –.04 Pretest 431 (75) 417 (84) –.17 Gymnasium Coaching and pretest 565 (59) 577 (89) .18* Pretest 566 (67) 557 (91) –.13 Mathematics Hauptschule Coaching and pretest 429 (59) 438 (69) .16* Pretest 445 (54) 457 (69) .20 Gymnasium Coaching and pretest 539 (63) 563 (68) .36* Pretest 562 (64) 568 (62) .11

100 Center for Educational Research higher, but comparable to the effects tematic advantage when processing Key Reference found in the present study (aggre- items originating from their own Artelt, C., & Baumert, J. gated across academic tracks). Thus, cultural and linguistic background. (2004). Zur Vergleichbar- keit von Schülerleistungen the personal relevance of the test Effects of this kind were discerned, bei Leseaufgaben unter- results seems to play a minor role especially items originating from schiedlichen sprachlichen Ursprungs. Zeitschrift für (see also Baumert & Demmrich, France (d = .21) and Greece but also Pädagogische Psychologie, 2001). Coaching in a classroom set- for German items. Translated to the 18 (3/4), 171–185. ting (e.g., for PISA) can be almost as PISA scale (M = 500, SD = 100)—and effective as professional coaching assuming that these effects general- programs (e.g., for the SAT). ize—the effect size of .21 indicates In line with the research literature that French students would score 21 on high-stakes tests, the effects ob- points higher if the test consisted of served are higher in mathematics items originating from French- than in the reading domain (Brunner, speaking countries only. Given that Artelt, Krauss, & Baumert, submit- only a few items from non-English- ted). speaking countries were contained in the PISA assessment, this phe- (3) Are PISA Test Scores Comparable nomenon does not significantly af- Across Countries? Language fect the mean performance of these Background of Items as a Systematic countries, as a reanalysis of student Source of Variance performance on a test without the The possibility that students are at biased items shows. an advantage when working on But does this mean that students reading literacy items from their from English-speaking countries are own cultural and linguistic back- at an advantage? Since the majority ground in an international large- of items stem from English-speaking scale assessment can be seen as a countries, these effects were mod- threat to the fairness of a test. eled by rescaling rather than DIF Effects of this kind have been reported quite frequently in the as- Table 4 sessment literature (Allalouf, 2003; Absolute numbers and relative proportions of items from the Gierl & Khaliq, 2001). The relative PISA reading literacy assessment by source language difficulty of items often shifts when they are administered in different Relative proportion countries, due to either translation Source language Absolute number (in %) issues or differential opportunities to English 66 51 learn. The international PISA reading Finnish 11 8 literacy assessment consists of test French 18 14 German 5 4 material (texts) from eight different Greek 3 2 source languages. Spanish 4 3 An IRT-based analysis of differential Swedish 6 5 item functioning (DIF) was per- Danish 1 1 IEA items1 16 12 formed for the PISA reading literacy Total 129 100 items to investigate whether stu- 1 These items were taken from the International Adult Literacy Study dents of equal ability, but from dif- initiated by the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational ferent language groups, have a sys- Achievement (IEA).

Center for Educational Research 101 Figure 2. Country means 550 for five English speaking countries in the overall 540 reading test and two short 530 versions, consisting either only of items originated 520 from English speaking countries or all items but 510 those from English speaking countries. Mean 500 490 480 470 460 United United Ireland Australia New Zealand States Kingdom

Short version without items originating from English-speaking countries Entire PISA reading assessment Short version with items originating from English-speaking countries only

Error indicator: Standard error (± 2SE).

analysis. We rescaled the achieve- is only in the United Kingdom that ment scores of students from scores on the set of items from English-speaking countries for the English-speaking countries are sig- set of items originating from Eng- nificantly higher than those on the lish-speaking countries only as well set of items from non-English- as for the set of all other items. The speaking countries. relative advantages discerned for Overall, results confirm that the students in the English-speaking source language of the items imple- countries are far less pronounced mented in international student sur- (see Figure 2) than would be ex- veys can be regarded as a systematic pected based on the results for the source of variance. The cultural bias items originating from French- that may result can be addressed—as speaking countries. was done in PISA 2000—by adminis- The fact that most items stem from tering a balanced multi-cultural mix the Anglo-American background of test items (Artelt & Baumert, does not mean that students in the 2004). five English-speaking countries perform significantly better than their peers elsewhere. Rescaling achievement scores for the set of items originating from English-speaking countries only does not lead to significant differences relative to results on the entire assessment, and it

102 Center for Educational Research Research Area III The Research Promoting Language Skills and Reading Literacy: Team Intervention Studies Cordula Artelt Partly in response to results from the Programme for International Student Jürgen Baumert Assessment (PISA) that is part of Research Area II within the Center for Petra Stanat Educational Research, we launched a series of intervention studies on approaches to promoting students’ language skills and reading literacy. Anke Demmrich National and international analyses of the PISA data revealed that students (until 2003) in Germany perform below the OECD average in reading literacy and that Nele McElvany this relative disadvantage is particularly pronounced among students at the Andrea G. Müller lower end of the achievement distribution (Schiefele, Artelt, Schneider, & (predoctoral Stanat, 2004). Almost 25% of the 15-year-olds in Germany failed to reach fellows) proficiency level II as defined in PISA and are therefore likely to encounter problems in making the transition from school to work. In addition, the rela- Christina Limbird tionship between reading literacy and family background was found to be (Associated predoc- quite strong within the German school system. Poor readers are highly over- toral fellow, Free represented among students from families with lower socioeconomic status University of Berlin and among students from immigrant families (Baumert, Stanat, & Water- and LIFE Research mann, in press; Schümer, Tillmann, & Weiß, 2004). Similarly, there are pro- School) nounced differences between students from families with higher and lower socioeconomic status in terms of other important learner characteristics, Key Reference such as interest in reading, self-efficacy beliefs, and the frequency with Schiefele, U., Artelt, C., which students use learning strategies (Artelt, Baumert, McElvany, & Schneider, W., & Stanat, P. (Eds.). (2004). Struktur, Peschar, 2003). This pattern of results indicates that, overall, Germany seems Entwicklung und Förderung to be less successful than other countries in helping students with different von Lesekompetenz: Ver- tiefende Analysen im Rah- backgrounds reach acceptable levels of achievement in central domains. men von PISA 2000. Wies- baden: VS Verlag für As a consequence of these findings, made this transition. Thus, Research Sozialwissenschaften. a new research program has been Area III explores the development of initiated at the Center for Educa- central foundations for school suc- tional Research that aims at devel- cess in the domains of language and oping and evaluating measures de- reading. This complements the signed to help students acquire pro- ENTERPRISE project within Research ficiency in German language skills Area IV, which analyzes similar foun- and reading literacy. Building on the dations in mathematics and science. theoretical framework of PISA, the The new line of research involves program focuses on basic competen- four ongoing projects and one com- cies representing prerequisites for pleted study. The investigations aim learning in most domains. Taking at developing and evaluating ap- into account that, to a large extent, proaches to promoting language and success within the German school literacy skills within the contexts of system hinges on the transition from schools, families, and summer pro- elementary to lower secondary grams. Two of the studies attempt to school, the studies are targeted pri- specify dimensions of second-lan- marily at students who have not yet guage acquisition that present spe-

Center for Educational Research 103 Key References cific hurdles for immigrant students’ the program were systematically school success and should thus be varied in the context of an experi- Baumert, J., Stanat, P., & targeted by interventions. The other mental design. The goal was to Watermann, R. (in press). Herkunftsbedingte Dispa- three projects explore the effective- gauge the separate and combined ritäten im Bildungswesen: ness of programs designed to pro- effects of central elements of the Differenzielle Bildungs- prozesse und Probleme der mote language and literacy skills for training program, such as teaching Verteilungsgerechtigkeit. students with, and without, migra- students declarative knowledge Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften. tion backgrounds. Experimental and about strategies, instructing them to Schümer, G., Tillmann, quasi-experimental designs with monitor comprehension processes, K.-J., & Weiß, M. (Eds.). multiple outcome measures and lon- and having them assume different (2004). Die Institution gitudinal components are employed Schule und die Lebenswelt roles in the teaching and learning der Schüler: Vertiefende in all of the studies. After a short process. The study explored the im- Analysen der PISA-2000- overview of the five projects, two of pact of these components on the ap- Daten zum Kontext von Schülerleistungen. Wies- these investigations will be pre- plication of reading and comprehen- baden: VS Verlag für sented in more detail. sion strategies and on reading Sozialwissenschaften. achievement (Demmrich, 2005). The Promoting Language Skills and theoretical background and results Reading Literacy: Overview of the of this investigation will be de- Projects scribed more fully below. The Reciprocal Teaching and Learn- The Family and the Acquisition of ing Project aims at identifying the Reading Literacy Project was inspired mechanisms underlying a training by findings from PISA and other program developed by Palincsar and large-scale assessment studies re- Brown (1984) to improve students’ vealing that the relationship be- use of strategies in reading and text tween reading achievement and comprehension. The Reciprocal family background is particularly Teaching and Learning Program has pronounced in Germany. It examines been shown to have large effects in the development and promotion of a number of studies, yet the reading literacy in the context of the processes responsible for these influ- family. The study has two main ences have not been specified. In our goals. First, based on longitudinal study, the different components of assessments in 33 elementary school classes during the 4th grade and Figure 1. Father and directly after the summer break, it daughter participating in the parent-child reading examines the extent to which the program. development of student achievement is determined by specific characteristics of the family, such as cultural capital. Second, within a quasi- experimental design, the study explores whether a newly developed parent-child reading program (McElvany, Artelt, & Holler, 2004) succeeds in improving the application of learning strategies and reading literacy. The reading program is

104 Center for Educational Research based on work by Vygotsky and on be considered bilingual. Based on lit- models of metamemory develop- erature relating language back- ment. Outcome measures were as- ground to phonological processing sessed with reading tests, participant skills, it was expected that bilingual surveys, and comprehensive video children would perform better on documentations of the parent-child such tasks than their monolingual reading sessions. With this evalua- peers. Initial analyses indicate that tion design, it is possible to deter- Turkish bilingual children do, in fact, mine the effects of the intervention show a somewhat enhanced capac- in terms of multiple criteria ity to perceive some types of phono- (McElvany, in prep.). logical stimuli, while monolingual The next three projects focus on children have far stronger skills in central dimensions in the acquisition tasks measuring vocabulary. In addi- of German as a second language tion, it was found that a well-estab- among elementary school students lished model of literacy acquisition with migration backgrounds. A doc- (Näslund & Schneider, 1991) fits toral dissertation carried out within both groups. As expected, phonolog- the context of the LIFE Research ical awareness proved to be a signif- School, and supervised in collabora- icantly more important predictor of In collaboration tion with Hans Merkens from the reading for the monolingual children with Hans Merkens Free University of Berlin, examines than for the bilingual children. At (Free University of whether the same component the same time, however, the propor- Berlin) processes are involved in beginning tion of variance in reading achieve- reading skills for native and nonna- ment explained by the model was tive speakers of German in the 2nd considerably lower for the bilingual and 3rd grades (Limbird, in prep.). children than for the monolingual The study, entitled Phonological Pro- German speakers. This indicates that cessing, Verbal Abilities, and Literacy existing models of reading, which Development Among Bilingual Turk- have mostly been developed with ish Children in Germany, focuses on monolingual children in mind, do not the role of phonological awareness, sufficiently capture literacy develop- which has been shown to be one of ment in multilingual situations, and the strongest predictors of literacy may have to be extended by factors acquisition (see, e.g., Chiappe, Siegel, specifically relevant to second- Gottardo, & Stanovich, 1994). Over language learners, such as more re- 200 2nd-grade children were inves- fined measures of syntactic develop- tigated over two years with regard ment. to their phonological awareness, vo- Another doctoral dissertation carried cabulary, short-term verbal memory, out within the LIFE Research School and performance on various tasks program (Müller, in prep.) explores assessing reading skills. Children the distinction between proficiency who reported speaking Turkish at in general everyday language and in home made up the largest immi- school-related academic language grant group, and were thus tested in among second-language learners. both Turkish and German to deter- Several authors have argued that mine the extent to which they could this distinction is important for un-

Center for Educational Research 105 derstanding and promoting immi- learners in mastering the academic grant students’ school success dimension of language, we expect to (Cummins, 2002; Gogolin, 2004). find that the effects of this factor They suggest that it is particularly will disappear when complexity of difficult for second-language learn- vocabulary and grammar are con- ers to attain proficiency in the lan- trolled. guage used in academic contexts at The distinction between language school, even when these students proficiency in everyday and school- are able to communicate fluently in related contexts among second- everyday situations. However, this language learners is also considered In collaboration assumption has not yet been tested in the Jacobs Summer Camp Project, with Jacobs Foun- empirically. Similarly, neither the which is funded by the Jacobs dation, Zurich, theoretical arguments nor the em- Foundation and conducted in close Senator for Educa- pirical evidence that have been put cooperation with the Senator for tion and Science of forward to support the validity of Education and Science of the Free the Free Hanseatic the distinction between the two di- Hanseatic City of Bremen. Using the City of Bremen, mensions of language proficiency literature on summer setback and Heidi Rösch (Tech- are satisfactory. The Everyday Com- summer learning as a starting point, nical University of munication Skills and School-Related the study examines the learning tra- Berlin) Language Proficiency of Second- jectories of students with different Language Learners Project aims at family backgrounds over the summer verifying the assumption that these vacation. It explores the extent to aspects can, in fact, be differenti- which immigrant students speaking ated, and that the performance gap German as a second language expe- between native and nonnative rience particularly pronounced speakers of German is more pro- learning losses during the break, and nounced for school-related language whether such losses can be compen- than for everyday language. In addi- sated by a targeted summer camp tion, an attempt is made to identify program. Most importantly, the the core characteristics underlying study aims at evaluating the effec- this pattern. The study starts from tiveness of implicit and explicit ap- the assumption that the two dimen- proaches to helping students with sions of language proficiency differ immigration backgrounds improve in terms of various attributes, such their German language skills. The as the complexity of vocabulary and Jacobs Summer Camp Project will be syntax or the degree of contextual- described in more detail below. ization. These characteristics will be varied systematically in a series of Reciprocal Teaching and Learning videotaped dialogues in order to dis- As a consequence of the PISA study, entangle their effects on students’ which showed knowledge and effec- listening comprehension. The stimuli tive use of reading strategies to be will include various school-related important predictors of reading liter- and everyday contexts. Contrary to acy, Anke Demmrich (2005) evalu- Cummins’ supposition that a lack of ated the Reciprocal Teaching Pro- contextualization constitutes the gram by Palincsar and Brown (1984) main hurdle for second-language in her doctoral thesis. This program

106 Center for Educational Research aims at teaching students a number strategies through repeated practice Key Reference of specific reading comprehension and frequent feedback from their Demmrich, A. (2005). strategies. The reciprocal teaching peers and teacher. Thus, the reci- Improving reading comprehension by enhancing method has been used with students procal teaching procedure is in metacognitive competen- of different ages (from elementary line with the model of mature cies: An evaluation of the reciprocal teaching school children to adolescents and metamemory proposed by Borowski, method. Unpublished doc- even college students), students Milstead, and Hale (1988), and toral dissertation, Univer- showing good and moderate levels with the way these authors assume sity of Potsdam. of reading ability, but also students that metacognitive knowledge is with comprehension problems or acquired. learning disabilities. The program has To determine which features of the almost always been shown to im- strategy training program cause its prove reading comprehension, with pronounced effects, an experimental large learning gains being observed. study was set up in which the tasks Reciprocal teaching is a particularly and responsibilities assumed by the interesting approach because it participating children were varied tends to have considerable positive systematically. As described by effects on reading comprehension. In Palinscar and Brown (1984), children a meta-analysis by Rosenshine and in the program were assigned to Meister (1994), for example, an small cooperative learning groups, average effect size of .88 was found. where they adopted varying roles. In At the same time, however, little re- the role of the teacher, they modeled search has been conducted on the and organized the learning process. mechanisms causing these improve- In the role of the student, they ap- ments in reading comprehension, or plied the strategies. on the features of the program that During each session, students are necessary for the learning gains worked both as teachers and as stu- to occur. Therefore, an experimental dents. The teacher role can be subdi- study was designed to address this vided into monitoring activities and research gap. It was assumed that organizational tasks. Monitoring ac- reciprocal teaching helps students to tivities involve giving feedback on acquire metacognitive knowledge the content and application of the and metacognitive skills, leading to a other students’ strategy use, helping more efficient, goal-oriented and— and guiding during the correction of by way of practice—partly automatic answers, and “modeling” answers if use of strategies. By being taught necessary. Organizational tasks in- when, why, and how to use strate- clude assigning other students to gies (conditional strategy knowl- apply a strategy, deciding when to edge) and by practicing these strate- move on to the next text passage, gies repeatedly, students acquire and managing the classroom setting. declarative knowledge about the The study was based on the assump- strategies (specific strategy knowl- tion that the content-related moni- edge) and about the conditions of toring tasks of the teacher role are their use. During training, they also responsible for the large improve- have ample opportunity to experiments observed in reading compre- ence the utility of the different hension. To test this idea, two exper-

Center for Educational Research 107 Table 1 Assignment of tasks to children and trainer in the three experimental conditions

Experimental condition Reciprocal Tasks teaching Monitor Student Student– Student– Student– – apply strategy to text Child Child Child Monitor Function – select strategy to be applied – give feedback on content and application Teacher– Monitor– Trainer of the strategy Child Child – help and guide during correction of answer – “model” answer, if necessary Organizational Function – assign someone to apply a strategy Teacher– – decide when to move on to the next text Trainer Trainer Child passage – classroom management: maintain discipline – explain and model strategies – teach conditional knowledge about strategies Trainer Trainer Trainer – correct children when they make mistakes (with respect to content or to the application of the strategies)

imental conditions (“reciprocal” and and predicting were introduced to “monitor” conditions) were designed, the children in all experimental con- varying the monitoring and organi- ditions. These strategies were then zational tasks associated with the practiced in 12 consecutive sessions, teacher role. A third condition in- with tasks being distributed differ- volved no reciprocal teaching and ently depending on the experimental learning. Children in this group condition. Each group had a trainer (“student” condition) only practiced and worked on fairly long expository the application of strategies, al- texts, using all of the strategies that though they did so extensively. Table could be meaningfully applied to 1 summarizes the tasks and the as- each paragraph before reading fur- signment of the tasks to the three ther. experimental conditions. A total of 55 children in 12 groups Small, mixed-gender and mixed- participated in the strategy training ability groups of four to six children program. Furthermore, all 5th took part in a strategy training pro- graders in the participating schools gram after regular school lessons completed pre- and posttests before four times a week over a period of and after training, such that the per- four weeks. Participation in the pro- formance of the 55 participants gram was voluntary. During the first could be compared to that of 86 three sessions, the reading strategies control children who spent the summarizing, questioning, clarifying, training time on their regular after-

108 Center for Educational Research Table 2 Children’s declarative knowledge about summarizing and clarifying in the experimental and control conditions

Experimental condition Control group Reciprocal Monitor Student Control Strategy M (SD) M (SD) M (SD) M (SD) Summarizing Contains most important content .94 (.24) .95 (.22) .67 (.48) .51 (.50) Is shorter than the text .88 (.33) .70 (.47) .78 (.43) .36 (.48) Is formulated in own words .35 (.49) .50 (.51) .22 (.43) .13 (.34) Total N of characteristics identified 2.18 (.39) 2.15 (.87) 1.67 (.84) 1.00 (.89) Clarifying External: ask other people to help 1.12 (1.36) 1.00 (.97) 1.22 (.94) .89 (.66) External: use other resources (dictionaries, etc.) .71 (.59) 1.00 (1.17) .94 (.64) 1.13 (.86) Text-related strategies 1.59 (.94) 1.60 (1.05) .94 (.87) .87 (.94)

noon activities. The dependent vari- group, effect sizes range from .70 to ables included various measures of almost 1.30. metacognitive knowledge: knowl- As expected, the results for chil- edge about two specific reading dren’s knowledge and performance strategies that were taught in the measures in the reciprocal and mon- training program (summarizing and itor conditions did not differ signifi- clarifying), relational and conditional cantly. Children in both of these strategy knowledge, and planning groups outperformed their peers in knowledge. the student condition, even though Table 2 shows selected results from the number of learning opportunities the study. When comparing the for every child in the student condi- three experimental conditions, the tion was higher, given that this following picture emerges: Children group had no other task than to in the reciprocal and monitor groups practice strategies, and therefore acquired more knowledge about the worked through more text para- reading strategies summarizing and graphs than the children in the other clarifying than did children in the groups. Additionally, children who student condition: They identified received their strategy training in more features of a good summary the student condition performed and thought of more text-related only marginally better at posttest strategies to clarify the meaning of than the control children. unknown words or sentences. Large Although significant results were effect sizes of about .70 were ob- only obtained for measures closely served for these measures. When related to strategy training—strategy comparing the two treatment groups knowledge and strategy applica- that were expected to have positive tion—and not for more general com- effects (reciprocal and monitor) with ponents of metacognitive knowl- the performance of the control edge, the comparison between the

Center for Educational Research 109 Key Reference experimental conditions provides evaluating, and regulating other stu- Stanat, P., Müller, A. G., strong support for the assumption dents’ strategy execution that makes Baumert, J., & Willker, W. (2005). Die Kofferbande that metacognitive knowledge and the reciprocal teaching method so auf Reisen in das Land der skills are acquired when the recipro- effective. Sprache und des Theaters: Das Jacobs-Sommercamp cal teaching method is used to teach Projekt. Pädagogik, 57, reading strategies. Both conditions The Jacobs Summer Camp Project 57–58. (reciprocal and monitor) that re- Over the last four decades, Germany quired children to give each other has developed into an immigration feedback on performance produced country, and the number of students similar results. Not only did students learning German as a second lan- in these conditions acquire more guage has grown. Various studies knowledge about the reading strate- have shown that these students are gies summarizing and clarifying, highly disadvantaged in terms of they also applied the summarizing their educational participation. Re- strategy better than the control chil- sults from the first cycle of PISA, for dren and the children in the student example, show that the relative condition. These findings are consis- chance of attending the academic tent with the componential theory track rather than the lowest track of of metamemory advanced by the three-tier secondary system is Borkowski, Milstead, and Hale 4.4 times higher for students whose (1988). The authors propose that parents were both born in Germany specific strategy knowledge, which is than for children of foreign-born at the center of their model, repre- parents (cf. Table 3, Model I). Even sents a prerequisite for higher order when SES is controlled, the odds of components that, in turn, aid further attending the academic-track Gym- acquisition of strategy knowledge. nasium are almost 3 times higher for In these respects, the cooperative students of native parents than for setting of the reciprocal teaching students of immigrant parents (cf. method seems to promote internal- Table 3, Model II). Thus, the social ization of interindividual social disadvantage that tends to be asso- processes. The dialogues that occur ciated with an immigration back- in the group apparently help the stu- ground does not fully account for dents to develop metamemory ac- the disparity between immigrant and quisition procedures and strategy native students. One factor that does knowledge. By adopting the role of seem to explain this difference, the teacher (monitoring), the chil- however, is students’ reading literacy dren have the opportunity to moni- in the language of instruction, that tor, evaluate, and regulate other is, German. Given similar results on children’s cognition. Few differences the PISA reading test, the relative in results were detected between the chances of attending the highest or reciprocal and the monitor condi- middle track are no longer lower for tions; both experimental settings students with immigration back- produced virtually the same effects, grounds than for students from na- thus supporting the assumption that tive families (cf. Table 3, Model III). it is not the adoption of the teacher These findings indicate that a lack of role, but the task of monitoring, German language skills is the pri-

110 Center for Educational Research Table 3 Relative chances of attending different secondary school types as a function of family migration background (odds ratios)1

Secondary school type (reference category: vocational track Hauptschule) Intermediate track Academic track Comprehensive Realschule Gymnasium school Model2 Model2 Model2 Migration background I II III IV I II III IV I II III IV

Both parents born in Germany 2.64 2.19 ns ns 4.42 2.69 ns ns 1.92 1.71 ns ns One parent born in Germany 1.46 ns ns ns 3.46 2.10 ns ns 1.86 1.76 ns ns Neither parent born in Germany Reference category (odds = 1)

1 Only statistically significant findings reported. 2 Model I: without controlling for covariates; Model II: controlling for SES; Model III: controlling for reading literacy; Model IV: controlling for SES and reading literacy. mary obstacle for immigrant children With this situation as the general at the transition from elementary to starting point, the goal of the Jacobs secondary school (see also Bos, Voss, Summer Camp Project is to explore Lankes, Schwippert, Thiel, & Valtin, the learning development of children 2004; Lehmann, Peek, & Gänsfuß, with immigration backgrounds, and 1997). to provide evidence on the effective- Given the importance of language ness of different approaches to help- skills for school success, it is particu- ing these students attain proficiency larly alarming that Germany seems in the language of instruction. The to be considerably less successful study builds on research related to than most other countries at provid- summer setback and summer learning immigrant students with the ing, most of which has been carried Figure 2. Theatre perfor- necessary support in acquiring the out in the United States. Within this mance prepared in the implicit language support language of instruction. Results from condition of the Jacobs PISA indicate that the disadvantage Summer Camp. in reading literacy among 15-year- olds whose home language differs from the language used in the PISA assessment is larger in Germany than in almost any other participating country (Baumert & Schümer, 2001; see also Schwippert, Bos, & Lankes, 2003). At the same time, little is known about the effectiveness of approaches to supporting the acquisition of German as a second language among immigrant students.

Center for Educational Research 111 Figure 3. Students in the explicit language support condition of the Jacobs Summer Camp.

line of research, a number of studies learning gain of about three months have found that patterns of learning (Cooper et al., 1996). development over the summer break At the same time, the literature on differ for children from families with summer learning suggests that the lower and higher socioeconomic sta- larger achievement losses among tus (for a meta-analytic summary, students from families with lower see Cooper et al., 1996). According socioeconomic status can, to some to these findings, students from extent, be compensated by summer families with disadvantaged back- learning programs. A meta-analysis grounds show learning losses over of studies evaluating the effective- the summer break in both reading ness of summer schools concluded and mathematics. For students from that both student groups profit from middle-class backgrounds, on the attending summer learning programs other hand, summer setback effects (Cooper et al., 2000). Therefore, were identified in mathematics, but summer schools that are specifically not in reading. In fact, the results geared toward disadvantaged stu- suggest that the reading skills of this dents should help to prevent the group tend to increase during the achievement differences from summer break, causing the gap be- widening during the summer tween students from families with months. lower and higher socioeconomic sta- Drawing on this body of research on tus to widen. It has been estimated summer setback and summer learn- that the disparities resulting from ing from the United States, the these differential trajectories for Jacobs Summer Camp Project was reading achievement over the sum- designed to pursue four main objec- mer months are equivalent to a tives:

112 Center for Educational Research (1) The first goal of the project is to theater activities program devised by determine whether, and to what ex- experienced theater teachers. The tent, differential achievement losses second approach to promoting are observed over the German sum- German language skills consists in mer break which, at roughly six systematic instruction in German as weeks, is much shorter than in the a second language, designed to fos- United States. The main focus of the ter explicit language learning (“ex- project is on children from immi- plicit language support component”). grant families. Thus far, research on This component takes a systematic summer setback and summer learn- approach to language learning, the ing has mainly examined the learn- aim of which is to promote the con- ing trajectories of students from dif- scious perception and use of linguis- ferent socioeconomic and ethnic tic structures (Rösch, 2003). Most backgrounds. Less attention has students of non-German origin were been paid to the potentially moder- born in Germany and have spent ating role of the students’ home lan- their entire school career in this guage. Based on the finding that country. Many of them appear to summer setback effects tend to be have a fairly good command of the more pronounced for domains re- German language. However, even quiring factual and procedural children who speak German fairly knowledge (e.g., computation and fluently in conversational situations spelling) than for more conceptually may not have acquired the “cogni- based domains (e.g., problem solving tive academic language proficiency” and reading), it might be suspected (Cummins, 2002) held to be a pre- that second-language skills are par- requisite for academic success. Key ticularly vulnerable to summer aspects in this regard include vocab- learning losses (Cooper et al., 1996). ulary and grammar. The implicit This contention has not yet been grammar that has been developed by tested empirically, however. minority language children often de- (2) The second objective of the viates markedly from the norm. The Jacobs Summer Camp Project is to aim of instruction in German as a develop, implement, and evaluate a second language is to help students program to promote German lan- develop correct and explicit gram- guage skills during the school vaca- mar knowledge. tion. Two approaches are differenti- (3) A third general goal of the ated. The first aims to determine Jacobs Summer Camp Project is to whether it is sufficient to engage explore the distinction between pro- students in language-intensive ac- ficiency in general everyday lan- tivities in order to counter the learn- guage and school-related academic ing loss associated with the school language, which is considered to be vacation. Such activities are ex- critical for understanding and pro- pected to trigger implicit learning moting immigrant students’ learning processes that have positive effects development (e.g., Cummins, 2002; on language development (“implicit Gogolin, 2004). language support component”). This (4) The fourth and final aim of the component is operationalized in a study is more practical in nature,

Center for Educational Research 113 that is, to find out whether it is fea- Summer Camp is the first program of sible to implement a summer camp its kind to be run in Germany, analy- of this kind in Germany. One of the ses of these practical experiences main questions was whether par- also form an important part of the ents, some of whom have little or no program evaluation. command of German, are prepared Figure 4 shows the research design to let their children attend a summer of the Jacobs Summer Camp Project, camp. This was particularly unclear comprising an experimental ap- for girls from Muslim families. It was proach with pre- and posttests. Be- also uncertain whether children cause performance at the elemen- would be willing to participate in a tary level is decisive for educational program where they were expected success in the German school sys- to attend lessons over the summer tem, where students are tracked at a vacation. Even the children’s readi- relatively early age, it was decided to ness to engage in theater activities aim the program at primary school could not be taken for granted. Inas- students. In Germany, it is generally much as it is highly unusual for considered reasonable for children to teachers in Germany to work during spend longer periods away from school vacations, moreover, we could home from the 3rd grade onward. not be sure that it would be possible The camp was thus directed at stu- to recruit qualified teaching staff dents who had just completed the for the camp. Because the Jacobs 3rd grade. The project was carried

Figure 4. Research design of the Jacobs Summer Treatment group Control group Camp Project. (N = 150) (N = 82)

3rd grade First pretest First pretest July 9, 2004: Summer break Summer camp No summer camp Participation in summer camp Implicit language support (theater activities) N = 150 Explicit language Implicit language support support (instruction in German) (theater activities) Summer break N = 92 N = 58

Theater presentations August 17–19, 2004

August 19, 2004: Beginning of school year

First posttest First posttest (late August/early September, 2004) (late August/early September, 2004)

Second posttest Second posttest 4th grade (November/December, 2004) (November/December, 2004)

114 Center for Educational Research out in the city state of Bremen of the three camps, the children also where the proportion of immigrant attended lessons in German as a students in schools is relatively high. second language. This design makes All students in more than 30 schools it possible to examine the extent to were invited to sign up for the sum- which learning gains are achieved by mer program. Thus, in addition to implicit language support, and which immigrant students, the sample also additional effects are associated includes children from socially dis- with explicit language support. advantaged German families. The summer camp program com- To ensure that effects of a moderate prised four phases: During the first size could be detected, an attempt two weeks, students commuted be- was made to recruit at least 250 ap- tween the camp and their homes by plicants for the program. With a bus. During the third week, they total of 251 students signing up, this stayed in the camp overnight. The goal was reached. For logistic rea- fourth week was devoted to recre- sons, however, students from nine ational activities, such as a visit to schools had to be excluded from the science museum and a day with participation, leaving an applicant the boy and girl scouts. During the pool of N = 232. Of these, 150 chil- fifth week, finally, the theatre per- dren were assigned at random to a formances that the students had de- treatment group and 82 to a control veloped at the camp were rehearsed group. This ensured that the children and presented on stage in Bremen. in the different conditions would be Students’ performance levels as well comparable in terms of their willing- as indicators for their psychosocial ness to attend a remedial program development were assessed using a over the summer break. Moreover, all variety of tests and questionnaires at students in the classes of the experi- three points in time: (1) shortly be- mental and control children who had fore the summer vacation, (2) di- not applied to attend the summer rectly after the summer vacation, camp were included in the assess- and (3) about three months after the ments as an additional comparison end of the camp. The written assess- group. This opens up further oppor- ments were administered to all chil- tunities for the evaluation of sum- dren in the treatment and control mer learning loss and the efficacy of groups as well as to all students en- the Jacobs Summer Camp Project in rolled in the classes of children who combating this loss. Most impor- had applied to attend the Jacobs tantly, it allows for the differentia- Summer Camp. In addition to writ- tion of students’ learning develop- ten tests, oral language samples ment as a function of their summer were collected from students in the break activities, such as travel to treatment and control groups as part their families’ countries of origin. of the pretest and the first posttest The children in the treatment group assessment. More specifically, stu- were distributed across two condi- dents who had applied to participate tions. All of the children selected for in the summer camp were video- the camp participated in the theater recorded as they described picture and recreational components. In two stories and retold texts on everyday

Center for Educational Research 115 and school-related topics that test All of the ten theatre groups in the administrators had read to them. Jacobs Summer Camp succeeded in Differential as well as overlapping developing performances and in pre- effects are expected for the implicit senting these on stage in Bremen at and explicit language support condi- the end of the program. The chil- tions. For example, the implicit com- dren’s parents, teachers, and princi- ponent entails motivational and af- pals as well as the general public fective goals, such as an increase in were invited to attend the perform- students’ motivation to speak cor- ances, and their responses were very rectly and a reduction in anxiety as- positive. Within a period of just sociated with public speaking. The three weeks, the children and their explicit component, on the other theatre teachers had succeeded in hand, should result in improvements putting together outstanding pro- with regard to structural aspects of ductions. This highly successful fi- language, such as use of pronouns nale to the summer camp quite ob- and prepositions, declination, and viously boosted the children’s self- conjugation. Both treatments are ex- confidence and underscored the pected to have positive effects on integrating role of programs involv- vocabulary related to the overall ing immigrants and nonimmigrants, theme of the camp (“travel”) as well parents and schools, school-type inas on the appropriateness of spoken struction, and the arts. language. Both posttests for the Jacobs Sum- Regarding the question of whether it mer Camp Project have been com- is feasible to carry out a summer pleted and the data are currently be- program geared toward immigrant ing analyzed. First results indicate students, we can conclude that the that the treatment did have signifi- Jacobs Summer Camp was a success. cant effects on students’ language We were able to reach the target of development. For the most part, at least 250 applicants, which many however, these effects seem to be school officials, principals, and limited to the explicit instruction teachers had predicted to be an un- component. realistic goal. Among the 149 students who came on the first days of the camp, 13 fell ill or were unable to attend every day for family- related reasons, such that they missed more than a week of the program. All of the remaining children came back practically every day. This also applied to most of the girls from Muslim families. Only two of these girls were not allowed to stay overnight during the third week of the program, and had to be bussed to camp every day.

116 Center for Educational Research Research Area IV Learning and Instruction: Cognitive Activation and Cognitive Tools Three cornerstones of competence acquisition have to be integrated into research on learning and instruction: the tasks to be mastered, the students (who have to be engaged in meaningful learning activities), and the teachers (whose task it is to facilitate students’ learning). Each cornerstone highlights different aspects of the learning process. Focusing on the tasks means asking what kinds of knowledge structures and more general cognitive precondi- tions have to be accessible in order for certain tasks to be mastered. Switch- ing to the students' perspective leads to the question of how the learners' existing knowledge can be modified, extended, cross-linked, hierarchically ordered, or how new knowledge can be generated, in order to master the tasks. The teacher's role is to mediate between the tasks and the students. By selecting learning materials, giving appropriate feedback, and involving students in meaningful learning activities, teachers can support learners in closing the gap between prior knowledge and the knowledge needed to master the tasks in question.

Insightful Learning: have to make use of, and are con- A Challenge for Teachers as Well strained by, the knowledge already as for Scientists available to them. Particularly for In comparison to the acquisition of science and mathematics, it has facts, skills, and routines, insightful been widely shown that students en- conceptual understanding—a central ter classrooms with intuitive con- aim of science and mathematics in- cepts and belief systems which are struction, in particular—is still a puz- partly based on universal conceptual zle, for teachers as well as for re- primitives. These may have innate searchers. Nonetheless, scientific roots, but are also shaped by school- progress in modeling and explaining ing. The negative consequences of the emergence of insights and con- ignoring this kind of prior knowledge ceptual understanding is evident. have been demonstrated, particularly It is now widely accepted that new for physics and mathematics educa- concepts and insights are not action. Students often only adopt the quired through passive transmission knowledge taught at school at a of the expert’s knowledge to the superficial level and, therefore, can learner’s mind, but rather that they only use it when faced with prob- are the result of the learner’s active lems that have already been dealt process of constructing increasingly with at school. Overcoming certain complex and elaborated cognitive misconceptions that are deeply structures. Powerful learning envi- rooted in everyday experience is the ronments stimulate students’ cogni- most difficult task of science educa- tive activation, that is, students' tion. mental involvement in the tasks to To effectively initiate and assist stu- be mastered. In so doing, learners dent learning, teachers need to take

Center for Educational Research 117 into account students’ specific prior scious processes? At what stage of knowledge and understanding, and the learning process are feedback they need to design and organize and direct instruction helpful? At lessons and classroom discourse in a what age can students make sense way that closely attends to the cur- of certain forms of visual-spatial riculum as well as to the social con- representation? What kind of prac- struction of meaning in classrooms. tice do students need for the appli- Teachers can only do a good job if cation of such tools in new content they know what makes certain tasks domains? Which tool is most appro- particularly difficult, on the one priate for reasoning in a given con- hand, and are aware of the way their tent domain? What kinds of miscon- students learn, on the other. For in- ceptions can arise from using a tool stance, they have to know what that has not yet been fully under- kinds of mistakes and obstacles typi- stood? cally occur during the learning process, and whether students need The Orchestration of Students’ special support to overcome these. Learning Activities In order to combine the task per- Classroom instruction is not the only spective and the student perspective, factor that determines the knowl- teachers need pedagogical content edge structures and epistemological knowledge. This means that teachers beliefs acquired by students. It is, have to know how particular topics, however, the factor that is most problems, or issues are organized, likely to be affected by the institu- represented, and adapted to meet tions of the education system and the diverse interests and abilities of the professional activity of teachers. learners, and how they should be Recent findings emphasize that presented during instruction. Teach- classroom instruction rather than ers’ classroom behavior thus needs the school environment or manage- to be based on an understanding of ment structures has the main impact how students learn in the respective on school effectiveness in terms of academic domains. learning outcomes. As such, the In order to provide teachers with ap- question of what actually deter- propriate pedagogical content mines good instructional practice is knowledge, research on learning and central to the success of education instruction has to focus on students’ and the functionality of the educa- insightful learning. Important question system. For this question to be tions to be addressed include the addressed, pedagogical concepts of following: What is the structure of instructional quality need to be the knowledge to be acquired? What combined with the analysis of indi- prior knowledge does the learner vidual and collective processes of have to build on? What particular knowledge acquisition in specific tasks, explanations, and interactive domains. discourse will assist students’ construction of intelligent knowledge? Is the understanding of certain concepts subject to conscious or uncon-

118 Center for Educational Research Insightful Learning Through the contexts in which knowledge Cognitive Activation in Powerful is acquired and applied must be Learning Environments provided. There is now wide agreement among – Insightful learning is regulated by researchers in the field of learning motivation and by metacognitive and instruction as to the framework processes (e.g., planning, control, of insightful learning, summarized as evaluation). follows by Baumert et al. (2004): – Insightful learning is supported by – Insightful learning is an active in- certain cognitive mechanisms. dividual process of construction by These include the building of which knowledge structures are knowledge units with high infor- modified, enhanced, integrated mational content that can be re- into networks, organized by hierar- membered and retrieved as a chies, or newly generated. Insight- whole (chunks), the emergence of ful learning crucially relies on the which will be fostered by the use active mental processing that is of multiple forms of knowledge implied in any active analysis of representation. They also include the social or natural environment the automation of action or in the use of symbol systems. sequences and reasoning opera- – Insightful learning means making tions. sense of things by mastering new This framework of insightful learning contexts that organize and struc- can be applied to all kinds of sub- ture knowledge. For this, the objects taught in school if it is linked ject has to have a minimum intel- up with an investigation of domain- lectual and/or practical appeal for specific knowledge structures. Re- the learner. search on learning and instruction – Insightful learning depends on in- can contribute to the improvement dividual cognitive conditions, but of classroom instruction by further- mainly on prior domain-specific ing an understanding of the psycho- knowledge. The quality and ease of logical processes of insightful learn- further learning is crucially deter- ing in a specific content domain. The mined by the extent and organiza- goal of this kind of research must be tion of the available knowledge to support teachers in getting a feel- base. ing for learners‘ prior knowledge. – Insightful learning, while being This includes an understanding of highly systematic, is always situ- the sources of students‘ errors and ated and bound up with a specific mistakes as well as an identification context. Knowledge acquisition of such knowledge elements as will typically occur in a social con- learners can build on when pre- text, and knowledge will carry the sented with explanations or prob- marks of the specific context in lems in the course of classroom in- which it was acquired. The fact struction. A better understanding of that knowledge is situated often learners‘ prior knowledge helps results in its being constrained in teachers to decide how instruction its range of application. In order to should be shaped in order to allow enhance this range, a variation of students to gain a deep understand-

Center for Educational Research 119 ing of domain-specific concepts and project Mareike Kunter) combined to develop adequate, nonschematic data from the TIMSS achievement epistemological beliefs. tests and questionnaires with infor- In Research Area IV, we examine the mation from video observations of conditions that are necessary to ini- teaching (TIMSS-Video). Investigat- tiate insightful learning processes in ing the impact of several instruc- the fields of mathematics and sci- tional features on students’ learning ence education. The studies are con- and motivational development over ducted in the laboratory (ENTER- the course of one school year, the PRISE), within a multimethod longi- study revealed that cognitively acti- tudinal approach (COACTIV), or as vating instruction had positive ef- video-based studies in actual school fects on students’ achievement environments (TIMSS-Video). Most gains. of the investigations address re- The following section describes two search questions that have emerged of the major projects (COACTIV and directly from Research Areas I and II. ENTERPRISE) in more detail. For instance, one study (dissertation

The Center for Educational Research 2004

Left to right: Rainer Watermann, Martin Brunner, Oliver Lüdtke, Andrea Müller, Kai Maaz, Ulrich Trautwein, Michael Schneider, Petra Stanat, Elsbeth Stern, Ilonca Hardy, Jürgen Baumert, Mareike Kunter, Cordula Artelt, Gundel Schümer, Stefan Krauss, Nele McElvany, Yi-Miau Tsai, Gabriel Nagy, Uta Klusmann, Hella Beister, Nicole Husemann (not pictured: Helmut Köhler, Detlef Oesterreich, Thomas Rochow).

120 Center for Educational Research COACTIV: Cognitive Activation in the Classroom: The Orchestration of The Research Learning Opportunities for the Enhancement of Insightful Learning in Team Mathematics Jürgen Baumert Teaching for Understanding: Linking PISA to Research on Learning and Instruction Stefan Krauss The aim of the COACTIV study is to investigate teachers’ professional knowledge and the way this knowledge relates to domain-specific instructional processes. By assessing the professional knowledge Mareike Kunter of mathematics teachers, and then linking this knowledge to features of their classroom instruction and to the development of their students’ mathematical literacy, the study provides unique insights Martin Brunner into the prerequisites for students’ mathematical learning. Uta Klusmann The COACTIV study is embedded in the PISA 2003 assessment. With mathematics literacy forming the main component of PISA 2003, a differentiated investigation of the structure of the mathematical Yi-Miau Tsai competencies acquired by the end of lower secondary level is possible. Moreover, the PISA 2003 study (predoctoral was extended to a longitudinal design, spanning the period of one academic year, with a sampling fellows) plan allowing for teachers to be assigned to the classes they teach, and for class and school effects to be separated systematically. Associated Scientists: Insightful Learning and Cognitive We consider insightful learning to be Werner Blum Activation in Mathematics a mental process characterized by (University of Classrooms—The Framework of the the active and independent con- Kassel) COACTIV Study struction of domain-specific knowl- Michael Neubrand The COACTIV study, which is funded edge. The product of the learning (University of by the German Research Foundation process is a thorough understanding Flensburg) (DFG), is based on preliminary work of domain-specific concepts com- carried out in the context of BIJU, prising declarative knowledge, skills, Funded by the TIMSS, and TIMSS Video. In the fol- and procedures. The process of in- German Research lowing, we will outline the study’s sightful learning is supported by mo- Foundation (DFG) theoretical background and method- tivational variables, such as interest, in the BIQUA prior- ological approach and present se- and self-related cognitions, such as ity program lected findings on the learning envi- control beliefs. ronments provided by different Insightful learning processes take school types. place in powerful learning environ- The study investigates the three cor- ments (De Corte et al., 1996). Within nerstones of competence acquisi- the COACTIV theoretical framework, tion—that is, teachers, lessons, and two aspects of the learning environ- students—in a combined approach. ment are considered to be particu- The theoretical framework that un- larly important for initiating and derlies this approach draws on as- sustaining insightful learning pects of teacher expertise, the processes: the degree of cognitive process-mediation-product model, activation and the teacher’s support and the (social-)constructivist ap- of personal autonomy and compe- proach. tence. The main question guiding our Learning opportunities that stimu- analyses is as follows: How can late insightful learning processes en- teachers facilitate insightful student tail what we term cognitively acti- learning during lessons? The core vating elements. In the classroom ideas are outlined in Figure 1 and context, cognitively activating ele- will be explained below. ments can be found in the tasks that

Center for Educational Research 121 Figure 1. Teachers’ competencies, mathematics les- Insightful sons, and students’ learn- learning ing: The three cornerstones Teacher Lessons processes Students of the COACTIV study. Professional knowledge Cognitively Conceptual knowledge, • Content knowledge activating learning beliefs, motivation • Pedagogical content opportunities knowledge •Pedagogical knowledge

Beliefs Support of personal autonomy and Motivation competence

students work on, or in the discourse needs, that is, tasks that vary in between teachers and students. Cog- terms of their difficulty and cogni- nitively activating tasks might, for tive demands as well as—in order to example, draw on students’ prior help learners gain transferable knowledge by challenging their ex- knowledge—in structural and con- isting beliefs. Cognitive activation textual terms. These tasks must be can take place during class discus- presented in an order that allows sion when the teacher does not sim- students to gradually expand their ply declare students’ answers to be knowledge, and practice existing “right” or “wrong,” but encourages skills. them to evaluate the validity of their It takes more than demanding as- answers and solutions for them- signments to inspire students to en- selves. The particular challenge of gage in insightful learning processes, creating cognitively activating learn- however. Studies based on the ing opportunities is therefore to theory of self-determination devel- teach at a level that ideally animates oped by Deci and Ryan (2000) show all learners to actively engage with that students engage in insightful the learning content, by challenging, learning processes, and develop in- but not overwhelming them. This is trinsic motivation, such as domain- a demanding task for teachers in specific interest, when they feel classroom situations—it is no easy challenged as well as personally sup- matter to create optimal learning ported in their learning environ- conditions for groups of students ments. Consequently, teachers need who may differ greatly in terms of to implement tasks in a way that re- motivation or prior knowledge. The spects students’ cognitive autonomy. adaptive orchestration of tasks is a At the same time, they need to be key to meeting this challenge. acutely aware of students’ difficul- Teachers have to select tasks that ties—be they comprehension prob- meet different individual student lems or social and personal matters—

122 Center for Educational Research and to respond in a reassuring way. on the work of Lee Shulman (1987; In other words, teachers need to give also see Bromme, 1992), the terms their students the feeling of being of content knowledge, pedagogical personally valued and supported. The content knowledge, and pedagogical teacher’s support of personal auton- knowledge have been established to omy and competence can thus be describe these facets of professional considered a second crucial aspect knowledge. In addition to these of powerful learning environments. types of knowledge, teachers’ atti- Putting these two instructional as- tudes and beliefs about their subject pects—cognitive activation and sup- and about teaching in general influ- port of students’ personal autonomy ence the way they teach. Whether and competence—into practice re- teachers like and value the subject quires a broad and profound base of they teach and, even more impor- knowledge on the teacher’s part: tantly, whether they feel responsible first, a deep understanding of the for their students and aim at sup- contents to be taught; second, porting their personal growth, may awareness of how best to present determine whether their teaching Figure 2. Action compe- these contents to students; and serves to create powerful learning tence of mathematics teachers (for an account of third, knowledge about teaching and environments. the concept of compe- learning processes in general. Based tence, see Weinert, 1999, 2001).

Action competence

Professional Self- Beliefs Motivation knowledge regulation

Areas of competence

Content Pedagogical Pedagogical Interaction Counceling knowledge content knowledge knowledge knowledge knowledge

Facets of competence Deep understanding of school mathematics Knowledge of students’ mathematical thinking … Knowledge about representing and explaining mathematics Knowledge about classroom management … Knowledge about students’ learning in general

Center for Educational Research 123 Key Reference In the COACTIV study, we apply this cally focus on drilling routines rather Krauss, S., Kunter, M., general theoretical framework to the than on developing conceptual Brunner, M., Baumert, J., context of secondary school mathe- knowledge. Teachers tend to guide Blum, W., Neubrand, M., Jordan, A., & Löwen, K. matics teaching. Our focus lies on students through new topics step- (2004). COACTIV: Profes- investigating mathematics teachers’ by-step, presenting the new ideas sionswissen von Lehrkräf- ten, kognitiv aktivierender expertise, on the one hand, and on themselves, and rarely making refer- Mathematikunterricht und reconstructing mathematics lessons, ence to students’ conceptions. In the die Entwicklung von mathematischer Kompe- on the other. next phase of instruction, students tenz. In J. Dool & M. Figure 2 describes teachers’ knowl- work on similar problems, and Prenzel (Eds.), Bildungs- qualität von Schule: edge and beliefs (left-hand box in practice the skills that have been Lehrerprofessionalisierung, Figure 1) in more detail and provides demonstrated in individual seatwork. Unterrichtsentwicklung an overview of our theoretical ap- The tasks set are usually very rou- und Schülerforderung als Strategien der Qualitäts- proach to teachers’ competence. In tine-oriented; their solutions require verbesserung (pp. 31–53). COACTIV, scales were constructed to the application of procedures rather Münster: Waxmann. assess teachers’ action competencies than conceptual understanding. This in all areas, with the exception of lesson format is so widespread in those shaded in Figure 2 (Krauss Germany that one might call it the et al., 2004). “monoculture of mathematics teach- Theoretically, mathematics lessons ing.” One of the main questions (middle box in Figure 1) are the cru- addressed by the COACTIV study is cial opportunities for insightful whether teachers choose this “task learning to occur. The underprovision monoculture” deliberately, based of cognitively activating learning op- on traditional beliefs about learning, portunities seems to be a particular or because they lack the necessary weakness of mathematics teaching professional knowledge. in German secondary schools, how- The empirical investigation of teach- ever. Results of international studies ers’ professional knowledge and the such as TIMSS Video show that reconstruction of mathematics les- German mathematics lessons typi- sons present great methodological

Methodological Approach of the COACTIV Study COACTIV is embedded in the longitudinal component of the PISA 2003 study. Both the students sampled for PISA and their mathematics teachers were assessed twice—once at the end of the 9th grade, and once at the end of the 10th grade. We are thus able to combine student achievement and questionnaire data with their teachers’ data, and to observe changes over the course of a school year. The teacher sample consists of 352 teachers and their math classes in the first wave and 223 teachers and their classes in the second wave (the reduction in sample size is due to students from vocational schools no longer being included in the assessment at the second wave). A total of 180 teachers participated in both waves of the assessment, and taught the PISA classes over the whole school year. Standardized questionnaires provide the first set of data. Both teachers and students were asked to report on and evaluate various aspects of their mathematics lessons. Most of these questions are based on scales that are already well established in the field of instructional research. To assess teachers’ professional knowledge, we developed an array of new instruments, some of which are computer- based. In particular, we focused on developing new instruments to assess teachers’ content and pedagogical content knowledge. The second set of data is derived from the teaching material collated from the teachers, who were asked to submit the tasks they actually employed in their PISA classes (homework assignments, exams, and tasks used in introductory lessons). These tasks were coded by trained raters, using a newly developed classification scheme to tap various didactic aspects (e.g., task format, type of cognitive process needed to solve the task).

124 Center for Educational Research challenges. With its combined ap- ing cultures of the various school Key References proach and use of various innovative types. Studies based on lesson obser- Kunter, M. (in press). Mul- methods, the COACTIV study offers a vations (e.g., TIMSS Video) and on tiple Ziele im Mathematik- unterricht. Münster: unique opportunity to gain insights students’ reports on their lessons Waxmann. into the prerequisites for students’ (e.g., Gruehn, 2000) have identified Kunter, M., & Baumert, J. mathematical learning. The study’s differential patterns of teaching (in press). Linking TIMSS to research on learning and methodological approach is summa- across school types. These differ- instruction: A re-analysis rized above. ences are particularly pronounced of the German TIMSS and TIMSS video data. In when the academic track is com- S. J. Howie & T. Plomp Teaching and Teachers in Different pared with the other tracks. For in- (Eds.), Learning mathematics and science: Lessons School Types—Differential Patterns stance, a reanalysis of the TIMSS learned from TIMSS. of Mathematics Instruction Video data revealed notable differ- Leiden: Routledge Falmer. COACTIV focuses on the empirical ences in the way teachers create investigation of how students’ math- learning situations in early second- ematical knowledge is enhanced by ary school mathematics lessons cognitive activation and personal (Kunter, 2004). Cognitively activat- support during lessons, and on the ing tasks that require the active con- role that teachers’ professional struction of knowledge were only knowledge plays in creating such employed in academic track lessons, learning contexts. In the following, if at all. Elements of cognitive acti- we will concentrate on mathematics vation were rarely discerned in lessons and present selected findings mathematics lessons in other school on patterns of math instruction that types, where there was a very strong are specific to certain school types focus on practicing skills and rou- in Germany. tines. The German secondary school system The data provided by the COACTIV is characterized by the early tracking study enable us to investigate these of students to different school types differences in teaching patterns (vocational, intermediate, academic from several perspectives. Drawing track; comprehensive schools) based on preliminary work (Clausen, 2000), on their ability. Studies, such as we assume differential validities for TIMSS, PISA, and BIJU, have repeat- different data sources. A first indica- edly reported significant differences tion of differences in the organiza- in the school achievement of stu- tion of learning opportunities is pro- dents in different tracks. Moreover, it vided by the teachers’ own reports of has been demonstrated that these their lesson goals, preferred assign- differences are not only a corollary ments and tasks, and general ap- of early selection but that they con- proaches to mathematical learning. tinue to grow over the school career, These reports provide us with in- with students from academic track sights into the principles that guide schools showing relatively larger teachers’ lesson planning. Whether learning gains than other students these principles are actually put into (a phenomenon known as the practice in the classroom can be St. Matthew effect). These different evaluated by reference to the tasks learning rates are associated with teachers set. Finally, we consult stu- remarkable differences in the teach- dents’ reports on their lessons to

Center for Educational Research 125 find out how students experience teachers in different school types the learning environment, and to converge. The assessment covered what extent they feel challenged dimensions such as the following, and supported. In the following, we each of which was measured by sev- will present selected results that il- eral scales. lustrate patterns of instruction spe- – Cognitively activating instruction: cific to different school types in all To what extent do teachers aim at of these areas. The results are based providing their students with cog- on (1) the teacher questionnaire on nitive challenges, and attempt to teaching goals and preferred lesson support the active and independ- structures, (2) our categorization of ent construction of knowledge? the tasks assigned by the teachers, – Step-by-step instruction with and (3) the student questionnaire on close supervision: To what degree mathematics lessons. do teachers prefer a step-by-step The teacher questionnaire provides approach in which they proceed us with information about the prin- gradually, giving detailed instruc- ciples underlying classroom instruction, focusing on routine practices, tion. Assuming that teachers are and providing close supervision? best positioned to report on the di- – Individualization: To what degree dactic and methodological set-up of do teachers consider within-class their lessons, we asked them about differences in students’ prior their educational goals, beliefs about knowledge when selecting tasks mathematical learning, preferred and evaluating students? task types, and the principles guiding – Social orientation: How important their lesson planning. We can thus is it for teachers to maintain good investigate whether teachers agree social relationships with their stu- with our conception of cognitive ac- dents, and to provide them with tivation and personal support being personal support? the core elements of teaching and, When these dimensions are com- in addition, whether the opinions of bined, the profile to emerge reflects

Figure 3. Approaches to 0.4 teaching in academic track 0.3 and nonacademic track Academic track teachers schools. 0.2 Nonacademic track teachers 0.1 0.0 –0.1 –0.2 –0.3 Importance of the dimension as

rated by the teachers (mean scores) –0.4 Cognitively Step-by-step Individu- Social activation instruction alization orientation instruction All scales have a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1, all differences are significant with p < .05.

126 Center for Educational Research prototypical patterns in teachers’ learning opportunities. To find out approaches to instruction. These more about the actual classroom sit- patterns are characteristic of certain uation, we will now examine the school types, as can be seen in tasks assigned by the teachers in Figure 3. their mathematics lessons. As shown by Figure 3, it is mainly The tasks that teachers employ in the teachers in the academic track their lessons indicate the degree to who report applying the principle of which they succeed in translating cognitive activation in their lessons. their teaching principles into corre- Accordingly, these teachers do not sponding learning opportunities in endorse step-by-step instruction. the classroom. Cognitively activating Rather, this form of teaching is pre- tasks require conceptual knowledge ferred by teachers in nonacademic and understanding. In COACTIV, we track schools, where cognitively ac- assessed a subset of the math prob- tivating elements do not feature lems that the teachers set as home- strongly. In terms of individual stu- work assignments, in exams, or to dent support, however, it is the introduce new topics. On average, teachers in nonacademic track 100 problems per teacher were as- schools who stress the importance of sessed. These problems—which were individualization and social orienta- coded by trained raters—reflect the tion in the classroom. These aspects cognitive demands of the lessons. seem to have relatively little signifi- Several categories of cognitive acti- cance for academic track teachers. vation were evaluated. These results show that mathematics All tasks were classified as either teachers in German secondary technical tasks or modeling tasks, schools do not unanimously support based on the cognitive processes our conception of powerful learning that are required to solve them. environments presented above—the Technical tasks require only factual aspects of cognitive activation and knowledge or computational skills. support for personal autonomy and Modeling tasks, on the other hand, competence are not generally con- require students first to construct a sidered to be the two guiding princi- representation of the problem situa- ples. In fact, two different patterns tion by interpreting the information of teaching aims emerge: Whereas given in the task statement. This sit- academic track teachers endeavor to uational model then has to be trans- establish cognitively challenging lated into a mathematical model, learning environments, but attach from which the mathematical solu- less value to the provision of per- tions needed to solve the problem sonal support, the reverse is true of can be derived. These solution the nonacademic track teachers. Be- strategies then have to be imple- cause these data were drawn from mented, interpreted, and validated. teacher self-reports, these profiles The match between the situational reflect differences in teachers’ con- model and the mathematical model ceptions of teaching, but do not determines the quality of the task necessarily provide valid insights solution. Modeling tasks are further into actual differences in classroom categorized as computational mod-

Center for Educational Research 127 Table 1 Even tasks on a low difficulty level may imply conceptual understanding: Examples of tasks with diverse levels of curricular knowledge and cognitive demands

Low level of curricular knowledge High curricular level of knowledge Technical task Consider the function Let f be the quadratic function f(x) = 3x – 1. f(x) = 2x2 + 5x – 3. Find the value of x Write f(x) in vertex form. when f(x) = 11.

Conceptual How does the surface Thomas’ father wants to give him some money modeling task area of a square change towards a motorbike. He makes Thomas two offers: when the side length is (1) 15€ today, a further 20€ tomorrow, a further tripled? Show your 25€ the next day, and so on for a two weeks reasoning. (i.e., increasing the sum by 5€ every day). (2) 5 cents today, a further 10 cents tomorrow, a further 20 cents the next day, and so on (i.e., doubling the sum every day), again for 14 days. Which offer should Thomas choose? Show your reasoning.

eling tasks or conceptual modeling sion indicates the grade level at tasks. If the situational model is which the task would be appropri- close to the mathematical model re- ate). quired to solve it, and the solution The task classification allows us to strategies primarily entail calcula- examine whether academic track tions and mathematical algorithms teachers really do employ a relatively (even demanding ones), it is called a large proportion of cognitively acti- computational modeling task. If the vating tasks—particularly conceptual mathematical model requires the modeling tasks—in the classroom, in students to link several concepts or accordance with their teaching prin- strategies, or to draw inferences go- ciples. Figure 4 presents the results ing beyond the information given in for the homework assignments set the task statement, the task is called by teachers during the 9th grade. a conceptual modeling task. Irrespective of the school track, It is important to note that this clas- these results illustrate that the focus sification does not equate with prob- on routine and practice considered lem difficulty in terms of the aver- typical of German mathematics age student success rate on a prob- classrooms is carried over to the lem. All three types of problems— tasks set as homework (Figure 4): In technical tasks, computational mod- all school types, approximately half eling tasks, and conceptual modeling of the problems students are set are tasks—can occur at all difficulty purely technical ones designed to levels. Table 1 illustrates this point. drill routines. Yet the figure also Task difficulty was approximated by shows differences between the the level of curricular knowledge school types, which are most pro- required to solve a task (this dimen- nounced for the class of conceptual

128 Center for Educational Research 60 Figure 4. Distribution of the classes of homework 50 Academic track problem set by teachers in Nonacademic track academic track and 40 nonacademic track.

0 Percentage of Percentage of Percentage of technical tasks computational conceptual modeling tasks modeling tasks

modeling tasks. Only 7% of the Our data indicate that the situation Key Reference problems set by teachers in nonaca- is not so clear cut. As mentioned Baumert, J., Kunter, M., demic track schools were cognitively above, challenging tasks alone do Brunner, M., Krauss, S., Blum, W., & Neubrand, M. activating conceptual modeling not suffice to initiate insightful (2004). Mathematikunter- tasks, compared with 21% of the learning processes. In order to foster richt aus der Sicht der PISA-Schülerinnen und problems set by teachers in the aca- students’ cognitive autonomy and -Schüler und ihrer demic track. These differences re- active construction of knowledge, Lehrkräfte. In M. Prenzel, J. Baumert, W. Blum, main even when controlling for the teachers need to provide students R. Lehmann, D. Leutner, level of task difficulty. with personal support by stimulating M. Neubrand, et al. (Eds.), PISA 2003. Der Bildungs- Our results thus show that it is diffi- individual learning processes and as- stand der Jugendlichen in cult to describe the state of mathe- sisting them when difficulties arise. Deutschland—Ergebnisse matics teaching in Germany in gen- The prerequisites for this kind of in- des zweiten internationalen Vergleichs (pp. 314– eral terms, as teachers’ conceptions dividual support are attentiveness to 354). Münster: Waxmann. of instruction and the learning op- individual student problems, pa- portunities created in their class- tience with every single student, and rooms differ remarkably across a respectful form of interaction that school tracks. The principle of cogni- values the learner as an autonomous tively activating teaching on which person—aspects we have subsumed academic track teachers base their under the support of autonomy and approach is indeed mirrored in the competence. As reflected by the tasks that these teachers set for teaching principles that they en- their students. Teachers in other dorse, teachers in nonacademic track school types seem reluctant to pres- schools attach much greater impor- ent their students with tasks that re- tance to these aspects. Information quire active engagement with the as to whether this principle is actu- content, and thus provide fewer op- ally put into practice in the class- portunities for cognitive activation. room is best gained by reference to Can we thus conclude that teaching the students’ reports. in the academic track is in line with In the following, we will thus pres- our conception of a powerful learn- ent results from the COACTIV stu- ing environment? dent questionnaire on mathematics

Center for Educational Research 129 Figure 5. Students’ percep- 0.45 tions of support from their mathematics teachers by 0.35 Academic track students school type. Nonacademic track students 0.25

0.15

0.05

–0.05 Scale means –0.15

–0.25

–0.35

–0.45 Interaction tempo Identification of Monitoring comprehension problems All scales have a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1, all differences are significant with p < .05.

lessons. In a written questionnaire, students are able to keep up. Teach- students evaluated aspects, such as ers at other school types seem to be (1) whether the interaction tempo much more prepared to monitor their gives them adequate time to think, students’ understanding, and to (2) how well their teachers are able respond to individual difficulties. to diagnose the strengths and weak- What are the implications of these nesses of individual students and to findings as regards the prerequisites identify comprehension difficulties, for insightful learning in mathemat- and (3) how well their teachers re- ics lessons? First, our results indicate spond to student problems and dis- that truly powerful math instruction tractions in lessons (“monitoring”). that supports independent and in- As shown by Figure 5, students at sightful student learning is a rather academic track schools consistently rare occurrence in German second- report lower levels of support from ary schools. Second, mathematics their teachers than do students at lessons take very different forms in other school types. These data indi- the different school types. Whereas, cate that teachers at academic track in academic track schools, the focus schools seem to rely too heavily on is on stimulating and fostering their students’ high levels of cogni- processes of comprehension, and tive potential. They interact with teachers succeed in achieving this their students in a high tempo that goal—to a certain extent, at least— their students consider to be over- through the tasks they select, math- taxing and unreasonable, and tend ematics teachers in other school not to actively monitor whether their types focus on practicing routines,

130 Center for Educational Research and give their students little oppor- countries managed to foster concep- tunity to engage in the independent tual mathematical understanding in construction of knowledge. Never- the lower ability ranges much better theless, students in nonacademic than Germany. Teachers at academic track schools seem to have a more track schools, on the other hand, positive attitude to math lessons; seem to take the cognitive abilities their teachers evidently do their best of their students for granted, and to to provide students with personal assume that they no longer require support, an aspect which seems to individual support, the upshot being be less well developed in academic that they tend not to individualize track mathematics lessons. their instruction, even when setting How might these contrasting pat- cognitively demanding tasks. One terns of instruction be explained? possible effect of this lack of indi- Our data suggest that teachers are vidual nurturing and support is also not sufficiently able to gauge the evident from the findings of PISA potential of either mathematics 2003. Students at academic track problems or their students. With re- schools score lower on measures of gard to tasks, German mathematics math-related motivation (e.g., inter- teachers seem to confuse the cogni- est and achievement motivation) tive demands of tasks with their dif- than do students at other school ficulty, assuming that challenging types. Although this phenomenon cognitive processes, such as mathe- can probably largely be explained by matical modeling, are only possible reference group effects, it remains to with tasks requiring a high level of be investigated whether these lower curricular knowledge. Consequently, levels of domain-specific motivation particularly in the lower tracks, result in students being less willing teachers fail to vary the cognitive to engage in the critical and inde- demands of the problems they set, pendent construction of mathemati- leading to the emphasis on routine cal knowledge. exercises observed in COACTIV. At To conclude, the findings from our the same time, teachers seem to be investigation of mathematics teach- under specific misconceptions as reers and mathematics lessons in gards the potential of their students. Germany suggest that the necessary For example, teachers at nonacade- prerequisites for insightful learning mic track schools seem to assume are not fully in place in either aca- that comprehension-oriented learn- demic or nonacademic track mathe- ing would overtax their students; matics classrooms. Much could be thus, they focus on routine proce- gained from integrating the ap- dures. However, the findings of in- proaches of both school types. ternational educational assessments, Future research will thus explore such as PISA, indicate that this kind how it might be possible to balance of approach might underestimate cognitively demanding and individu- students’ cognitive abilities. Indeed, ally supportive teaching, and to in- results suggest that conceptual un- vestigate the role that teachers’ con- derstanding is not simply a matter of tent and pedagogical content knowl- general ability level—numerous edge play in this relationship.

Center for Educational Research 131 The Research ENTERPRISE: Cognitive Activation creased over the past decades. In Team in Elementary School Children: view of this trend, cognitive science The Potential of Diagrammatic has been strongly committed to the Elsbeth Stern Tools research of diagrammatic literacy. Ilonca Hardy Beyond the function of displaying The ENTERPRISE project (Enhancing KNowl- information, however, diagrams and Anja Felbrich edge Transfer and Efficient Reasoning by Prac- graphs can also serve as active rea- ticing Representation In Science Education) Michael Schneider aims to explore the conditions under which soning and transfer tools (Stern, Henrik Saalbach graphs and diagrams can serve as tools for 2001). The ENTERPRISE project has (predoctoral structuring learning environments and, thus, put a major emphasis on the use of fellows) foster conceptual understanding in science as line graphs as powerful reasoning well as other content areas. tools for understanding proportional Key References scientific concepts, such as, among Haag, L., & Stern, E. It is now widely recognized that many others, speed, density, or the (2003b). In search of the higher-order cognitive activities of degree of concentration of different benefits of learning Latin. Journal of Educational humans, such as learning, reasoning, mixtures of liquids. Research was fo- Psychology, 95, 174–178. and transfer, are based on elaborated cused on elementary school children Stern, E., Aprea, C., & knowledge rather than on formal because the cognitive potential of Ebner, H. (2003). Improving cross-content transfer in rigor (Haag & Stern, 2003). Knowl- this age group has long been under- text processing by means edge dealt with in academic con- estimated (Stern, in press). of active graphical representation. Learning and texts is based on symbolic systems, Instruction, 13, 191–203. such as script, formal mathematical Line Graphs as Powerful Reasoning Stern, E. (2001). Intelli- language, pictures, and diagram- Tools: Effects of Different Contrasts genz, Wissen, Transfer und der Umgang mit Zeichen- matic representations. Symbols can on Understanding the Slope of Line systemen. In E. Stern & J. be understood as mental tools that Graphs Guthke (Eds.), Perspektiven allow for the construction of mean- Line graphs are broadly disseminat- der Intelligenzforschung (pp. 163–203). Lengerich: ing in concepts, ideas, or plans. ed in learning material dealing with Pabst. Within the mental-tool framework, topics of formal domains, such as understanding can be conceptual- science or economics. They are most ized as the ability to use representa- appropriate for representing causal Understanding tions in flexible ways. While pictures, as well as incidental relationships comes from having number systems, and written lan- between two variables. In Germany, a good represen- guage have a long tradition of use in students encounter line graphs as tation human culture, visual-spatial tools, a means for data representation Novick & Hmleo such as graphs and diagrams, were already in early secondary school, devised as tools for knowledge rep- while core elements of graphs, such resentation only about two centuries as the slope or the intersection on ago. Since then, space has been used the y-axis, are part of the mathe- to represent nonspatial information, matics curriculum in 8th grade, particularly in formal domains, such when students learn to map linear as science and economics. Because functions on graphs. However, de- computers have made the construc- spite the value of graphs and dia- tion and modification of graphs and grams as tools for knowledge struc- diagrams so easy, the frequency with turing, reasoning, and problem solv- which individuals encounter such ing, the competent use of such tools representations has markedly in- is not as widespread as would be

132 Center for Educational Research desirable (Stern, Aprea, & Ebner, which circumstances certain con- Key References 2003). In recent years, the interpre- straints apply. One feasible method Stern, E. (in press-b). tation of the slope of a graph could to learn abstract concepts underly- Knowledge restructuring as a powerful mechanism be shown as being within the reach ing graphical representations is to of cognitive development: of 4th graders (Koerber, 2003). It learn from comparisons. Several How to lay an early foundation for conceptual un- was therefore concluded that start- studies have shown that comparing derstanding in formal doing to use graphs already in elemen- or contrasting two cases will facili- mains. In P. D. Tomlinson, J. Dockrell, & P. Winne tary school might help students to tate insight and abstraction, lead to (Eds.), Pedagogy—Teaching gain deeper insight into the struc- differentiated knowledge structures, for learning. Leicester: British Psychological Soci- ture and the potential of these rea- and foster transfer of strategies. ety (British Journal of soning tools, and facilitate learning Figure 2 highlights how contrasts Educational Psychology when, in accordance with the grade can shape the meaning. As learners Monograph Series II, No. 3). 8 mathematics curriculum, they actively construct and reconstruct Koerber, S. (2003). Visua- start to use them for representing their knowledge depending on new lisierung als Werkzeug im linear functions. Before students information offered by the environ- Mathematik-Unterricht— Der Einfluss externer learn to map formulas on graphs, ment, a recently acquired concept Repräsentationsformen auf they should have been familiarized will be differentiated and shaped in proportionales Denken im Grundschulalter. Hamburg: with their core elements, that is, the correspondence with the new infor- Verlag Dr. Kovaˇc. slope or the intercept. mation offered by the learning ma- In an experimental training study, terial and, as a consequence, the Anja Felbrich investigated methods learner’s understanding of the con- of focusing students’ attention on the meaning of the slope of the graph. This diagram shows the progress of Figure 1. A source of mis- Students frequently confound the a country walk. interpretation of graphs. slope of a graph with its relative Describe what happened! height or with the length of the line; they also tend to read graphs 5 as pictures of situations. For example, if shown a distance-time graph, 4 such as in Figure 1, with the visual appearance of a hill and asked to 3 describe what happens, students will 2 infer that a hill has been climbed, not recognizing the abstract nature 1 of the relationship between the variables represented by the graph. Distance from starting point in km 0 Students who are not able to solve 012345 this problem lack the knowledge of Time in hours graphs as mental tools with specific affordances and constraints. In order to appreciate a graph as a tool, one needs to understand its underlying Figure 2. The contrast structural principles and, thus, to makes the meaning: What is the red object, a circle, know what actions and operations it a large circle, or a small affords, and whether and under circle?

Center for Educational Research 133 cept will change. Thus, for two slope in a distance-time graph and learning opportunities to be consid- in a graph showing proceeds and ered as contrasting cases, an impor- the number of pieces sold, respec- tant constraint has to be satisfied: tively. With such a content-based The second case has to highlight a contrast the learner is likely to per- new perspective and/or present new ceive that the concepts mapped information with respect to the con- onto the slope are composites of cept to be learned and, therefore, variables mapped onto the axes, will have the potential of reshaping that is velocity as meter per second and furthering the current state of and unit price as proceeds per piece. understanding. But what kind of in- However, this type of contrast also formation is perceived by the learner involves the risk of inappropriate as being new or varying depends on overgeneralization. Although learn- the specific nature of the contrast, ers may come to perceive and inter- so that an efficient contrast has to pret the slope as a (new) feature of be finely tuned to the learning graphs, they may conclude that the goals. In designing learning environ- steeper line is always associated ments which foster an understand- with a larger amount of the repre- ing of graphs as tools it is, therefore, sented variable since both the faster crucial to decide which elements or speed and the higher unit price can properties of graphs shall be con- be inferred from the steeper slope. trasted. For developing an under- The contrast in content does not fo- standing of the slopes of line graphs cus on the meaningful integration of as an integration of the information the two variables mapped onto the mapped onto the axes, two kinds of axes. contrast were integrated in the Structural contrast: A deeper under- learning environment. standing of the concept of slope can Content contrast: A comparison of be fostered by contrasting two different meanings of the slope in graphs, the content of which is the different content areas highlights same while, in the second case, the the fact that different proportional assignment of variables to the axes concepts, for example, speed or unit is reversed. This switch of labels on price, may be inferred from the the axes results in a reversal of the

Figure 3. This contrast thus Intuitive mapping: Mapping in conflict with highlights the specific steeper = faster intuitive mapping: ways in which information = more expensive steeper = slower from the variables mapped = less expensive onto the axes is integrated in the slope. Kilometers/proceeds Hours/number of pieces sold

Hours/number of pieces sold Kilometers/proceeds

134 Center for Educational Research meaning of the slope, as shown in training, while the Far-Transfer-Test Figure 3. In the context of speed, used contexts not covered by the the steeper slope now represents the training. In order to be able to dif- slower speed since in this case it ferentiate between a flexible under- instantiates seconds per meter and standing of the slope (the meaning not meter per second as in the first of the slope being derived from both case. axes) and a superficial understand- In a study with more than 100 ing of the slope (“the steeper slope 5th graders, Anja Felbrich tested always represents more of some- whether students learning with the thing”) the Far-Transfer-Test con- structural contrast do acquire a tained both possible ways of assign- more flexible and transferable ing variables to axes: “conventional knowledge of the slope of a graph, mappings” in line with graphing compared to students learning with convention and “unconventional a content contrast. In order to test mappings” violating these conven- the cognitive potential of contrasts, tions. Examples of items are pre- an experimental training study was sented in Figure 4. run, with four independent treat- Results revealed that children par- ment group, and a baseline group ticipating in the four training groups who only did the tests but received significantly improved their per- no training. In the basic part of the formance on the Near-Transfer-Test two-afternoon training, which was as well as on the Far-Transfer-Test the same for the four treatment tests from pre- to posttest, while groups, students were guided to dis- participants from the baseline group cover that the relative speed of an did not. object can be inferred from the The four training groups did not dif- slope of a distance-time graph. The fer regarding either the Near-Trans- second part of the training was differ-Test or the conventional map- ferent for the four treatment groups. ping items of the Far-Transfer-Test. For the no-contrast group, it was At the same time, however, the no- further practice with the same ma- contrast group performed less well terial. The structural-contrast group on the unconventional mapping learned to integrate the information items in the Far-Transfer-Test than mapped on both axes. In the con- the three contrast groups. Thus, it tent-contrast group, the focus was seems that students in the no-con- on the applicability of the slope to trast group entertain a superficial different contexts. In the combined- decision strategy which enables contrast group, the variations of the them to perform well on items with content-group and the structural a conventional mapping, but fails group were combined. when the meaning of the slope has Prior to and after the training, two to be inferred from the assignment tests were administered where the of variables to axes, as is the case slope of line graphs had to be inter- for items with unconventional preted. The Near-Transfer-Test con- mappings. The same tendency is tained items in a speed context, that observable for the content-contrast is, the content area dealt with in the group.

Center for Educational Research 135 Figure 4. Sample item with Use the diagrams to answer the question in the box! conventional and unconventional mapping of vari- 5 ables to axes. Conventional mapping 4 2 How many additional kilograms will the pigs gain in weight if they are given 100 grams 3 more of food? Fill in the spaces!

2 1 According to section 1: ____ kilograms per 100 grams of food. 1 According to section 2: Weight gained in kilograms Weight ____ kilograms per 100 grams of food. 0 200 300 400 500 600 700 Amount of food in grams

70 Unconventional mapping 60 How many additional kilograms will the 2 person lose in weight if he or she exercises 50 10 minutes more than usual? Fill in the spaces!

40 According to section 1: 1 ____ kilograms per 10 minutes of training. Exercise in minutes 30 According to section 2: ____ kilograms per 10 minutes of training. 20 012345 Weight loss in kilograms

The advantage of the structural- How to Improve 3rd-Grade Students´ contrast group was revealed in the Representational Competencies transfer test with unconventional Within the Curriculum of Floating mappings. However, combining both and Sinking of Objects kinds of contrasts seems to overtax In recent years, learning environ- the ability of students, as no gains ments for 3rd graders were worked on the transfer test could be detect- out which support a basic under- ed. Altogether, results suggest that standing of the scientific concepts 5th graders can acquire insightful underlying the floating and sinking knowledge about linear graphs in a of objects in water, as there are learning environment which guides buoyancy force and density. Results them in discovering structural ele- from a school study suggested that ments of the graphs by contrasting complex physics topics are already cases. accessible to elementary school children on a permanent conceptual basis, especially if structured instruc-

136 Center for Educational Research Here are three cubes in water basins. They are made of different materials. In collaboration with Kornelia Möller Angela Jonen (University of Münster)

Funded by the Which cube is made of the heaviest material? Make an X! German Research Foundation (DFG) red cube blue cube green cube in the BIQUA priority program Which cube is made of the lightest material? Make an X!

red cube blue cube green cube

Figure 5. An item from the test on floating and sinking which measures an understanding of density.

tion allows for an integration of stu- were trained in disentangling vol- Key Reference dents’ preexisting and new concepts. ume and mass by representing both Möller, K., Jonen, A., At the same time, the study revealed dimensions with the help of Lego Hardy, I., & Stern, E. (2002). Die Förderung von certain deficits in the understanding bricks on the two arms of the bal- naturwissenschaftlichem of the concept of density, which ance beam. On doing so, children Verständnis bei Grund- schulkindern durch were measured with items such as learned that each kind of material Strukturierung der Ler- depicted in Figure 5. Many students can be represented at a fixed place numgebung. In M. Prenzel & J. Doll (Eds.), Bildungs- still focused on weight and neg- on the arm of the balance beam. This qualität von Schule. lected volume. In a laboratory study, helped children to understand that Schulische und außer- schulische Bedingungen it was shown that especially a bal- mass and volume have to be in- mathematischer, naturwis- ance beam as a tool for representing creased by the same factor in order senschaftlicher und über- two-dimensional concepts, as de- to maintain the equilibrium of the fachlicher Kompetenzen (pp. 176–191). Weinheim: picted in Figure 6, helped children to balance beam. In independent Beltz (Zeitschrift für Päda- realize the inadequacy of their pre- groups, the effect of the balance gogik, 45. Beiheft). conceptions as well as to integrate beam was compared to that of self- mass and volume to form the pro- constructed representations. In portional concept of density (Möller, classrooms where self-constructed Jonen, Hardy, & Stern, 2002). Based representations were practiced, stu- on these results, the so-called inte- dents were equipped with a broad grative school study was run with variety of material, such as paper, 3rd graders to test the potential of pencils, little bricks made of wood, the balance beam in classroom envi- and cardboards of different colours. ronments when integrated into the The tests on understanding floating curriculum of floating and sinking, and sinking presented in the school such as demonstrated in Figure 7. study and the test for proportional Similar to the curriculum worked out reasoning presented in the labora- for the laboratory study, children tory study were used as pre- and

Center for Educational Research 137 Key Reference Hardy, I., Schneider, M., Jonen, A., Stern, E., & Möller, K. (in press). Fos- tering diagrammatic reasoning in science education. Swiss Journal of Psy- chology. Hardy, I., Jonen, A., Möller, K., & Stern, E. (2004). Die Integration von Repräsen- tationsformen in den Sachunterricht der Grund- Figure 6. The balance beam represents different Figure 7. The balance beam in school. schule. In J. Dool & M. kinds of material. Prenzel (Eds.), Bildungs- qualität von Schule: Lehrerprofessionalisierung, posttest. Results of the altogether 98 ples, such as the graph of a linear Unterrichtsentwicklung und Schülerforderung als students (each treatment was real- function (Hardy, Schneider, Jonen, Strategien der Qualitäts- ized in two classrooms) revealed sig- Stern, & Möller, in press). Whether verbesserung (pp. 267– 283). Münster: Waxmann. nificant increases in both tests for this was the case was tested in a both groups. No superiority of either follow-up study where a representa- form of representation was revealed tive sample of 56 children from both (Hardy, Jonen, Möller, & Stern, groups received a short introduction 2004). However, since the correct on how to map the mass and the use of the balance beam is depend- volume (labelled as weight and size ent on students’ multiplicative addi- of the cubes for the children) of cer- tions on either end of the beam, they tain materials on the axes of coordi- might get a deeper insight into the nate systems, and to construct a lin- representation of two-dimensional ear graph on this basis. A test on the concepts. It was hypothesized that use of graphs as reasoning tools in students who had practiced repre- the context of density and speed sentation with the help of the bal- was presented after the training. For ance beam should have acquired instance, children were presented some knowledge helping them to with a graph, such as depicted in understand forms of representation Figure 8 and they had to predict which are based on similar princi- whether an unknown material of size 2 and weight 400 will float or sink. Results revealed that students Figure 8. A graph which 500 who had worked with the balance can already be understood Water by 3rd graders. Iron beam during the curriculum on 400 floating and sinking outperformed Wood students who had worked with self- 300 constructed representations. This result suggests—in accordance with 200

Weight in grams Weight former findings—that the balance 100 beam is an appropriate tool to support elementary school children’s 0 understanding of proportional con- 012345cepts. Size of cubes

138 Center for Educational Research Contributions of the Center for Educational Research to the Preparation of New Research Fields

As a result of the PISA shock, the Germany Federal Ministry of Education and Research commissioned two reports focusing on research and practice which can be expected to improve school achievement. (1) Fostering text and reading comprehension How can text and reading comprehension be improved among German students? Cordula Artelt was asked to bring together a team of experts that analyze approaches to fostering text and reading comprehension, leading to recommendations for approaches that might add to the projects already implemented in the federal states. Fourteen experts from different fields made contributions to the report, resulting in a recent overview over factors influencing text and reading comprehension from a developmental, a differential, and an intervention perspective. Against the background of the newly developed output orientation in the German school system, the report also looks at the potentials of systematic collaboration between schools and other institutions or groups to reach high standards in reading. There are different ways of supporting children in their processes of becoming expert readers. Instead of focusing a one-size-fits-all method, the report gives recommendations for the neglected content of interventions, and highlights processes of professional development and collaboration within schools as well as among schools and other institutions and groups to improve and supplement future attempts of improving text and reading comprehension among students in Germany. (2) In what aspects can the neurosciences contribute to a better understanding of school learning? In recent years, considerable progress has been made in understanding the neurobiological foundations of learning. Animal research allows researchers to investigate how the brain changes as a result of stimulus-response learning, and many of their findings can be expected to apply to the human brain as well. Yet, simple stimulus-response learning, despite its importance in everyday life, is not what is called for in schooling which, rather, relies on insightful learning based on the use of symbol systems as thinking tools. As yet, little is known about the brain functions typical for human beings. Brain imaging methods only provide a very rough insight in what happens when human beings show cognitive activities, such as reading, doing arithmetic, or solving problems. Despite this vague scientific basis, findings from brain research often give rise to more or less un- founded hopes concerning their direct use for improving school learning. Elsbeth Stern was asked to work out a perspective for research collaboration between scientists specialized on learning and instruction, on the one hand, and neuroscientists, on the other hand. Together with Roland Grabner, an experienced EEG researcher, she invited more than 20 experts to take part in a workshop discussing methods of brain research and their potential contribution to understanding school-related learning, compared to more conventional methods, such as achievement measures or observation of behavior. The conclusion reached was that, while no hints for short-term improvement of learning and instruction can be derived from brain research, collaboration may, in the long run, contribute to a better understanding of brain functions in cultural contexts.

Key Reference Stern, E., Grabner, R., & Schumacher, R. (2005). Lehr-Lern-Forschung und Neurowissenschaften: Erwartungen, Befunde, Forschungsperspektiven. Bonn: BMBF.

Center for Educational Research 139 Public Understanding of Science: Activities of the Center for Educational Research in Disseminating Important Results on Learning and Instruction

After the publication of the PISA report in December 2001, the Research Center got into the spot- light of public attention. Germany was not only shocked by its average ranking in academic achievement but also by two other prominent results: the underrepresentation of German students on the highest achievement level and their overrepresentation on the lowest level. The whole country called for explanations, and the PISA group was flooded by invitations for talks and interviews. Around 80 presentations were given in 2002. It was remarkable that invitations did not only come from schools, centers for teacher education, and politicians but also from institutions that traditionally are not concerned with questions of classroom education, for example, trade unions, employers’ associations, and large companies. In the years 2003 and 2004, public interest increased even further. In these two years, more than 100 presentations and more than 30 interviews in newspapers were given by members of the Research Center at the following occasions: Workshops for teacher education; Meetings of school administrators and/or school principles; Meetings of politicians responsible for education; Conferences for applied education; Institutions for adult education; Meetings of business organizations, such as trade unions or employer associations For many years, German educational traditions were dominated by the humanities rather than by empirical research. At the same time, public discussion about education was driven by contrasting ideological beliefs. Given this background, the opportunity of presenting the basic ideas of an education based on scientific evidence was taken very seriously by the members of the Center. By presenting the audience with a broad variety of methods of data collection and data analysis, it was demonstrated how empirical data can constrain decisions for designing educational systems in case of contradicting beliefs and opinions. The common message of all presentations was that the highest priority for change is on a content-geared improvement of learning environments at school. Improving academic achievement means that teachers have a core role: They have to present their students with tasks which foster cognitive activation. No reform of the school system can ever be expected to succeed without tackling learning environments. A major message of presentations based on results of the TIMS Video Study was that classroom interaction can be investigated in a scientific way, and that we now know that the kind of instruction most German students have experienced is not typical for the instruction in more successful countries, such as Japan. The so-called questions-developing teaching style typical for Germany means that teachers only accept answers to their questions which fit into their own knowledge system. Those who criticize this teaching style call it the “Easter-bunny-pedagogy,” which means that teachers hide knowledge and students have to search for it. Presentations of the longitudinal BIJU and TOSCA projects focused on the effects of differential opportunity structures as provided by the highly differentiated school system in Germany, the effects of the so-called vocational Gymnasium in terms of broadened access to university education, and the role of minimum achievement standards for school evaluation and development. The main message of the ENTERPRISE project was that early education should aim at laying the foundations for knowledge construction. For science and mathematics this means that children have to be involved in activities that allow them to develop basic concepts which later can be re- structured and extended.

140 Center for Educational Research

Projects of W. Edelstein, Director Emeritus

Rise of a Right-Wing Culture Among German Youth: Prevention Through Quality Education? Right-wing extremism has been on the rise in Germany during the past decade, especially among young people in the Eastern provinces. Numerous studies have shown that racist, xenophobic, and anti-Semitic attitudes have extended beyond the groups originally most affected by prejudice, and reached toward “the center of civil society” (Heitmeyer, 2002; Bromba & Edelstein, 2001). In the recent provincial elections in the East, the nationalist and xenophobic right obtained a significant proportion of the vote—up to 25% in some voting districts in Saxony, and well above that number among young male voters in some places.

Key References Both government agencies and civil typical for right-wing youth in Ger- Bromba, M., & Edelstein, society have attempted to counter many—and in a number of other so- W. (2001). Das anti- the right-wing attacks: through cieties, in particular in Eastern Eu- demokratische und rechts- extreme Potenzial unter police action, policy measures, and rope. In various forms, these appear Jugendlichen und jungen the funding of organizations dedi- typical of youthful rebels around the Erwachsenen in Deutsch- land. Expertise für das cated to the service of democracy, world (Larsen, Brown, & Mortimer, Bundesministerium für Bil- citizenship education, and tolerance. 2002; Larsen & Verna, 2002). dung und Forschung (BMBF). Bonn: BMFT What has been lacking, however, is Important features of the model (56 p.). preventive action and planning that comprise the interaction between Edelstein, W. (2005). The reach beyond the problems and inci- long historical processes (the corro- rise of a right-wing culture in German youth. The ef- dents of the present. sion of tradition, the rise of individu- fects of social transforma- Effective prevention, however, pre- alism, and the expansion of anomie), tion, identity construction, supposes a theoretical base which cohort effects (the downfall of so- and context. In D. B. Pillemer & S. H. White permits a historical, social, and psy- cialism in the East), context effects (Eds.), Developmental psychological reconstruction of causes (socioeconomic deprivation in postu- chology and social change. Cambridge: Cambridge for the rise and expansion of right- nification Eastern Germany), and University Press. wing mentalities, attitudes, stereo- proximal factors constituted by the types, and dispositions. Based on in- psychological implications of terdisciplinary approaches which socialization (attachment patterns, originated in Elder’s work on Chil- identity formation, and the experi- dren of the Great Depression across ence of schooling in the East). These the lifespan (Elder, 1974; Elder & factors, at the various levels, are em- Caspi, 1988) and in our own longitu- pirically well supported (Edelstein, dinal work on Individual Develop- 2005). ment and Social Structure in Iceland Keeping vulnerable groups from at- (e.g., Edelstein, Keller, & Schroeder, traction to right-wing causes and 1990; Edelstein, 1999), we have con- affiliations in adolescence calls for a structed a model of the multiple and substitution of those conditions that interacting causes and antecedent trigger the emergence of extremism conditions for adolescent vulnerabil- and violence and that provide com- ity leading to the development of pensation for the experience of hu- dispositions and mindsets that are miliation and exclusion. The com-

142 Center for Educational Research pensation for the right is provided by ally agreed portfolios); projects or Key Reference a sense of community, often en- workshops; school democracy and Edelstein, W. & Fauser, P. hanced by nazi rock music and feel- participatory processes; and demo- (2001). Gutachten zum Programm “Demokratie ings of superiority and negative cratic experiences in the community lernen und leben“ der affect toward those perceived as such as service learning. Teachers Bund-Länder-Kommission für Bildungsplanung und inferior, foreign, or weak. Violence are offered advanced training oppor- Forschungsförderung. plays a major role in this experience tunities involving a dozen areas of Bonn. (Frindte & Neumann, 2002; Heit- concern from self-efficacy to civic meyer, 2002, 2004). learning, from the skill of conducting School provides an important experi- dilemma discussions to self-evalua- ential context for the emergence of tion of schools. Further, high-level right-wing groups and associations. training is provided to a set of some Various studies have shown that the 150 expert teachers who will be cer- number of youths embracing right- tified as democracy agents serving wing positions increases as schools the transfer of viable products and fail to provide an experience of com- processes developed in the roughly munity, opportunities for 170 program schools. Each State en- participation, and teacher trust. In tertains between one and four such schools, learning is perceived as school sets including five or six meaningless, boredom is intense, schools each, with a coordinator or- and hope for the future is limited. ganizing each network. The 25 net- In short, these schools are hotbeds work coordinators provide the orga- of anomie-generating experiences nizational backbone of the program, (Sturzbecher, 1997, 2001). which is served by a central agency As a response, a program of school located at the Department of Educa- development was proposed to the tion, Free University of Berlin. Joint Federal and States’ Commission The program necessarily transcends www.blk-demokratie.de on Educational Planning and Re- the original aim motivating its search (BLK), which was designed to construction. It reaches beyond the provide at least some of the oppor- need to respond to the peril of right- tunities for citizenship learning and wing youth development with an at- participatory experience strongly felt tempt to provide models of demo- to be lacking in many German cratic citizenship education in high- schools (Edelstein & Fauser, 2001). quality school settings. The focus is The proposal passed the Commission on transfer. In sum, the program rep- in 2002 and the program was resents a conception of experiential adopted by 13 out of the 16 States, and situated learning for compe- with the Federal Ministry of Educa- tence in a participatory institution. tion providing one half of the pro- Derived from constructivist develop- posed five-year budget of some 6 mental theory and best practice million Euro. The program was models of democratic school reform, named “Learning and Living Democ- it marks a step toward quality racy.” It consists of four modules: in- schools where pupils feel respected struction for democracy (including as well as motivated for better per- organizational elements, such as in- formance. teractive course planning or mutu-

Center for Educational Research 143 Publications 2003–2004

Artelt, C. (in press-a). Cross- (Eds.), PISA 2000: Ein differen- forschung (Ed.), Abschied von Baumert, J., Blum, W., & cultural approaches to measur- zierter Blick auf die Länder der Friedrich Edding: Reden auf der Neubrand, M. (2004). Drawing ing motivation. Educational Bundesrepublik Deutschland akademischen Trauerfeier am the lessons from PISA 2000: Assessment. (pp. 77–108). Opladen: Leske + 24. Januar 2003 (pp. 9–11). Long-term research implica- • (in press-b). Lernstrategien in Budrich. Berlin: Max-Planck-Institut für tions. Gaining a better under- der Schule. In H. Mandl & H. F. Bildungsforschung. standing of the relationship Friedrich (Eds.), Handbuch Lern- Artelt, C., & Riecke-Baulecke, • (2003b). Disparitäten der between system inputs and strategien. Göttingen: Hogrefe. T. (in press). Bildungsstandards: Bildungsbeteiligung und des learning outcomes by assessing • (2004). Zur Bedeutung von Fakten, Hintergründe, Praxis- Kompetenzerwerbs: Ein institu- instructional and learning Lernstrategien beim Textver- tipps. Schulmanagement- tionelles und individuelles processes as mediating factors. stehen. In J. Köster, W. Lütgert, Handbuch. Mediationsmodell. Mannheim: In D. Lenzen, J. Baumert, R. & J. Creutzburg (Eds.), Auf- MZES (Mannheimer Vorträge 16). Watermann, & U. Trautwein gabenkultur und Lesekompe- Artelt, C., & Schlagmüller, M. • (2003c). PISA 2000: Die (Eds.), PISA und die Konsequen- tenz: Deutschdidaktische Posi- (2004). Der Umgang mit litera- Studie im Überblick. Grundla- zen für die erziehungswissen- tionen (pp. 61–75). Frankfurt rischen Texten als Teilkompe- gen, Methoden und Ergebnisse. schaftliche Forschung (pp. 143– a.M.: Lang. tenz im Lesen? Dimensions- Politische Studien: Sonderheft, 157). Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für analysen und Ländervergleiche. 54, 8–35. Sozialwissenschaften (Zeit- Artelt, C., & Baumert, J. In U. Schiefele, C. Artelt, W. • (2003d). Transparenz und schrift für Erziehungswissen- (2004). Zur Vergleichbarkeit Schneider, & P. Stanat (Eds.), Verantwortung. In N. Killius, schaft, Beiheft 3/2004). von Schülerleistungen bei Lese- Struktur, Entwicklung und J. Kluge, & L. Reisch (Eds.), aufgaben unterschiedlichen Förderung von Lesekompetenz: Die Bildung der Zukunft Baumert, J., Cortina, K. S., & sprachlichen Ursprungs. Vertiefende Analysen im (pp. 213–228). Frankfurt a.M.: Leschinsky, A. (2003). Grund- Zeitschrift für Pädagogische Rahmen von PISA 2000 Suhrkamp. legende Entwicklungen und Psychologie, 18 (3/4), 171–185. (pp. 169–196). Wiesbaden: Strukturprobleme im allgemein • (2003). Die Bildungssysteme VS Verlag für Sozialwissen- Baumert, J., & Artelt, C. bildenden Schulwesen. In der Bundesländer auf dem schaften. (2003a). Bildungsgang und K. S. Cortina, J. Baumert, Prüfstand. Der Landkreis, 73, Schulstruktur: Einheitlichkeit A. Leschinsky, K. U. Mayer, & 571–573. Artelt, C., Stanat, P., und Individualisierung. Päda- L. Trommer (Eds.), Das Bil- Schneider, W., Schiefele, U., & gogische Führung, 14, 188–191. dungswesen in der Bundes- Artelt, C., Baumert, J., & Lehmann, R. (2004). Die PISA- • (2003b). Konzeption und republik Deutschland: Struk- Julius-McElvany, N. (2003). Studie zur Lesekompetenz: technische Grundlagen der turen und Entwicklungen im Selbstreguliertes Lernen: Moti- Überblick und weiterführende Studie. In J. Baumert, C. Artelt, Überblick (pp. 52–147). vation und Strategien in den Analysen. In U. Schiefele, C. E. Klieme, M. Neubrand, M. Reinbek: Rowohlt. Ländern der Bundesrepublik Artelt, W. Schneider, & P. Prenzel, U. Schiefele, et al. Deutschland. In J. Baumert, C. Stanat (Eds.), Struktur, Ent- (Eds.), PISA 2000: Ein differen- Baumert, J., Füssel, H.-P., & Artelt, E. Klieme, M. Neubrand, wicklung und Förderung von zierter Blick auf die Länder der Richter, I. (2003). Schulaufsicht M. Prenzel, U. Schiefele, et al. Lesekompetenz: Vertiefende Bundesrepublik Deutschland nach PISA: Eine Kontroverse. (Eds.), PISA 2000: Ein differen- Analysen im Rahmen von PISA (pp. 11–50). Opladen: Leske + Recht der Jugend und des Bil- zierter Blick auf die Länder der 2000 (pp. 139–168). Wies- Budrich. dungswesens, 51, 151–154. Bundesrepublik Deutschland baden: VS Verlag für Sozial- (pp. 131–164). Opladen: Leske wissenschaften. Baumert, J., Gigerenzer, G., & + Budrich. Martignon, L. (2004a). Ein- leitung zum Themenheft Sto- Artelt, C., Baumert, J., Julius- chastisches Denken. Unter- McElvany, N., & Peschar, J. richtswissenschaft, 32 (1), p. 1. (2004). Das Lernen lernen: • (2004b). Themenheft: Sto- Voraussetzungen für lebensbe- chastisches Denken. Unter- gleitendes Lernen. Ergebnisse richtswissenschaft, 32 (1). von PISA 2000. Paris: OECD. • (2003). Learners for life: Stu- Baumert, J., Kunter, M., dent approaches to learning. Brunner, M., Krauss, S., Blum, Results from PISA 2000. Paris: W., & Neubrand, M. (2004). OECD. Mathematikunterricht aus der Sicht der PISA-Schülerinnen und Artelt, C., Brunner, M., -Schüler und ihrer Lehrkräfte. In Schneider, W., Prenzel, M., & M. Prenzel, J. Baumert, W. Blum, Neubrand, M. (2003). Literacy Baumert, J., Artelt, C., Klieme, R. Lehmann, D. Leutner, M. oder Lehrplanvalidität? Län- E., Neubrand, M., Prenzel, M., Neubrand, et al. (Eds.), PISA dervergleiche auf der Basis Schiefele, U., et al. (Eds.). 2003: Der Bildungsstand der lehrplanoptimierter PISA- (2003). PISA 2000: Ein differen- Jugendlichen in Deutschland— Tests. In J. Baumert, C. Artelt, Baumert, J. (2003a). Abschied zierter Blick auf die Länder der Ergebnisse des zweiten interna- E. Klieme, M. Neubrand, M. von Friedrich Edding. In Max- Bundesrepublik Deutschland. tionalen Vergleichs (pp. 314– Prenzel, U. Schiefele, et al. Planck-Institut für Bildungs- Opladen: Leske + Budrich. 354). Münster: Waxmann.

144 Center for Educational Research Baumert, J., & Maaz, K. (in (pp. 261–331). Opladen: Leske + Untersuchung an allgemein Bildungsbiographien in der press). Das theoretische und Budrich. bildenden und beruflichen Gym- Sekundarstufe I. In K. S. methodische Konzept von PISA nasien (pp. 69–111). Opladen: Cortina, J. Baumert, A. zur Erfassung sozialer und Baumert, J., Watermann, R., Leske + Budrich. Leschinsky, K. U. Mayer, & L. kultureller Ressourcen der Her- & Schümer, G. (2003). Dispari- Trommer (Eds.), Das Bildungs- kunftsfamilie: Internationales täten der Bildungsbeteiligung Brunner, M., & Krauss, S. (in wesen in der Bundesrepublik und nationales Konzept. In und des Kompetenzerwerbs: press). Der Mathematikunter- Deutschland: Strukturen und J. Baumert, P. Stanat, & R. Ein institutionelles und indivi- richt an der Laborschule: Em- Entwicklungen im Überblick Watermann (Eds.), Herkunfts- duelles Mediationsmodell. Zeit- pirische Befunde zu den mathe- (pp. 342–391). Reinbek: bedingte Disparitäten im Bil- schrift für Erziehungswissen- matischen Kompetenzen. In Rowohlt. dungswesen: Differenzielle Bil- schaft, 6, 46–71. R. Watermann, S. Thurn, K.-J. dungsprozesse und Probleme Tillmann, & P. Stanat (Eds.), Die Demmrich, A., & Brunstein, der Verteilungsgerechtigkeit. Baur, J., Burrmann, U., & Maaz, Laborschule im Spiegel ihrer J. C. (2004). Förderung sinn- Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für K. (2003). Sozial integrierte PISA-Ergebnisse: Pädagogisch- verstehenden Lesens durch Sozialwissenschaften. Sportler—sozial isolierte Cyber- didaktische Konzepte und em- “Reziprokes Lehren“. In G. Lauth, Junkies? Sportunterricht, 52, pirische Evaluation. Weinheim: J. Brunstein, & M. Grünke (Eds.), Baumert, J., Marsh, H. W., 208–211. Juventa. Interventionen bei Lernstörun- Trautwein, U., & Richards, G. E. gen (pp. 279–290). Göttingen: (Eds.). (2004). Self-concept, Bildungskommission der Länder Brunner, M., & Süß, H.-M. (in Hogrefe. motivation and identity: Where Berlin und Brandenburg unter press). Analyzing the reliability to from here? Book of abstracts, Vorsitz von Jürgen Baumert of multidimensional measures: Edelstein, W. (in press-a). Ex- Third International Biennial (Eds.). (2003). Bildung und An example from intelligence tremist youth in Germany: The SELF Research Conference, July Schule in Berlin und Branden- research. Educational and Psy- role of history, development, 4–7, 2004, Max-Planck-Institut burg: Herausforderungen und chological Measurement. and cohort experience. In C. für Bildungsforschung, Berlin. gemeinsame Entwicklungsper- Daiute, Z. Beykont, C. Higson- spektiven. Berlin: Wissenschaft Bullock, M., Nunner-Winkler, G., Smith, & L. Nucci (Eds.), Global Baumert, J., Roeder, P. M., & und Technik Verlag. Stern, E., López, A., & Ziegler, perspectives on youth conflict. Watermann, R. (2003). Das A. (2003). Using a complex rule Oxford: Oxford University Press. Gymnasium—Kontinuität im Blumberg, E., Möller, K., & in different domains: When fa- • (in press-b). The rise of a Wandel. In K. S. Cortina, J. Hardy, I. (2004). Erreichen mo- miliar schemes do not help. In right-wing culture in German Baumert, A. Leschinsky, K. U. tivationaler und selbstbezo- D. Fasko (Ed.), Critical thinking youth: The effects of social Mayer, & L. Trommer (Eds.), Das gener Zielsetzungen in einem and reasoning: Current re- transformation, identity con- Bildungswesen in der Bundes- schülerorientierten naturwis- search, theory, and practice struction, and context. In D. B. republik Deutschland: Struk- senschaftsbezogenen Sach- (pp. 121–142). Cresskill, NJ: Pillemer & S. H. White (Eds.), turen und Entwicklungen im unterricht: Bestehen Unter- Hampton Press. Developmental psychology and Überblick (pp. 487–524). Rein- schiede in Abhängigkeit von the social change. Cambridge, bek: Rowohlt. der Leistungsstärke? In W. Bos, Chang, P. H. (2005). Transfor- UK: Cambridge University Press. E.-M. Lankes, N. Plaßmeier, & mation of vocational secondary • (in press-c). Zur Genese des Baumert, J., Stanat, P., & K. Schwippert (Eds.), Hetero- schools: A study of the voca- rechtsextremen Potentials in Watermann, R. (in press). genität: Eine Herausforderung tional Gymnasium in Germany. Deutschland und mögliche Herkunftsbedingte Disparitäten an die empirische Bildungs- Opladen: Barbara Budrich. Antworten seitens der Schule. im Bildungswesen: Differenzi- forschung (pp. 41–55). In C. Petry & E. Welz (Eds.), elle Bildungsprozesse und Prob- Münster: Waxmann. Cortina, K. S., & Baumert, J. Demokratie lernen und leben leme der Verteilungsgerechtig- (2004). “Strukturelle Vernach- (Vol. 3). Weinheim: Beltz. keit. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Blumberg, E., Möller, K., Jonen, lässigung“—ein deutsches • (2005). The rise of a right- Sozialwissenschaften. A., & Hardy, I. (2003). Multi- Phänomen? Gründe für Stu- wing culture in German youth: kriteriale Zielerreichung im dienverzögerung und -abbruch The effects of social transfor- Baumert, J., & Tillmann, K.-J. naturwissenschaftsbezogenen in Deutschland und den USA. mation, identity construction, (in press). Vorwort. In R. Water- Sachunterricht der Grund- In S. Gruehn, G. Kluchert, & and context. In D. B. Pillemer mann, S. Thurn, K.-J. Tillmann, schule. In D. Czech & H. J. T. Koinzer (Eds.), Was Schule & P. Stanat (Eds.), Die Labor- Schwier (Eds.), Lernwege und macht: Schule, Unterricht und schule im Spiegel ihrer PISA- Aneignungsformen im Sach- Werteerziehung. Theoretisch, Ergebnisse: Pädagogisch-didak- unterricht (pp. 77–92). Bad historisch, empirisch. Achim tische Konzepte und empirische Heilbrunn: Klinkhardt (Prob- Leschinsky zum 60. Geburtstag Evaluation. Weinheim: Juventa. leme und Perspektiven des (pp. 171–182). Weinheim: Beltz. Sachunterrichts 13). Baumert, J., Trautwein, U., & Cortina, K. S., Baumert, J., Artelt, C. (2003). Schulumwel- Brauckmann, S., & Neumann, Leschinsky, A., Mayer, K. U., & ten—institutionelle Bedingun- M. (2004). Berufliche Gym- Trommer, L. (Eds.). (2003). Das gen des Lehrens und Lernens. In nasien in Baden-Württemberg: Bildungswesen in der Bundes- J. Baumert, C. Artelt, E. Klieme, Geschichte und heutige Aus- republik Deutschland: Struk- M. Neubrand, M. Prenzel, U. gestaltung. In O. Köller, R. turen und Entwicklungen im Schiefele, K.-J. Tillmann, & M. Watermann, U. Trautwein, & Überblick. Reinbek: Rowohlt. Weiß (Eds.), PISA 2000: Ein dif- O. Lüdtke (Eds.), Wege zur ferenzierter Blick auf die Länder Hochschulreife in Baden- Cortina, K. S., & Trommer, L. der Bundesrepublik Deutschland Württemberg: TOSCA—Eine (2003). Bildungswege und

Center for Educational Research 145 &S. H. White (Eds.), Develop- & U. Trautwein (Eds.), Schul- mit Löchern? Erklärungen von mental psychology and social qualität und Schülerleistung: Kindern zum Schwimmen und change . Cambridge, UK: Evaluationsstudie über innova- Sinken verschiedener Gegen- Cambridge University Press. tive Schulentwicklung an fünf stände vor und nach dem Un- • (2004a). Für das Leben ler- hessischen Gesamtschulen terricht. In A. Speck-Hamdan, nen? In C. Petry & H.-H. Pistor (pp. 194–212). Weinheim: H. Brügelmann, M. Fölling- (Eds.), Der lange Weg der Juventa. Albers, & S. Richter (Eds.), Bildungsreform: Gisela und Jahrbuch Grundschule: Vol. IV. Hermann Freudenberg zum Füssel, H.-P., & Roeder, P. M. Kulturelle Vielfalt, Religiöses 80. Geburtstag (pp. 63–72). (2003). Recht—Erziehung— Lernen (pp. 159–164). Seelze: Weinheim: Beltz. Staat. In H.-P. Füssel & P. M. Kallmeyer. • (2004b). Kompetenzen für die Roeder (Eds.), Recht— Zivilgesellschaft. In Landesinsti- Erziehung—Staat: Zur Genese Jonen, A., Möller, K., Blumberg, tut für Schule (Ed.), Erziehungs- einer Problemkonstellation und E., Hardy, I., & Stern, E. (in kultur und soziales Lernen: Sym- zur Programmatik ihrer zukünf- press). Der Einfluss von Struk- posium des Landesinstitutes tigen Entwicklung (pp. 7–25). turierung in moderat-konstruk- (pp. 23–36). Soest: Verlag für Weinheim: Beltz. tivistischen Lernumgebungen Schule und Weiterbildung. auf kognitive Lernfortschritte der DDR 1949 bis 1989. • (2004c). “Verantwortungsler- Grabner, R. H., Stern, E., & und nichtleistungsbezogene Opladen: Leske + Budrich. nen“ als Kernbestand schuli- Neubauer, A. C. (2003). When Lernziele in der Grundschule. scher Bildung? Bedingungen intelligence loses its impact: Jahrbuch Grundschulforschung. Köller, O. (2004a). Konsequen- und Chancen schulischer Trans- Neural efficiency during rea- zen von Leistungsgruppierun- formation. In A. Sliwka, C. Petry, soning in a familiar area. Inter- Jonen, A., Möller, K., & Hardy, I. gen. Münster: Waxmann. & P. Kalb (Eds.), Durch Verant- national Journal of Psycho- (2003). Lernen als Veränderung • (2004b). Null Bock auf wortung lernen: Service Learn- physiology, 49, 89–98. von Konzepten—am Beispiel nichts? Interessen und Lern- ing. Etwas für andere tun einer Untersuchung zum natur- motivationen in der Sekundar- (pp. 58–77). Weinheim: Beltz. Gries, J., & Maaz, K. (2004). wissenschaftlichen Lernen in stufe. Schüler, 2004, 104–105. • (2003a). 2002 Kuhmerker Medienwelten der 10- bis 13- der Grundschule. In D. Czech & • (2004c). Schulische Leistun- award and gifts of time recipi- Jährigen: Stadtquartiersbezo- H. J. Schwier (Eds.), Lernwege gen am Ende der gymnasialen ent: Wolfgang Edelstein reflects gene Forschung im Vorfeld von und Aneignungsformen im Oberstufe: Wichtige Ressourcen on his life work. AME Newslet- Kinder- und Jugendarbeit. Sachunterricht (pp. 93–108). für den Übergang ins Studium ter, 19, 13–14. Deutsche Jugend, 52, 267–277. Bad Heilbrunn: Klinkhardt. und eine erfolgreiche Berufs- • (2003b). A culture of threat: karriere? In D. Lenzen, J. Right-wing extremism and Haag, L., & Stern, E. (2003). In Klusmann, U., Trautwein, U. & Baumert, R. Watermann, & negative identity formation in search of the benefits of learn- Lüdtke, O. (2005). Intrinsische U. Trautwein (Eds.), PISA und German youth. New Directions ing Latin. Journal of Educa- und extrinsische Lebensziele: die Konsequenzen für die er- for Youth Development, 98, tional Psychology, 95, 174–178. Reliabilität und Validität einer ziehungswissenschaftliche 81–97. deutschen Fassung des Aspira- Forschung (pp. 185–199). Wies- Hardy, I. & Moore, J. L. (2004). tions Index. Diagnostica, 51, baden: VS Verlag für Sozial- Edelstein, W., & Krettenauer, T. Foreign language students' 40–51. wissenschaften (Zeitschrift für (2004). Many are called, but conversational negotiations in Erziehungswissenschaft, Beiheft few are chosen: Moving beyond different task environments. Köhler, H. (2004a). Landesprofil 3/2004). the modal levels in normal Applied Linguistics, 25, 340– der Schulentwicklung. In O. • (2003). Gesamtschule—Er- development. In D. K. Lapsley & 370. Köller, R. Watermann, U. weiterung statt Alternative. In D. Narvaez (Eds.), Moral devel- Trautwein, & O. Lüdtke (Eds.), K. S. Cortina, J. Baumert, A. opment, self, and identity Hardy, I., Schneider, M., Jonen, Wege zur Hochschulreife in Leschinsky, K. U. Mayer, & L. (pp. 213–237). Mahwah, NJ: A., Stern, E., & Möller, K. (in Baden-Württemberg: TOSCA— Trommer (Eds.), Das Bildungs- Erlbaum. press). Fostering diagrammatic Eine Untersuchung an allge- wesen in der Bundesrepublik reasoning in science education. mein bildenden und beruflichen Deutschland: Strukturen und Franz, G.-U., Kroha, R., Swiss Journal of Psychology. Gymnasien (pp. 29–67). Entwicklungen im Überblick Trautwein, U., & Köller, O. Opladen: Leske + Budrich. (pp. 458–486). Reinbek: (2003). Integrierte Gesamt- Hardy, I., Jonen, A., Möller, K., • (2004b). Zwischen Fortschritt Rowohlt. schule Kastellstraße, Wies- & Stern, E. (2004). Die Integ- und Tradition: Zum Profil der baden. In O. Köller & U. ration von Repräsentationsfor- Schulentwicklung in Baden- Köller, O., Baumert, J., & Trautwein (Eds.), Schulqualität men in den Sachunterricht der Württemberg. In S. Gruehn, G. Schnabel, K. U. (2003). Sec- und Schülerleistung: Evalua- Grundschule. In J. Dool & M. Kluchert, & T. Koinzer (Eds.), ondary school as a constraint tionsstudie über innovative Prenzel (Eds.), Bildungsqualität Was Schule macht: Schule, Un- for adolescent development. In Schulentwicklung an fünf von Schule: Lehrerprofessiona- terricht und Werteerziehung. U. M. Staudinger & U. Linden- hessischen Gesamtschulen lisierung, Unterrichtsentwick- Theoretisch, historisch, em- berger (Eds.), Understanding (pp. 88–119). Weinheim: lung und Schülerforderung als pirisch. Achim Leschinsky zum human development: Dialogues Juventa. Strategien der Qualitäts- 60. Geburtstag (pp. 65–79). with lifespan psychology verbesserung (pp. 267–283). Weinheim: Beltz. (pp. 449–461). Boston: Kluwer. Fritz, J., Lohmann, A., Sauer, H., Münster: Waxmann. Köller, O., & Trautwein, U. Köhler, H., & Stock, M. (2004). Köller, O., Baumert, J., (2003). Steinwaldschule Jonen, A., Hardy, I., & Möller, K. Bildung nach Plan? Bildungs- Cortina, K. S., Trautwein, U., & Neukirchen/Knüll. In O. Köller (2003). Schwimmt ein Holzbrett und Beschäftigungssystem in Watermann, R. (2004). Öff-

146 Center for Educational Research nung von Bildungswegen in der press). Zum Zusammenspiel von Trautwein, & O. Lüdtke (Eds.), sung sozialer Herkunft in Sekundarstufe II und die schulischer Leistung, Selbst- Wege zur Hochschulreife in Schulleistungsuntersuchungen: Wahrung von Standards: Analy- konzept und Interesse in der Baden-Württemberg: TOSCA— Der Zusammenhang zwischen sen am Beispiel der Englisch- gymnasialen Oberstufe. Eine Untersuchung an allge- der Qualität von Schüler- leistungen von Oberstufen- Zeitschrift für Pädagogische mein bildenden und beruflichen angaben und den Leistungen. schülern an Integrierten Psychologie. Gymnasien (pp. 113–119). Soziale Welt. Gesamtschulen, beruflichen Opladen: Leske + Budrich. und allgemein bildenden Gym- Köller, O., Watermann, R., & Kunter, M. (in press). Multiple nasien. Zeitschrift für Päda- Trautwein, U. (2004). Trans- Koerber, S. (2003). Visua- Ziele im Mathematikunterricht. gogik, 50, 679–700. formation des Sekundarschul- lisierung als Werkzeug im Münster: Waxmann. systems in der Bundesrepublik Mathematik-Unterricht—Der Köller, O., Cortina, K., Deutschland: Differenzierung, Einfluss externer Repräsenta- Kunter, M., & Baumert, J. (in Trautwein, U., & Leucht, M. Öffnung von Bildungswegen tionsformen auf proportionales press). Linking TIMSS to re- (2003). Do you speak English? und die Wahrung von Stan- Denken im Grundschulalter. search on learning and instruc- TOSCA-News, 2, 8–11. dards. In O. Köller, R. Water- Hamburg: Verlag Dr. Kovaˇc. tion: A re-analysis of the Ger- mann, U. Trautwein, & O. man TIMSS and TIMSS video Köller, O., & Schiefele, U. Lüdtke (Eds.), Wege zur Hoch- Krauss, S., & Atmaca, S. data. In S. J. Howie & T. Plomp (2003). Selbstreguliertes Lernen schulreife in Baden-Württem- (2004). Wie man Schülern Ein- (Eds.), Learning mathematics im Kontext von Schule und berg: TOSCA—Eine Unter- sicht in schwierige stochasti- and science: Lessons learned Hochschule: Editorial zum The- suchung an allgemein bildenden sche Probleme vermitteln kann: from TIMSS. Leiden: Routledge menschwerpunkt. Zeitschrift für und beruflichen Gymnasien Eine Fallstudie über das “Drei- Falmer. Pädagogische Psychologie, 17, (pp. 13–27). Opladen: Leske + Türen-Problem“. Unterrichts- 155–157. Budrich. wissenschaft, 32, 38–57. Kunter, M., & Stanat, P. (2003). Soziale Lernziele im Köller, O., & Trautwein, U. Köller, O., Watermann, R., Krauss, S., & Brunner, M. (in Ländervergleich. In J. Baumert, (2004). Englischleistungen von Trautwein, U., & Lüdtke, O. press). Der naturwissen- C. Artelt, E. Klieme, M. Schülerinnen und Schülern an (Eds.). (2004a). Wege zur schaftliche Unterricht an der Neubrand, M. Prenzel, U. allgemein bildenden und beruf- Hochschulreife in Baden-Würt- Laborschule: Empirische Be- Schiefele, et al. (Eds.), PISA lichen Gymnasien. In O. Köller, temberg: TOSCA—Eine Unter- funde zu den naturwissen- 2000: Ein differenzierter R. Watermann, U. Trautwein, suchung an allgemein bildenden schaftlichen Kompetenzen. In Blick auf die Länder der Bun- &O. Lüdtke (Eds.), Wege zur und beruflichen Gymnasien. R. Watermann, S. Thurn, K.-J. desrepublik Deutschland Hochschulreife in Baden-Würt- Opladen: Leske + Budrich. Tillmann, & P. Stanat (Eds.), Die (pp. 165–193). Opladen: Leske temberg: TOSCA—Eine Unter- Laborschule im Spiegel ihrer + Budrich. suchung an allgemein bildenden PISA-Ergebnisse: Pädagogisch- und beruflichen Gymnasien didaktische Konzepte und em- Kunter, M., Stanat, P. & (pp. 285–326). Opladen: Leske pirische Evaluation. Weinheim: Klieme, E. (2003). Kooperatives + Budrich. Juventa. Problemlösen bei Schülerinnen • (2003a). Die Entwicklung des und Schülern: Die Rolle von Sekundarschulsystems in der Krauss, S., Kunter, M., Brunner, individuellen Eingangsvoraus- Bundesrepublik Deutschland M., Baumert, J., Blum, W., setzungen und Gruppenmerk- nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg. In Neubrand, M., Jordan, A., & malen bei einer kooperativen O. Köller & U. Trautwein (Eds.), Löwen, K. (2004). COACTIV: Pro- Problemlöseaufgabe. In E. J. Schulqualität und Schülerleis- fessionswissen von Lehrkräften, Brunner, P. Noack, G. Scholz, & tung: Evaluationsstudie über kognitiv aktivierender Mathe- I. Scholl (Eds.), Diagnose und In- innovative Schulentwicklung matikunterricht und die Ent- tervention in schulischen Hand- an fünf hessischen Gesamt- wicklung von mathematischer lungsfeldern (pp. 89–109). schulen (pp. 17–24). Weinheim: Kompetenz. In J. Dool & M. Münster: Waxmann. Juventa. Prenzel (Eds.), Bildungsqualität • (2003b). Schulleistungsstu- von Schule: Lehrerprofessionali- Lenhardt, G. (2003a). Be- dien in der Bundesrepublik • (Eds.). (2004b). Vorwort der sierung, Unterrichtsentwicklung gabung—Qualifikation—Schul- Deutschland. In O. Köller & Herausgeber. In O. Köller, R. und Schülerforderung als Strate- praxis: Die verspätete Ent- U. Trautwein (Eds.), Schulquali- Watermann, U. Trautwein, & gien der Qualitätsverbesserung wicklung der deutschen Schule. tät und Schülerleistung: Evalua- O. Lüdtke (Eds.), Wege zur (pp. 31–53). Münster: Wax- In G. Anzengruber & E. Reiterer tionsstudie über innovative Hochschulreife in Baden- mann. (Eds.), Begabungslehre: Analyse, Schulentwicklung an fünf hes- Württemberg: TOSCA—Eine Kritik, Schulrealität (pp. 36–61). sischen Gesamtschulen (pp. 25– Untersuchung an allgemein Krettenauer, T., Ullrich, M., Wien: Verein der Förderer der 33). Weinheim: Juventa. bildenden und beruflichen Gym- Hofmann, V., & Edelstein, W. Schulhefte (Schulheft 109). • (Eds.). (2003c). Schulqualität nasien (pp. 9–12). Opladen: (2003). Behavioral problems in • (2003b). Historisch-politische und Schülerleistung: Evalua- Leske + Budrich. childhood and adolescence as Bildung in Schulen und tionsstudie über innovative • (Eds.). (2004c). Wege zur predictors of ego-level attain- Gedenkstätten. Politisches Schulentwicklung an fünf Hochschulreife in Baden-Würt- ment in early adulthood. Lernen, 21, 101–111. hessischen Gesamtschulen. temberg—Erweiterung von Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 49, • (2003c). PISA und die ver- Weinheim: Juventa. Bildungswegen und Studier- 125–153. zögerte Entwicklung der deut- eignung: Die grundlegenden schen Schule. In A. Grimm (Ed.), Köller, O., Trautwein, U., Fragestellungen in TOSCA. In Kreuter, F., Maaz, K., & Nach dem PISA-Schock: Wie Lüdtke, O., & Baumert, J. (in O. Köller, R. Watermann, U. Watermann, R. (in press). Mes- gelingt eine Neuorientierung in

Center for Educational Research 147 der Bildungspolitik? Dokumen- Lüdtke, O., & Trautwein, U. Maaz, K., & Watermann, R. der Sicht ost- und west- tation einer Tagung der Evange- (2004). Die gymnasiale Ober- (2004). Die Erfassung sozialer deutscher Jugendlicher: Ergeb- lischen Akademie Loccum vom stufe und psychische Ressour- Hintergrundmerkmale bei Schü- nisse aus dem Civic-Education- 25. bis 27. Oktober 2002 cen: Gewissenhaftigkeit, intel- lern und Hinweise zu ihrer Va- Projekt der IEA. Aus Politik und (pp. 115–127). Loccum: Evange- lektuelle Offenheit und die Ent- lidität. In W. Bos, E.-M. Lankes, Zeitgeschichte, 53, 26–31. lische Akademie (Loccumer Pro- wicklung von Berufsinteressen. N. Plaßmeier, & K. Schwippert • (2003b). The impact of politi- tokolle 63/2002). In O. Köller, R. Watermann, U. (Eds.), Heterogenität: Eine Her- cal knowledge and democratic Trautwein, & O. Lüdtke (Eds.), ausforderung an die empirische competencies on desirable aims Lenzen, D., Baumert, J., Wege zur Hochschulreife in Bildungsforschung (pp. 209– of civic education: Results from Watermann, R., & Trautwein, Baden-Württemberg: TOSCA— 229). Münster: Waxmann. the German contribution to the U. (Eds.). (2004a). PISA und Eine Untersuchung an allge- • (2003). Erst Sport-Leistungs- IEA Civic Education Project. die Konsequenzen für die mein bildenden und beruflichen kurs, dann Kunstgeschichte- Sowi-Onlinejournal. erziehungswissenschaftliche Gymnasien (pp. 367–401). Studium? Über den Zusammen- • (2003c). Offenes Diskussions- Forschung. Wiesbaden: VS Ver- Opladen: Leske + Budrich. hang von Leistungskurs- und klima im Unterricht und politi- lag für Sozialwissenschaften Studienfachwahlen. TOSCA- sche Bildung von Jugendlichen. (Zeitschrift für Erziehungswis- Lüdtke, O., Trautwein, U., News, 2, 11–13. Zeitschrift für Pädagogik, 49, senschaft, Beiheft 3/2004). Nagy, G., & Köller, O. (2004). 817–836. • (2004b). Vorwort der Heraus- Eine Validierungsstudie zum Marsh, H. W., & Köller, O. • (2003d). Politische Bildung geber. In D. Lenzen, J. Baumert, NEO-FFI in einer Stichprobe (2004). Unification of theoreti- von 14-Jährigen im internatio- R. Watermann, & U. Trautwein junger Erwachsener: Effekte des cal models of academic self- nalen Vergleich: Übersicht zu (Eds.), PISA und die Konsequen- Itemformats, faktorielle Vali- concept/achievement relations: Ergebnissen des Civic-Educa- zen für die erziehungswissen- dität und Zusammenhänge mit Reunification of East and West tion-Projekts der IEA. Politische schaftliche Forschung (pp. 5–7). Schulleistungsindikatoren. Dia- German school systems after Bildung, 36, 116–128. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für gnostica, 50, 134–144. the fall of the Berlin Wall. Con- • (2003e). Politische Bildung Sozialwissenschaften (Zeit- temporary Educational Psychol- von 14-Jährigen in Deutsch- schrift für Erziehungswis- Maaz, K., Chang, P.-H., & ogy, 29, 264–282. land: Übersicht zu Ergebnissen senschaft, Beiheft 3/2004). Köller, O. (2004). Führt institu- des Civic-Education-Projekts tionelle Vielfalt zur Öffnung im Mähler, C., & Stern, E. (in der IEA. Unsere Jugend, 55, Lüdtke, O. (in press). Persön- Bildungssystem? Sozialer Hin- press). Transfer. In D. Rost, 396–401. liche Ziele junger Erwachsener. tergrund und kognitive Grund- Handwörterbuch Pädagogische • (2003f). Sind deutsche Ju- Münster: Waxmann. fähigkeit der Schülerschaft an Psychologie. Weinheim: Beltz gendliche besonders ausländer- • (2003). Review of the book allgemein bildenden und beruf- feindlich? Ergebnisse aus dem ”Lineare Modelle: Regressions- lichen Gymnasien. In O. Köller, Marsh, H. W., Trautwein, U., internationalen Civic-Educa- und Varianzanalysen“. R. Watermann, U. Trautwein, & Lüdtke, O., Köller, O., & tion-Projekt der IEA. Gesell- Zeitschrift für Pädagogische O. Lüdtke (Eds.), Wege zur Baumert, J. (2005). Academic schaft—Wirtschaft—Politik, 52, Psychologie, 17, 147–149. Hochschulreife in Baden-Würt- self-concept, interest, grades 13–25. temberg: TOSCA—Eine Unter- and standardized test scores: • (2003g). Zum Stand der poli- Lüdtke, O., Köller, O., Bundt, suchung an allgemein bildenden Reciprocal effects models of tischen Bildung in Deutschland S., Gomolka, J., & Watermann, und beruflichen Gymnasien causal ordering. Child im internationalen Vergleich. R. (2004). Durchführung und (pp. 153–203). Opladen: Leske Development, 76, 397–416. Forum Politikunterricht, 16, methodische Grundlagen der + Budrich. 25–32. TOSCA-Studie. In O. Köller, R. Nagy, G., Köller, O., & Heck- • (2003h). Zur Geschichte des Watermann, U. Trautwein, & Maaz, K., Kreuter, F., & Water- hausen, J. (in press). Der Über- Konzepts der autoritären Per- O. Lüdtke (Eds.), Wege zur mann, R. (in press). Schüler als gang von der Schule in die sönlichkeit. In H.-P. Brauns Hochschulreife in Baden-Würt- Informanten? Die Qualität von berufliche Erstausbildung: Wer (Ed.), Zentenarbetrachtungen: temberg: TOSCA—Eine Unter- Schülerangaben zum sozialen die Sorgen scheut, wird von Historische Entwicklungen in suchung an allgemein bildenden Hintergrund. In J. Baumert, ihnen ereilt. Zeitschrift für Ent- der neueren Psychologie bis und beruflichen Gymnasien P. Stanat, & R. Watermann wicklungspsychologie und zum Ende des 20. Jahrhunderts (pp. 121–151). Opladen: Leske + (Eds.), Herkunftsbedingte Dis- Pädagogische Psychologie. (pp. 130–135). Frankfurt a.M.: Budrich. paritäten im Bildungswesen: Lang (Beiträge zur Geschichte Differentielle Bildungsprozesse Nagy, G., Trautwein, U., Köller, der Psychologie 19). Lüdtke, O., Köller, O., Marsh, und Probleme der Verteilungs- O., Baumert, J., & Garrett, J. (in H. W., & Trautwein, U. (in gerechtigkeit. Wiesbaden: press). Gender and course selec- Otto, R., Ahlring, I., Brömer, B., press). Teacher frame of refer- VS Verlag für Sozialwissen- tion in upper secondary educa- Köller, O., & Trautwein, U. ence and the big-fish-little- schaften. tion: Effects of academic self- (2003). Offene Schule Waldau. pond effect. Contemporary concept and interest. Educa- In O. Köller & U. Trautwein Educational Psychology. Maaz, K., Nagy, G., Trautwein, tional Research and Evaluation. (Eds.), Schulqualität und U., Watermann, R., & Köller, Schülerleistung: Evaluations- Lüdtke, O., Tomasik, M. J., & O. (2004). Institutionelle Öff- Neumann, M., & Trautwein, U. studie über innovative Schul- Lang, F. R. (2003). Teilnahme- nung trotz bestehender Drei- (2003). Berufliche Gymnasien entwicklung an fünf hessischen wahrscheinlichkeit und Stich- gliedrigkeit: Auswirkungen auf in Baden-Württemberg—ein Geschamtschulen (pp. 120– probenselektivität in altersver- Bildungsbeteiligung, schulische Sonderweg als Erfolgsmodell? 159). Weinheim: Juventa. gleichenden Erhebungen. Kompetenzen und Berufsaspira- TOSCA-News, 2, 3–6. Zeitschrift für Entwicklungs- tionen. Zeitschrift für Soziologie Prenzel, M., Baumert, J., Blum, psychologie und pädagogische der Erziehung und Sozialisation, Oesterreich, D. (2003a). W., Lehmann, R., Leutner, D., Psychologie, 35, 171–180. 24, 146–165. Gleichstellung von Frauen aus Neubrand, M., Pekrun, R., Rolff,

148 Center for Educational Research H.-G., Rost, J., & Schiefele, U. Schiefele, U., Artelt, C., junger Erwachsener. Diagnos- Stanat, P., Artelt, C., (Eds.). (2004). PISA 2003. Der Schneider, W., & Stanat, P. tica. Baumert, J., Klieme, E., Bildungsstand der Jugendlichen (Eds.). (2004). Struktur, Ent- Neubrand, M., Prenzel, M., et al. in Deutschland—Ergebnisse des wicklung und Förderung von Skischus, G., Rauschenberger, (2003). PISA und PISA-E: zweiten internationalen Ver- Lesekompetenz: Vertiefende H., Waltenberg, B., Trautwein, Zusammenfassung der bereits gleichs. Münster: Waxmann. Analysen im Rahmen von PISA U., & Köller, O. (2003). Reform- vorliegenden Befunde. In J. 2000. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für schule Kassel. In O. Köller & U. Baumert, C. Artelt, E. Klieme, Riegel, E., Schwalbenbach, K., Sozialwissenschaften. Trautwein (Eds.), Schulqualität M. Neubrand, M. Prenzel, Köller, O., & Trautwein, U. und Schülerleistung: Evalua- U. Schiefele, et al. (Eds.), (2003). Helene-Lange-Schule, Schümer, G. (2004a). Versuche tionsstudie über innovative PISA 2000: Ein differenzierter Wiesbaden. In O. Köller & U. zur Aufklärung von Leistungs- Schulentwicklung an fünf hes- Blick auf die Länder der Trautwein (Eds.), Schulqualität unterschieden zwischen sischen Geschamtschulen Bundesrepublik Deutschland und Schülerleistung: Evalua- Schülern aus verschiedenen (pp. 160–193). Weinheim: (pp. 51–75). Opladen: Leske + tionsstudie über innovative Ländern. In S. Gruehn, G. Juventa. Budrich. Schulentwicklung an fünf Kluchert, & T. Koinzer (Eds.), hessischen Geschamtschulen Was Schule macht: Schule, Stanat, P. (in press-a). Jungen Stanat, P., & Kunter, M. (pp. 50–87). Weinheim: Unterricht und Werteerziehung. und Mädchen in der Labor- (2003). Kompetenzerwerb, Bil- Juventa. Theoretisch, historisch, empi- schule: Empirische Befunde zu dungsbeteiligung und Schul- risch. Achim Leschinsky zum Geschlechterunterschieden. In laufbahn von Mädchen und Roeder, P. M. (2004). Schulent- 60. Geburtstag (pp. 113–131). R. Watermann, S. Thurn, K.-J. Jungen im Ländervergleich. In wicklung und Schulforschung. Weinheim: Beltz. Tillmann, & P. Stanat (Eds.), Die J. Baumert, C. Artelt, E. Klieme, In S. Gruehn, G. Kluchert, & • (2004b). Zur doppelten Be- Laborschule im Spiegel ihrer M. Neubrand, M. Prenzel, T. Koinzer (Eds.), Was Schule nachteiligung von Schülern PISA-Ergebnisse: Pädagogisch- U. Schiefele, et al. (Eds.), PISA macht: Schule, Unterricht und aus unterprivilegierten Gesell- didaktische Konzepte und em- 2000: Ein differenzierter Werteerziehung. Theoretisch, schaftsschichten im deutschen pirische Evaluation. Weinheim: Blick auf die Länder der Bundes- historisch, empirisch. Achim Schulwesen. In G. Schümer, Juventa. republik Deutschland (pp. 211– Leschinsky zum 60. Geburtstag K.-J. Tillmann, & M. Weiß (Eds.), • (in press-b). Sprachliches Ler- 242). Opladen: Leske + Budrich. (pp. 97–111). Weinheim: Beltz. Die Institution Schule und die nen an der Laborschule: Em- Lebenswelt der Schüler: Ver- pirische Befunde zur Lesekom- Stanat, P., & Lüdtke, O. (in Saalbach, H., & Stern, E. tiefende Analysen der PISA- petenz. In R. Watermann, S. press). Internationale Schulleis- (2004). Differences between 2000-Daten zum Kontext von Thurn, K.-J. Tillmann, & P. tungsvergleiche. In G. Tromms- Chinese morphosyllabic and Schülerleistungen (pp. 73–114). Stanat (Eds.), Die Laborschule dorff & H.-J. Kornadt (Eds.), German alphabetic readers in Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für im Spiegel ihrer PISA-Ergeb- Enzyklopädie der Psychologie: the Stroop interference effect. Sozialwissenschaften. nisse: Pädagogisch-didaktische Kulturvergleichende Psycholo- Psychonomic Bulletin and Re- • (2003a). Schülerleistungen in Konzepte und empirische Eva- gie: Vol. 2. Kulturelle Determi- view, 11 (4), 709–715. Deutschland und in anderen luation. Weinheim: Juventa. nanten des Erlebens und Verhal- OECD-Staaten. Forum Poltik- • (2003). Schulleistungen von tens. Göttingen: Hogrefe. Schaffner, E., Schiefele, U., unterricht, 16, 4–10. Jugendlichen mit Migrations- Drechsel, B., & Artelt, C. • (2003b). Soziale Herkunft, hintergrund: Differenzierung Stanat, P., Müller, A. G., (2004). Lesekompetenz. In M. Bildungsbeteiligung und deskriptiver Befunde aus PISA Baumert, J., & Willker, W. Prenzel, J. Baumert, W. Blum, Schulleistungen von Jugend- und PISA-E. In J. Baumert, C. (2005). Die Kofferbande auf R. Lehmann, D. Leutner, M. lichen aus Migrantenfamilien: Artelt, E. Klieme, M. Neubrand, Reisen in das Land der Sprache Neubrand, et al. (Eds.), PISA Ergebnisse der OECD-Studie M. Prenzel, U. Schiefele, et al. und des Theaters: Das Jacobs- 2003: Der Bildungsstand der PISA 2000. In Landeshauptstadt (Eds.), PISA 2000: Ein differen- Sommercamp Projekt. Päda- Jugendlichen in Deutschland— München/Sozialreferat, Stadt- zierter Blick auf die Länder der gogik, 57, 57–58. Ergebnisse des zweiten inter- jugendamt (Ed.), Interkulturelle Bundesrepublik Deutschland nationalen Vergleichs Verständigung: Fachtagung (pp. 243–260). Opladen: Leske Stanat, P., & Schneider, W. (pp. 93–110). Münster: Bildung und Chancengleichheit + Budrich. (2004). Schwache Leser unter Waxmann. 2002. Dokumentation 15-jährigen Schülerinnen und (pp. 7–19). München. Schülern in Deutschland: Be- schreibung einer Risikogruppe. Schümer, G., Tillmann, K.-J., In U. Schiefele, C. Artelt, W. &Weiß, M. (Eds.). (2004). Die Schneider, & P. Stanat (Eds.), Institution Schule und die Struktur, Entwicklung und För- Lebenswelt der Schüler: Ver- derung von Lesekompetenz: Ver- tiefende Analysen der PISA- tiefende Analysen im Rahmen 2000-Daten zum Kontext von von PISA 2000 (pp. 243–273). Schülerleistungen. Wiesbaden: Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für VS Verlag für Sozialwissen- Sozialwissenschaften. schaften. Stanat, P., & Watermann, R. Schwanzer, A. D., Köller, O., (in press). Schulevaluation im Trautwein, U., Lüdtke, O., & Anschluss an Large-Scale As- Sydow, H. (in press). Entwick- sessments: Das Beispiel der lung eines Instruments zur Laborschule Bielefeld. In H. G. Erfassung des Selbstkonzepts Holtappels & K. Höhmann

Center for Educational Research 149 (Eds.), Schulentwicklung und und Grenzen einer neuropsy- Stern, E., & Hardy, I. (2004). heit: Eine deutsche Adaptation Schulwirksamkeit: System- chologischen Lehr-Lern- Differentielle Psychologie des der Skala von Pavot, Diener und steuerung, Bildungschancen Forschung. Zeitschrift für Päda- Lernens in Schule und Ausbil- Suh (1998). Diagnostica, 50, und Entwicklung der Schule. gogik, 50, 531–538. dung. In K. Pawlik (Ed.), Enzy- 182–192. Weinheim: Juventa. • (2003a). Beeindruckt, aber klopädie der Psychologie: Vol. 5. • (2003). Schule und Selbst- nichts verstanden? Welt des Theorien und Anwendungsfelder wert: Entwicklungsverlauf, Be- Stanat, P., Watermann, R., Kindes, 5, 22–24. der Differentiellen Psychologie deutung von Kontextfaktoren Trautwein, U., Brunner, M., & • (2003b). Früh übt sich: (pp. 573–618). Göttingen: und Effekte auf die Verhaltens- Krauss, S. (2003). Multiple Neuere Ergebnisse aus der Hogrefe. ebene. Münster: Waxmann. Zielerreichung in Schulen: Das LOGIK-Studie zum Lösen ma- Beispiel der Laborschule Biele- thematischer Textaufgaben. In Stern, E., Hasemann, K., & Trautwein, U., & Brunner, M. feld. Eine Evaluation mit Instru- A. Fritz-Stratmann, G. Ricken, Grünke, M. (2004). Aufbau ela- (in press-a). Didaktische Prinzi- menten aus Schulleistungs- & S. Schmidt (Eds.), Rechen- borierter Rechenfertigkeiten. pien und Lehrerhandeln an der untersuchungen. Die Deutsche schwäche: Lernwege, Schwie- In G. Lauth, J. Brunstein & M. Laborschule: Empirische Be- Schule, 95, 394–412. rigkeiten und Hilfen bei Grünke (Eds.), Interventionen funde zu Unterricht, Bezie- Dyskalkulie. Ein Handbuch bei Lernstörungen (pp. 249– hungsqualität und Elternsicht. Stern, E. (in press-a). Kognitive (pp. 116–130). Weinheim: Beltz. 257). Göttingen: Hogrefe. In R. Watermann, S. Thurn, K.-J. Entwicklungspsychologie des • (2003c). Kompetenzerwerb in Tillmann, & P. Stanat (Eds.), Die mathematischen Denkens. In anspruchsvollen Inhaltsgebie- Stern, E., & Möller, K. (2004). Laborschule im Spiegel ihrer M. van Aster (Ed.), Dyskalkulie. ten bei Grundschulkindern. In Der Erwerb anschlussfähigen PISA-Ergebnisse: Pädagogisch- Bern: Huber. D. Czech & H. J. Schwier (Eds.), Wissens als Ziel des Grund- didaktische Konzepte und em- • (in press-b). Knowledge re- Lernwege und Aneignungs- schulunterrichtes. In D. Lenzen, pirische Evaluation. Weinheim: structuring as a powerful formen im Sachunterricht J. Baumert, R. Watermann, & Juventa. mechanism of cognitive devel- (pp. 37–58). Bad Heilbrunn: U. Trautwein (Eds.), PISA und • (in press-b). Unterricht, Be- opment: How to lay an early Klinkhardt. die Konsequenzen für die ziehungsqualität und Zufrie- foundation for conceptual un- • (2003d). Lernen—der wich- erziehungswissenschaftliche denheit der Eltern: Die empi- derstanding in formal domains. tigste Hebel der geistigen Ent- Forschung (pp. 25–36). rischen Befunde. In R. In P. D. Tomlinson, J. Dockrell, & wicklung (1. Teil). Universitas, Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Watermann, S. Thurn, K.-J. P. Winne (Eds.), Pedagogy— 58, 454–464. Sozialwissenschaften Tillmann, & P. Stanat (Eds.), Die Teaching for learning. Leicester: • (2003e). Lernen—der wich- (Zeitschrift für Erziehungs- Laborschule im Spiegel ihrer British Psychological Society tigste Hebel der geistigen Ent- wissenschaft, Beiheft 3/2004). PISA-Ergebnisse: Pädagogisch- (British Journal of Educational wicklung (2. Teil). Universitas, didaktische Konzepte und em- Psychology Monograph 58, 567–582. Stern, E., & Schumacher, R. pirische Evaluation. Weinheim: Series II, No. 3). • (2003f). Lernen ist der (2004a). Lernziel: Intelligentes Juventa. • (in press-c). Wodurch unter- wichtigste Mechanismus der Wissen. Universitas, 59, scheiden sich Kinder von kognitiven Entwicklung: Der 121–134. Trautwein, U., & Köller, O. Erwachsenen? Neuere Ansätze Erwerb mathematischer Kom- • (2004b). Intelligentes Wissen (2003a). Einleitung und zur Erklärung der geistigen Ent- petenzen. In W. Schneider & als Lernziel. In T. Hansel (Ed.), Überblick. In O. Köller & U. wicklung im Kindesalter. M. Knopf (Eds.), Entwicklung, Frühe Bildungsprozesse und Trautwein (Eds.), Schulqualität Schüler. Lehren und Lernen: Zum Ge- schulische Anschlußfähigkeit und Schülerleistung: Evalua- • (2005). Vom Gehirn zur Kul- denken an Franz Emanuel des frühpädagogischen Bereichs tionsstudie über innovative tur: Mit Mathematik die Welt Weinert (pp. 207–217). in der Debatte nach PISA Schulentwicklung an fünf verstehen. In M. Hasselhorn, H. Göttingen: Hogrefe. (pp. 104–111). Herbolzheim: hessischen Gesamtschulen Marx, & W. Schneider, Diagnos- • (2003g). Wissen ist der Centaurus. (pp. 11–14). Weinheim: Juventa. tik von Mathematikleistungen Schlüssel zum Können. Psy- • (2003b). The relationship be- (pp. 294–300). Göttingen: chologie heute, 30, 30–35. Trautwein, U. (in press). tween homework and achieve- Hogrefe. Selbstständiges Lernen an ment—still much of a mystery. • (2004a). Entwicklung im Stern, E., Aprea, C., & Ebner, der Laborschule: Empirische Educational Psychology Review, Kopf: Subjektive Bedeutung H. G. (2003). Improving cross- Befunde zu Selbstregulation 15, 115–145. und aktive Kinder. Schüler, content transfer in text pro- und Selbstkonzept. In R. • (2003c). Schulentwicklung 2004, 10–13. cessing by means of active Watermann, S. Thurn, K.-J. und Evaluationsmaßnahmen. In • (2004b). Grenzen der Lern- graphical representation. Tillmann, & P. Stanat (Eds.), O. Köller & U. Trautwein (Eds.), forschung. Spiegel: Special, Learning and Instruction, 13, Die Laborschule im Spiegel ihrer Schulqualität und Schülerleis- 2004, 36–37. 191–203. PISA-Ergebnisse: Pädagogisch- tung: Evaluationsstudie über • (2004c). Schubladendenken, didaktische Konzepte und em- innovative Schulentwicklung an Intelligenz und Lerntypen: Zum Stern, E., & Felbrich, A. (in pirische Evaluation. Weinheim: fünf hessischen Gesamtschulen Umgang mit unterschiedlichen press). Pädagogische Psycho- Juventa. (pp. 215–230). Weinheim: Lernvoraussetzungen. In G. logie. In K. Pawlik (Ed.), • (2004a). Das Hausaufgaben- Juventa. Becker, K.-D. Lenzen, L. Stäudel, Handbuch der Psychologie. verhalten und die Hausauf- • (2003d). Die Untersuchungs- K.-J. Tillmann, R. Werning, & F. Göttingen: Hogrefe. gabenmotivation von instrumente. In O. Köller & U. Winter (Eds.), Heterogenität: Schülern—und was ihre Eltern Trautwein (Eds.), Schulqualität Unterschiede nutzen—Gemein- Stern, E., Felbrich, A., & darüber wissen. Psychologie in und Schülerleistung: Evalua- samkeiten stärken (pp. 36–39). Schneider, M. (in press). Math- Erziehung und Unterricht, 51, tionsstudie über innovative Seelze: Friedrich Verlag. ematik lernen. In D. Rost, 285–295. Schulentwicklung an fünf hes- • (2004d). Wie viel Hirn Handwörterbuch Pädagogische • (2004b). Die temporalen sischen Gesamtschulen (pp. 37– braucht die Schule? Chancen Psychologie. Weinheim: Beltz. Facetten der Lebenszufrieden- 47). Weinheim: Juventa.

150 Center for Educational Research • (2003e). Was lange währt, suchung an allgemein bildenden und politische Sozialisation. Konzepte und empirische Eva- wird nicht immer gut: Zur und beruflichen Gymnasien Zeitschrift für Soziologie der luation. Weinheim: Juventa. Rolle selbstregulativer Strate- (pp. 327–366). Opladen: Leske Erziehung und Sozialisation, 23, • (2004). Schulrückmeldungen gien bei der Hausaufgaben- + Budrich. 340–342. in PISA 2000: Sozialnorm- und erledigung. Zeitschrift für Päda- kriteriumsorientierte Rück- gogische Psychologie, 17, Trautwein, U., Lüdtke, O., & Watermann, R., Cortina, K. S., meldeverfahren. Empirische 199–209. Beyer, B. (2004). Rauchen ist & Baumert, J. (in press). Poli- Pädagogik, 18, 40–61. tödlich, Computerspiele tische Sozialisation bei Jugend- Trautwein, U., Köller, O., & machen aggressiv? Allgemeine lichen in der Nachwendezeit: Watermann, R., Stanat, P., Baumert, J. (2004). Des einen und theorienspezifische episte- Befunde aus BIJU. In J. Abel, Kunter, M., Klieme, E., & Freud‘, des anderen Leid? Der mologische Überzeugungen bei R. Moeller, & C. Palentien (Eds.), Baumert, J. (2003a). Möglich- Beitrag schulischen Problem- Studierenden unterschiedlicher Jugend im Fokus empirischer keiten und Grenzen der Nut- verhaltens zur Selbstkonzept- Fachrichtungen. Zeitschrift für Forschung (pp. 87–107). zung von Schulrückmeldungen entwicklung. Zeitschrift für Pädagogische Psychologie, 18 Münster: Waxmann. im Rahmen von Schulleistungs- Pädagogische Psychologie, 18, (3/4), 187–199. untersuchungen: Das Dissemi- 15–29. Watermann, R., & Maaz, K. nationskonzept von PISA 2000. Watermann, R. (in press). Die (2004). Studierneigung bei Ab- In J. Baumert, C. Artelt, E. Trautwein, U., Köller, O., Laborschule als “polis“, als Ver- solventen allgemein bildender Klieme, M. Neubrand, M. Lüdtke, O., & Baumert, J. (in antwortungsgemeinschaft: und beruflicher Gymnasien. In Prenzel, U. Schiefele, et al. press). Student tracking and the Empirische Befunde zur poli- O. Köller, R. Watermann, U. (Eds.), PISA 2000: Ein differen- powerful effects of opt-in tischen Sozialisation. In R. Trautwein, & O. Lüdtke (Eds.), zierter Blick auf die Länder der courses on self-concept: Re- Watermann, S. Thurn, K.-J. Wege zur Hochschulreife in Bundesrepublik Deutschland flected-glory effects do exist Tillmann, & P. Stanat (Eds.), Die Baden-Württemberg: TOSCA— (pp. 393–409). Opladen: Leske after all. In H. W. Marsh, R. G. Laborschule im Spiegel ihrer Eine Untersuchung an allge- + Budrich. Craven, & D. M. McInerney PISA-Ergebnisse: Pädagogisch- mein bildenden und beruflichen • (2003b). Schulrückmeldungen (Eds.), International advances didaktische Konzepte und Gymnasien (pp. 403–450). im Rahmen von Schulleistungs- in self research (Vol. 2). Green- empirische Evaluation. Wein- Opladen: Leske + Budrich. untersuchungen: Das Dissemi- wich, CT: Information Age heim: Juventa. nationskonzept von PISA 2000. Press. • (2003a). Diskursive Unter- Watermann, R., Maaz, K., & Zeitschrift für Pädagogik, 49, richtsgestaltung und multiple Brunner, M. (in press). Die 92–111. Trautwein, U., Köller, O., & Zielerreichung im politisch Schülerschaft an der Labor- Watermann, R. (2004). Trans- bildenden Unterricht. Zeit- schule: Empirische Befunde Watermann, R., Thurn, S., & formation des Sekundarschul- schrift für Soziologie der zum soziokulturellen Hinter- Tillmann, K.-J. (in press). Ver- systems und akademische Kar- Erziehung und Sozialisation, 23, grund und zu den Eingangs- suchsschule und Evaluations- rieren—Zusammenfassung, 356–370. voraussetzungen des PISA- forschung im Dialog. In R. Diskussion und ein Ausblick. • (2003b). Gesellschaftsbilder Jahrgangs. In R. Watermann, Watermann, S. Thurn, K.-J. In O. Köller, R. Watermann, U. im Jugendalter: Vorstellungen S. Thurn, K.-J. Tillmann, & Tillmann, & P. Stanat (Eds.), Die Trautwein, & O. Lüdtke (Eds.), Jugendlicher über die Ursachen P. Stanat (Eds.), Die Laborschule Laborschule im Spiegel ihrer Wege zur Hochschulreife in sozialer Aufwärtsmobilität. im Spiegel ihrer PISA-Ergeb- PISA-Ergebnisse: Pädagogisch- Baden-Württemberg: TOSCA— Opladen: Leske + Budrich. nisse: Pädagogisch-didaktische didaktische Konzepte und em- Eine Untersuchung an allge- Konzepte und empirische Eva- pirische Evaluation reformpäda- mein bildenden und beruflichen Watermann, R., & Brunner, M. luation. Weinheim: Juventa. gogischer Praxis. Weinheim: Gymnasien (pp. 451–471). (in press-a). Durchführung und Juventa. Opladen: Leske + Budrich. methodische Grundlagen der Watermann, R., Nagy, G., & Untersuchung an der Labor- Köller, O. (2004). Mathematik- Watermann, R., Thurn, S., Trautwein, U., & Kropf, M. schule Bielefeld. In R. Water- leistungen in allgemein bilden- Tillmann, K.-J., & Stanat, P. (2004). Das Hausaufgabenver- mann, S. Thurn, K.-J. Tillmann, den und beruflichen Gymna- (Eds.). (in press). Die Labor- halten und die Hausaufgaben- & P. Stanat (Eds.), Die Labor- sien. In O. Köller, R. Watermann, schule im Spiegel ihrer PISA- motivation von Schülern—und schule im Spiegel ihrer PISA- U. Trautwein, & O. Lüdtke (Eds.), Ergebnisse: Pädagogisch-didak- was ihre Eltern darüber wissen. Ergebnisse: Pädagogisch-didak- Wege zur Hochschulreife in tische Konzepte und empirische Psychologie in Erziehung und tische Konzepte und empirische Baden-Württemberg: TOSCA— Evaluation reformpädago- Unterricht, 51, 285–295. Evaluation. Weinheim: Juventa. Eine Untersuchung an allge- gischer Praxis. Weinheim: • (in press-b). Die PISA-Unter- mein bildenden und beruflichen Juventa. Trautwein, U., & Lüdtke, O. (in suchung an der Laborschule: Gymnasien (pp. 205–283). press). The big fish little pond Methodische Grundlagen und Opladen: Leske + Budrich. effect: Future research ques- Durchführung. In R. Water- tions and educational implica- mann, S. Thurn, K.-J. Tillmann, Watermann, R., & Stanat, P. tions. Zeitschrift für Pädago- & P. Stanat (Eds.), Die Labor- (in press). Schulentwicklung gische Psychologie. schule im Spiegel ihrer PISA- und multiple Zielerreichung in • (2004). Aspekte von Wissen- Ergebnisse: Pädagogisch-didak- der Laborschule: Zusammenfas- schaftspropädeutik und Stu- tische Konzepte und empirische sung und Diskussion der Er- dierfähigkeit. In O. Köller, R. Evaluation. Weinheim: Juventa. gebnisse. In R. Watermann, Watermann, U. Trautwein, & S. Thurn, K.-J. Tillmann, & O. Lüdtke (Eds.), Wege zur Watermann, R., & Buhl, M. P. Stanat (Eds.), Die Laborschule Hochschulreife in Baden-Würt- (2003). Zur Einführung in den im Spiegel ihrer PISA-Ergeb- temberg: TOSCA—Eine Unter- Themenschwerpunkt: Schule nisse: Pädagogisch-didaktische

Center for Educational Research 151

Center for Lifespan Psychology Contents

Introductory Overview ...... 155 Lifespan Psychology: Implications for Conceptions of Intelligence and Cognition ...... 159 The Mastery of Life: Selection, Optimization, and Compensation (SOC) . . . . 164 Research Project 1 Intra-Person Dynamics Across the Lifespan ...... 166 Research Project 2 Sensorimotor-Cognitive Couplings ...... 174 Research Project 3 Berlin Aging Study (BASE): Trends and Profiles of Psycological Aging ...... 180 Research Project 4 Selection, Optimization, and Compensation (SOC): Reguation of Goals and Preferences in Lifespan Development ...... 186 Research Project 5 Interactive Brains, Social Minds ...... 194 Research Project 6 Wisdom: The Integration of Mind and Virtue ...... 196 Research Project 7 Toward a Psychological and Developmental Theory of Lifespan-Longing (Sehnsucht) ...... 201 Integrative Project History, Theory, and Method in Lifespan Psychology . . 205 Publications 2003–2004 ...... 208

Scientific Staff (2003–2004)

Paul B. Baltes (until June 2004; as of July 2004: Director, MaxnetAging), Julia Delius, Ralf T. Krampe (as of 2004: University of Leuven), Kurt Kreppner (as of 2003: guest scientist), Ute Kunzmann (as of 2004: International University Bremen), Shu-Chen Li, Ulman Lindenberger, Martin Lövdén (International Re- search Fellow), Viktor Müller, Michaela Riediger, Florian Schmiedek, Tania Singer (as of 2003: Wellcome Dept. of Imaging Neuroscience, London), Jacqui Smith

Postdoctoral Research Fellows Albina Bondar, Natalie C. Ebner, Denis Gerstorf, Susanne Scheibe

Predoctoral Research Fellows Yvonne Brehmer (LIFE), Susanne Ehrhorn (as of 2003: Hospital Liebenburg), Daniel Grühn (AGE), Oliver Huxhold (LIFE), Anna Kleinspehn, Dana Kotter (LIFE), Christina Röcke (LIFE), Sabine Schäfer (LIFE), Michael Schellenbach, Yee Lee Shing (LIFE), Antje Stange (AGE, as of 2004: Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta), Markus Werkle-Bergner (LIFE)

Visiting Scientists (6 months or longer) Lars Bäckman, Agneta Herlitz (Karolinska Institute, Stockholm)

154 Center for Lifespan Psychology But … its eminent modifiability, and its predisposition to self-initiated action, may it develop little or much, and may it differ in amount between different individuals, is among the immutable features of humankind, which can be found wherever humans exist. Johann Nicolaus Tetens, I, p. 766

Introductory Overview

J. N. Tetens (1736–1807), The Center for Lifespan Psychology was created in 1981 when Paul B. Baltes philosopher of the was appointed Director. Ulman Lindenberger joined the Center as incoming Enlightenment Era Director in Fall 2003 and took over full responsibility as the Center’s new Director in Summer 2004. Research and theory of the Center for Lifespan Psychology is conducted primarily from the perspectives of the field of developmental psychology. A special focus of the Center is on the study of plasticity (modifiability) of human behavior across the entire lifespan, including its societal and neuronal correlates, antecedents, and consequences (see Figure 1). The Center has been a major player in advancing the fields of Key References lifespan psychology and the study of aging. It continues to pay special at- Baltes, P. B., Linden- tention to the age period of late adulthood and old age, which offers unique berger, U., & Staudinger, U. (in press). Lifespan the- opportunities for innovation, both in theory and practice. ory in developmental psychology. In W. Damon (Editor-in-Chief) & R. M. Conceptual Orientation tal, social, motivational, and inter- Lerner (Vol. Ed.), Handbook The psychology of the ages of life, personal characteristics and pro- of child psychology: Vol. 1. from childhood to old age and their cesses that constitute, accompany, Theoretical models of human development interconnections, is the substantive and modify lifetime development. (6th ed.). New York: Wiley. scope of developmental psychology. Major sources of lifespan develop- Baltes, P. B., Reuter- Developmental psychologists aspire ment include (a) the long-term (dis- Lorenz, P., & Rösler, F. to understand the behavioral, mental) consequences of biocultural evo- (Eds.). (in press). Lifespan development and the brain: The perspective of biocultural co-constructi- Lifespan psychology in interdisciplinary context: vism. New York: Cam- Linking levels of plasticity bridge University Press. Lindenberger, U., Li, S.- C., & Bäckman, L. (Eds.). Behavioral (in press). Methodological plasticity and conceptual advances in the study of brain-behavior dynamics: A multivariate lifespan perspec- Development tive. Neuroscience and Neural and Societal Biobehavioral Reviews genetic plasticity plasticity (Special Issue). Li, S.-C. (2003a). Biocul- tural orchestration of de- Linkage requires: Cross-level research methods velopmental plasticity Co-constructive theories and models across levels: The interplay Joint use of principles of distal and proximal causation of biology and culture in shaping the mind and be- Figure 1. Lifespan development as bio-cultural co-construction. A central goal of lifespan psychology is to havior across the lifespan. describe, explain, and optimize human potential and to identify its societal and neural causes and conse- Psychological Bulletin, quences. See also Baltes (2004), Li (2003), and Lindenberger, Li, and Bäckman (in press). 129, 171–194.

Center for Lifespan Psychology 155 lution as expressed, for instance, in society. In 2004, the Max Planck In- genome-driven brain plasticity and stitute for Human Development was (b) the ongoing opportunity and in- coopted to the Berlin NeuroImaging equality structures of society at Center, a multisite center funded by large, and especially the more proxi- the Federal Ministry of Education mal microenvironments, such as and Research also involving the families, friendships, schools, univer- Charité (University Medicine Berlin) sities, firms, senior homes, and and the Physikalisch-Technische residential locations within which Bundesanstalt. In a newly estab- individuals live. In addition, the role lished project of the Berlin Neuro- of individual factors and processes, Imaging Center, researchers from the such as individual differences in Center for Lifespan Psychology, the learning histories, mental capacities, Charité, and the Karolinska Institute motivation, self-regulation, and at Stockholm are cooperating to strategies of life management take identify neurochemical correlates of center stage when psychologists at- adult age differences in behavior and tempt to understand the course of cognitive plasticity. life, including its many variations During the recent decade, lifespan and faces. and life-course research have be- As illustrated by the foregoing ob- come a major focus of the Institute’s servations on the general sources of research profile. This emerging focus human development, developmental has led to an increased cooperation psychologists concern themselves between all centers. The shared primarily with the more proximal overall framework is the coordina- sources of individual behavior during tion of several lines of inquiry—psy- the lifespan. However, to achieve a chological, sociological, educational, fuller understanding of individual and, in cooperation with other insti- development, it is necessary for de- tutions, neuronal—to understand the velopmental psychologists to engage evolution and ontogeny of human themselves in collaborative efforts behavior. with the biological and the social A sample of questions that develop- sciences. This is the special opportu- mental psychologists typically study nity of the transdisciplinary view of is the following: human development that guides • How do nature and nurture inter- work in the four centers of the Max act in determining development, Planck Institute for Human Develop- such as the emergence of the ment. In this vein, there has been mind? considerable interaction of scientists • How do relations between body in the Center for Lifespan Psychology and mind change with age? with researchers in the other centers • How and why do functions, such or from other institutions. A good as intelligence and memory, vary example is the Berlin Aging Study in within and across individuals, and which medical researchers and be- how and why do they change with havioral and social scientists collab- age? orate in the pursuit of knowledge • What are the special bodies of about human aging in a changing knowledge and dispositions, such

156 Center for Lifespan Psychology as life skills and wisdom, that implying cumulative-continuous as make for successful aging? well as innovative-discontinuous de- • How and to what end do individu- velopmental processes and out- als acquire and maintain a sense comes. of personal control? How do they (2) The process of human develop- plan and manage their lives? ment from childhood into old age is • How do aging individuals cope considered to be an age-related with rapid technological change, change in adaptive capacity, in and how can human engineering which there is a continuous interplay technologies facilitate the transi- between growth (gains) and decline tion to old age? (losses). • How do young children learn to (3) Understanding psychological de- coordinate their behavior with velopment requires theoretical mod- others, and how does interpersonal els that are often identified as con- action coordination affect social textual, interactive, or dialectical. and cognitive development? For example, ontogenetic develop- These and similar questions are pur- ment occurs in the context of bio- sued with the aim to identify both social systems that exert biocultural the commonalities and the between- influences. Three macrostructural person differences in human devel- components are particularly rele- opment. The human condition is re- vant: (a) social change, (b) the sys- garded as co-constructed by biology tem context provided by familial and culture and, therefore, offers and/or generational transmission, much room for nonnormative (idio- and (c) the lifespan ecologies associ- syncratic) choices and pathways. In ated with social settings, such as the this spirit, additional topics of great family, school, work, leisure, health concern are the ways by which indi- care, and retirement. viduals and their close partners can (4) The plasticity or basic potential improve their own development as of development (i.e., its range and well as that of others. constraints) is a central focus of in- What is special about the general vestigation. Of major concern are research orientation that scientists studies exploring the functional in the Center for Lifespan Psychology range within which individual devel- display and use as mental scripts? opmental processes can be influ- The theoretical and methodological enced. Objective and subjective perspectives and research agenda of knowledge about developmental the Center are summarized below in plasticity (in either a positive or a seven propositions. These proposi- negative direction) is essential for tions reflect what may be considered the formulation of strategies opti- the theoretical framework of life- mizing human development. span psychology (Baltes, 1987, 1997; (5) Human activity and goal orienta- Baltes, Lindenberger, & Staudinger, tion during lifespan development are in press; Li, 2003; Lindenberger, other conceptual emphases that 2001). guide the Center’s studies. Such an (1) Human development is viewed as emphasis makes explicit the role occurring throughout the lifespan, that individuals play as producers of

Center for Lifespan Psychology 157 development—both their own as well research in the Center. One such as that of others. model currently under investigation (6) Another conceptual orientation postulates that selection, optimiza- is the notion of interactive minds. tion, and compensation constitute This orientation, an orientation that key functional elements of the de- has much in common with the field velopmental process. It is argued of cultural psychology, reflects the that their dynamic coordination and notion that the psychological nature orchestration results in successful of the social context of human de- development, that is, the maximiza- velopment is essentially collective tion of gains and minimization of and involves internal as well as ex- losses across the lifespan. ternal mechanisms of social trans- The following summary of the reactions and collaborations. search programs of the Center is se- (7) Understanding the nature of hu- lective rather than comprehensive. man development is facilitated by a Its purpose is to highlight samples perspective that attempts to link and illustrate the lines of inquiry components of functioning into an that Center scientists pursue in mak- integrated whole, that is, the indi- ing a contribution to research and vidual. To this end, the search for theory in lifespan psychology as well general models of successful devel- as its implications for social policy opment and aging is a leitmotif of and the future of humankind.

158 Center for Lifespan Psychology Lifespan Psychology: Implications for Conceptions of Intelligence and Cognition Lifespan conceptions of intelligence provide a first general theoretical orientation of the research conducted at the Center (Lövdén & Lindenberger, 2005). One domain of psychological research that has undergone major changes in theoretical orientation during the last decades is the psychology of intelligence. Research on lifespan intelligence was one of the contributory sources for this change. To illustrate, the psychometric tradition of intelligence testing pioneered, for instance, by Stern and especially Binet close to 100 years ago is very much ingrained in people’s everyday thinking of intelligence. In the minds of the general public, being smart and having a high IQ (Intelligence Quotient) is synonymous. In contrast, over the last couple of decades, the climates of the scientific inquiry about intelligence have shifted from the IQ-based tradition—usually measured with respect to limited sets of abilities associated primarily with academic performance and work productivity—to broader inquiries about the contextual and functional aspects of intelligence and its underlying cognitive, social-interactional, and neuronal sources. A new and productive integration of the psychometric, cognitive-psychological, cognitive-neuroscience, and ecological traditions is in the making.

Implicit in the psychometric ap- intelligence that is both contextually Key References proach is a focus of measuring intel- and lifespan sensitive. Originally, our Krampe, R. T., & Baltes, P. lectual abilities, as opposed to un- approach was guided by cognitive B. (2003). Intelligence as adaptive resource develop- derstanding the causes, contexts, training research demonstrating ment and resource alloca- and functions of intelligence. Specif- more plasticity of the aging mind tion: A new look through the lenses of SOC and ex- ically, this approach views intelli- than is commonly assumed, and sub- pertise. In R. J. Sternberg & gence as reflecting a collection of sequently by age-comparative re- E. L. Grigorenko (Eds.), Per- spectives on the psychology static abilities that characterize a search on limits of functioning con- of abilities, competencies, person, as opposed to a dynamic sys- firming the existence of a lifespan and expertise. New York: Cambridge University tem of contextualized and adaptive function of cognitive plasticity Press. cognitive functions that individuals (Baltes, Lindenberger, & Staudinger, Lindenberger, U. (2001). continue to acquire throughout their in press). Meanwhile, we have Lifespan theories of cogni- life course. One aspect of the Cen- broadened this approach by adding tive development. In N. J. Smelser & P. B. Baltes ter’s research program focuses on new theoretical orientations, if not (Eds.), International ency- the theoretical and empirical investi- new conceptions, that stem from ef- clopedia of the social and behavioral sciences gations of lifespan intellectual de- forts to further integrate cognitive (pp. 8848–8854). Oxford, velopment. This program has con- experimental and contextual think- UK: Elsevier. tributed to the conceptual shift in ing with the psychometric traditions intelligence research by reconceptu- of intelligence testing. alizing intelligence as a system of A key characteristic defining intelli- contextualized and ontogenetically gence and intelligent behavior is its driven adaptive cognitive functions. adaptive value in novel situations. We pursued several lines of inquiry Lifespan contexts include continuity in our search for a dynamic view of and change in contexts of adapta-

Center for Lifespan Psychology 159 Key Reference tion. In old age, for instance, an in- mechanics are basic information- Baltes, P. B., Staudinger, creasingly larger share of cognitive processing primitives for the memo- U. M., & Lindenberger, U. resources is invested into maintain- rizing and learning that people are (1999). Lifespan psychology: Theory and applica- ing bodily functions rather than “ac- capable of. They reflect the neuro- tion to intellectual func- ademic” pursuits. Seen from this physiological architecture of the toning. Annual Review of Psychology, 50, 471–507. perspective, intelligence is intrinsi- mind as it has evolved during biolog- cally related to a lifespan perspective ical evolution. The speed, accuracy, of human development that consid- robustness, and coordination of ele- ers development as a process within mentary information-processing which individuals continue to adapt mechanisms index cognitive me- their bodies of factual and proce- chanics. The primary substrate of dural knowledge to changes and cognitive pragmatics, on the other transformations in biological, envi- hand, is culture-based knowledge ronmental, and cultural constraints that is acquired through cultural that inevitably take place through- learning and life experiences. Proto- out their life course. typical examples of cognitive prag- In this spirit, and by extending the matics are being able to speak and Cattell-Horn theory of fluid-crystal- understand the social implications of lized intelligence (Cattell, 1973), we language, to acquire the knowledge have presented a new dual-process and skills related to professional ex- model of intelligence (Baltes, pertise, or the kind of life skills that Staudinger, & Lindenberger, 1999; are necessary to navigate the mod- Krampe & Baltes, 2003; Linden- ern world. berger, 2001) that highlights two In the following, we describe two distinct, but interacting dimensions general lines of our ongoing research of intellectual functioning (see Fig- aimed at extending conventional ure 2): the biologically driven cogni- models of intelligence from the per- tive mechanics and the culture- spective of lifespan psychology. The based cognitive pragmatics of the first line of research focuses on the mind. On the one hand, the cognitive relations between cognitive mechanics and pragmatics with biological and cultural factors and their differential lifespan trajectories. A second Basic information processing line of research that has been moti- – content-poor Mechanics vated by our concept of the cogni- – biology-dependent tive mechanics is the investigation – genetically predisposed of resource management in sensorimotor functioning. A third line, Factual and procedural knowledge which comprises the study of wis- Pragmatics – content-rich – culture-dependent dom of life longings, is described in – experience-based the project reports.

Figure 2. The dual-process model of lifespan intellectual development distinguishes between the cognitive mechanics and pragmatics of intellectual functioning (adapted from Baltes, Staudinger, & Lindenberger, 1999).

160 Center for Lifespan Psychology Sources of Age Differences in For instance, within-person week- Key References Cognitive Mechanics Versus to-week fluctuations in old people’s Li, S.-C., Lindenberger, sensorimotor performance also cor- U., Hommel, B., Aschers- Pragmatics leben, G., Prinz, W., & To test the dual-process model of relate highly with the cognitive me- Baltes, P. B. (2004). Trans- lifespan intellectual development, chanics. Accordingly, old people who formations in the couplings among intellectual our research, thus far, directly exam- varied more in their walking per- abilities and constituent ined the relations between these two formance from week to week cognitive processes across the life span. Psychological aspects of intellectual functioning showed worse episodic and spatial Science, 15, 155–163. and biological and cultural factors, memory (Li, Aggen, Nesselroade, & Ghisletta, P., & Linden- and their differential lifespan trajec- Baltes, 2001). berger, U. (2003). Age- based structural dynamics tories. In our view, sensory and intel- Given that biology and culture co- between perceptual speed lectual functions are closely related contribute differentially to the me- and knowledge in the when cognitive primitives (mechan- chanics and pragmatics of intelli- Berlin Aging Study: Direct evidence for ability dedif- ics) are operative in the task at hand. gence, investigations of how these ferentiation in old age. Congruent with this expectation, our two aspects of intellectual function- Psychology and Aging, 18, 696–713. empirical findings show that among ing develop, maintain, and decline Lindenberger, U., & old adults basic sensory processing is throughout life could offer insights Baltes, P. B. (1997). Intel- much more highly correlated with into the complex and co-construc- lectual functioning in old and very old age: Cross- the cognitive mechanics than with tive interplay between the individ- sectional results from the cognitive pragmatics (see Figure 3). ual’s biological and cultural “inheri- Berlin Aging Study. Psy- chology and Aging, 12, In contrast, sociobiographical pre- tances” in development (Baltes, 410–432. dictors correlate more with cognitive Reuter-Lorenz, & Rösler, in press; Li, pragmatics than with cognitive me- 2003; Li & Lindenberger, 2002). chanics (Lindenberger & Baltes, Drawing data from a lifespan sample 1997). The association between the covering the first to the eighth more biology-based sensory-sensori- decades of life, we found differential motor processes and cognitive me- lifespan trajectories for cognitive chanics is a robust phenomenon that mechanics and pragmatics in line generalizes to measures other than with our theoretical expectations. As the average level of performance. is true for research on the fluid-crys-

35 Figure 3. Differential cor- Perceptual speed relational links of percep- 30 tual speed (a marker of the Knowledge mechanics) and verbal 25 knowledge (a marker of the pragmatics) to biologi- 20 cal and sociobiographical indicators in old age 15 (adapted from Linden- berger & Baltes, 1997). 10 Shared variance (%)

Class Vision Hearing Income Bal./Gait Prestige Education Sensory-sensorimotor correlates Sociobiographical correlates

Center for Lifespan Psychology 161 Figure 4. Lifespan age gra- 70 dients of cognitive pragmatics, cognitive mechan- 65 ics, and processing speed 60 (adapted from Li et al., 2004). 55 50 Cognitive pragmatics

T-Score 45 (culture-/knowledge-based facet of intelligence) 40 Information-processing speed 35 Cognitive mechanics (biology-/process-based 30 facet of intelligence) 25 0102030405060708090 Age

tallized distinction, cognitive me- later onset of decline which is less chanics display an earlier growth pronounced. In old age, however, the pattern up to early adulthood. The role of biology-based cognitive me- growth of cognitive mechanics pri- chanics in regulating the cognitive marily driven by brain maturation pragmatics increases (Ghisletta & can then be invested into the acqui- Lindenberger, 2003). Details in our sition and refinement of culture- evidence have provided further em- based cognitive pragmatics. How- pirical support for the neurobiology ever, because of their close ties to versus acculturation distinction be- biology and genome-based determi- tween these two domains of intelli- nants, continuous losses of cognitive gence (Li, Lindenberger, Hommel, mechanics start early in adulthood. Aschersleben, Prinz, & Baltes, 2004). In contrast, the culture-based prag- The lifespan age gradients of informatics, represented by the abilities mation-processing speed correspond of knowledge and language, have a very well with the age gradient of

Figure 5. Correlations be- 0.8 tween processing speed, cognitive mechanics, and 0.7 Cognitive mechanics cognitive pragmatics Cognitive pragmatics across six continuous age 0.6 groups (adapted from Li et 0.5 al., 2004). 0.4

0.3

0.2

Correlation with processing speed 0.1

0.0 6–11 12–17 18–35 36–55 56–69 70–89 Age group

162 Center for Lifespan Psychology cognitive mechanics, but much less Freund, & Baltes, 2001; Linden- Key Reference so with cognitive pragmatics berger, Marsiske, & Baltes, 2000). Lindenberger, U., (Figure 4). Furthermore, overall in- Using dual-task and training re- Marsiske, M., & Baltes, P. B. (2000). Memorizing formation-processing speed corre- search paradigms, the results sug- while walking: Increase in lated more highly with cognitive gest that older adults invest consid- dual task costs from young adulthood to old age. Psy- mechanics than with cognitive prag- erable cognitive resources to com- chology and Aging, 15, matics, and especially at both ends pensate for the decreased efficacy of 417–436. of the lifespan (Figure 5). their sensorimotor functions. On a larger scale, we assume that in later Lifespan Differences in the adulthood a considerable amount of Allocation of Cognitive Resources cognitive resources, such as mecha- In addition to the efficiency of basic nisms for attentional control, tends information processes, the category to be permanently captured by sen- of cognitive mechanics also encom- sorimotor functions that are pre- passes the allocation of cognitive re- dominantly automatized in younger sources. Flexible resource allocation adults. Unfortunately, these cogni- is especially important whenever the tive resources also decline with ad- individual is faced with multiple vancing age. In combination, these tasks or situational constraints. An two classes of changes result in in- example of these tasks or situational creasing demands on decreasing re- demands comprises of basic sensori- sources, and constitute the quandary motor functions, such as maintain- of behavioral aging (e.g., Linden- ing balance or walking while talking berger, Marsiske, & Baltes, 2000). In to a friend. Everyday life, for the our view, a key purpose of human most part, consists of such multi- engineering technologies is to atten- task situations. In the context of uate the adverse effects of this lifespan development, age brings quandary on development in later with it different adaptive demands adulthood, old age, and very old age. for individuals at different parts of Progress toward this goal requires their life course. Basic sensorimotor the integrated consideration of sen- functions, such as postural stability sory, motor, and cognitive changes and walking accuracy, lose efficiency (Lindenberger & Lövdén, in press). in later adulthood because of decreased muscular strength and reduced peripheral vision, as examples. As a corollary, we argue that such emerging deficits in the coordination of bodily functions require more and more cognitive resources. To illustrate: In our studies, we systematically combined sensorimotor tasks of varying difficulties (i.e., walking with or without obstacles, balancing on a stable or moving platform) with cognitively demanding tasks (memorization) (K. Z. H. Li, Lindenberger,

Center for Lifespan Psychology 163 The Mastery of Life: Selection, Optimization, and Compensation (SOC) A second general theoretical orientation of research in the Center for Lifes- pan Psychology is motivated by the question of how people develop successfully and avoid negative outcomes. To gain a better understanding of the factors contributing to successful development, that is, the simultaneous maximization of gains and minimization of losses, we attempt to specify the behavioral and cognitive strategies by which people, individually and collec- tively, master their lives. The focus of our theory is on the orchestration of selection, optimization, and compensation.

Key References According to the model of selection, analysis (e.g., societal, group, or indi- Riediger, M., Li, S.-C., & optimization, and compensation vidual level). Lindenberger, U. (in (SOC), originally articulated by Paul On a macroanalytical level, it is pos- press). Adaptive resource allocation in lifespan de- and Margret Baltes (1990; Baltes, sible to apply SOC-related perspec- velopment: Current re- 1997) and developed further by tives to questions of societal func- search foci and future trends from the perspec- Alexandra Freund (Freund & Baltes, tioning. How do the American, Ger- tive of selection, optimiza- 2000), Ralf Krampe (Krampe & man, and Japanese cultures differ in tion, and compensation (SOC) theory. In J. E. Birren Baltes, 2003), Michaela Riediger goals, ways to optimize, and strate- & K. W. Schaie (Eds.), (Riediger, Li, & Lindenberger, in gies of compensation? This would be Handbook of the psychology of aging. Amsterdam: press), and others, successful devel- one example for a macroanalytic Elsevier. opment encompasses the selection comparative study. An example of a Freund, A. M., & Baltes, P. of functional domains on which to microanalytic level approach to the B. (2000). The orchestra- focus one’s resources, optimizing de- study of SOC would be the investi- tion of selection, optimization, and compensation: velopmental potential (maximization gation of cognitive and motor per- An action-theoretical con- of gains) and compensating for formance in dual-task conditions, ceptualization of a theory of developmental regula- losses, thereby, ensuring the mainte- and the way people of varying ages tion. In W. J. Perrig & A. nance of functioning (minimization allocate resources differentially Grob (Eds.), Control of human behavior, mental of losses). to memory and walking (K. Z. H. Li, processes, and concious- The SOC model constitutes a general Lindenberger, Freund, & Baltes, ness (pp. 35–58). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. model of development defining uni- 2001). Baltes, P. B., & Baltes, M. versal processes of developmental M. (1990). Psychological regulation. These processes vary (1) Selection perspectives on successful phenotypically depending on socio- Throughout the lifespan, biological, aging: The model of selective optimization with historical and cultural context, do- social, and individual opportunities compensation. In P. B. main of functioning as well as on and constraints specify a range of Baltes & M. M. Baltes (Eds.), Successful aging: characteristics of the system or unit alternative domains of functioning. Perspectives from the be- of interest (e.g., person, group, soci- From this large number of options, havioral sciences (pp. 1– 34). Cambridge, UK: Cam- ety). The metatheory of SOC needs to individuals, in collaboration with bridge University Press. be embedded in a specific theoreti- other forces, such as norms and cal framework for applying it to vari- parental expectations, select a sub- ous domains of functioning (e.g., set on which to focus their re- identity formation and maintenance, sources. Selection of personal goals social relations, athletic perform- gives direction to development by ance) and to different levels of focusing resources on specific life

164 Center for Lifespan Psychology domains and by guiding behavior with the saying “There are many across situations and time. The func- ways to Rome.” tion of selection is nicely illustrated by the saying “Those who follow (3) Compensation every path, never reach any destina- When transient or permanent losses tion.” Selectivity can also be an or decline in goal-relevant means adaptive response to losses threat- threaten one’s level of functioning, it ening one’s goals. We call this loss- is necessary to invest resources into based selection, in contrast to elec- counteracting the losses in order to tive selection. An example of loss- maintain a given level of function- based selection is concentrating on ing. We call the process of activating one’s most important goals (e.g., en- or finding such alternative means joying being with one’s family) and compensation. For instance, when giving up less important personal knee problems do not allow going goals (e.g., cultural activities) when for walks any longer, using a wheel- an illness constrains the level of chair as a compensatory means of energy one can devote to various transportation can help to maintain activities. one’s routine of spending an hour in the park every day. As is true in the (2) Optimization case of optimization, which means To achieve higher levels of function- are best suited for compensating ing, goal-relevant means, that is, transient or permanent losses de- means that are conducive to goal at- pends on the domain of functioning, tainment, need to be acquired, re- the social and cultural context, and fined, coordinated, and applied in personal characteristics. the selected goal domains. We call Recently, assumptions about SOC the acquisition and orchestration of mechanisms have been formalized such means of goal attainment opti- using differential equations to de- mization. An example of optimiza- scribe behavior in multiple-task set- tion is practicing scales when start- tings in which the demands imposed ing to learn to play the piano. By by sum of all tasks exceeds the practicing scales, one can acquire amount of available resources. We flexibility in finger movements and plan to intensify this line of work to stroke techniques, both important study age differences in SOC mecha- skills for playing the piano. Of nisms and arrive at SOC-based pre- course, which means are best suited dictions of behavior. for achieving one’s goals depends on the goal domain (e.g., sports, friendships), the social and cultural context providing opportunity structures that make certain means more accessible than others, and personal characteristics, such as age or gender. We also need to recognize that in most cases there are different pathways of optimization; consistent

Center for Lifespan Psychology 165 Scientific Research Project 1 Investigators Intra-Person Dynamics Across the Lifespan Shu-Chen Li All is flux; nothing stays still. Ulman Lindenberger Heraclite, ca. 500 B.C. Jacqui Smith Martin Lövdén Viktor Müller Conceptual Overview Florian Schmiedek Behavioral development comprises both short-term variability and long-term change, and is embedded into cultural and neuronal contexts. The unifying Yvonne Brehmer theme of this project is to explore theories and research designs that articu- Oliver Huxhold late behavioral development across timescales, levels of analysis, and do- Christina Röcke mains of functioning (see Figure 1 and Table 1). Conceptually, working to- Yee Lee Shing ward this goal is facilitated by a dynamic systems view that seeks to identify Markus Werkle- the functional organization of behavioral change (Li, Huxhold, & Schmiedek, Bergner 2004; Lindenberger & von Oertzen, in press). Empirically, the emphasis on (predoctoral integration across timescales, domains, and levels requires a drastic increase fellows) in observation density within individuals (cf. Makeig, Debener, Onton, & Delorme, 2004; Thelen & Smith, 2004). In this vein, Cattell (1952) pled to gather multivariate observations not only within occasions across persons but also within persons across occasions. Between-person differences and within-person variations represent two complementary and mutually irre- ducible sources of information about developmental mechanisms whose similarities and differences are a matter of conceptual and empirical inquiry (Lövdén & Lindenberger, 2005; Nesselroade, 1991).

Types of Intra-Person Dynamics Fiske (1955) distinguished between different types of intraindividual variations, some adaptive and some nonadaptive, that unfold with different degrees of reversibility over time and involve single or multiple func- Momentary Process Dynamics tions. Specifically, short-term, rela- Behavioral tively reversible variations in functioning need to be set apart from progressive, long-term, and relatively Neurofunctional permanent developmental changes (Nesselroade, 1991). A main focus of Neurochemical this project is on describing and explaining lifespan age differences in Lifespan Differences/Change across Years relatively reversible variations that unfold within trials, training sessions, days, or weeks. Within this Figure 1. Long-term change and short-term variability in psychological functions. The Intra-Person Dynamics Project seeks to integrate the study of lifespan develop- category of within-person variations, ment across timescales and levels of analysis. we functionally distinguish among

166 Center for Lifespan Psychology Table 1 Taxonomy of within-person variability in cognitive functioning across the lifespan

Scope Variations in a single function Transformations in functional organization Timescale (e.g., local, univariate) (e.g., global, multivariate)

Microgenetic Relatively reversible variations in one function Relatively reversible variations in functional (e.g., usually Examples: organization across trials, • processing fluctuation (processing lability Examples: sessions, or or lack of processing robustness) • shifts in resource allocation, coordination, and weeks) • neural and behavioral plasticity (short-term compensatory behavior during multi-tasking learning potential) • context-driven variations in mental set and • within-task strategic diversity (richness of functional organization (e.g., posture control with within-task behavioral repertoire) eyes open or closed) • adaptability/resilience to environmental • situational choice and preference behavior perturbations • cyclic (e.g., state) variations in any specific function

Ontogenetic Relatively permanent (e.g., cumulative, progressive) Relatively permanent (e.g., cumulative, progressive) (e.g., usually changes in one function alterations in functional organization across Examples: Examples: months, • physical growth • ability differentiation from adulthood to old age years, or • progressive (e.g., trait) changes in any specific • ability dedifferentiation from childhood to early decades) cognitive function adulthood • long-term learning and skill acquisition • corticogenesis and functional specification of brain areas during maturation and learning • functional reintegration of brain circuitry in old age

Note. This taxonomy is not meant to be exhaustive. For instance, societal sources of variability are not systematically considered. All listed forms of variability can be studied at behavioral and neuronal levels of analysis. Examples are drawn from both levels. A major challenge for lifespan psychology is to identify mechanisms that link local to global variations, microgenetic variations to ontogenetic change, and neuronal mechanisms to behavior. Theories that link neuronal mechanisms in a single function acting at a microgenetic timescale to global ontogenetic transformations in behavior are high in parsimony and explanatory power (adapted from Lindenberger & von Oertzen, in press; cf. Li, Huxhold, & Schmiedek, 2004).

fluctuation, plasticity, diversity, observed near maximum levels of Key Reference adaptability, and temporal coupling functioning. Functional plasticity Li, S.-C., Lindenberger, (for illustration of some of these as- refers to various forms of learning or U., Hommel, B., Aschers- leben, G., Prinz, W., & pects, see Figure 2). Indicators of adaptive changes, such as benefits Baltes, P. B. (2004). Trans- each processing function can be ob- from instruction, practice, and formations in the couplings among intellectual served at behavioral and neuronal training (e.g., Baltes & Kliegl, 1992; abilities and constituent levels. Processing fluctuation, or lack Kliegl & Lindenberger, 1993; Singer, cognitive processes across the life span. Psychological of processing robustness (e.g., Li, Lindenberger, & Baltes, 2003). Func- Science, 15, 155–163. Aggen, Nesselroade, & Baltes, 2001; tional diversity refers to variations Li, Lindenberger, Hommel, Aschers- in responses to environmental leben, Prinz, & Baltes, 2004) reflects demands, such as exploration of stochastic fluctuations around a behavioral strategies during initial modal response, and is often best phases of complex skill acquisition

Center for Lifespan Psychology 167 Figure 2. Types of intra- person variability in cogni- Intra-person variability in cognition tive functioning (adapted from Li, Huxhold, & Functional Schmiedek, 2004). diversity

Functional Functional plasticity fluctuation Functional adaptability Level of functioning Perturbed state

Acquisition Acquired functioning

(e.g., Lautrey, 2002; Siegler, 1994). comparative evaluations of inter- Functional adaptability indicates an person and intra-person cognitive individual’s ability to regain earlier ability structures. Altogether, the functional levels after perturbations project endorses a multilevel, multi- arising from either internal process- method approach that combines being fluctuations (e.g., attention slips) havioral and neuronal observations or changes in the external environ- with experimental, correlational, and ment (e.g., more demanding tasks). computational methods. Finally, temporal coupling refers to Principal temporal associations between two Subproject I: Investigators or more forms of processing within Adult Age Differences in Intra-Person or across domains of functioning, Dynamics Within and Across Shu-Chen Li such as concurrent covariation, lead- Psychological and Sensorimotor Ulman Lindenberger lag relations, and synchronization. Domains of Functioning Jacqui Smith The initial aim of this subproject is Overview of Subprojects to document and compare adult age

Key References The Intra-Person Dynamics Project differences in intra-person dynamics Li, S.-C., Huxhold, O., & was initiated in September 2002 and within and across sensorimotor, cog- Schmiedek, F. (2004). Ag- expanded in Spring 2004. Currently, nitive, emotional, and motivational ing and attenuated pro- it consists of three subprojects. The domains of functioning. Given the cessing robustness: Evi- dence from cognitive and first investigates adult age differ- multi-dimensionality and multidirec- sensorimotor functioning. ences in intra-person variability tionality of lifespan development 28–34. Gerontology, 50, within and across various domains of with respect to functional domains Lindenberger, U., & von Oertzen, T. (in press). Vari- psychological and sensorimotor and patterns of change (Baltes, ability in cognitive aging: functioning. The second investigates Lindenberger, & Staudinger, in press), From taxonomy to theory. In F. I. M. Craik & E. Bia- lifespan age differences in the plas- we expect that patterns of age dif- lystok (Eds.), Lifespan cog- ticity and components of episodic ferences in intra-person dynamics nition: Mechanisms of learning and memory. The third sub- are not uniform across domains of change. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. project aims at systematic, age- functioning.

168 Center for Lifespan Psychology Figure 3. Microlongitudinal Microlongitudinal study design for studying intra-person study design for investi- process variations gating intra-person dynamics in multiple domains of functioning. Baseline Posttraining 45 days of 1 hour daily assessment assessment assessment

3 days of assessment 1 day of assessment

Microlongitudinal assessment group

Sample size: 37 (18 young and 19 older adults) Age range: young adults = 20 to 30 years; older adults = 70 to 80 years

Test-rest control group

Baseline Retest assessment assessment

Using a microlongitudinal design As predicted, differences between that covered 45 daily measurement younger and older adults in within- occasions (see Figure 3), we assessed person fluctuations did not follow a daily fluctuations in postural con- unitary trend (see Figure 4). After trol, spatial working memory, posi- controlling for trends, older adults tive and negative affects, and task- exhibited more intra-person fluc- specific motivation and performance tuation in cognitive and sensori- appraisals in 18 young adults (20 to motor functions than younger adults 30 years of age) and 19 older adults (Doctoral dissertation Oliver Hux- (70 to 80 years of age) across nine hold). In contrast, older adults weeks. Overall, we observed sub- showed less intra-person fluctuation stantial domain-related and person- in emotion than younger adults related differences in within-person (Dissertation Christina Röcke). The trajectories. Most individuals observed aging-related increments showed signs of learning (e.g., in within-person fluctuations in exponential performance functions) postural control and spatial working in spatial working memory and per- memory are in line with other recent ceptual speed, with sizeable differ- findings, demonstrating greater pro- ences between individuals in learn- cessing fluctuation with advancing ing rates and asymptotes. As for the age in these domains of functioning sensorimotor domain, only about (e.g., Hultsch et al., 2000; Mac- 60% of all individuals showed time- Donald et al., 2004, Rabbitt et al., based improvements in postural 2001), and may point to senescent control. Individual trajectories of changes in brain integrity, such as emotional well-being and motiva- attenuated neuromodulatory mech- tion also exhibited change over time, anisms (Bäckman & Farde, 2005; Li but there were substantial inter- et al., 2001). In contrast, reductions individual and age-related differ- in daily emotional fluctuations with ences. age may point to increasingly more

Center for Lifespan Psychology 169 Figure 4. Patterns of age Sensorimotor domain Cognitive domain differences in intra-person (postural control) (spatial working memory) daily fluctuations (indi-

) 50 50 cated here as detrended 2 residuals) are not uniform across different psycholog- 40 40 ical domains. Whereas aging is related with increased process fluctua- 30 30 tion in sensorimotor and cognitive processes (Dis- 20 20 sertation Oliver Huxhold), it is related with decreased fluctuations in measures 10 10

of subjective well-being Daily fluctuation (RT in msec) (Dissertation Christina Daily fluctuation (sway area in mm 0 0 Röcke). Young Old Young Old (20–30 years) (70–80 years) (20–30 years) (70–80 years)

Emotional domain Emotional domain (positive affect) (negative affect) 0.6 0.6

0.5 0.5

0.4 0.4

0.3 0.3

0.2 0.2

0.1 0.1 Daily fluctuation (affect score) Daily fluctuation (affect score) 0.0 0.0 Young Old Young Old (20–30 years) (70–80 years) (20–30 years) (70–80 years)

efficient emotional regulation (e.g., levels of temporal aggregation (e.g., Gross et al., 1997; Lawton et al., trial by trial) on estimates of cross- 1992), to age differences in the domain temporal couplings at higher selection of everyday life contexts levels of temporal aggregation (e.g., (Baltes & Baltes, 1990; Carstensen, day by day) needs to be formally ex- 1995), or both. Taken together, our pressed and statistically controlled. findings from this first study under- Adult age differences in intra-person score the multidimensionality and between-domain couplings will multidirectionality of age differences speak to the relative importance of in intra-person dynamics. age-associated causal mechanisms Further analyses will focus on age common to more than one domain differences in cross-domain tempo- of functioning (cf. Lindenberger & ral couplings. Methodologically, the Baltes, 1994; Baltes & Lindenberger, influence of individual differences in 1997). Adult age differences in cou- intra-person fluctuations at lower plings between daily fluctuations in

170 Center for Lifespan Psychology positive and negative affect and younger children (9 to 10 years of fluctuations in cognitive perform- age), 27 older children (11 to 12), ance will provide insights into lifes- 29 younger adults (20 to 25), and pan changes in the interaction be- 29 older adults (65 to 78 years) were tween emotional and cognitive func- instructed and trained in a simplified tions at the processing level. variant of the Method of Loci, an imagery-based mnemonic strategy Subproject II: (Baltes, Kliegl, & Smith, 1990; Kliegl Principal Lifespan Age Differences in Plasticity & Lindenberger, 1993). All age Investigators and Components of Episodic groups benefited from mnemonic Learning and Memory training (Figure 5). At the same time, Ulman Lindenberger This subproject examines lifespan substantial age differences in gains Shu-Chen Li age differences in plasticity and were observed as a function of in- Viktor Müller components of episodic memory, and struction versus training practice. is partially funded by a research Older adults showed considerable in- grant from the German Research struction-related performance gains Foundation (Deutsche Forschungs- (baseline reserve plasticity), but did gemeinschaft, Forschergruppe 448, not profit much from further train- “Binding: Functional architecture, ing and practice (developmental re- neuronal correlates, and ontogeny”). serve plasticity). In contrast, younger It pursues two interrelated goals: children initially showed smaller in- (a) to investigate age differences in struction-related performance gains, intra-person plasticity of episodic but considerably larger practice- memory from middle childhood to related gains than older adults. The later adulthood; (b) to estimate the resulting memory plasticity advan- relative contribution of strategic and tage of middle childhood over late associative components to lifespan adulthood provides direct empirical differences in episodic memory. support for central assumptions In a first training study conducted at about lifespan changes in behavioral Saarland University in 2003, 23 plasticity (Dissertation Yvonne

Lifespan differences in episodic learning Figure 5. Lifespan age dif- 4 ferences in episodic associative learning. Individu- Younger adults (20–25 years) als in all age groups 3 showed substantial memory plasticity. Whereas Older children (11–12 years) older adults showed a 2 Younger children (9–10 years) greater extent of baseline reserve plasticity after Older adults (65–78 years) mnemonic instruction, younger children showed a Timed recall score 1 greater extent of developmental reserve plasticity after mnemonic training 0 (Dissertation Brehmer; Preinstruction Postinstruction Posttraining Brehmer, Li, Müller, von (baseline (baseline reserve (developmental Oertzen, & Lindenberger, performance) plasticity) reserve plasticity) in prep.).

Center for Lifespan Psychology 171 Key References Brehmer). To examine lifespan age performance: strategic and associa- Li, S.-C., Naveh-Benjamin, differences in maintenance of tive. In terms of cognitive processes, M., & Lindenberger, U. (in mnemonic skill (e.g., Neely & Bäck- the strategic component refers to press). Aging neuromodulation impairs associative man, 1993), a one-year follow-up the selection, organization, and binding: A neurocomputa- study has been carried out in 2004. elaboration of episodic features dur- tional account. Psycholog- ical Science. Also, initial analyses of EEG data are ing encoding and retrieval. In con- Zimmer, H. D., Mecklinger, currently underway. The general ra- trast, the associative component A., & Lindenberger, U. tionale of these analyses is to iden- refers to mechanisms that bind fea- (Eds.). (in press). Binding in human memory: A neuro- tify EEG patterns in the frequency tures into a coherent memory repre- cognitive perspective. domain that optimally separate resentation (trace). Due to the late Oxford, UK: Oxford Univer- sity Press. called words from not recalled words maturation of prefrontal regions and Li, S.-C., Lindenberger, at three nested levels of analysis: associated neuronal pathways, we U., & Sikström, S. (2001). within individuals, between individu- assume that the strategic compo- Aging cognition: From als within age groups, and between nent of learning and memory is less neuromodulation to representation. Trends in Cogni- age groups. efficient in middle childhood than in tive Sciences, 5, 479-486. early and young adulthood. In con- Strategic and Associative trast, the associative component, Components of Lifespan Differences which primarily involves mediotem- in Episodic Memory poral structures, should be fully In Fall 2004, a new series of experi- functional in middle childhood, so ments has been planned to provide a that differences to younger adults in more process-oriented (mechanistic) this component should be small. explanation for lifespan differences With respect to older adults, we ex- in episodic memory, such as the rela- pect impairments in both strategic tive magnitude of baseline and de- and associative components relative velopmental reserves plasticity ob- to younger adults, reflecting alter- served in the first study (see Fig- ations senescent changes in both ure 5). In this context, we posit two prefrontal and mediotemporal re- different, but closely intertwined, gions of the brain. A new series of components of episodic memory experiments will test these predic-

Figure 6. Schematic diagram of a feature associa- Output tion conjunctive binding layer model for studying adult age differences in associative binding deficit (adapted from Li, Naveh- Benjamin, & Lindenberger, Representation in press). layer Feature conjunctive binding

Feature conjunctive binding Input layer Item A in the pair Item B in the pair Association conjunctive binding

172 Center for Lifespan Psychology tions using a paired-associates among underlying processes or re- recognition memory paradigm (cf. sources at the intra-person level. Castel & Craik, 2003; Naveh- Methodologically, differences be- Benjamin, 2000; Dissertations Yee tween intra-person and inter-person Lee Shing and Markus Werkle- structures are perfectly possible (e.g., Bergner). At the same time, we have Borsboom, Mellenbergh, & van begun to expand our connectionist Heerden, 2003; Lindenberger, & von modeling to simulate lifespan differ- Oertzen, in press; Molenaar, ences in strategic and associative Huizenga, & Nesselroade, 2003). memory components (see Figure 6; Conceptually, the malleability of Li & Lindenberger, in press; Li, functional organization at both be- Naveh-Benjamin, & Lindenberger, in havioral and neuronal levels and the press; Zimmer, Mecklinger, & Linden- diversity of developmental trajec- berger, in press). tories and life experiences (Li & Lindenberger, 2002) render any strict Subproject III: congruence between intra-person Principal Comparing and Contrasting Intra- and inter-person structures unlikely. Investigators Person Variability With Inter-Person What is needed, then, is to examine: Differences (a) the degree of convergence be- Florian Schmiedek The specific goal of this subproject, tween intra- and inter-person struc- Martin Lövdén which started in Spring 2004, is to tures, and the extent to which this Ulman Lindenberger explore differences and commonali- convergence differs by age; (b) the ties between covariance structures degree of convergence among differ- of intellectual abilities measured ent intra-person structures. To date, Key Reference either across individuals at a given no studies with the multivariate Lövdén, M., & Linden- occasion or across occasions within measurements of cognitive perform- berger, U. (2005). Devel- opment of intellectual a given individual. Most of the exist- ance and sufficiently high numbers abilities in old age—From ing research on intellectual abilities of observations and individuals have age gradients to individuals. In O. Wilhelm & assumes that covariance structures been conducted to address these R. W. Engle (Eds.), Hand- based on interindividual differences issues empirically. To conduct such book of understanding and measuring intelligence generalize to intra-person structures. a study, we currently are assembling (pp. 203–221). Thousand For instance, ability factors based on a battery of cognitive tasks that are Oaks, CA: Sage. interindividual differences are sup- amenable to repeated testing and posed to reflect unitary ability con- that represent well-established cog- structs at the intra-person level, and nitive constructs of psychometric intercorrelations among such factors research. are assumed to reflect relations

Center for Lifespan Psychology 173 Scientific Research Project 2 Investigators Sensorimotor-Cognitive Couplings Ralf T. Krampe This project investigates lifespan changes in interactions between sensori- (until 2004) motor and cognitive aspects of behavior (K. Z. H. Li & Lindenberger, 2002). Martin Lövdén Everyday life often requires integration of multiple sensory inputs and con- Ulman Lindenberger current coordination of sensorimotor and cognitive demands. Examples are Paul B. Baltes walking while trying to memorize a shopping list, maintaining one’s balance on a bus while trying to read an advertisement, or trying to remember the Albina Bondar way to a friend’s house while driving in the hectic morning traffic. How do (postdoctoral individuals of different ages adapt to these multiple demands and their fellow) changes across situational contexts? Everyday observation further suggests that older adults, and young children, need to invest more attention into Sabine Schäfer sensorimotor aspects of their behavior than teenagers and young adults. For Michael instance, when facing an obstacle on a narrow path, older adults may tend Schellenbach to stop talking and resume their conversations after the obstacle has been (predoctoral overcome, whereas the same obstacle will affect younger adults’ conversa- fellows) tion to a lesser extent.

Key References The focus of this project is on lifespan tracks while memorizing word lists. Li, K. Z. H., & Linden- changes in resource allocation in They found that speed and accuracy berger, U. (2002). Rela- multiple-task settings that have a of walking were reduced when par- tions between aging sensory/sensorimotor and high degree of everyday validity, such ticipants had to simultaneously walk cognitive functions. as walking while memorizing. The and memorize, particularly in older Neuroscience and Bio- behavioral Reviews, 26, project makes use of three different adults. K. Z. H. Li, Lindenberger, 777–783. experimental paradigms: (a) walking Freund, and Baltes (2001) systemati- Lindenberger, U., tracks that allow for the assessment cally combined sensorimotor tasks of Marsiske, M., & Baltes, P. B. (2000). Memorizing of walking accuracy, (b) balance ma- varying difficulties with a cognitively while walking: Increase in chines permitting dynamic assess- demanding memorization task and dual task costs from young adulthood to old age. Psy- ment of posture control (posturogra- offered compensatory external aids chology and Aging, 15, phy), and (c) a virtual reality lab (a handrail to optimize walking and 417–436. equipped with a treadmill to measure a button-box that delayed the pres- spatial navigation performance under entation of auditory stimuli). varying conditions of sensorimotor Whereas young adults optimized support. their memorization performances, older adults focused on the opti- Dual-Task Costs in the Domain of mization of their walking by more Walking frequently using the handrail. Thus, Two earlier studies from our lab older adults selected walking effi- demonstrated that older adults in- ciency over memory efficiency when vest considerable cognitive resources their cognitive resources were chal- to compensate for the decreased ef- lenged. ficiencies of their sensorimotor func- In a recently completed study, we tions. Lindenberger, Marsiske, and (Krampe, Schäfer, Lindenberger, Baltes (2000) had participants from & Baltes, in prep.) investigated three age groups walk different resource allocation in children (9 or

174 Center for Lifespan Psychology 11 years old) and adults (young and older). To this end we used the walking track in combination with a semantic fluency task (Figure 1). In line with our earlier results, we found that young adults maintain their level of performance in the cognitive task and “accept” reductions in walking speed. Children, however, showed higher costs in walking than young adults, and 9-year-olds also demonstrated considerable costs in the cognitive task. These findings illustrate that the age-differential “protection” of gait and balance is not a result of the amount of available cognitive resources alone. Rather, ecological considerations are important: The consequences of with- drawing attention from gait or bal- Figure 1. Dual-task experiment with walking track. Participants (9- or 11-year-old ance are far more serious for older children, young and older adults) walk along a narrow track at their maximum adults than for young adults or speeds while simultaneously performing a cognitive task, for instance, memorization children. of a list of words presented over wireless headphones or generating exemplars for semantic categories like animals. Dual-Task Costs in the Domain of Balance the experimentally induced pertur- Key Reference Using dynamic posturography, two bations were increased. In specific Krampe, R. T. & Charness, recently completed studies investi- experimental conditions, participants N. (in press). Aging and expertise. In K. A. Ericsson gated balance performance while were asked to emphasize perform- (Ed.), Cambridge handbook standing. Participants stood on a ance in either the cognitive task, the on expertise and expert performance. Cambridge, platform that can tilt at various an- balance task, or to place equal em- UK: Cambridge University gular velocities (Figure 2). The plat- phasis on both conditions. Older and Press. form contains sensors that measure young adults revealed similar flexi- participants’ stability (i.e., the distri- bilities in resource allocation in the bution of their weights) at any given cognitive task. During trials with point in time. Bondar, Krampe, and stronger perturbations, however, Baltes (in prep.) had young and older only young, but not older, adults adults perform choice reaction time were capable of flexible allocation of tasks while maintaining upright resources to stance maintenance. stance despite unpredictable pertur- Again, these results can be inter- bations during trials. Older adults preted as differences in overall re- were found to have larger dual-task sources and as older adults’ specific costs than younger adults. At the selection of attentional emphasis on same time, they showed increased walking or maintaining a stable pos- neglect of the cognitive task when ture over simultaneous cognitive

Center for Lifespan Psychology 175 using the balance-cognition dual- task paradigm. Rapp, Krampe, and Baltes studied young and older adults along with a group that is assumed to have deficits in attentional control or resource allocation, Alzheimer patients. Older adults showed a reliable reduction in sensorimotor dual-task costs when conditions of stable and moving platforms were compared, again suggesting that they protected their balance at the cost of cognitive performance. Alzheimer patients’ dual-task costs were significantly increased relative to healthy age- matched individuals. However, the Alzheimer group showed the same prioritization when limits were chal- Figure 2. Dynamic posturography. Balance performance on the moving platform can lenged: When the platform was be assessed while participants simultaneously perform a cognitive task. moving, Alzheimer patients invested most of their cognitive resources Key Reference tasks. In older age, sensorimotor into the sensorimotor task, thereby Krampe, R. T., & Baltes, P. functions require more and more maintaining almost the same stabil- B. (2003). Intelligence as adaptive resource develop- cognitive resources. Because of their ity as under single-task conditions ment and resource alloca- allocation to the sensorimotor do- (Figure 3). A subsequent inclusion of tion: A new look through main, these cognitive resources are another group of nondemented older the lenses of SOC and expertise. In R. J. Sternberg & then no longer available for compet- adults that was more similar to the E. L. Grigorenko (Eds.), The ing mental activities. Our results Alzheimer patients with respect to psychology of abilities, competencies, and expert- highlight the differential ecological their cognitive status (fluid intelli- ise (pp. 31–69). Cambridge, relevance of tasks for young and gence) suggested that the exagger- UK: Cambridge University Press. older adults and its effects on re- ated Alzheimer pattern was specific source allocation: Walking or main- to dementia. These findings demon- taining balance is more critical for strate how Alzheimer patients “know older than for young adults. Conse- how to survive” in situations where quentially, older adults prioritize memory and motor behavior are re- sensorimotor over cognitive func- quired at the same time. tioning, especially when tested at To further chart the terrain of senso- their limits. rimotor–cognitive couplings across The findings by Bondar, Krampe, and the lifespan, we conducted a large- Baltes imply that the observed prior- scale study assessing postural stabil- itization in older adults reflects ity, gait, and performances in stan- overlearned response tendencies dard psychometric measures of in- resulting from long-term everyday telligence with 300 participants (age experiences. This assumption was range 7 to 80 years). We used latent further supported in another study structure modeling approaches to

176 Center for Lifespan Psychology Level of cognitive Estimated cognitive Level of balance Figure 3. Resource invest- functioning maintained capacity stability maintained ment into cognitive and under dual-task conditions under dual-task conditions bodily functions under dual-task conditions. 57% Alzheimers 91 % Alzheimer patients exhibit in % of young smaller levels of cognitive functioning when their balance is challenged through the moving plat- 87% Older 77% form. in % of young

99% 85% Young

Individual baseline performance Individual baseline performance under single-task under single-task conditions = 100% conditions = 100%

identify the correlations between nized to the visual flow of the virtual these different capacities and their environment such that participants changes across the lifespan. These have the impression of actually data are also used for the develop- walking through the virtual environment of a mathematical model of ment. The task for participants might postural control in different age be, for example, to find and remem- groups that is based on random walk ber the way from the entrance of the and diffusion concepts. museum to the bistro. Figure 4 shows a prototype of the experimen- Sensorimotor Aspects of Spatial tal paradigm. As of December 2004, Navigation the MPI laboratory features an ad- The major aim of this part of the vanced motion capture system, inte- project is to explore the old-age grated synchronized assessment of quandary between increasing control EEG and EMG components, improved demands of sensorimotor function- conditions for virtual environment ing and decreasing efficiency of rel- rendering, and an advanced tread- evant control operations in the do- mill allowing for a wider range of main of spatial navigation. A virtual movement. environment maze-learning para- Figure 5 shows captures of different digm with a walking component was motions that have been taken in this developed for this purpose. A laboratory. To visualize the partici- scenery, designed to give participant’s movement (e.g., while walk- pants the impression of walking ing) markers reflecting infrared light through an art museum is projected are attached to the participant’s in front of a treadmill. The move- body. In turn, cameras capture the ment of the treadmill is synchro- position of the markers, and the

Center for Lifespan Psychology 177 positions of the markers are post- processed offline according to bio- mechanical models. This procedure allows for visualization of the participant’s movements and further statistical analyses of important parameters. In Figure 5, a single participant has performed different typical motions (e.g., walking, dancing, playing tennis), and processed motion captures of these movements are displayed simultaneously. This system will play a major role in examining how sensorimotor functions interact with cognition as a function of age. The first study (Lövdén, Schellen- bach, Grossman-Hütter, Krüger, & Lindenberger, 2004), still conducted Figure 4. Spatial navigation in a virtual art museum. Participants walk on the treadmill while navigating to goals in the virtual environment. Older adults navigation at Saarland University, tested our performance is improved by walking support (holding on to the handrail). fundamental hypothesis that aging- induced cognitive permeation of sensorimotor functions contributes to adult age differences in spatial navigation performance. Sixteen 20- to 30-year-old and sixteen 60- to 70-year-old men were required to

Figure 5. Processed motion captures of an individual performing a variety of different movements. The position of markers attached on the participant’s body is captured by cameras and postpro- cessed according to bio- mechanical models to arrive at dynamic visualization of the participant’s movements.

178 Center for Lifespan Psychology find and remember the way to the Future Perspectives Key Reference bistro in museums under conditions In our future work, we will examine Lindenberger, U., & of walking with support (holding on the effects of assistive technology Lövdén, M. (in press). Co- constructing human engi- to a handrail) or without support on spatial navigation. For instance, neering technologies in old until they reached perfect perform- we hypothesize that providing age: Lifespan psychology as a conceptual founda- ance. Walking support attenuated older adults with walking support tion. In P. B. Baltes, P. age-related decrements in naviga- enhances their ability to find and Reuter-Lorenz, & F. Rösler (Eds.), Lifespan develop- tional learning, and walking with remember the way to a place in the ment and the brain: The navigation load increased older environment. We will also examine perspective of biocultural co-constructivism. New adults’, but not younger adults’, lifespan age differences in gait York: Cambridge University trunk-angle variability. Thus, walking patterns as a function of cognitive Press. demands influenced the navigation load, and investigate the plasticity performance of older, but not of spatial navigation in old age at younger adults. neuronal and behavioral levels of analysis (Lindenberger & Lövdén, in press).

Center for Lifespan Psychology 179 Scientific Research Project 3 Investigators Berlin Aging Study (BASE): Trends and Profiles of Jacqui Smith Psychological Aging Martin Lövdén For lifespan researchers, the period of old and very old age is a new and ex- Ulman Lindenberger citing area of study. During the 20th century, average life expectancy nearly Paul B. Baltes doubled. More and more individuals in current cohorts of older individuals Julia Delius experience additional years of life between the ages of 70 and 100+. What Ute Kunzmann do these added years mean in terms of levels of functioning and life quality (until 2004) for most people? Are there constraints on aging successfully in the last years of life? Compared to early phases of the lifespan, relatively little is known Denis Gerstorf about advanced old age. (predoctoral fellow until 2004; post- Since 1989, members of the Center ples (followed over 4, 6, and 8 years) doctoral fellow as of Lifespan Psychology have investi- have been a positive selection of the of 2004) gated age- and death-related initial cross-sectional sample in changes in psychological functioning terms of physical and functional Daniel Grühn from age 70 to 100+ in the context health, social status, cognitive func- (predoctoral of the Berlin Aging Study (Mayer & tioning, openness to new experi- fellow) Baltes, 1999; Baltes & Mayer, 1999; ences, outgoingness (extraversion), 2001; Lövdén, Ghisletta, & Linden- age, and distance from death berger, 2004; Smith & Delius, 2003; (Lindenberger, Singer, & Baltes, Key References Smith, Maas, Mayer, Helmchen, 2002). Lövdén, M., Ghisletta, P., Steinhagen-Thiessen, & Baltes, 2002; In the period 2003 to 2004, our re- & Lindenberger, U. (2004) see textbox for description of BASE). Cognition in the Berlin Ag- search has focused on mapping indi- ing Study (BASE): The first This multidisciplinary study is one of vidual differences and age-related 10 years. Aging, Neuropsy- the few projects worldwide that in- changes in intellectual functioning chology, and Cognition, 11, 104-133. cludes extensive data on a heteroge- (e.g., Singer, Verhaeghen, Ghisletta, Baltes, P. B., & Smith, J. neous sample of old and very old in- Lindenberger, & Baltes, 2003), mech- (2003). New frontiers in dividuals. anisms underlying differential aging the future of aging: From successful aging of the At present, longitudinal data in BASE (e.g., Smith & Gerstorf, 2004; young old to the dilemmas are available over 6 measurement Gerstorf, 2004), and predictors of of the Fourth Age. Geron- tology: Behavioural Sci- occasions, spanning more than 12 well-being in the young old and old- ence Section/Review, 49, years. The last follow-up of the Psy- est old (e.g., Issacowitz & Smith, 123-135. chology Battery was collected in 2003). In addition, we also examined Lindenberger, U., Singer, 2004. In addition to documenting cross-domain associations in intra- T., & Baltes, P. B. (2002). Longitudinal selectivity in the diversity of longitudinal patterns individual change patterns. aging populations: Sepa- of change, this design feature has rating mortality-associated versus experimental served to highlight the complex im- Changes in Intellectual components in the Berlin plications of sample attrition for the Functioning From Age 70 to 100 Aging Study (BASE). Jour- nal of Gerontology: Psy- interpretation of findings about the Lövdén, Ghisletta, and Lindenberger chological Sciences, 57B, oldest old. At the last assessment in (2004) summarized 10 years of cog- 474-482 2004, for example, 80 % of the nitive research in BASE (i.e., 1993– baseline sample of 516 were de- 2003), focusing on five related ceased. In general, participants in research themes: (a) longitudinal the various BASE longitudinal sam- selectivity; (b) cross-sectional and

180 Center for Lifespan Psychology www.base-berlin.mpg.de Overview of the Berlin Aging Study (BASE) The multidisciplinary Berlin Aging Study (BASE), directed by Paul B. Baltes and Karl Ulrich Mayer, was initiated in 1989 under the sponsorship of the former West Berlin Academy of Sciences and Technol- Key References ogy and its Committee on Age and Societal Development. Subsequently, and in connection with the Lövdén, M., Ghisletta, P., reestablishment of the Prussian Academy, the study came under the auspices of the Berlin-Branden- & Lindenberger, U. (in burg Academy of Sciences. press). Social participation As of 2004, the study involves six measurement occasions spaced over 14 years. In addition, sub- attenuates decline in per- samples have been recruited for intensive study. The distinguishing features of BASE include (1) a fo- ceptual speed in old and cus on the very old (70–100+ years), (2) a locally representative sample, stratified by age and sex, and very old age. Psychology (3) a broad-based interdisciplinarity (involving two research groups from the Free University of Berlin, and Aging. Internal Medicine and Psychiatry, and two from this Institute, Sociology and Psychology). In addition Ghisletta, P., & Linden- to discipline-specific topics, four integrative theoretical orientations guide the study: (1) differential berger, U. (2003). Age- aging, (2) continuity versus discontinuity of aging, (3) range and limits of plasticity and reserve ca- based structural dynamics pacity, and (4) aging as a systemic phenomenon. between perceptual speed The initial focus of BASE (1990–1993) was to obtain an age-by-sex stratified heterogeneous sample and knowledge in the of 70- to 100+-year-olds who completed a 14-session Intensive Protocol (involving detailed measures Berlin Aging Study: Direct evidence for ability dedif- from the four disciplines). 516 men and women from the western districts of Berlin participated. Five ferentiation in old age. longitudinal follow-ups of the survivors from this initial sample involving different amounts of assess- Psychology and Aging, 18, ment have been completed at approximately 2-yearly intervals. A single-session multidisciplinary as- 696–713. sessment was collected in 1993–1994 (N = 361), reduced versions of the Intensive Protocol (six ses- Singer, T., Lindenberger, sions) were collected in the periods 1995–1996 (N = 206) and 1997–1998 (N = 132), and a repeat of U., & Baltes, P. B. (2003). parts of the Psychology Battery together with multidisciplinary outcome variables (e.g., screening for Plasticity of memory for dementia, assessment of well-being) in 2000 (N = 82) and 2004 (N = 50). In addition, we also follow new learning in very old the mortality of the entire BASE sample. age: A story of major loss? The initial sample of 516 individuals formed the basis of the cross-sectional analyses reported in a Psychology and Aging, 18, German monograph first published in 1996 (Mayer & Baltes, 1996, 1999), in a featured section of 306-317. Psychology and Aging (1997), and an English monograph published with Cambridge University Press Singer, T., Verhaeghen, P., (Baltes & Mayer, 1999, 2000). Six papers reporting two-wave longitudinal findings were published in Ghisletta, P., Lindenberger, November 2002 in a Special Section of the Journals of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences (57B, U., & Baltes, P. B. (2003). P471–P571). Specific interests of the Psychology Unit of BASE include: issues of sample selectivity and The fate of cognition in representativeness, cognitive aging, subgroup profiles of psychological functioning, the Fourth Age, very old age: Six-year lon- gender differences, mortality prediction, self-related change, well-being, and models of successful gitudinal findings in the aging, such as selective optimization with compensation. Berlin Aging Study (BASE). Psychology and Aging, 18 (3), 318-331. Doctoral Training Program (Graduiertenkolleg) in Neuropsychiatry and Psychology of Aging Jointly With the Free University of Berlin From1998 to 2004, the research findings and data of BASE provided a primary foundation for a DFG- funded graduate research training program (Graduiertenkolleg). The focus of this program was on the “Neuropsychiatry and Psychology of Old Age.” Initiated by the late Margret M. Baltes, the doctoral training program was codirected by Paul B. Baltes. Other psychologists in the Steering Committee were Jacqui Smith and Ralf Schwarzer (Free University of Berlin). In the period 2003–2004, the program included 15 fellows. See pp. 27–28 for further information. longitudinal age gradients of intel- mechanics (e.g., processing speed) lectual functioning; (c) cognitive accompanied by maintenance or in- ability dedifferentiation in old age; crease in the crystallized pragmatics (d) exploring the link between intel- (e.g., verbal knowledge) constitutes a lectual and sensory domains; and (e) classic aging pattern of adult intel- limits to cognitive plasticity in old lectual development. Initial findings age. Here, we highlight key findings from BASE extended this pattern by from the 2002 to 2004 period. revealing negative cross-sectional The cross-sectional pattern of de- associations between verbal knowl- cline across adulthood for the fluid edge and age within, but not before,

Center for Lifespan Psychology 181 Figure 1. Cognitive change Perceptual speed Knowledge in old age (BASE). The 70 70 short-dashed lines represent the cross-sectional 60 60 age gradients as observed 50 50 in the initial assessment of the total sample (N = 516).

T-Score 40 T-Score 40 The green lines represent the cross-sectional age 30 30 gradients as observed in 20 20 the initial assessment of 70 80 90 100 110 70 80 90 100 110 the 6-year longitudinal sample (n = 132). The red Age Age lines represent the estimated longitudinal change gradients over the 6-year Memory Fluency interval in the longitudinal 70 70 sample. Individuals up to age 90 show longitudinal 60 60 stability in tests of knowl- 50 50 edge despite declines in measures of perceptual T-Score

T-Score 40 40 speed, memory, and fluency (adapted from Singer 30 30 et al., 2003). 20 20 70 80 90 100 110 70 80 90 100 110 Age Age

old and very old age (Baltes & If we initially consider the cross-sec- Lindenberger, 1997). We further tional gradient of the total sample extended these findings by reporting (short-dashed line), it is evident that longitudinal age gradients while negative gradients prevail in all four examining aspects of longitudinal cognitive measures. In contrast, the selectivity. Specifically, Singer et al. cross-sectional gradients describing (2003) reported latent growth curve the positively selected longitudinal age gradients for processing speed, sample (green line) are more diverse: memory, verbal fluency, and knowl- Knowledge remains stable whereas edge as a function of three subsam- processing speed, fluency, and mem- ples: cross-sectional age gradients ory decreases. In other words, de- for the total initial sample (N = 516) cline in the fluid mechanics may be including participants suffering from normatively age-related, whereas late-life cognition-associated health decline in the crystallized pragmatics disorders; cross-sectional age gradi- may also be associated with late-life ents for the positively selected indi- cognition-associated health disor- viduals (n = 132) that subsequently ders. The longitudinal gradient (red survived and participated in the re- line) is consistent with this conclu- peated measurement occasions; and sion. In very old age (> 90 years) combined cross-sectional and longi- negative gradients are evident for all tudinal information for the longitu- the four cognitive abilities. dinal sample. Figure 1 displays these Initial cross-sectional analyses in age gradients. BASE (Baltes & Lindenberger, 1997)

182 Center for Lifespan Psychology supported the dedifferentiation of cognitive plasticity show a size- hypothesis, asserting that the func- able loss in very old age, compared tional organization of intellectual to younger age groups. abilities undergoes compression Currently, the role played by health (dedifferentiation) in old age. in the maintenance of cognitive Framed in terms of the distinction functioning in old age constitutes an between the fluid mechanics and emerging area of interest within crystallized pragmatics of cognition, BASE. Analyses of BASE data have dedifferentiation is hypothesized to related performance to cardiovascu- emanate and form old-age decre- lar and metabolic disease and vari- ments in pragmatic abilities that are ous risk factors (e.g., smoking). induced by mechanic decline. To Verhaeghen, Borchelt, and Smith evaluate the validity of this hypoth- (2003) found that five diagnoses esis, Ghisletta and Lindenberger were negatively correlated with cog- (2003) applied a lead-lag structural nition: congestive heart failure, equation modeling method to com- stroke, coronary heart disease, myo- bined longitudinal and cross-sec- cardial infarction, and diabetes mel- tional data. Processing speed and litus. The presence of one or more of knowledge were used to index the these diagnoses was linked to lower mechanics and the pragmatics, re- performance in general, but there spectively. The results showed that was no differential cognitive decline processing speed was the leader and over 4 years. This suggests that the knowledge was the lagger within impact of these diseases on cogni- this system of variables; that is, tive decline in very old age may be processing speed at t–1 time exerted smaller than in younger adults be- a substantially stronger influence cause the disease process adds little on change in knowledge from t–1 to to the cumulative changes in brain t than knowledge at t–1 did on physiology that have occurred over subsequent change in processing the course of a very long life. speed. Thus, the directional dedif- Another currently important area of ferentiation hypothesis was con- investigation in BASE is the relation- firmed. ship between lifestyle factors, such The potential range of plasticity of as social participation and cognitive functioning in very old age, espe- decline. Though the general public cially in the capacity to learn and have embraced the notion that being apply new memory strategies, has socially, mentally, and physically ac- been addressed by Singer, Linden- tive in old age protects against cog- berger, and Baltes (2003) on a sub- nitive decline, several studies have sample of the oldest old participat- delivered mixed support and under- ing in BASE. Using a cognitive train- scored that the opposite might also ing paradigm and instruction in a hold: High cognitive functioning in memory technique (the Method of old age might increase the possibil- Loci), participants aged 70 to 100 ity of maintaining an engaged and years evinced little potential for the active lifestyle. Lövdén, Ghisletta, new learning of a complex cognitive and Lindenberger (in press) ap- skill. Thus, the quantity and quality proached this conundrum by apply-

Center for Lifespan Psychology 183 (A) Perceptual speed (B) Social participation 70 70

60 60

50 50

40 40

Performance (T-scores) Performance 30 30 Level of functioning (T-scores) 20 20 1 234 1423 Occasion Occasion

Full coupling No coupling

Figure 2. Social participation attenuates decline in perceptual speed in old and very old age. Means for perceptual speed (A) and social participation (B) from a model (full coupling; green lines) allowing dynamic lead-lag relations and from a model not allowing dynamic lead-lag associations (no coupling; dashed lines) between social participation and perceptual speed. The means are plotted as a function of time and varied initial (occasion 1) sample means (40, 45, 50, 55, 60). The figures show that allowing for lead-lag coupling between the two variables dramatically changes the implied developmental pattern for perceptual speed, but that this is not the case for social participation, suggesting that social participation drives decline in perceptual speed in old and very old age.

ing a structural equation model for such as motivational aspects of the testing lead-lag hypotheses (see also self (e.g., control beliefs, future- Ghisletta & Lindenberger, 2003) to oriented goals) and overall subjec- three-occasion longitudinal data of tive well-being (e.g., life satisfaction, social participation and perceptual a sense of happiness and content- speed in BASE. Results revealed that, ment), indicate less decline in func- after statistically controlling for age tionality, at least among the young and sociobiographical status, prior old and positive selected oldest old scores of social participation influ- individuals (Smith, 2003; Smith & enced subsequent changes in per- Gerstorf, 2004). Self-related func- ceptual speed, while the opposite did tioning may be more resilient not hold (see Figure 2). Results sup- against decline than is true for the port the hypothesis that an engaged cognitive system. It is generally ex- and active lifestyle in old and very pected that regulatory processes op- old age may alleviate cognitive de- erate to protect or “immunize” the cline. self against a loss of efficacy and well-being, even in conditions of Change and Stability in Self and poor health and chronic impairment. Well-Being in Very Old Age For example, individuals adjust their Findings in areas of psychological aspiration levels and comparison functioning other than intelligence, targets so as to achieve and main-

184 Center for Lifespan Psychology 1.0 Key References Smith, J., & Gerstorf, D. (2004). Ageing differently: 0.8 Potential and limits. In S. O. Daatland & S. Biggs (Eds.), Ageing and diversity: Multiple pathways and 0.6 cultural migrations Overall-positive profile (pp. 13–28). Bristol: The

Survival probability Average profile and disparate profile Policy. 0.4 Isaacowitz, D. M., & Smith J. (2003). Positive and 012345 negative affect in very old Years age. Journals of Gerontol- ogy: Psychological Sci- ences, 58B, P143–P152. Figure 3. Profile subgroups were identified in the 6-year longitudinal BASE sample by using cluster analy- Smith, J. (2003a). The sis of baseline scores across 11 psychological dimensions (cognition, personality, and social integration): gain-loss dynamic in life- The desirable profile subgroup (overall-positive profile) lived longer over a 4-year period than both less span development: Impli- desirable profiles (average profile and disparate profile) (adapted from Gerstorf, 2004). cations for change in self and personality during old and very old age. In U. M. Staudinger & U. Linden- tain a sense of control over their life. ported satisfaction with aging, life berger (Eds). Understand- ing human development: These psychological processes help satisfaction, and experience of posi- Dialogues with lifespan to explain the seemingly paradoxical tive emotions decreased after psychology (pp. 215–241). Boston: Kluwer. observation that, after a period of age 80. Smith J. (2003b). Stress adjustment, individuals report satis- and aging: Theoretical and faction even in contexts of chronic Profiles of Psychological Function- empirical challenges for interdisciplinary research. stress. ing in the Young Old and Oldest Neurobiology of Aging, 24, To the extent that older individuals Old S77–S80. become physically dependent on Psychologically speaking, the chronic others and experience accumulated life stressors associated with ad- chronic health and life strains, their vanced old age represent a context sense of well-being is compromised. that appear to “test the limits” of In particular, we observed a reduc- psychological resilience and adaptation in the potential to experience tion and may contribute to systemic the positive side of life (Baltes & breakdown and death (Baltes & Smith, 2003; Smith, 2003). Although Smith, 2003). This proposal was the majority of BASE participants examined in BASE in several ways. were typically satisfied with their On the one hand, we analyzed age- present life conditions, those in the related changes in functional level in Third Age (70 to 84 years) reported different domains, and examine significantly higher positive well-be- whether different rates and corre- ing and higher satisfaction with life lates of change characterize the in general, compared with those in young old and the oldest old (Smith the Fourth Age (85 to 100+ years). & Gerstorf, 2004). In addition, we A large portion of individual differ- used cluster analysis to identify sub- ences in well-being was accounted groups with functional psychological for by physical illness and functional profiles indicative of distress and impairment (e.g., vision, hearing, systemic breakdown (Gerstorf, 2004; mobility, strength). On average, re- see Figure 3).

Center for Lifespan Psychology 185 Scientific Research Project 4 Investigators Selection, Optimization, and Compensation (SOC): Michaela Riediger Regulation of Goals and Preferences in Lifespan Ulman Lindenberger Development Shu-Chen Li Tra dire e fare Paul B. Baltes C‘e di mezzo il mare. (until June 2004) (Between saying and doing is the sea.) Italian proverb Natalie C. Ebner (2003–2004, Understanding human development requires theories of dynamic self-regula- predoctoral fellow; tion that place goal-directed action and preference behavior in the context since 2004, post- of biological and social constraints and opportunities. How are developmen- doctoral fellow) tal goals and preferences construed, pursued, coordinated within and between individuals, and reshaped or abandoned in the face of limited internal and external resources? Which behavioral features and regulatory patterns separate positive or subjectively desired from negative or unwanted onto- Key References genetic pathways and outcomes? Do development-enhancing regulatory Riediger, M., Li, S.-C., & Lindenberger, U. (in patterns in childhood differ from those in old age? press). Selection, optimization, compensation (SOC) as developmental mecha- This project investigates motiva- tal perspective that permits time se- nisms of adaptive resource tional, cognitive, and affective ries analyses of regulatory behavior. allocation: Review and preview. In J. E. Birren & K. processes that regulate human de- The third, Formal Modeling of Devel- W. Schaie (Eds.), Handbook velopment across the lifespan. Its opmental Self-Regulation, aims at of the psychology of aging (6th ed.). Amsterdam: Else- conceptual framework derives from specifying interrelations among SOC vier. the metamodel of selection, opti- mechanisms through nonlinear Freund, A. M., & Baltes P. mization, and compensation (SOC; differential equations and related B. (2000). The orchestra- cf. Baltes & Baltes, 1990). According mathematical tools (Riediger, Li, & tion of selection, optimization, and compensation: to the SOC metamodel, successful Lindenberger, in press). Subprojects II An action-theoretical con- development requires the regulation and III were started in Fall 2004. ceptualization of a theory of developmental regula- of four universal developmental Therefore, this report concentrates tion. In W. J. Perrig & A. mechanisms: elective selection, loss- on the first subproject. Grob (Eds.), Control of human behaviour, mental based selection, optimization, and processes and conscious- compensation (e.g., Baltes & Baltes, Subproject I: Goals and ness (pp. 35–58). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. 1990, Freund & Baltes, 2000; see Preferences Baltes, P. B., & Baltes, M. Figure 1). Life-Management Strategies and M. (1990). Psychological The project is composed into three Adaptive (Successful) Development perspectives on successful subprojects. The first, We expect that adults of different aging: The model of selec- Goals and tive optimization with Preferences, focuses on motivational ages use different combinations of compensation. In P. B. aspects of lifespan development, and SOC mechanisms as strategies to Baltes & M. M. Baltes (Eds.), Successful aging: attempts to capture the regulatory regulate their lives, and that use of Perspectives from the function of SOC mechanisms in real- these strategies fosters developmen- behavioral sciences (pp. 1–34). New York: life settings. The second, Lifespan tal success in various life domains. Cambridge University Differences in Selection Dynamics, A series of age-comparative studies Press. seeks to study age differences in se- using self-report measures of SOC lection from a cognitive-experimen- mechanisms and developmental out-

186 Center for Lifespan Psychology Figure 1. The model of A metamodel of adaptive development selection, optimization, and compensation (Baltes The model of selection, optimization, and compensation & Baltes, 1990): Central (Baltes & Baltes, 1990) position and definitions of the three processes. Central proposition Adaptive development results from the interaction of three universal developmental regulatory processes:

1. Selection (elective and loss-based) Focusing one’s resources on a subset of potentially available options, either in response to new demands or tasks (elective selection) or in response to actual or anticipated losses (loss-based selection) → Directionality aspect of development

2. Optimization Acquisition, refinement, and coordinated application of resources directed at the achievement of higher functional levels Growth aspects of development → Principal Investigators 3. Compensation Efforts to maintain a given level of functioning despite actual or Michaela Riediger anticipated decline in or loss of previously available resources Paul B. Baltes Regulation of loss in development → Ulman Lindenberger

Key References comes generally confirmed this ex- is that younger adults seek to ex- Freund, A. M., & Riediger, pectation. Across all age groups, plore different developmental path- M. (in press-b). Goals as higher engagement in SOC-relevant ways to find their way in life, and building blocks of personality and development in life-management strategies was as- also have the prerequisite internal adulthood. In D. K. sociated with indicators of concur- resources to do so. As individuals Mroczek & T. D. Little (Eds.), Handbook of per- rent as well as future developmental move into middle adulthood, they sonality development. success, such as facets of positive acquire and refine resource-efficient Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. psychological functioning, emotional life-management strategies. Most Freund, A. M., & Riediger, M. (2003). Successful ag- well-being, and life satisfaction. At middle-aged adults know their goals ing. In R. M. Lerner, A. the same time, age-related differ- in life and selectively pursue these Easterbrooks, & J. Mistry ences in the extent of self-reported choices. Engagement in SOC strate- (Eds.), Comprehensive handbook of psychology: engagement in SOC were observed. gies (i.e., goal selection and pursuit), Vol. 6. Developmental psy- Middle-aged adults reported however, is itself effortful and re- chology (pp. 601–628). New York: Wiley. stronger engagement than younger source intensive. Therefore, age-as- Freund, A. M., & Baltes, P. and older adults in loss-based selec- sociated decline in internal resources B. (2002). Life-manage- tion, optimization, and compensa- (e.g., sensorimotor and cognitive ment strategies of selection, optimization, and tion. Elective selection showed a lin- abilities) limits the expression of op- compensation: Measure- ear increase from early to middle timizing goal pursuit and counter- ment by self-report and and late adulthood (see Figure 2). A acting goal-related losses (i.e., loss- construct validity. Journal of Personality and Social likely interpretation of these results based selection, compensation). Psychology, 82, 642–662.

Center for Lifespan Psychology 187 Figure 2. Adult age-group Middle-aged adults report more SOC-related behavior than younger and older adults. differences in self-reported There is one exception: Elective selection increases throughout adulthood engagement in SOC-relevant behaviors: Middle- aged adults report more 54 Compen- Optimi- Loss-based Elective SOC-related behaviors sation zation selection selection than younger and older 53 adults. There is one excep- 52 tion: Elective selection increases throughout adult- 51 hood (N = 181; adapted 50 from Freund & Baltes, 2002). 49 SOC (T-Scores) 48 47 46 Age × SOC-component: F (6,352) = 6.01, p = .000, Eta2 = .06 45 Young Middle Older (18–43 years) (43–67 years) (67–89 years)

Key Reference Elective selection may become more maintaining achieved levels of func- Freund, A. M., & Ebner, N. pronounced with age for the same tioning; and (c) preventing from C. (in press). The aging reason, reflecting the necessity to losses in functioning. One series of self: Shifting from promoting gains to balancing focus the remaining resources effi- experiments investigated the effect losses. In W. Greve, ciently on a few important goals of framing tasks in terms of opti- K. Rothermund, & D. Wentura (Eds.), The (Freund & Baltes, 2002). mization (i.e., improving perform- adaptive self: Personal ance) or compensation (i.e., main- continuity and intentional self-development. New Adaptive Goal Selection and Goal taining previous performance in York: Hogrefe. Pursuit more difficult task conditions) on Developmental goal orientation. Se- younger and older adults’ persist- lection and goal pursuit were also ence (Freund, 2005). Younger adults examined at the level of manifest were more motivated and persistent goal-directed action to obtain a when trying to achieve higher levels more direct picture of action goals of performance than when trying to and motives that enhance the likeli- counteract a loss. Conversely, older hood of positive (e.g., desired) devel- adults showed higher persistence opmental outcomes during different when engaged in compensation than phases of life. We examined whether when aiming at maximum perform- basic motivational orientations show ance. Using both self-report and ex- differential developmental trends in perimental assessments, the same intensity and adaptive value during basic pattern was found for adults’ adulthood that can be conceptual- motivational orientation regarding ized as adaptations to decreasing in- self-chosen personal goals (see Fig- ternal resources. Three basic motiva- ure 3; Dissertation Natalie Ebner). At tional orientations were set apart the same time, these studies again (cf. Dissertation Natalie Ebner; suggested adult age differences in Freund & Ebner, in press): (a) attain- the adaptive value of various moti- ing higher levels of functioning; (b) vational preferences. Loss avoidance

188 Center for Lifespan Psychology was associated with impaired psy- 8 Growth chological well-being in younger, but 7 Maintenance-prevention of loss not in older adults. Orienting goals toward maintaining functioning was 6 positively associated with psychological well-being in older, but not in 5 younger adults. Thus, resource limitations in action regulation seem to 4 increase in salience and importance 3 with advancing adult age. Shifts in goal orientation Personal motivational orientation from pro- 2 moting gains toward maintaining 1 functioning and preventing losses Younger adults Older adults may allow individuals to successfully adapt to changing ratios of resource Figure 3. Adult age-group differences in motivational orientation of self-reported personal goals: Goals of younger adults are primarily oriented toward growth, gains over resource losses. whereas goals of older adults are primarily oriented toward maintenance- prevention of loss (N = 100; Study 2 in dissertation Ebner). Developmental goal structures. People typically pursue several developmental goals at once that are being, and intergoal facilitation is more or less related to each other associated with enhanced behavioral (Riediger, in press). Specifically, these involvement in goal pursuit. These goals may influence each other in associations hold both among Key References positive (facilitative) and negative younger and older adults (Riediger & Riediger, M. (in press). In- terference and facilitation (interfering) ways. We propose that Freund, 2004). among personal goals: intergoal facilitation occurs when From a lifespan perspective, investi- Age-group differences and the pursuit of one goal simultane- gating individuals’ engagement in associations with well- being and behavior. In B. R. ously increases the likelihood of suc- goal pursuit is particularly gratifying Little, K. Salmela-Aro, J.-E. cess in reaching another goal. Such because many goals remain just Nurmi, & S. D. Philipps (Eds.), Personal project pur- facilitation may result from instru- that: goals. Wanting to lead a suit: Goals, action, and hu- mental relations among goals and healthy life and exercising regularly man flourishing. Mahwah, from overlapping goal-attainment are examples of goals many people NJ: Erlbaum. Riediger, M., Freund, A. strategies. In contrast, intergoal in- hold, but do not actually pursue. Ac- M., & Baltes, P. B. (2005). terference occurs when the pursuit tive life management, that is, shap- Managing life through personal goals: Intergoal of one goal impairs the likelihood of ing one’s life in aspired directions, facilitation and intensity success in reaching another goal. In- however, requires goal-directed ac- of goal pursuit in younger tergoal interference may result from tion. In a multi-method field experi- and older adulthood. Jour- nals of Gerontology: Psy- resource limitations and from in- ment, we found that older adults chological Sciences, 60B, compatible goal-attainment strate- pursue their self-selected goals more P84–P91. gies. In a series of experimental field intensively than younger adults (see Riediger, M., & Freund, A. M. (2004). Interference studies, we found that facilitation Figure 4; Riediger, Freund, & Baltes, and facilitation among and interference among personal 2005). Furthermore, people’s self- personal goals: Differential associations with sub- goals are indeed associated with in- reported activities as sampled in a jective well-being and dicators of successful development: diary study showed that more inten- persistent goal pursuit. Intergoal interference is associated Personality and Social sive goal pursuit among older adults Psychology Bulletin, 30, with impairments in subjective well- could not be attributed to age dif- 1511–1523.

Center for Lifespan Psychology 189 Figure 4. Intergoal interfer- 0.6 ence, intergoal facilitation, and intensity of goal pur- Younger adults suit in younger and older ) 0.4 Older adults adults: Older adults report more mutual facilitation z-scores 0.2 among their goals, and ( e pursue their goals more l intensely than younger 0.0 samp adults. This higher goal- b pursuit intensity is in part –0.2 a consequence of more mutually facilitative goals ean per su

in older adulthood. M –0.4 Younger and older adults do not differ in the extent –0.6 of interference among Intergoal Intergoal Goal-pursuit goals (N = 111; Study 1 in inference facilitation intensity Riediger, Freund, & Baltes, 2005). ferences in available time. Instead, lies, or in other groups. We have be- higher goal-pursuit intensity of older gun to investigate the role of goals adults is, at least in part, a conse- for dyadic development in young quence of positive adult age differ- adult couples. Results from a first ences in mutual goal facilitation study indicate that the extent to (Riediger et al., 2005). Furthermore, which partners mutually know their higher intergoal facilitation in later personal goals is positively associ- adulthood is also associated with ated with partnership quality, and greater goal-related selectivity. Older that mutual goal knowledge be- adults, for example, tend to narrow comes more important with increas- in on goals in life domains they re- ing partnership duration. Another gard as central to their life satisfac- facet of goal processes in couples is tion. Younger adults, in contrast, reflected in the extent to which both more often report goals referring to partners agree in their ideas about life domains that they regard as dyadic goals, which we define as unimportant for their life satisfac- mental representations of the cou- tion. Overall, our findings form part ple’s common future. Initial results of a recently evolving line of re- show that dyadic goal setting is an search suggesting that motivational important characteristic in people’s and volitional processes show posi- subjective theories of high-quality tive developmental trends from early partnerships. However, young adults to later adulthood. do not necessarily know how well their ideas on dyadic goals corre- Beyond the Individual: spond with those of their partners, An Interpersonal Perspective on Goal and the actual (externally rated) Processes dyadic-goal correspondence appears The fabric formed by developmental to be quite independent of subjective goals covers more than the individ- evaluations of partnership quality. A ual. Rather, people co-construct one-year follow-up is currently un- their development as couples, fami- derway to identify prospective asso-

190 Center for Lifespan Psychology ciations between dyadic-goal pro- which in turn should be a function Principal cesses and partnership development. of performance variability and the Investigators accuracy of performance and error Subproject II: Lifespan Differences monitoring. We expect that older Ulman Lindenberger in Selection Dynamics adults and children will show wider Shu-Chen Li According to the SOC theory, selec- selection margins in cognitive tasks Michaela Riediger tion is particularly important when than young adults. processing resources are scarce. The direction of selection margins is Everyday cognitive functioning is a characterized by whether the indi- continuous stream of simultaneous vidual chooses task numbers in ex- and sequential multi-tasking (e.g., cess or below his or her current abil- finding one’s way through a mall ity level. If individuals select to work while memorizing a shopping list, with a number of subtasks that is watching one’s purse, and talking to smaller than their maximum man- a friend), thus requiring flexible re- ageable difficulty, their selection source allocation across functions margin is said to be conservative. and task domains on the part of the Conversely, if individuals select to individual. In this new subproject, work with a number of subtasks in we will use a multi-tasking para- excess of their maximum manage- digm to investigate lifespan age dif- able difficulty, their selection margin ferences in selection dynamics, with is termed progressive (see Figure 5). the aim to advance a developmental We assume that the direction of se- process model of the selection lection margins is influenced by peo- mechanism in SOC theory. ple’s expectations of the future development of their performance. Ontogenetic changes in selection Progressive selection margins should margins. Given the more positive, result from expected improvement, the more balanced, and the more and conservative selection margins negative gain-loss ratio of develop- from expected decline. We further mental resources in childhood, assume that such expectations are a adulthood, and old age, respectively, function of past experiences of im- we expect lifespan age differences in provement or decline in abilities, of mechanisms of selection. In particu- age-normative expectations, and lar, we propose the concept of selec- concurrent task performance. Older tion margins to study the develop- adults may therefore more likely use ment of adaptive resource allocation conservative selection margins, processes in multiple-task situations whereas children may use more pro- (see Figure 5). gressive selection margins. The width of selection margins refers Finally, we assume that the function to the extent of the deviation be- or adaptivity of selection margins tween self-selected and maximally depends on the actual gradient of manageable number of simultaneous performance development, which is tasks. We assume that selection a function of biological capacity and width is influenced by the accuracy contextual opportunities and con- of people’s estimates of the number straints. Progressive selection mar- of tasks they can maximally manage, gins should be adaptive in childhood,

Center for Lifespan Psychology 191 Conservative selection margins of Maximum manageable difficulty small width might be most adaptive in this regard, that is, selection margins that are small enough to keep the individual safely away from their limits without severely constraining the expression of the available capacity. These predictions are cur- Conservative Progressive rently tested in an experimental par- selection margin selection margin adigm in which participants are con-

Performance tinuously asked to select the number of tasks they wish to work on next.

Subproject III: Formal Modeling of Developmental Self-Regulation

{ { As a general set of tools for adaptive resource allocation, SOC mechanisms are intrinsically dynamic. We Number of simultaneous tasks wish to implement SOC mechanisms Figure 5. Schematic diagram of selective margins defined as discrepancies between in formal models that specify the the number of multiple tasks an individual could maximally manage given the dynamics of adaptive resource allo- available processing resources and the number of tasks he or she actually selects to cation, in general, and of experien- work on. tial influences on selection, in particular. In collaboration with visiting when cognitive abilities are on a scientists (e.g., Sy-Miin Chow from growth trajectory and when working University of Notre Dame), special on a number of tasks that exceeds attention will be given to nonlinear the child’s current ability level dynamical systems models, agent- should stimulate the full utilization based models, and recursive attrac- of the developmental potential and tor models. The long-term goal of thus accelerate the improvement of this subproject is to transform the functioning. Progressive selection SOC metamodel into a formal theory margins of moderate width might be of lifespan development. most adaptive in this regard. In old age, however, conservative selection Modeling of age differences in re- margins should be adaptive because source competition and task prioriti- they prevent old adults from over- zation through nonlinear differential taxing their capacity, which—in con- equations. Dynamic systems models trast to childhood—would not result characterize changes according to in rapid improvement of ability lev- specified functional relations and els because cognitive mechanics are parameters that determine their cur- on a trajectory of accelerated de- rent states in terms of previous cline. In this sense, conservative se- states. One subclass of dynamical lection margins in older adulthood models, the predator-prey model, has should function as a mechanism of recently been applied to study adult anticipatory loss-based selection. age differences in dual-task per-

192 Center for Lifespan Psychology formance. Extending the predator- ral networks. Neural networks are Principal prey model to characterize dual-task able to capture dynamic aspects of Investigators performance, adult age differences in behavior because their internal rep- intra- and inter-task resource com- resentations depend jointly on net- Shu-Chen Li petition can be specified as mutually work parameters, input-output map- Ulman Lindenberger related differential equations, there- pings, and learning history. There- by permitting the formal description fore, neural networks provide a and prediction of task selection be- suitable framework for studying age havior and performance levels as a differences in experiential selection. function of resource competition. We Throughout life, experiences help to will use the predator-prey model to shape individuals’ habits and prefer- formally describe age differences in ences. These experiences, in turn, af- task prioritization under conditions fect goal and task selection, thereby of walking while memorizing. Given enhancing the likelihood of certain that tripping over and falling has future experiences, and decreasing salient negative functional signifi- the likelihood of others. In some cance in old age, we predict that cases, experiential selection helps older adults allot relatively more the deliberation of selecting a par- processing resources to walking, ticular goal or action; in other cases, compared to younger adults, partic- habits introduce conflict between ularly when walking is made difficult current task requirement and old be- (e.g., stepping over obstacles). havior and thus hamper current action (see Figure 6). We plan to use Modeling lifespan age differences in neural network models to examine experiential selection through neural how lifespan age differences in networks. Another class of dynamic selection mechanisms influence process models that has been com- behavior when current task require- monly applied to study child devel- ments conflict with well-established opmental and aging changes is neu- habitual responses.

Figure 6. Schematic dia- Scenario A: Experiential selection facilitates Scenario B: Experiential selection impedes gram of two scenarios of current action current action possible interactions between experiential selec- Current action Current action tion and current actions: requirement requirement Habituated (experientially Conflict monitoring Conflict monitoring selected) processes are of mismatch of mismatch linked with thick dark lines. between current between current When the conflict between requirement and requirement and current action requirement habitual processes habitual processes and experientially selected processes is low, experien- Low mismatch, High mismatch, tial selection facilitates low interference high interference current action (Scenario A). In contrast, when conflict between current action requirement and experientially selected processes is high, experiential selection hampers current action (Scenario B).

Center for Lifespan Psychology 193 Scientific Research Project 5 Investigators Interactive Brains, Social Minds Ulman Lindenberger This new project plans to investigate the development of behavioral and Shu-Chen Li neuronal mechanisms that permit individuals to coordinate their ongoing Viktor Müller behavior in time and space. The empirical focus is on temporal aspects of in- Michaela Riediger terpersonal action coordination as assessed by simultaneous EEG, EMG, and behavioral recordings. Activities requiring such coordination include per- Anna Kleinspehn forming music, singing, dancing, and collective sports. More importantly, (predoctoral fellow) general properties of social behaviors, such as joint gaze, imitation, and turn-taking probably also fall under this category. Therefore, the ability to align one’s action in time with the action of another person may play a critical role in social development. Interpersonally coordinated behavior may re- Key References flect basic dispositions and needs, and pleasure associated with such behav- Li, S.-C., & Lindenberger, U. (2002). Co-constructed ior may reinforce activities serving important evolutionary functions, such as functionality instead of early mother-child interaction and reproduction. functional normality. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 25, 761–762. So far, the dominant research strat- pursued. A central empirical objec- Baltes, P. B., & Staudinger, egy in social cognitive neuroscience tive of this project is to identify neu- U. M. (1996). Interactive has focused on understanding how ronal mechanisms that allow indi- minds in a life-span perspective: Prologue. In P. B. individualized brains process socially viduals to coordinate and adjust Baltes & U. M. Staudinger embedded information. Questions their individual contributions to a (Eds.), Interactive minds: Life-span perspectives on about the online dynamics between coordinated action with high tempo- the social foundation of multiple brains—capturing multiple ral precision. We conjecture that cognition (pp. 1–32). New York: Cambridge University interactive brains during interper- neural networks supporting social Press. sonal interaction—have yet to be cognition, in general, and theory of mind abilities, in particular, also support interbrain couplings during interpersonally coordinated voluntary action. Preliminary results from pilot studies suggest that this hypothesis can be meaningfully addressed with frequency analyses of standard elec- trophysiological recordings (EEG and EMG). Specifically, we conjecture that brain mechanisms permitting interpersonally coordinated behavior have to meet two constraints: (a) They need to be sufficiently fast to permit the degree of interpersonal coordination actually observed; (b) they need to integrate and regulate sensory, motor, and brain activity to generate Figure 1. One of the three new EEG cabins of the LIP research unit. The cabin is suffi- and sustain action coordination be- ciently large to allow for simultaneous EEG recording of up to four individuals. tween two or more persons. Coher-

194 Center for Lifespan Psychology ent oscillatory activity appears to mans. Second, coherent oscillations meet both constraints. First, coher- support both perception and motor ent oscillations bind spatially distrib- performance. We have begun to in- uted but functionally related infor- vestigate the functional significance mation at the level of individual of coherent oscillations with a vari- neurons, cell assemblies, and cortical ety of paradigms ranging from areas. Onset times and frequency highly controlled activities, such as ranges of coherent oscillations are coordinated tapping, to less con- sufficiently fast to permit, in princi- trolled but behaviorally rich and ple, the kind of between-person ac- emotionally salient actions, such as tion coordination observed in hu- performing music or kissing.

The Center for Lifespan Psychology 2004

Left to right: Viktor Müller, Martin Lövdén, Michael Schellenbach, Jacqui Smith, Florian Schmiedek, Daniel Grühn, Oliver Huxhold, Susanne Scheibe, Julia Delius, Agneta Herlitz, Dennis Gerstorf, Albina Bondar, Natalie Ebner, Yvonne Brehmer, Sabine Schäfer, Christina Röcke, Yee Lee Shing, Anna Kleinspehn, Dana Kotter, Markus Werkle-Bergner, Shu-Chen Li, Ute Kunzmann, Lars Bäckman, Paul B. Baltes, Ulman Lindenberger.

Center for Lifespan Psychology 195 Scientific Research Project 6 Investigators Wisdom: The Integration of Mind and Virtue Paul B. Baltes The search for human strengths has a long history in philosophical writings. Ute Kunzmann Since antiquity, one guide in this search has been the concept of wisdom. At the core of this concept is the notion of a perfect, perhaps utopian, integra- Antje Stange tion of knowledge and character, mind and virtue (e.g., Baltes, 2004; Baltes (predoctoral fellow) & Staudinger, 2000; Kunzmann & Baltes, in press). A focus on human strengths and excellence is also a key feature of the recent advent of the movement of positive psychology.

Key References The territory of wisdom can be ap- lem that calls for wisdom-related Baltes, P. B., & Kunz- proached in several ways, for in- expertise. mann, U. (2004). Two stance, by a person focus (what are Solutions or thinking about possible faces of wisdom: Wisdom as a general theory of the characteristics of “sages”?) or by solutions to these problems can be knowledge and judgment a conceptual orientation (what is quantified based on five criteria de- about excellence in mind and virtue vs. wisdom wisdom as an abstract system?). In rived from our theory-based wisdom as everyday realization our work, we prioritized the second conception (Baltes & Smith, 1990; in people and products. Human Development, 47, approach in order to obtain a golden Baltes & Staudinger, 2000). Expert 290–299. standard on the utopia of wisdom as knowledge about fundamental prob- Kunzmann, U., & Baltes, a body of outstanding knowledge lems referring to the meaning and P. B. (2003b). Wisdom-related knowledge: Affective, about the human condition and the conduct of life is thought to ap- motivational, and interper- conduct of life. In subsequent re- proach wisdom if it meets all five sonal correlates. Personal- search, we considered the first line criteria. Two criteria are labeled ity and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 1104–1119. of inquiry, and asked questions basic because they are characteristic Baltes, P. B., & Staudinger, about the characteristics and devel- of all types of expertise or expert U. M. (2000). Wisdom: A opmental conditions of persons who, knowledge systems; these are: metaheuristic (pragmatic) to orchestrate mind and relatively speaking, achieve higher or (a) rich factual knowledge about hu- virtue toward excellence. lower standings in the theoretically man nature and the life course and American Psychologist, 55, 122–136. specified wisdom domain (Baltes & (b) rich procedural knowledge about Staudinger, U. M., & Kunzmann, 2004). ways of dealing with life problems. Baltes, P. B. (1996). Inter- Specifically, and consistent with The three other criteria are labeled active minds: A facilitative setting for wisdom-related Western philosophical conceptions, metacriteria because they are performance? Journal of our project has defined wisdom as thought to be unique to wisdom: Personality and Social Psy- an expert knowledge system about (c) lifespan contextualism, that is, an chology, 71, 746–762. fundamental problems related to awareness and understanding of the Baltes, P. B., & Smith, J. (1990). The psychology of the meaning and conduct of life. many contexts of life, how they re- wisdom and its ontogene- These problems are typically com- late to each other and change over sis. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Wisdom: Its nature, origins, plex, ill-defined, and have multiple, the lifespan; (d) value relativism and and development (pp. 87– yet unknown, solutions. For in- tolerance, that is, an acknowledg- 120). New York: Cam- bridge University Press. stance, deciding on a particular ment of individual, social, and cul- career path, accepting the death of tural differences in values and life loved ones, dealing with human priorities; and (e) knowledge about mortality, or solving long-lasting handling uncertainty, including the conflicts among family members, limits of one’s own knowledge and are illustrations of the type of prob- the knowledge of the world at large.

196 Center for Lifespan Psychology Task: A 15-year-old girl wants to get married right away. What could one/she consider and do?

Low wisdom score A 15-year-old girl wants to get married? No, no way, marrying at age 15 would be utterly wrong. One has to tell the girl that marriage is not possible. (After further probing) It would be irresponsible to support such an idea. No, this is just a crazy idea.

High wisdom score Well, on the surface, this seems like an easy problem. On average, marriage for 15-year-old girls is not a good thing. I guess many girls might think about it, however, when they fall in love for the first time. And, then, there are situations where the average case does not fit. Perhaps in this instance, special life circumstances are involved, such that the girl has a terminal illness. Or the girl has just lost her parents. And also, this girl may not be from this country. Perhaps she lives in another culture and historical period.

Figure 1. Illustration of two extreme responses to wisdom tasks.

To assess wisdom, we present our dom-related knowledge in a given study participants with short situation (Staudinger & Baltes, 1996; vignettes describing difficult life Böhmig-Krumhaar, Staudinger, & problems of fictitious people, and Baltes, 2002). Finally, during the last ask them to think aloud about these couple of years, we have become in- problems. For example, a problem creasingly interested in understand- concerning life management reads: ing the motivational-emotional “A 15-year-old girl wants to move nexus of wisdom-related knowledge. out right away. What could one/she Thus, we have studied the motiva- consider and do?” Trained raters tional, social, and emotional charac- evaluate our participants’ responses teristics of persons varying in level for wisdom-related knowledge as of wisdom-related knowledge (e.g., determined by the five criteria de- Baltes & Kunzmann, 2004; Kunz- scribed above. Figure 1 depicts two mann, 2004; Kunzmann & Baltes, excerpts of extreme responses to one 2003a; Stange, 2004). of our wisdom tasks. Given that wisdom has been consid- Evidence for Age-Related Differences ered an ideal endpoint of human de- in Wisdom-Related Knowledge velopment, a longstanding goal of As seen in Figure 2, our studies sug- our research has been to describe gest that wisdom-related knowledge and explain age-related differences increases during adolescence and in wisdom-related knowledge (e.g., young adulthood (Pasupathi et al., Baltes & Kunzmann, in press; Baltes 2001) and then remains stable, at & Smith, 1990; Pasupathi, least up to age 75 (see also Staudinger, & Baltes, 2001; Smith & Staudinger, 1999). At first sight, the Baltes, 1990; Staudinger, Smith, & stability of wisdom across most of Baltes, 1992). A second goal of our adulthood is at odds with the idea work has been to study the factors that wisdom is a positive aspect that promote the activation of wis- of aging. However, given that basic

Center for Lifespan Psychology 197 Figure 2. Cross-sectional Wisdom-related knowledge Wisdom-related knowledge age gradients and scatter High plots for wisdom-related performance. The left panel shows data from Pasupathi, Staudinger, and Baltes (2001) including outcomes of a spline analysis. The right panel summarizes results from several studies with adult samoles (see also Baltes & Staudinger, 2000). Low 13 18 23 28 33 38 6050403020 70 9080 100 Age in years Age in years

cognitive functions lose efficiency 1998). There is also evidence that relatively early in the lifespan, for adults who specialize in professions, most people, the maintenance of which provide extensive training and wisdom-related knowledge might be practice in difficult and uncertain the best possible outcome that life matters (e.g., clinical psychol- adulthood and old age can bring ogy), show higher wisdom-related about. That many adults do not ex- performance than professionals from perience an increase in wisdom- fields in which training and job tasks related knowledge during the adult were not specifically dedicated to years is also consistent with our the- dealing with fundamental life prob- oretical model of the ontogenesis of lems (Staudinger et al., 1992). To- wisdom. In this model, wisdom- gether, this evidence suggests that related knowledge is not strictly tied age itself does not bring higher lev- to the aging process; rather, we have els of wisdom-related knowledge, argued that the acquisition and op- and yet a number of age-associated timization of wisdom-related knowl- factors appear to be highly relevant edge requires a wide range of sup- to the further development of wis- portive conditions and processes dom during the adult lifespan. related to an individual’s personality, cognitive capacities, environment, The Activation of Wisdom-Related and life history (e.g., Baltes & Smith, Knowledge in the Laboratory 1990; Baltes & Staudinger, 2000). In experimental work, we have Correlational evidence from adult shown that the expression of wis- samples supports this idea. For ex- dom-related performance can be en- ample, those who are open to new hanced by social and cognitive inter- experiences, who have a certain level ventions. For example, Boehmig- of academic intelligence, or who Krumhaar et al. (2002) demonstrated think about the how and why of an that a memory strategy, namely, a event rather than simply whether it version of the method of loci, in is good or bad display higher levels which participants were instructed of wisdom-related knowledge (e.g., to travel on a cloud around the Staudinger, Lopez, & Baltes, 1997; world, can be used to focus people’s Staudinger, Maciel, Smith, & Baltes, attention on cultural relativism and

198 Center for Lifespan Psychology tolerance. As predicted, following ation (e.g., Baltes & Freund, 2003; this intervention, participants ex- Baltes et al., 2002; Kunzmann, 2004; pressed higher levels of wisdom- Kunzmann & Baltes, 2003a; Kunz- related knowledge, especially value mann, Stange, & Jordan, in press). As relativism and tolerance. To explore Kunzmann and Baltes (2003b) re- the social-mind component of wis- ported, for example, adults with dom, Staudinger and Baltes (1996) above-average levels of wisdom-re- conducted an experiment in which lated knowledge evince a complex study participants were asked to and more modulated profile of af- think aloud about a wisdom problem fective feelings, they show a prefer- under several experimental condi- ence for values that consider the tions involving imagined and actual welfare of others, and report engag- social interactions. Specifically, being themselves in the interest of fore responding individually, some others. Moreover, adults with above- participants had the opportunity to average levels of wisdom-related discuss the problem with a person knowledge reported that they prefer they brought into the laboratory and cooperative strategies of conflict with whom they usually discuss dif- management over one-sided strate- ficult life problems; others were gies that focus on one’s own interest asked to engage in an inner dialogue (dominance), the opponent’s interest about the problem with a person of (submission), or no interest at all their choice, or to think about the (avoidance; see also Figure 3). problem on their own. The results We also have conducted laboratory supposed the notion of a strong in- studies to investigate under more teractive minds component. Actual standardized conditions the differ- social dialogue and the inner-voice ence that wisdom-related knowledge dialogue increased performance levels by almost one standard deviation. Common-good orientation One important implication of these studies is that many adults may have Other-enhancing values (r = .18) the capacity to perform better on Personal-growth values (r = .22) wisdom tasks than they actually of- + Feelings of positive involvement (r = .28) Cooperation during interpersonal ten do. To do so, they need to engage conflict (r = .16) their social context as a facilitator.

Wisdom-related The Emotional, Motivational, and knowledge Self-centered orientation Social Dynamics of Wisdom-Related Knowledge Hedonic values (r = –.42) A third focus of our work has been Pleasant feelings (r = –.17) Dominance during interpersonal the investigation of emotional, moti- – conflict (r = –.27) vational, and social dynamics linked Submission during interpersonal to wisdom-related knowledge. Re- conflict (r = –.26) lated to this research focus is our work on the consequences of wis- Figure 3. Wisdom-related knowledge and its association with motivational, affec- dom-related knowledge for a person’s tive, and social-behavoral dispositions. The evidence suggests that wisdom is in- lifestyle and behavior in a given situ- compatible with a self-centered life.

Center for Lifespan Psychology 199 makes for adults’ social and emo- listening, and substantive quality of tional behaviors. In one such experi- wisdom knowledge) interacting with ment we presented short film clips a young person who talked about a about fundamental losses (e.g., serious problem. The findings sug- death of loved ones, life-threatening gest that participants’ evaluations diseases) known to elicit strong feel- did not only depend on the advisor’s ings of sadness (Kunzmann & Grühn, level of wisdom-related knowledge in press). The evidence from this as expressed in his or her verbal ad- study suggests that people with vice, but also on the advisor’s age above-average levels of wisdom- and nonverbal listening behavior. In related knowledge react quite differ- fact, advisors who met all three wis- ently to such problems than do peo- dom criteria (high wisdom-related ple with low levels of wisdom- knowledge, empathic listening be- related knowledge. Possibly due to havior, and older age) were most their better understanding of the likely to be considered as wise. This significance of fundamental losses, evidence supports the idea that wis- persons with higher wisdom-related dom as an attributed person charac- knowledge spontaneously reacted teristic is a multidimensional con- with greater sadness both on the cept requiring the simultaneous con- level of subjective feelings and outer sideration of experience-based, expressions (Kunzmann & Baltes, in behavioral, and cognitive qualities. press). In another study, we found While processing the cues of age that adults with above-average lev- and listening behavior was fast, the els of wisdom-related knowledge information about wisdom knowl- were more likely to express empathic edge took longer to process. concern with others in need, and Together, our evidence has been sys- they were more accurate in judging tematically extended from wisdom other people’s inner feelings than as a theory of knowledge to wisdom people with low levels of wisdom- as a characteristic of people and be- related knowledge (Kunzmann & havioral expressions. The results are Richter, 2004). consistent with our expectations. Together, the findings help us move Who Is Considered a Wise Person? toward a more comprehensive con- Related to this work is an experi- ceptualization of wisdom that high- mental person perception study con- lights its special strength, namely, ducted as a dissertation by Antje the integration of mind and virtue as Stange. She investigated the degree the optimum of human functioning to which people’s social behaviors, and as a guidepost for desirable verbalized wisdom-related knowl- (successful) developmental outcomes edge, and chronological age make involving the self as well as the role them appear to be wise and sought of oneself in the positive develop- out as an advisor (Stange, 2004). ment of others (Baltes, 2004; Baltes More specifically, participants in her et al., 2002; Baltes & Freund, 2003; study had to evaluate an advisor’s Baltes & Kunzmann, 2004; Baltes & level of wisdom after they observed Staudinger, 2000; Kunzmann & advisors (varying in age, empathic Baltes, in press).

200 Center for Lifespan Psychology Research Project 7 Scientific Toward a Psychological and Developmental Theory of Investigators Lifespan-Longing (Sehnsucht) Paul B. Baltes One of the exciting events in lifespan psychology is the identification of Alexandra M. novel constructs that appear worthwhile of investigation when considering Freund (until 2004) the life course as a whole (Baltes, Lindenberger, & Staudinger, in press). A first construct attracting such attention was wisdom (Baltes & Smith, 1990; Susanne Scheibe Baltes & Staudinger, 2000; Kunzmann & Baltes, in press; see Project 6). Re- (predoctoral fellow cently, we have added the concept of “Sehnsucht.” We assume that “Sehn- until 2004; post- sucht” is a holistic, domain- and lifespan-integrative concept that may fur- doctoral fellow as ther our understanding of human development in its complexity and rich- of 2004) ness. It is also a construct that fits a central piece of lifespan theory, namely that a key feature of life in the modern world is a permanent sense of in- Dana Kotter completeness, objectively and subjectively (Baltes, 1997). “Sehnsucht” is dif- (predoctoral fellow ficult to translate into English. After much deliberation, we have chosen to as of 2004) characterize the emerging research program as the “Psychology of Lifespan- Longing.” We view lifespan longings as emotional and mental representations of personal peaks of life, akin to personal utopias. In principle, however, these personal utopias are unattainable and, therefore, ambivalent in emotional quality.

In German everyday life, the concept (1) Lifespan-longing involves feel- of "Sehnsucht” is salient. In fact, ings of incompleteness and imper- “Sehnsucht” was the third most of- fection of life. It reflects the notion ten nominated word in a recent con- that development is a lifelong test of “The most beautiful German process that never reaches comple- word” (Spiegel Online, 2004). Such tion. (2) We assume that lifespan- popularity illustrates the importance longing comprises representations that German culture allocates to that are rich in symbolism. (3) Con- emotional and mental representa- sistent with the notion that individ- tions of unfulfilled wishes of life, and uals hold subjective beliefs about probably also to individual and col- their own optimal development, we lective reflections about the “non- assume that lifespan-longing in- realizability of dreams” and "chronic volves personal utopias of ideal life incompleteness” as part of life. realities and optimal life courses. Aside from attending to the core of (4) Lifespan-longing reflects the everyday, dictionary-like definitions conception that development always of “Sehnsucht,” we are applying involves both gains and losses: It has principles of lifespan psychology an ambivalent, bittersweet emo- (e.g., Baltes, 1987, 1997) to frame tional quality. (5) Lifespan-longing our approach on a conceptual level. focuses on the life course as a Our conceptual analysis suggests a whole, that is, on the personal past, family of six characteristics to cap- present, and future. It is an “ontoge- ture the structure of lifespan-long- netic tritime phenomenon.” ing (see Figure 1, for an example). (6) Lifespan-longing elicits reflec-

Center for Lifespan Psychology 201 Key References Prototype example of a lifespan-longing: A house by the sea Scheibe, S., Freund, A. M., & Baltes, P. B. (sub- I always wanted to have a house and live by the sea. It is the missing piece mitted). Toward a psychology of lifespan-longing: in my life (personal utopia, incompleteness). I enjoy imagining myself walking Conceptualization, mea- along the seashore and hearing the sounds of the waves and seagulls. Yet, surement, and association with psychological well- I know that real life will never be that perfect, and this makes me sad being. (nonrealizability of personal utopia, ambivalent emotions). Scheibe, S. (2005). Long- The sea has been part of my childhood, and it symbolizes something missing ing (“Sehnsucht”) as a new lifespan concept: A devel- in my life today (tritime focus). It has to do with freedom, endless time, and opmental conceptualiza- being close to nature (symbolic nature). I wonder: how do I want to live tion and its measurement in adulthood. Doctoral (reflection)? In a way, I would hope that when I am old, I would be able to thesis, Free University of buy a house by the sea to fulfill my lifespan-longing (continuing presence Berlin. of personal utopia, tritime focus). Baltes, P. B. (1997). On the incomplete architecture of human ontogeny: Figure 1. This figure presents a theory-based prototype example of a lifespan-longing. The example has Selection, optimization, been constructed to illustrate the six structural characteristics that our theoretical analysis assigns to the and compensation as mental representations of lifespan-longing (Sehnsucht). foundation of developmental theory. American 366–380. Psychologist, 52, tions and evaluations of life and Self-Report Measure of Lifespan- one’s standing relative to ideals, or Longing to others who serve as guideposts The outcome of the scale develop- for optimal development. ment was rather encouraging. We The major study conducted so far asked 299 study participants (aged was dissertation work by Susanne 19 to 81 years) to report on their Scheibe, which was cosupervised by three most important lifespan-long- Paul B. Baltes and Alexandra M. ings. The questionnaire inquired Freund (Scheibe, 2005; Scheibe, about the six structural characteris- Freund, & Baltes, submitted). Based tics and other important aspects of on the theoretical frame outlined lifespan-longings. As shown in Fig- above, in this study, we developed a ure 2, the measurement structure self-report questionnaire to assess corresponded to our theory-guided lifespan-longing. We used this new expectations. A two-factor solution scale to explore age-related changes with the two factors of intensity/ in, and possible functions of, life- scope and nonrealizability/ambiva- span-longing for development. In lence resulted. There was evidence addition, a master’s thesis was com- for temporal stability (over 5 weeks), pleted by Sabine Mayser under the with values between .59 and .85. supervision of Michaela Riediger and These data show that reliability is Susanne Scheibe. This study explored satisfactory, and that lifespan-long- similarities and differences between ing exhibits a tendency toward the lifespan-longing and goals in an at- dispositional kind. Surprisingly, there tempt to show that lifespan-longing were no clear age and gender differ- carries uniqueness, especially in re- ences. Thus, adults of different ages lation to the psychology of goals. and genders reported their lifespan- longings to be equally intense, broad, unrealizable, and ambivalent.

202 Center for Lifespan Psychology Measurement and empirical structure of lifespan-longing

.58 Nonreal- Construct Intensity/ izability/ scope ambivalence

.62 .80 .46 .91 .76 .77

Nonrealizabil- Facets Incom- Symbolic Tritime Reflec- Ambivalent ity of personal pleteness nature focus tion emotions utopia

Items e.g., e.g., e.g., e.g., e.g., e.g., as long as my what I am my lifespan- my lifespan- I am longing my feeling of lifespan-longing longing for longing has longing often for something lifespan-longing is unfulfilled, is heavily to do with makes me too perfect is both painful something filled with persons or start thinking to be true and pleasurable essential is meaning events from intensively missing for me my past, about myself present, and and my life future

Figure 2. On a general level of analysis, results from a study with 299 adults (aged 19 to 81) showed that lifespan-longing can be described in terms of two structural “factor-analytic” dimensions. Intensity/ Scope represents the intensity of incompleteness of life, the amount of associated reflections, and the extension of lifespan-longing across multiple life domains and time periods. Nonrealizability/Ambivalence represents the utopian nature of lifespan-longing representations and the unique bittersweet affect accompanying lifespan-longing. For each facet of lifespan-longing, the figure contains sample items that are part of the questionnaire used in this study.

An interesting by-product was the tive or negative states and out- finding that under conditions of comes? Answers to such questions more explicit anonymity (separate require careful analysis of an- questionnaire without identification tecedent-consequent relationships, number), 35 % of participants re- considerations of different outcome ported additional lifespan-longings measures, and likely also the recog- not mentioned under the standard nition that such associations and instruction. These included less causal connections may be non- desirable characteristics, such as linear. infidelity and revenge. In our first effort, we considered two possible outcomes of lifespan-long- The Regulative Function of ing. First, we examined whether Lifespan-Longing in Adult lifespan-longings are perceived as Development and Aging functional (facilitative) in develop- What is the role of lifespan-longing ment. In this vein, adults in our in planning, managing, and experi- study reported that their lifespan- encing one’s life? Does it give direc- longings (1) provided a sense of di- tion? Is it an expression of incom- rectionality for development (regard- pleteness? Is it an indicator of posi- ing the past, present, and future life)

Center for Lifespan Psychology 203 and (2) helped in regulating losses Lifespan-Longing and Goals and incompleteness. Second, we in- In the second study, we asked per- vestigated the relationship between sons to report on their three most lifespan-longing and overall well- important lifespan-longings and being (e.g., positive emotions, life their three most important goals. We satisfaction). The correlational rela- found important differences be- tionship was negative, that is, indi- tween these two concepts. For ex- viduals with high-level expressions ample, goals were reported to be of lifespan-longing reported lower more concrete, controllable (i.e., one well-being. It can be speculated that knows the steps necessary for their lifespan-longing is linked with criti- achievement), and more closely cal self-reflection about the devel- linked to everyday behavior than is opmental progression toward per- true for lifespan-longings. In addi- sonal ideals of life. Thus, intense tion, lifespan-longings were rated as lifespan-longing might be an expres- more emotionally bittersweet (pain- sion of unfulfilled personal utopias. ful and pleasurable at the same However, this negative association time) than goals. between high levels of lifespan- In the future, we will inquire further longing and subjective well-being into the antecedents, correlates, and was subject to modulation. Specifi- consequences of lifespan-longings cally, when persons also reported a and explore their short-term intra- strong sense of control over the ex- individual, temporal, and contextual perience of lifespan-longing, the dynamics (e.g., stages of lifespan- negative relationship was less strong longing, such as beginning, experi- approaching zero. ence, and conclusion).

204 Center for Lifespan Psychology Integrative Project Scientific History, Theory, and Method in Lifespan Psychology Investigators All LIP scientists In order for a developmental approach—especially of the life-span kind— to be empirically powerful, one must have a warehouse full of methods capable of identifying, representing, and explaining complex long-term historical relationships. Baltes, Reese, and Nesselroade (1977, p. 106)

Since its foundation by Paul Baltes in 1981, the Center for Lifespan Psychol- ogy has sought to promote historical reflection, theoretical integration and expansion, and methodological innovation within developmental psychology and in interdisciplinary context (Baltes, Lindenberger, & Staudinger, in press). Over the years, this emphasis on concepts and methods has evolved into a distinct feature of the Center. The Center will continue this line of work, with special attention to formal theory, computational models, statistical methods, and empirical research tools that connect behavioral to neuronal plasticity. Key References Lifespan Psychology in Dialogue sity of Michigan, and Frank Rösler Baltes, P. B., Linden- berger, U., & Staudinger, With Other Disciplines: Exploring from the University of Marburg U. M. (in press). Lifespan Biocultural Co-Construction asked neuroscientists and behavioral theory in developmental psychology. In W. Damon Human development from childhood scientists to articulate their diver- (Series Ed.) & R. M. Lerner into old age results from reciprocal gent perspectives (Baltes, Reuter- (Vol. Ed.), Handbook of co-constructive interactions be- Lorenz, & Rösler, in press—see over- Child Psychology: Vol. 1. Theoretical Models of tween biological factors and experi- leaf; see also Li & Baltes, in press; Human Development ential/environmental factors (Baltes, Staudinger & Lindenberger, 2003). In (6th ed.). New York: Wiley. Lindenberger, & Staudinger, in press; a similar vein, and together with Lars Baltes, P. B., Reuter- Lorenz, P., & Rösler, F. Li, 2003; Lindenberger et al., in Bäckman (Karolinska Institute, (Eds.) (in press). Lifespan press). Though most scholars in the Stockholm, and visting scientist at development and the brain: The perspective of biocul- behavioral neurosciences subscribe the Center in 2004–2005), we ad- tural co-constructivism. to this view, the mechanisms medi- dressed methodological advances in New York: Cambridge Uni- ating beneficial and deleterious ef- the study of brain-behavior dynam- versity Press. Li, S.-C., & Baltes, P. B. fects of environment and behavior ics from a multivariate lifespan per- (in press). Cognitive devel- on brain functioning are not yet well spective (Lindenberger, Li, & Bäck- opmental research from understood. Conversely, social scien- man, in press). lifespan perspectives: The challenge of integration. In tists often focus on environmental E. Bialystok & F. I. M. Craik conditions and tend to ignore poten- Computational Modeling (Eds.), Lifespan cognition: Mechanisms of change. tial biological influences. To initiate In earlier work (e.g., Li, Lindenberger, New York: Oxford Univer- a productive dialogue on biocultural & Frensch, 2000), we proposed neu- sity Press. co-construction, and based on con- ral networks as a computational Li, S.-C., Naveh-Benjamin, M., & Lindenberger, U. (in tributions resulting from a confer- platform for cross-level integration press). Aging neuromodu- ence sponsored by the Center for of lifespan differences in cognitive lation impairs associative Lifespan Psychology, Paul Baltes, and neuronal processes. This line of binding: A neurocomputational account. Psychologi- Patti Reuter-Lorenz from the Univer- inquiry was extended in two direc- cal Science.

Center for Lifespan Psychology 205 Key References tions. First, together with Moshe Exploration of Statistical Methods (cont’d) Naveh-Benjamin (University of In part together with Paolo Ghisletta Lindenberger, U., Li, S.- Missouri-Columbia), we investigated (University of Geneva), Chris Hertzog C., & Bäckman, L. (in press). Methodological and the relation of age changes in (Georgia Institute of Technology, conceptual advances in neuromodulation to associative Atlanta, USA), and Timo von Oertzen the study of brain-behavior dynamics: A multivari- binding deficits in old age. Our re- (Saarland University), researchers ate lifespan perspective. sults support the conjecture that working at the Center have used Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews neuromodulatory processes play a mathematical analysis and Monte (Special Issue). basic role in binding by affecting the Carlo simulations to examine formal Li, S.-C., & Freund, A. M. efficiency of distributed conjunctive properties and statistical power of (2005). Advances in lifespan psychology: A focus coding (S.-C. Li, Naveh-Benjamin, & widely used statistical methods in on biocultural and per- Lindenberger, in press). Second, in developmental research. By formal sonal influences. Research collaboration with Timo von Oertzen analysis, we showed that the contri- in Human Development, 2, 1-23. (Saarland University), we studied the bution of correlated change to Li, S.-C. (2003a). Biocul- effects of aging-related increase in cross-sectional correlations is small tural orchestration of de- intrinsic neuronal noise on stochas- under most conditions (Lindenberger, velopmental plasticity across levels: The interplay tic resonance, a fundamental prop- von Oertzen, Ghisletta, & Hertzog, in of biology and culture in erty of physical and biological sys- prep.). We also found that the power shaping the mind and behavior across the life span. tems in which noise acts as an am- to detect variances and covariances Psychological Bulletin, 129, plifier of weak signals. We showed of change in standard longitudinal 171–194. that systems with greater more in- panel designs is surprisingly small Staudinger, U. M., & Lindenberger, U. (Eds.). trinsic neuronal noise and less plas- (Hertzog, Lindenberger, Ghisletta, & (2003a). Understanding ticity continue to exhibit stochastic von Oertzen, submitted). Related human development: resonance at single-neuron and network has examined differences and Dialogues with lifespan psychology. Boston: work levels. However, the stochastic commonalities between multi-level Kluwer. resonance effect is smaller and, and latent-growth-curve modeling somewhat counterintuitively, re- (Ghisletta & Lindenberger, 2004; quires more external noise for its Lindenberger & Ghisletta, 2004) as operation (Li, von Oertzen, & Linden- well as the statistical and concep- berger, submitted). It is planned to tual status of reliability in multi- test these predictions in psychophys- variate time series (Li, Huxhold, & ical experiments, and to investigate Schmiedek, 2004; Lindenberger & its applied implications. von Oertzen, in press).

206 Center for Lifespan Psychology Lifespan Development and the Brain: The Perspective of Biocultural Co-Constructivism

Paul B. Baltes, Patricia Reuter-Lorenz, Frank Rösler (Eds.) New York: Cambridge University Press (in press) I. Setting the Stage 9. Reading, Writing, and Arithmetic in the Brain: Neural Specialization for Acquired Preface Functions Paul B. Baltes, Patricia Reuter-Lorenz, & Thad A. Polk & J. Paul Hamilton Frank Rösler 1. Biocultural Co-Construction of Lifespan VI. Plasticity and Functional Compensation Development in Later Life Shu-Chen Li 10. Influences of Biological and Self-Initi- II. Neuronal Plasticity and Co-Construction: ated Factors on Brain and Cognition in Microstructure Meets the Experiential Adulthood and Aging Lars Nyberg & Lars Bäckman Environment 2. Adult Neurogenesis 11. The Aging Mind and Brain: Implications Gerd Kempermann of Enduring Plasticity for Behavioral and Cultural Change 3. Neuronal Plasticity: Potential and Patricia A. Reuter-Lorenz & Joseph Mikels Constraints William T. Greenough & James Blake VII. Co-Construction in Affective and Aesthetic Domains III. Neuronal Plasticity and Co-Construction: Atypical Brain Architectures 12. Emotion, Learning and the Brain: From Classical Conditioning to Cultural Bias 4. Sensory Input-Based Adaptation and Elizabeth A. Phelps Brain Architecture Maurice Ptito & Sébastien Desgent 13. The Musical Mind: Neural Tuning and the Aesthetic Experience 5. Blindness: A Source and Case of Oliver Vitouch Neuronal Plasticity Brigitte Röder VIII. Co-Construction in Larger Cultural Contexts IV. Ontogeny and Co-Construction: Early Development 14. Characteristics of Illiterate and Literate Cognitive Processing: Implications of 6. Neurobehavioral Development in the Brain-Behavior Co-Constructivism Context of Biocultural Co-Constructivism Karl Magnus Petersson & Alexandra Reis Charles A. Nelson 15. The Influence of Work and Occupation 7. Language Acquisition: Biological Versus on Brain Development Cultural Implications for Brain Structure Neil Charness Angela D. Friederici & Shirley-Ann Rüschemeyer IX. Epilogue

V. Ontogeny and Co-Construction: 16. Epilogue: Letters on Nature and Nurture Onur Güntürkün Adulthood 8. Co-Constructing Human Engineering Technologies in Old Age: Lifespan Psychology as a Conceptual Foundation Ulman Lindenberger & Martin Lövdén

Center for Lifespan Psychology 207 Publications 2003–2004

Bäckman, L., & Farde, L. Baltes, P. B. (Ed.). (2005). Theo- and selective optimization with brain: The perspective of biocul- (2004). The role of dopamine retical approaches to lifespan compensation. In L. G. Aspin- tural co-constructivism. New functions in cognitive aging. In development: Interdisciplinary wall & U. M. Staudinger (Eds.), York: Cambridge University R. Cabeza, L. Nyberg, & D. C. perspectives [Special Issue]. Re- A psychology of human Press. Park, Cognitive neuroscience of search in Human Development, strengths: Fundamental ques- aging: Linking cognitive and 2 (1/2). tions and future directions for a Baltes, P. B., & Smith, J. cerebral aging (pp. 58–84). New • (2004a). Ein demokratischer positive psychology (pp. 23–35). (2004). Lifespan psychology: York: Oxford University Press. Königsweg, Die ZEIT, Nr. Washington, DC: APA. From developmental contextu- 10/2004. • (2003b). The intermarriage of alism to developmental biocul- Bäckman, L., Jones, S., Berger, • (2004b). Der Generationen- wisdom and selective optimiza- tural co-constructivism. Re- A.-K., Jonsson Laukka, E., & krieg kann ohne mich statt- tion with compensation: Two search in Human Development, Small, B. J. (in press). Cognitive finden. Frankfurter Allgemeine meta-heuristics guiding the 1, 123–144. impairment in preclinical Zeitung, Nr. 110, S. 39. conduct of life. In C. L. M. Keyes • (2003) New frontiers in the Alzheimer’s disease: A meta- • (2004c). Laudatio für Prof. Dr. & J. Haidt (Eds.), Flourishing: future of aging: From success- analysis. Neuropsychology. Dr. h.c. mult. Friedhart Klix. In Positive psychology and the life ful aging of the young old to • (2004). Multiple cognitive B. Krause & W. Krause (Eds.), well-lived (pp. 249–273). the dilemmas of the fourth age. deficits during the transition to Psychologie im Kontext der Washington, DC: APA. Gerontology, 49, 123–135. Alzheimer’s disease. Journal of Naturwissenschaften: Beiträge Internal Medicine, 256, zur menschlichen Informa- Baltes, P. B., Freund, A., & Li, Berger, A.-K., Fratiglioni, L., 195–204. tionsverarbeitung. Festschrift S.-C. (in press). The psychologi- Winblad, B., & Bäckman, L. (in für Friedhart Klix zum 75. cal science of human aging. In press). Alzheimer’s disease and Bäckman, L., Nyberg, L., & Geburtstag (Abhandlungen der M. Johnson, V. L. Bengtson, P. depression: Preclinical comor- Farde, L. (in press). Dopamine Leibniz-Sozietät 12, pp. 21– G. Coleman, & T. Kirkwood bidity effects on cognitive and cognitive aging: State-of- 26). Berlin: trafo Verlag. (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook functioning. Cortex. the-art and future directions. In • (2004d). Wisdom as orches- of age and ageing. Cambridge, Q. Jing & H. Zhang (Eds). Pro- tration of mind and virtue. Book UK: Cambridge University Press. Brandtstädter, J., & Linden- ceedings from the 28th Inter- in preparation. www.mpib- berger, U. (Eds.). (in press). national Congress of Psychol- berlin.mpg.de/dok/full/baltes/ Baltes, P. B., & Kunzmann, U. Lehrbuch zur Entwicklungspsy- ogy. London: Psychology Press. orchestr (in press). Wisdom and aging: chologie der Lebensspanne. • (2003a). Die Alten entdecken. The road toward excellence in Stuttgart: Kohlhammer. Bäckman, L., Nyberg, L., Linden- Süddeutsche Zeitung, 109, V2/12. mind and character. In D. C. berger, U., Li, S.-C., & Farde, L. • (2003b). Alter und Altern als Park & N. Schwarz (Eds.), Cog- Brehmer, Y., Müller, V., von (in press). The correlative triad unvollendete Architektur der nitive aging: A primer (2nd ed.). Oertzen, T., & Lindenberger, U. of aging, dopamine, and cogni- Humanontogenese. In N. C. Hove: Psychology Press. (2004). Episodic memory in tion: Current status and future Karafyllis (Ed.), Biofakte: Ver- • (2004). The two faces of wis- childhood and old age: The role prospects. Neuroscience and such über den Menschen zwi- dom: Wisdom as a general the- of cortical coherence. In A. Biobehavioral Reviews. schen Artefakt und Lebewesen ory of knowledge and judge- Mecklinger, H. Zimmer, & U. (pp. 245–273). Paderborn: ment about excellence in mind Lindenberger (Eds.), Bound in Bäckman, L., & Small, B. J. (in mentis. and virtue vs. wisdom as every- memory: Insights from behav- press). Cognitive deficits in pre- • (2003c). Extending longevity: day realization in people and ioral and neuropsychological clinical Alzheimer’s disease and Dignity gain—or dignity drain? products. Human Development, studies (pp. 69–91). Aachen: vascular dementia: Patterns of MaxPlanckResearch, 3, 15–19. 47, 290–299. Shaker. findings from the Kungsholmen • (2003d). Das hohe Alter— • (2003). Wisdom. The Psychol- Project. Physiology & Behavior. mehr Bürde als Würde? Max- ogist, 16, 131–132. Bunce, D., Fratiglioni, L., Small, B. PlanckForschung, 2, 15–19. J., Winblad, B., & Bäckman, L. Bäckman, L., Small, B. J., & • (2003e). Die Junge Akademie: Baltes, P. B., & Lindenberger, (2004). APOE and cognitive de- Fratiglioni, L. (2004). Cognitive Old for young and young for U. (2004). Geist im Alter. Frank- cline in preclinical Alzheimer’s deficits in preclinical old. Nova Acta Leopoldina, 87, furter Allgemeine Zeitung, Nr. disease and non-demented ag- Alzheimer’s disease: Current 183–188. 248, p. 37. ing. Neurology, 63, 816–821. knowledge and future direc- • (2003f). On the incomplete tions. In R. A. Dixon, L. Bäck- architecture of human on- Baltes, P. B., Lindenberger, U., Charness, N., Tuffiash, M., man, & L.-G. Nilsson (Eds.), togeny: Selection, optimization, & Staudinger, U. M. (in press). Krampe, R. T., Reingold, E., & New frontiers in cognitive aging and compensation as founda- Lifespan theory in developmen- Vasyukova, K. (in press). The (pp. 161–177). New York: tion of developmental theory. In tal psychology. In W. Damon role of deliberate practice in Oxford University Press. U. M. Staudinger & U. Linden- (Series Ed.) & R. M. Lerner (Vol. chess expertise. Applied Cogni- berger (Eds.), Understanding Ed.), Handbook of child psychol- tive Psychology. Bäckman, L., Wahlin, Å., Small, human development: Dialogues ogy: Vol. 1. Theoretical models B. J., Herlitz, A., Winblad, B., & with lifespan psychology of human development (6th de Frias, C. M., Nilsson, L.-G., & Fratiglioni, L. (2004). Cognitive (pp. 17–43). Boston: Kluwer. ed.). New York: Wiley. Herlitz, A. (in press). Sex differ- functioning in aging and de- ences in cognition are stable in mentia: The Kungsholmen Pro- Baltes, P. B., & Freund, A. M. Baltes, P. B., Reuter-Lorenz, P., adulthood and old age over a ject. Aging, Neuropsychology, (2003a). Human strengths as & Rösler, F. (Eds.). (in press). 10-year period. Aging, Neuro- and Cognition, 11, 212–244. the orchestration of wisdom Lifespan development and the psychology, and Cognition.

208 Center for Lifespan Psychology Delius, J. A. M., & Hammer- Fischer, H., Sandblom, J., Gavaz- Gerstorf, D., & Lindenberger, (2004). Cognitive functioning in stein, N. von. (in press). Inter- zeni, J., Fransson, P., Wright, C. I., U. (in press). Vergessen. In J. preclinical vascular dementia: national Max Planck Research & Bäckman, L. (in press). Age- Funke & P. A. Frensch (Eds.), A six-year follow-up. Stroke, Schools: Neue Wege der differential patterns of brain ac- Handbuch der Psychologie, All- 35, 1805–1809. Graduiertenausbildung. tivation during perception of gemeine Psychologie: Kognition Zeitschrift für Pädagogik. angry faces. Neuroscience Let- und Handlung. Göttingen: Jonsson Laukka, E., Jones, S., ters. Hogrefe. Small, B. J., Fratiglioni, L., & Delius, J. D., & Delius, J. A. M. Bäckman, L. (2004). Similar (in press). Intelligences and Fischer, H., Sandblom, J., Ghisletta, P., & Lindenberger, patterns of cognitive deficits in brain: A comparative and evo- Herlitz, A., Fransson, P., U. (2004). Static and dynamic the preclinical phases of vascu- lutionary birdseye view. In E. A. Wright, C. I., & Bäckman, L. longitudinal structural analyses lar dementia and Alzheimer’s Wasserman & T. R. Zentall (2004). Sex-differential brain of cognitive changes in old age. disease. Journal of the Interna- (Eds.), Comparative cognition: activation during exposure to Gerontology, 50, 12–16. tional Neuropsychological Soci- Experimental explorations of female and male faces. Neu- • (2003). Age-based structural ety, 10, 382–391. animal intelligence. London: roReport, 15, 235–238. dynamics between perceptual Oxford University Press. speed and knowledge in the Kliegl, R., Krampe, R. T., & Freund, A. M., & Baltes, P. B. Berlin Aging Study: Direct evi- Mayr, U. (2003). Formal models Derwinger, A., Stigsdotter Neely, (in press). Entwicklungsauf- dence for ability dedifferentia- of age differences in task- A., & Bäckman, L. (in press). gaben als Organisationsstruk- tion in old age. Psychology and complexity effects. In U. M. Design your own memory strat- turen von Entwicklung und Ent- Aging, 18, 696–713. Staudinger & U. Lindenberger egies! Self-generated strategy wicklungsoptimierung. In S.-H. (Eds.), Understanding human training versus mnemonic train- Filipp & U. M. Staudinger (Eds.), Herlitz, A. (in press). Minnes- development: Dialogues with ing in old age: An eight-month Enzyklopädie der Psychologie: C, funktioner i åldrande och de- lifespan psychology (pp. 289– follow-up. Neuropsychological V, Vol. 6. Entwicklungspsycho- mens [Memory functions in ag- 313). Boston: Kluwer. Rehabilitation, 15, 37–54. logie des mittleren und höheren ing and dementia]. In Hwang, P. Erwachsenenalters. Göttingen: (Ed.), Vår tids psykologi . Stock- Krampe, R. T. (in press). Musi- Derwinger, A., Stigsdotter Neely, Hogrefe. holm: Natur och Kultur. cal expertise from a lifespan A., MacDonald, S. W., & Bäck- perspective. H. Gembris (Ed.), man, L. (in press). Forgetting Freund, A. M., & Ebner, N. C. Hommel, B., Li, K. Z. H., & Li, S.- Musical talent and its develop- numbers in old age: Strategy (in press). The aging self: Shift- C. (2004). Visual search across ment. Frankfurt a.M.: Lang. and learning speed matter! ing from promoting gains to the lifespan. Developmental Gerontology. balancing losses. In W. Greve, Psychology, 40, 545–558. Krampe, R. T., & Baltes, P. B. K. Rothermund, & D. Wentura (2003). Intelligence as adaptive Dixon, R. A., Wahlin, Å., Mait- (Eds.), The adaptive self: Per- Isaacowitz, D. M., & Smith, J. resource development and land, S. B., Hultsch, D. F., Hert- sonal continuity and intentional (2003). Positive and negative resource allocation: A new zog, C., & Bäckman, L. (2004). self-development. New York: affect in very old age. Journals look through the lenses of Episodic memory change in Hogrefe. of Gerontology: Psychological SOC and expertise. In R. J. adulthood: Generalizability Sciences, 58B, P143–P152. Sternberg & E. L. Grigorenko across samples and perform- Freund, A. M., & Riediger, M. (Eds.), The psychology of ance indices. Memory and Cog- (in press-a). Gerontopsycholo- Jones, S., Jonsson Laukka, E., & abilities, competencies, and nition, 32, 768–778. gie: Erfolgreiches Altern. In Bäckman, L. (in press). Differ- expertise (pp. 31–69). Cam- H. Weber & T. Rammsayer ential verbal fluency impair- bridge, UK: Cambridge Univer- Ebner, N. C. (2004). Striving for (Eds.), Handbuch der Persön- ment in the preclinical stages sity Press. gains and preventing losses: lichkeitspsychologie und diffe- of Alzheimer’s disease and vas- Multi-method evidence on the rentiellen Psychologie. Göttin- cular dementia. Cortex. Krampe, R. T. & Charness, N. differences in personal goal gen: Hogrefe (in press). Aging and expertise. orientation in early and late • (in press-b). Goals as building Jones, S., Jonsson Laukka, E., In K. A. Ericsson (Ed.), Cam- adulthood. Doctoral thesis, Free blocks of personality and devel- Small, B. J., Fratiglioni, L., & bridge handbook on expertise University of Berlin. opment in adulthood. In D. K. Bäckman, L. (2004). A preclini- and expert performance. Cam- Mroczek & T. D. Little (Eds.), cal phase in vascular dementia: bridge, UK: Cambridge Univer- Erixon-Lindroth, N., Farde, L., Handbook of personality Cognitive impairment three sity Press. Robins-Wahlin, T.-B., Sovago, J., development. Mahwah, NJ: years before diagnosis. Demen- Halldin, C., & Bäckman, L. (in Erlbaum. tia and Geriatric Cognitive Dis- Krampe, R. T., & Engbert, R. press). The role of the striatal • (2003). Successful aging. In orders, 18, 233–239. (in press). Produktion und Syn- dopamine transporter in cogni- R. M. Lerner, M. A. Easterbrooks, chronisation von Rhythmen. In tive aging. Psychiatry Research: & J. Mistry (Eds.), Handbook of Jones, S., Nyberg, L., Sandblom, T. H. Stoffer & R. Oerter (Eds.), Neuroimaging, 138, 1–12. psychology: Vol. 6. Developmen- J., Stigsdotter Neely, A., Ingvar, Enzyklopädie der Psychologie, tal psychology (pp. 601–628). M., Petersson, K.-M., & Bäck- D, VII, Vol. 1. Allgemeine Musik- Fischer, H., Fransson, P., Wright, Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. man, L. (in press). Cognitive psychologie. Göttingen: C. I., & Bäckman, L. (2004). En- plasticity in aging: Limitations Hogrefe. hanced occipital and anterior Gerstorf, D. (2004). Hetero- in processing and production. cingulate activation in men but geneity and differential devel- Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Krampe, R. T., Mayr, U., & not in women during exposure opment in old age: A systemic- Reviews. Kliegl, R. (in press). Timing, se- to aversive male faces. Cogni- wholistic approach. Doctoral quencing, and executive control tive, Affective, and Behavioral thesis, Free University of Berlin. Jonsson Laukka, E., Jones, S., in repetitive movement produc- Neuroscience, 4, 326–334. www.diss.fu-berlin.de/2004/342 Fratiglioni, L., & Bäckman, L. tion. Journal of Experimental

Center for Lifespan Psychology 209 Psychology: Human Perception Kunzmann, U. (2004). Ap- Neuropsychology, and Cogni- tural and personal influences. and Performance. proaches to a good life: The tion. Research on Human Develop- emotional-motivational side to ment, 2, 1–23. Krampe, R. T., & McInnes, L. (in wisdom. In P. A. Linley & S. Larsson, M., Öberg, C., & Bäck- press). Competence and cogni- Joseph (Eds.), Positive psychol- man, L. (in press). Recollective Li, S.-C., Huxhold, O., & tion in ecological approaches to ogy in practice (pp. 504–517). experience in odor recognition: Schmiedek, F. (2004). Aging cognitive aging. In J. Bond, F. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Influences of adult age and and attenuated processing Dittmann-Kohli, S. M. Peace, & familiarity. Psychological Re- robustness: Evidence from cog- G. Westerhof (Eds.), Ageing in Kunzmann, U., & Baltes, P. B. search. nitive and sensorimotor func- society: An introduction to so- (in press). The psychology of tioning. Gerontology, 50, cial gerontology (3rd ed.). UK: wisdom: Theoretical and empir- Li, K. Z. H., Krampe, R. T., & 28–34. The British Society of Gerontol- ical challenges. In R. J. Stern- Bondar, A. (in press). An eco- ogy. berg & J. Jordan (Eds.), Hand- logical approach to studying Li, S.-C., & Kunzmann, U. book of wisdom. New York: aging and dual-task perform- (2004). Research on intelli- Krampe, R. T., Rapp, M. A., Cambridge University Press. ance. In R. W. Engle, G. Sedek, gence in German-speaking Bondar, A., & Baltes, P. B. • (2003a). Beyond the tradi- U. von Hecker, & D. N. McIntosh countries. In R. J. Sternberg (2003). Selektion, Optimierung tional scope of intelligence: (Eds.), Cognitive limitations in (Ed.), International handbook of und Kompensation in Dop- Wisdom in action. In R. J. aging and psychopathology: intelligence (pp. 135–169). pelaufgaben. Der Nervenarzt, Sternberg, J. Lautrey, & T. I. Attention, working memory, and Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Uni- 74, 211–218. Lubart (Eds.), Models of intelli- executive functions. New York: versity Press. gence: International perspec- Cambridge University Press. Kray, J., Eber, J., & Linden- tives (pp. 329–343). Washing- Li, S.-C., & Lindenberger, U. berger, U. (2004). Age differ- ton, DC: APA. Li, S.-C. (in press). Biocultural (in press). Aging deficits in neu- ences in executive functioning • (2003b). Wisdom-related co-construction of lifespan romodulation of representa- across the lifespan: The role of knowledge: Affective, motiva- development. In P. B. Baltes, tional distinctiveness and con- verbalization in task prepara- tional, and interpersonal corre- P. Reuter-Lorenz, & F. Rösler junctive binding: Computa- tion. Acta Psychologica, 115, lates. Personality and Social (Eds.), Brain, mind, and culture: tional explorations of possible 143–165. Psychology Bulletin, 29, From interactionism to biocul- links. In H. D. Zimmer, A. Meck- 1104–1119. tural co-constructivism. New linger, & U. Lindenberger (Eds.), Kreppner, K. (2003a). Quality York: Cambridge University Binding in human memory: A of relationship, sensitivity for Kunzmann, U., & Grühn, D. Press. neurocognitive perspective. developmental changes, and (2005). Age differences in emo- • (2005). Neurocomputational Oxford, UK: Oxford University transition competence. In K. E. tional reactivity: The sample perspectives linking neuromod- Press. Bergmann & R. E. Bergmann case of sadness. Psychology and ulation, processing noise, repre- (Eds.), Health promotion and Aging, 20, 47–59. sentational distinctiveness, and Li, S.-C., Lindenberger, U., disease prevention in the family cognitive aging. In R. Cabeza, Hommel, B., Aschersleben, G., (pp. 27–40). Berlin: de Gruyter. Kunzmann, U., Kupperbusch, L. Nyberg, & D. Park (Eds.), Cog- Prinz, W., & Baltes, P. B. • (2003b). Social relations and C., & Levenson, R. W. (2005). nitive neuroscience of aging: (2004). Transformations in the affective development in the Emotion regulation in adult- Linking cognitive and cerebral couplings among intellectual first two years in family con- hood: A comparison of two age aging (pp. 354–379). Oxford, abilities and constituent cogni- texts. In J. Valsiner & K. Con- groups. Psychology and Aging, UK: Oxford University Press. tive processes across the life nolly (Eds.), Handbook of devel- 20, 144–158. • (2003a). Biocultural orches- span. Psychological Science, 15, opmental psychology tration of developmental plas- 155–163. (pp. 194–214). London: Kunzmann, U., & Stange, A. ticity across levels: The inter- Sage. (in press). Wisdom as a classical play of biology and culture in Li, S.-C., Naveh-Benjamin, M., • (2003c). Zeit für die Verhand- human strength: Psychological shaping the mind and behavior & Lindenberger, U. (in press). lung von Werten und Normen conceptualizations and empiri- across the lifespan. Psychologi- Aging neuromodulation impairs in der Familie: Wie sich die cal inquiry. In A. D. Ong & cal Bulletin, 129, 171–194. associative binding: A neuro- Kommunikation zwischen M. van Dulmen (Eds.), Varieties • (2003b). Putting develop- computational approach. Psy- Eltern und Kindern beim Über- of positive experience: Struc- mental dynamics of dynamic chological Science. gang zur Jugend verändert. ture, variability, and change. perception and cognition first. In H. Reinders & E. Wild (Eds.), New York: Oxford University Adaptive Behavior, 11, 281–283. Lindenberger, U., & Ghisletta, Jugendzeit—Time out? Zur Aus- Press. P. (2004). Modeling longitudi- gestaltung des Jugendalters Li, S.-C., & Baltes, P. B. (in nal changes in old age: From als Moratorium (pp. 161–186). Kunzmann, U., Stange, A., & press). Cognitive developmental covariance structures to dy- Opladen: Leske + Budrich. Jordan, J. (2005). Positive emo- research from lifespan perspec- namic systems. In R. A. Dixon, tionality and lifestyle in adult- tives: The challenge of integra- L. Bäckman, & L.-G. Nilsson Kreppner, K., & Ullrich, M. hood: Do you do what you feel? tion. In E. Bialystok & F. I. M. (Eds.), New frontiers in cogni- (2003). Untersuchung zur Personality and Social Psychol- Craik (Eds.), Lifespan cognition: tive aging (pp. 198–216). Qualität der Beziehungen und ogy Bulletin, 31, 574–588. Mechanisms of change. New Oxford, UK: Oxford University Kommunikationsformen in der York: Oxford University Press. Press. Familie beim Übergang von der Larsson, M., & Bäckman, L. (in Kindheit zur Jugend. Zeitschrift press). Odor identification in Li, S.-C., & Freund, A. M. Lindenberger, U., & Kray, J. (in für Familienforschung, 15 (Son- old age: Demographic, sensory (2005). Advances in lifespan press). Kognitive Entwicklung. derheft), 35–55. and cognitive correlates. Aging, psychology: A focus on biocul- In S.-H. Filipp & U. M.

210 Center for Lifespan Psychology Staudinger (Eds.), Enzyklopädie Lövdén, M., Ghisletta, P., & M., Wisniewski, R., Kantz, J., & New York: Cambridge Univer- der Psychologie: C, V, Vol. 6. Ent- Lindenberger, U. (in press). So- Lang, F. (2004). Influence of low sity Press. wicklungspsychologie des mitt- cial participation attenuates power cm-/mm-microwaves on •.(2004). Cognitive aging: A eren und höheren Erwachsenen- decline in perceptual speed in cardiovascular function. Inter- view from brain imaging. In R. alters. Göttingen: Hogrefe. old and very old age. Psychol- national Journal of Environ- A. Dixon, L. Bäckman, & L.-G. ogy and Aging. mental Health Research, 14, Nilsson (Eds.), New frontiers in Lindenberger, U., Li, S.-C., & • (2004). Cognition in the 331–341. cognitive aging (pp. 135–159). Bäckman, L. (Eds.). (in press). Berlin Aging Study (BASE): The New York: Oxford University Methodological and conceptual first ten years. Aging, Neuro- Müller, V., Birbaumer, N., Press. advances in the study of brain- psychology, and Cognition, 11, Preißl, H., Braun, C., Mayer- behavior dynamics: A multi- 104–133. Kress, G., & Lang, F. (2003). Ef- Oberauer, K., Wilhelm, O., & variate lifespan perspective. fects of hydration and hyper- Schmiedek, F. (2005). Multi- Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Lövdén, M., & Lindenberger, ventilation on cortical com- variate strategies in experimen- Reviews (Special Issue). U. (2005). Development of in- plexity. Experimental Brain tal research. In A. Beauducel, tellectual abilities in old age. Research, 150, 341–355. B. Biehl, M. Bosnjak, W. Conrad, Lindenberger, U., & Lövdén, In O. Wilhelm & R. W. Engle G. Schönberger, & D. Wagener M. (in press). Co-constructing (Eds.), Handbook of understand- Müller, V., Lutzenberger, W., (Eds.), Multivariate research human engineering technolo- ing and measuring intelligence Preißl, H., Pulvermüller, F., & strategies: Festschrift in honor gies in old age: Lifespan (pp. 203–221). Thousand Oaks, Birbaumer, N. (2003). Complex- of Werner W. Wittmann psychology as a conceptual CA: Sage. ity of visual stimuli and non- (pp. 119–150). Aachen: Shaker. foundation. In P. B. Baltes, P. linear EEG dynamics in humans. Reuter-Lorenz, & F. Rösler Lövdén, M., Rönnlund, M., Cognitive Brain Research, 16, Palmer, K., Bäckman, L., Small, (Eds.), Lifespan development Wahlin, Å., Bäckman, L., 104–110. B. J., & Fratiglioni, L. (in press). and the brain: The perspective Nyberg, L., & Nilsson, L-G. Cognitive impairment in elderly of biocultural co-construc- (2004). The extent of stability Müller, V., Mucha, R. F., & persons without dementia: tivism. New York: Cambridge and change in episodic and Pauli, P. (2003). Electromyo- Findings from the Kungsholmen University Press. semantic memory in old age: graphic activity of the lip mus- Project. In H. Tuokko & D. F. Demographic predictors of level cle as a measure of puffing on Hultsch (Eds.), Perspectives on Lindenberger, U., & von and change. Journal of Geron- a cigarette. Physiology & Be- mild cognitive impairment. Oertzen, T. (in press). Variability tology: Psychological Sciences, havior, 78, 741–749. London: Psychology Press. in cognitive aging: From taxon- 59, 130–134. omy to theory. In F. I. M. Craik Müller, V., Preißl, H., Lutzen- Raz, N., Lindenberger, U., & E. Bialystok (Eds.), Lifespan Lövdén, M., & Wahlin, Å. berger, W., & Birbaumer, N. Rodrigue, K. M., Kennedy, K. M., cognition: Mechanisms of (2005). The sensory-cognition (2003). Komplexität und Hirn- Head, D., Williamson, A., Dahle, change. Oxford, UK: Oxford association in adulthood: Dif- dynamik. In G. Schiepek (Ed.), C., Gerstorf, D., & Acker, J. D. University Press. ferent magnitudes for process- Neurobiologie der Psychothera- (in press). Regional brain ing speed, inhibition, episodic pie (pp. 58–79). Stuttgart: changes in aging healthy Little, T. D., Miyashita, T., Kara- memory, and false memory? Schattauer. adults: General trends, individ- sawa, M., Mashima, M., Oettin- Scandinavian Journal of Psy- ual differences, and modifiers. gen, G., Azuma, H., & Baltes, P. chology, 46, 253–262. Nilsson, L.-G., Adolfsson, R., Cerebral Cortex. B. (2003). The links among ac- Bäckman, L., Cruts, M., Nyberg, tion-control beliefs, intellectual Maitland, S. B., Herlitz, A., L., Small, B. J., & Van Broeck- Riediger, M. (in press). Inter- skill, and school performance in Nyberg, L., Bäckman, L., & oven, C. (in press). The influ- ference and facilitation among Japanese, US, and German Nilsson, L.-G. (2004). Selective ence of APOE status on episodic personal goals: Age-group school children. International sex differences in declarative and semantic memory: Data differences and associations Journal of Behavioral Develop- memory. Memory and Cogni- from a population-based study. with well-being and behavior. ment, 27, 41–48. tion, 32, 1160–1169. Neuropsychology. In B. R. Little, K. Salmela-Aro, J.-E. Nurmi, & S. D. Philipps Lövdén, M. (2003). The epi- McArdle, J. J., Small, B. J., Nilsson, L.-G., Adolfsson, R., (Eds.), Personal project pursuit: sodic memory and inhibition Bäckman, L., & Fratiglioni, L. Bäckman, L., Molander, B., & Goals, action, and human accounts of age-related in- (in press). Longitudinal shared- Nyberg, L. (2004). Betula: A flourishing. Mahwah, NJ: Erl- creases in false memories: A parameter models of growth prospective study on memory, baum. consistency check. Journal of and survival applied to the health, and aging. Aging, Neu- • (2004). Lebenslanges Lernen. Memory & Language, 49, early detection of Alzheimer’s ropsychology, and Cognition, 11, In D. Dettling & C. Prechtl 268–283. disease. American Journal of 134–148. (Eds.), Weißbuch Bildung: Für Geriatric Psychiatry. ein dynamisches Deutschland Lövdén, M., Bergmann, L., Nyberg L., & Bäckman, L. (in (pp. 78–84). Wiesbaden: VS Adolfsson, R., Lindenberger, U., Mecklinger, A., Zimmer, H., & press). Reciprocal influences of Verlag für Sozialwisenschaften. & Nilsson, L.-G. (in press). Lindenberger, U. (2004). Bound biological and self-initiated Studying individual aging in an in memory: Insights from be- factors on brain and cognition Riediger, M., & Freund, A. M. interindividual context: Typical havioral and neuropsychologi- in adulthood and aging. In P. B. (2004). Interference and facili- paths of age-related, dementia- cal studies. Aachen: Shaker. Baltes, P. Reuter-Lorenz, & F. tation among personal goals: related, and mortality-related Rösler F. (Eds.), Brain, mind, and Differential associations with cognitive development in old Müller, J., Hadeler, K. P., Müller, culture: From interactionism to subjective well-being and per- age. Psychology and Aging. V., Waldmann, J., Landstorfer, F. biocultural co-constructivism. sistent goal pursuit. Personality

Center for Lifespan Psychology 211 and Social Psychology Bulletin, intelligence (pp. 265–277). in self and personality during multiple disciplines. In U. M. 30, 1511–1523. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. old and very old age. In U. M. Staudinger & U. Lindenberger • (2003). The structure of cog- Staudinger & U. Lindenberger (Eds.), Understanding human Riediger, M., Freund, A. M., & nitive abilities in old and very (Eds.), Understanding human development: Dialogues with Baltes, P. B. (2005). Managing old age: On the importance of development: Dialogues with lifespan psychology (pp. 1–13). life through personal goals: specific group factors in a ded- lifespan psychology (pp. 215– Boston: Kluwer. Intergoal facilitation and inten- ifferentiated factor space. Doc- 241). Boston: Kluwer. sity of goal pursuit in younger toral thesis, Free University of • (2003b). Stress and aging: and older adulthood. Journals Berlin. www.diss.fu-berlin.de/ Theoretical and empirical of Gerontology: Psychological 2004/98 challenges for interdisciplinary Sciences, 60B, P84–P91. research: Commentary. Neuro- Schmiedek, F., & Li, S.-C. biology of Aging, 24, S77–S80. Riediger, M., Li, S.-C., & (2004). Toward an alternative Lindenberger, U. (in press). representation for disentan- Smith, J., & Delius, J. A. M. (in Selection, optimization, com- gling age-associated differ- press). Die Berliner Altersstudie. pensation (SOC) as develop- ences in general and specific In W. D. Oswald, U. Lehr, C. mental mechanisms of adaptive cognitive abilities. Psychology Sieber, & J. Kornhuber (Eds.), resource allocation: Review and Aging, 19, 40–56. Gerontologie: Medizinische, and preview. In J. E. Birren & psychologische und sozialwis- K. W. Schaie (Eds.), Handbook Singer, T., Lindenberger, U., & senschaftliche Grundbegriffe. of the psychology of aging Baltes, P. B. (2003). Plasticity Stuttgart: Kohlhammer. (6th ed.). Amsterdam: of memory for new learning in • (2005). Psychologische Funk- Elsevier. very old age: A story of major tionsfähigkeit im Alter: Poten- loss? Psychology and Aging, 18, ziale und Grenzen. Quintessenz, Rönnlund, M., Nyberg, L., Bäck- 306–317. 56, 159–169. man, L., & Nilsson, L.-G. (in • (2003). Die längsschnittlichen press). Stability, improvement, Singer, T., Verhaeghen, P., Erhebungen der Berliner Alters- and decline in adult life-span Ghisletta, P., Lindenberger, U., studie (BASE): Design, Stich- Verhaeghen, P., Borchelt, M., & development of declarative & Baltes, P. B. (2003). The fate proben und Schwerpunkte Smith, J. (2003). The relation memory: Cross-sectional and of cognition in very old age: 1990–2002. In F. Karl (Ed.), between cardiovascular and longitudinal data from a popu- Six-year longitudinal findings Sozial- und verhaltenswissen- metabolic disease and cogni- lation-based study. Psychology in the Berlin Aging Study schaftliche Gerontologie: Alter tion in very old age: Cross- and Aging (BASE). Psychology and Aging, und Altern als gesellschaftliches sectional and longitudinal find- 18, 318–331. Problem und individuelles ings from the Berlin Aging Salisch, M., & Kunzmann, U. (in Thema (pp. 225–249). Wein- Study. Health Psychology, 22, press). Entwicklung der Emo- Small, B. J., & Bäckman, L. (in heim: Juventa. 559–569. tionsregulation über die Lebens- press). Episodic memory impair- spanne. In J. Asendorpf & T. H. ment in preclinical Alzheimer’s Smith, J., & Gerstorf, D. Wilhelm, O., Schulze, R., Rauh (Eds.), Enzyklopädie der disease: The role of encoding, (2004). Ageing differently: Schmiedek, F., & Süß, H.-M. Psychologie: C, I, Vol. 3. Soziale, consolidation, and retrieval fac- Potential and limits. In S. O. (2003). Interindividuelle Unter- emotionale und Persönlichkeit- tors. In H. D. Zimmer, A. Meck- Daatland & S. Biggs (Eds.), Age- schiede im typischen intellek- sentwicklung. Göttingen: linger, & U. Lindenberger (Eds.), ing and diversity: Multiple path- tuellen Engagement. Diagnos- Hogrefe. Binding in human memory: A ways and cultural migrations tica, 49, 49–60. neurocognitive approach. Oxford, (pp. 13–28). Bristol: The Policy Scheibe, S. (2005). Longing UK: Oxford University Press. Press. Winblad, B., Palmer, K., (“Sehnsucht”) as a new lifespan Kivipelto, M., Jelic, V., concept: A developmental Small, B. J., Herlitz, A., & Smith, J., & Jopp, D. (in press). Fratiglioni, L., Wahlund, L.-O., conceptualization and its mea- Bäckman, L. (in press). Preclini- Geschlechterdifferenzen im Al- Nordberg, A., Bäckman, L. et al. surement in adulthood. Doc- cal Alzheimer’s disease: Cogni- ter(n). In S.-H. Fillip & U. M. (2004). Mild cognitive impair- toral thesis, Free University of tive and memory functioning. Staudinger (Eds.), Enzyklopädie ment: Beyond controversies, Berlin. In R. G. Morris & J. T. Becker der Psychologie: C, V, Vol. 6. towards a consensus. Report (Eds.), The cognitive neuropsy- Entwicklungspsychologie des on the International Working Scheibe, S., Preuschhof, C., chology of Alzheimer’s disease. mittleren und höheren Erwach- Group of Mild Cognitive Cristi, C., & Bagby, R. M. (2003). Oxford, UK: Oxford University senenalters. Göttingen: Impairment. Journal of Are there gender differences Press. Hogrefe. Internal Medicine, 256, in major depression and its 240–246. response to antidepressants? Small, B. J., Rosnick, C. B., Staudinger, U. M., & Linden- Journal of Affective Disorders, Fratiglioni, L., & Bäckman, L. berger, U. (Eds.). (2003a). Yonker, J. E., Adolfsson, R., 75, 223–235. (2004). Apolipoprotein E and Understanding human devel- Eriksson, E., Hellstrand, M., cognitive performance: A meta- opment: Dialogues with life- Nilsson, L.-G., & Herlitz, A. (in Schmiedek, F. (2005). Item reanalysis. Psychology and Aging, span psychology. Boston: press). Verified hormone response theory and the mea- 19, 592–600. Kluwer. placement therapy improves surement of cognitive pro- • (2003b). Why read another episodic memory performance cesses. In O. Wilhelm & R. W. Smith, J. (2003a). The gain-loss book on human development? in healthy postmenopausal Engle (Eds.), Handbook of un- dynamic in lifespan develop- Understanding human develop- women. Aging, Neuropsychol- derstanding and measuring ment: Implications for change ment takes a metatheory and ogy, and Cognition.

212 Center for Lifespan Psychology Yonker, J. E., Eriksson, E., Hell- strand, M. Nilsson, L.-G., & Herlitz, A. (in press). Negative association of testosterone on spatial visualization in 35 to 80 year old men. Cortex.

Yonker, J. E., Nilsson, L.-G., Herlitz, A., & Anthenelli, R. M. (in press). Sex differences in spatial visualization and episodic memory as a function of alcohol consumption. Alco- hol and Alcoholism.

Zimmer, H. D., Mecklinger, A., & Lindenberger, U. (Eds.). (in press). Binding in human memory: A neurocognitive perspective. Oxford, UK: Oxford Univer- sity Press.

Center for Lifespan Psychology 213

Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course Contents

Research Program and Research Projects ...... 217

Education, Training, and Occupational Careers ...... 223

Education, Mismatch, and Mother’s Employment— In Memory of Felix Büchel ...... 240

Employment Relationships at Risk ...... 246

Reinterviewing with ”TrueTales“—A New Survey Instrument ...... 253

Transformation Processes in Poland and East Germany ...... 258

Further Projects ...... 268

Publications 2003–2004 ...... 271

Scientific Staff (2003–2004)

Felix Büchel (deceased July 2004), Erika M. Hoerning, Gero Lenhardt, Britta Matthes, Karl Ulrich Mayer, Antje Mertens (as of 2005: Berlin School of Eco- nomics), Frances McGinnity (as of November 2004: Economic and Social Research Institute, Dublin), Matthias Pollmann-Schult (as of 2004: University of Bielefeld), Maike Reimer (as of 2005: Bavarian State Institute for Research in Higher Education), Holger Seibert (as of 2005: Institute for Labor Market and Employment Research, Berlin-Brandenburg), Heike Trappe Postdoctoral Research Fellows Vanessa Gash, Laura Romeu Predoctoral Research Fellows Stefanie Gundert, Anke Höhne (as of 2005: University of Halle-Wittenberg)

216 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course Research Program and Research Projects

Sociological Research at the Max Planck Institute for Human Key References Development Mayer, K. U. (forthcom- Sociology as a scientific discipline is interested in the formation of institu- ing). Life courses and life chances in a comparative tions and in the social behavior and actions of individuals embedded in insti- perspective. In S. Svallfors tutions. Within the specific context of an interdisciplinary institute for (Ed.), Analyzing inequality: Life chances and social human development, sociology can make two kinds of contributions. First, mobility in comparative it examines the roles that the family, the educational and training system, perspective. Palo Alto, CA: the occupational structure, and the welfare state play in the development Stanford University Press. Mayer, K. U. (2004c). and life courses of individuals. Second, it examines the way in which specific Whose lives? How history, life-course patterns express and affect the distribution of life chances. societies and institutions define and shape life courses. Research in We share substantive topics, theo- Goals of the Research Program Human Development, 1, retical perspectives, and method- The research program is oriented 161–187. ological approaches with other cen- toward answering three sets of ters of the Institute, for example, the questions: interest in the conditions of attain- (1) The first set of questions focuses ment in education and training with on the relationships between the the Center for Educational Research. macrolevel structure of societies and We are also interested in both the patterns of the life course. In what individual and social consequences manner and with which outcomes of differential educational attain- do institutions shape the patterns ment. The longitudinal surveys of the and distributions of individual life two centers overlap in the life phase courses? We look at life courses gen- which occurs at the completion of erated by social norms, by institu- schooling and commencement of tional configurations, and by oppor- early labor market experience. We tunity structures, all of which vary just recently concluded the new ver- across social groups as well as spe- sion of the German Education Re- cific national and historical contexts. port. Together with the Center for Life courses are a summary concept Lifespan Psychology we share an infor the intertwined processes of resi- terest in the full life course from dential migration, family history, birth to death, particularly the inter- education and training trajectories, play between social environments employment, and occupational ca- and individual development. These reers as well as the temporal pat- common interests resulted in the terns of relationships to the social joint Berlin Aging Study and joint re- insurance systems. Therefore, with search on psychological covariates respect to institutions, we are pri- of employment trajectories in East marily interested in schools and Germany during the unification training institutions, the occupa- process. tional structure and labor market, the family, and the welfare state. The relevant time dimension, here, is the historical time of socioeconomic change.

Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course 217 (2) The second set of questions fo- We use four perspectives in investi- cuses on the levels of individual and gating life courses. group action. How do individuals and families actively construct their First, we see individual life courses lives? How do they experience their as a part and a product of social and individual and collective life histories historical processes operating on dif- under the given conditions of their ferent levels. Individual life courses own prior biography, their immediate are linked to the life courses of other family and work environments, and persons (parents, partners, children, the generational contexts of their colleagues, friends) and are embed- peer birth cohorts? Here, we are pri- ded in the dynamics of small groups, marily interested in the proximate especially the family. But, life influences of the mesolevel of infor- courses are also subject to the influ- mal groups, formal organizations, ences of social organization and the and local opportunity structures as macroinstitutions of society, well as microlevel endogenous including their development over processes of the individual life time. course. The relevant time dimen- Second, the life course is a multi- sions, here, are chronological age dimensional process. On the one and the individual aging process, the hand, it unfolds in the different, but duration of membership in families, mutually related life domains households, and firms as well as the (e.g., family cycle and working life), time dimension of cohort and gener- on the other hand, it is dependent ational succession. on intraindividual processes of (3) The third set of questions fo- organic and psychological develop- cuses on feedback processes from ment. the microlevel of individual action to Third, the life course is a self- the macrolevel of structural and in- referential process. The individual stitutional constraints. How do behaves and acts self-reflectively changes in life-course patterns on the basis of past experiences shape distributional and aggregative and resources, making the life features of social structure and in- course, to some extent, an endoge- stitutional arrangements? What are nous causal process. This is also the implications of such processes partially true for the collective life for social policies? Irrespective of history of birth cohorts. The past how they arise, life-course patterns and initial conditions and character- are powerful contexts for individual istics of a cohort impact both on and group action. Life courses form their later collective life history the qualitative and quantitative ba- (e.g., in the relationship between sis for macrosocial change and for working lives and life in old age) collective political decision making. and on the adjacent cohorts. The Accordingly, the empirical and de- different age groups live together in scriptive social accounting of life- the same time period, but they bring course patterns is an important re- to the present their distinctive past search task. histories.

218 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course Fourth, through the manner in happen via ”simple” processes of ag- which persons shape their own life gregation or in the form of institu- courses, they reproduce and trans- tional feedback. form the social structure. This can

Research Areas The Center’s research program is currently organized into the following areas:

Education, Training, and transition period, and about the in- Research Area 1 Employment creasing polarization of the oppor- The transition between education, tunities for skill acquisition and ear- training, and employment is a major ly occupational careers. Other topics topic of investigation in the Center of research interest include the fol- for Sociology and the Study of the lowing: What are the consequences Life Course. This life phase is crucial of educational expansion for work- for both intergenerational status al- ing lives? Is there a crisis in the dual location and the later life history. In system of vocational training and reconstructing the collective transi- how can this be accounted for? How tion experiences of successive co- widespread and serious are the horts, we gain empirical insights in problems of mismatch between ac- the changing institutional linkages quired and required skills in the between the school and training labor market? Our guiding hypothe- systems, on the one hand, and be- sis in this research area is that tween the labor market and the oc- despite massive distributional shifts cupational structure, on the other. and intense pressure for labor mar- Moreover, we can examine contro- ket flexibilization, the close linkage versial hypotheses about the length- between education, training, and ening and fragmentation of this occupation persists.

Hillmert, S., & Mayer, Jacob, M. (2004). Büchel, F., de Grip, A., Hillmert, S., & Jacob, Key References K. U. (Eds.). (2004). Ge- Mehrfachausbildungen & Mertens, A. (Eds.). M. (2003b). Social in- boren 1964 und 1971. in Deutschland. Kar- (2003). Overeducation equality in higher edu- Neuere Untersuchun- riere, Collage, Kompen- in Europe: Current is- cation: Is vocational gen zu Ausbildungs- sation? Wiesbaden: sues in theory and pol- training a pathway und Berufschancen in VS Verlag für Sozial- icy. Cheltenham, UK: leading to or away Westdeutschland. wissenschaften. Elgar. from university? Euro- Wiesbaden: VS Verlag pean Sociological Re- für Sozialwissen- view, 19, 319–334. schaften.

Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course 219 Research Area 2 Life Courses in the Transformation of and the transformation process. In Former Socialist Countries addition, we have intensified coop- The fall of the Berlin Wall and the eration with Polish social scientists unification of Germany not only pro- for the purposes of comparative vided a major challenge for the so- study. Our investigations concentrate cial sciences to understand and on the micromechanisms of individ- guide this transition, it also provided ual adjustment, adaptation in the unique opportunities for theory- domains of family and work, the life- guided research. On the one hand, course consequences of institutional Key References the transformation allowed us to ex- transfer from West to East Germany, Diewald, M., Goedicke, A., amine how the former socialist soci- and individual-level processes in the & Mayer, K. U. (Eds.). ety functioned and why it failed. On transformation of the system of so- (forthcoming). After the fall of the Berlin Wall: Life the other hand, it provided ample cial stratification and class. Our courses in the transforma- opportunities for the investigation of studies have revealed some rather tion of East Germany. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford Univer- life courses under the impact of such surprising findings: Despite a rapid sity Press. a sudden dramatic institutional increase in labor market mobility Matthes, B. (2004c). In- change. We have collected selected and considerable breaks in individual tergenerationale Mobilität beim Erwerbseinstieg wäh- cohort and life-course data on both careers, we also find remarkable rend der ostdeutschen the German Democratic Republic continuities. Transformation. In M. Szydlik (Ed.), Generation und Ungleichheit Rosenfeld, R. A., Trappe, H., & Gornick, J. C. Trappe, H., & Rosenfeld, R. A. (2004). Occupa- (pp. 168–190). Wiesbaden: (2004). Gender and work in Germany: Before and tional sex segregation and family formation in the VS Verlag für Sozialwis- after reunification. Annual Review of Sociology, 30, former East and West Germany. Work and Occupa- senschaften. 103–124. tions, 31, 155–192.

Research Area 3 Welfare State, Life Courses, and role of the welfare state may prove Social Inequalities to be especially important in current In this research area we focus on societal adaptations to global com- conceptual and empirical studies on petition and decreasing public the impact of various national insti- finances. Microanalytic and cross- tutional configurations on life- national studies are required to course outcomes. The macroinstitu- unravel the mechanisms and conse- tions of the modern welfare state quences of different welfare state Key References and the specific provisions and rules regimes. Our guiding hypothesis for Mayer, K. U. (2001). The of the social insurance systems are Germany holds that life courses are paradox of global social among the major determining fac- still relatively protected from pres- change and national path dependencies: Life course tors in the life course and in the dis- sures of flexibility, and that stability patterns in advanced soci- tribution of life opportunities. The and continuity prevail. eties. In A. E. Woodward & M. Kohli (Eds.), Inclusions and exclusions in European societies (pp. 89–110). Mertens, A., & McGinnity, F. Hillmert, S., & Mayer, K. U. Hillmert, S. (2002). Labour mar- London: Routledge. (2004). Wages and wage growth (Eds.). (2004). Geboren 1964 und ket integration and institutions: McGinnity, F. (2004b). of fixed-term workers in East 1971. Neuere Untersuchungen zu An Anglo-German comparison. Welfare for the unem- and West Germany. Applied Eco- Ausbildungs- und Berufschancen Work, Employment and Society, ployed in Britain and Ger- nomics Quarterly, 50, 139–163. in Westdeutschland. Wiesbaden: 16 (4), 675–701. many: Who benefits? Chel- VS Verlag für Sozialwissen- tenham: Elgar. schaften.

220 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course Life-Course Research and Analysis: 1971. The first panel study was also Research Area 4 Theory, Methods, and Synthesis employed to analyze the reliability of This research area focuses on over- retrospective measurement. We in- arching topics and tasks: the provi- corporated a methods experiment in sion of the empirical database for the second panel in order to improve our studies, methodological prob- reliability on the basis of insights lems of measurement, analysis, mod- from the psychology of autobio- eling, issues of general theory, and graphical memory. As a supplement empirical work on the full set of to the second panel, we are also cohort studies. conducting a series of narrative bi- The Center’s research program is em- ographical interviews. Data editing, pirically based on a series of eight the development and maintenance surveys. These surveys rely on popu- of the database, and data documen- lation probability samples and were tation form an important part of our conducted from the early 1980s up ongoing research work. Currently we to the present day. They now com- also concentrate on establishing a prise quantified life histories of more user-friendly database con- about 8,500 West German women taining these cohort studies and and men (the cohorts born 1919–21, putting the data documentation into 1929–31, 1939–41, 1949–51, an electronic format. 1954–56, 1959–61, 1964, and 1971) The Research Center’s own data sets and about 2,900 East German are complemented with other women and men (the cohorts born German and non-German longitudi- 1929–31, 1939–41, 1951–53, nal studies, including the German 1959–61, and 1971). Detailed life Socio-Economic Panel (GSOEP), the histories were also obtained for the Microcensus, the 1% sample of the 516 participants of the Berlin Aging Employment Register, the BIBB/IAB Study, who were born between 1887 (Federal Institute for Vocational and 1922. These surveys are retro- Training and the Institute for Labor spective studies. We also carried out Market and Employment Research) two panel studies. In the first panel Employment Survey, and the British we reinterviewed our East German Household Panel Study (BHPS). Our respondents from 1991/92 in major methodological tools consist 1996/97. In the second panel we are of dynamic models of discrete reinterviewing in 2004/05 our East change in continuous time. and West German respondents born

Brückner, H., & Mayer, Hillmert, S. (2003b). Matthes, B. (2003). Reimer, M. (2003). Key References K. U. (forthcoming). ”Ausbildungs- und Das Teilprojekt ”Ost- Autobiografisches The de-standardization Berufsverläufe der deutsche Lebensver- Gedächtnis und retro- of the life course: Geburtskohorten 1964 läufe im Transforma- spektive Datenerhe- What it might mean und 1971 in West- tionsprozess (LV-Ost)“ bung: Die Rekonstruk- and if it means any- deutschland“: Die der Deutschen tion und Validität von thing whether it actu- jüngste Teilstudie der Lebensverlaufsstudie. Lebensverläufen. Doc- ally took place. Ad- Lebensverlaufsstudie ZA-Information, 53, toral dissertation, Freie vances in Life Course als Scientific Use File. 156–166. Universität Berlin. Research. ZA-Information, 53, 167–177.

Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course 221 Current Research Projects and Research Associates of the Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course Research Area 1 Research Area 2 Education, Training, and Employment Life Courses in the Transformation of Former Socialist Countries

Early Careers and Family Karl Ulrich Mayer After the Fall of the Berlin Britta Matthes Formation: Life Courses of Britta Matthes Wall: Life Courses in the Karl Ulrich Mayer the Birth Cohorts 1971 in Maike Reimer Transformation of East Heike Trappe East and West Germany Holger Seibert Germany Martin Diewald (Bielefeld) Anne Goedicke (Essen) Education and Mismatch in Felix Büchel † • Dissertation Project Anke Höhne the Labor Market Matthias Pollmann-Schult Employment Risks and Chances Within Laura Romeu (Postdoc) Households. Careers of Couples During East Germany’s Transformation

Transformation Processes in Bogdan Mach Poland and East Germany Britta Matthes Karl Ulrich Mayer

Bourgeois and Non-Bourgeois Erika M. Hoerning Intelligentsia in the GDR

Research Area 3 Research Area 4 Welfare State, Life Courses, and Life-Course Research and Analysis: Social Inequalities Theory, Methods, and Synthesis

Employment Relationships Antje Mertens Post World War II Social Karl Ulrich Mayer at Risk Frances McGinnity Development as Collective Matthias Pollmann-Schult Vanessa Gash History of Cohorts Holger Seibert

• Dissertation Project Stefanie Gundert Cognition and Communication Maike Reimer Fixed-Term Contracts Over the Life- Course in Longitudinal Data Collection

Gender Segregation After Heike Trappe Reunification in East and West Germany

Projects and Dissertations Concluded in 2003–2004

Education, Training, and Careers: Karl Ulrich Mayer Political Economy and the Life Frances McGinnity Life Courses of the 1964 and Steffen Hillmert Course in Advanced Societies Steffen Hillmert 1971 Birth Cohorts in West Antje Mertens (POLIS) Karl Ulrich Mayer Germany Heike Trappe

Higher Education: Expansion, Karl Ulrich Mayer Higher Education in Germany Gero Lenhardt Institutional Forms, and Equality and the USA of Opportunity (International Comparative Project)

• Dissertation Project Marita Jacob • Dissertation Project Maike Reimer Patchwork or Career? Causes and Psychology of Autobiographical Memory and Consequences of Multiple the Reliability of Retrospective Measuremants Educational Episodes • Dissertation Project Holger Seibert • Dissertation Project Matthias Pollmann-Schult Occupational Placement of Foreign Overeducation in a Longitudinal Perspective Apprentices of West German Birth Cohorts 1960 to 1971

222 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course Education, Training, and Occupational Careers

Born 1964 and 1971: The Collective History of Two Cohorts What life prospects did young West Germans have in the 1980s and 1990s? What were the conditions under which they went through school and vocational education and entered the labor market? How grave were the consequences of “false starts”? How easy or difficult was it in these two decades for young women and men to overcome the first hurdles of work and family life in the transition to adulthood? To what extent did the accident of birth place young West Germans in a privileged position, compared to their East German peers? Did young East Germans reap greater rewards from reunification than West Germans or did they encounter setbacks in the years immediately following the fall of the Berlin Wall?

Both public and academic debate on sumed increasing differentiation of Key Reference these questions in the last two life trajectories and biographies. Hillmert, S., & Mayer, K. decades has been characterized by a From the 1970s onward, these ideas U. (Eds.). (2004). Geboren 1964 und 1971. Neuere multitude of grim crisis scenarios. were associated with a broadening Untersuchungen zu Ausbil- The question of whether there range of opportunities and options dungs- und Berufschancen in Westdeutschland. Wies- would be an adequate number of for a self-defined life, but were also baden: VS Verlag für training positions available to young linked to a change in values that Sozialwissenschaften. school leavers cast a long shadow placed greater emphasis on personal over the end of nearly every school development and individual autono- year of the late 1980s and early my than on mere material success. 1990s. During this period, the con- The connotation of these themes stantly increasing unemployment changed over time, however. For rate also began to affect new en- many young people, the belief that trants to the labor force. Germany’s rising prosperity created greater op- traditionally low rate of youth un- portunities to actively chart the employment steadily approached the course of their own lives was slowly level among over-25-year-olds. Al- replaced by the perception of nar- though problems of finding a first rowing prospects, increasing hurdles job after finishing school or higher on their educational and career education were less evident than paths, and disappointed expecta- the overall lack of apprenticeships, tions, for example, regarding the the perception was widespread that value of completed educational de- young people faced ever more acute grees. difficulties in embarking on a ca- In 1998 and 1999 we collected reer—particularly those without vo- nearly 3,000 quantitative life histo- cational education, but increasingly ries of women and men born 1964 those with vocational education, and 1971 and living in West Ger- and since the 1970s, even university many using computer-assisted tele- graduates as well. phone interviews. In the following, At the same time, “patchwork biog- we present a summary of main find- raphy” and “individualization” ap- ings. The empirical analyses are pub- peared as catchphrases for a pre- lished in a monograph (Hillmert &

Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course 223 Mayer, 2004). Also available is an the old educational structures and extensive documentation of data the demand for new kinds of occu- and methods (Hillmert, Künster, pational qualifications. Spengemann, & Mayer, 2004). To Our analyses do not attempt to re- enable comparison and to present a capitulate these public debates and more complete picture, we also views in detail, but rather trace the draw on data from a study we con- factual developments in the life ducted in 1996 on the life courses courses of two specific birth co- of men and women born in East horts. We do not rely on the usual Germany in 1971. cross-sectional data from official The young people born in 1964 and statistics, but on representative data 1971 were shaped by specific gener- on the life courses of the women ational experiences. On the one and men who went through the hand, the period in which they grew formative phase of life in the 1990s. up was the end of a phase of ex- This makes it possible not only to traordinary prosperity and dramati- follow their educational and occu- cally increased educational opportu- pational development but also to nities. In comparison to those born study the way external conditions before and after them—and particu- are reflected in individual life cours- larly in comparison to their pares, and how positive and negative ents—these young people were thus life circumstances at an early stage extremely privileged. On the other of life affect the further experiences hand, this was a period of increasing of an entire generation. insecurity regarding the actual value of their improved educational at- What Are Our Central Questions? tainment for later income, status, First of all, how did the specific his- and career. An ironic self-portrayal torical period during which these of this generation can be found in young people born in 1964 and Florian Ilies’ highly popular book 1971 went through childhood affect “Generation Golf.“ This image re- the first part of their collective life flects a particular mixture of char- history (period effects)? Second, how acteristics and attitudes: high levels did the specific conditions at the of consumption during childhood, start of their lives affect later steps a distance from the sociopolitical in life and the internal dynamics of engagement of the 68-generation, their educational and professional a hedonistic sense of self-entitle- careers? Thus, this question deals ment, and disillusionment about not only with their different experi- their labor market prospects. ences at specific points in time un- The 1980s and 1990s were also a der very specific conditions but also time when institutions were per- with what the members of these ceived as increasingly rigid and in- two cohorts have in common and flexible, and insecurity over career how these common experiences af- goals and opportunities was rising. fect their further life course (cohort By the time of the late-1990s IT effects). Third, what is the temporal revolution at the very latest, ten- structure of these processes: for sions had come to a head between example, at what age did those born

224 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course in 1964 and 1971 typically reach Surprising Stability and its Price: and cross important thresholds (age The Transition From School to the effects)? Fourth, what effects did Working World in the 1980s and the early phase of the transition 1990s from school to career have on other During the 1980s and 1990s, West areas of life, for example, personal Germany experienced a dramatic de- events related to partnerships, es- cline in economic growth, two long tablishing a household, or starting a phases of recession interrupted only family (life area interdependencies). by one brief period of upswing Fifth, how do West Germans under (brought about in part by reunifica- relatively stable social conditions tion), steadily increasing unemploy- differ from East Germans under the ment, severe shortages of public turbulent conditions of German re- funds, and concomitant sharp reunification? What does the specific strictions on the hiring of new pub- “heritage” of East or West Germany lic employees. However, this period bring with it (system effects)? Sixth, was also characterized by a steadily how similar or different are women increasing rate of participation in and men? Can we identify trends to- education at the secondary level and ward increasing equality of opportu- rapid structural change caused by nity, or has gender inequality re- developments in information tech- mained constant or even worsened nology and an expansion of jobs in (gender inequality)? Seventh, are the service industry. Government there tendencies toward social ex- activities under both Kohl and clusion (marginalization)? Finally, Schröder embraced neither the pro- eighth, do the empirical findings neoliberalism of 1982 nor the anti- confirm the critical assessments of neoliberalism of 1998; rather, they these issues and prognoses for their pursed a “best-of-both-worlds” poli- outcomes expressed in contempo- cy combining increased flexibility rary public and academic debates? and social security. German reunifi-

25 Figure 1. Direct transitions Transition to unemployment into unemployment after 20 Linear trend apprenticeship (in % of all transitions).

0 1971 1961 1970 1958 1959 1960 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1972 1973 1974

Source. Hillmert, 2004a, p. 36.

Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course 225 cation was carried out under a simi- of these individuals are attaining lar banner: The promise of a rapid higher qualifications. First jobs with increase in living standards in the limited-term contracts have in- East without any sacrifices for the creased as well, but these appear to West. What were the negative con- generate no further notable adverse sequences of this difficult historical effects on employment chances a situation for the birth cohorts stud- few years later. For our cohorts, ied here? On the whole, the effects then, the picture that comes into were astonishingly few and minor. focus is that competition increases, We provide evidence both of the but what is actually achieved re- strained situation on the education- mains fairly constant. This situation al training market and the difficult resembles a football stadium in transition at the second threshold to which everyone is standing on his or the labor market for the 1964 coher toes to see more: In the end, no hort with its 20% unemployment one gets a better view. rate (see Figure 1), and of the difficult labor market situation at the A Successful Transition to Work point when the 1971 cohort started Despite Adverse Conditions—But its vocational education. Neverthe- With Detours and Delays less, for both the 1964 and the 1971 Life courses are defined not only by cohort, the rate of apprenticeship the particular historical conditions training was— with a percentage of at a specific place and time but also two thirds—very high. by the collective life history of one’s Furthermore, occupational education own particular generation (cohort). ratios (vocational training plus uni- One aspect of a cohort with poten- versity-level education) were higher tially serious consequences is the than ever before at 86%. For men, number of its members, both in ab- medium occupational status at the solute terms and relative to those start of their career was just as high immediately preceding and following for these birth cohorts as for men it. A large cohort means that more born between 1950 and 1960. The people compete for limited re- attainment of occupational status sources, for example, for positions suggests continuity rather than a on the vocational education or job decline. Indeed, the highest per- market. A large cohort also usually centile of the 1964 cohort appears if means that a family’s financial anything to be rising in status. In resources are spread more thinly the case of women, we see signifi- among a larger number of siblings. cant improvements in average occu- However, even members of small pational status but also increases in cohorts following large cohorts can the lowest and highest groups. be confronted with a more difficult This stability has, however, been competitive situation on the job achieved at a price. The percentage market, especially when members of of individuals with multiple educa- the larger preceding cohort fill spe- tion has increased markedly. A small cific positions first. It is especially portion thereof represent a reaction interesting in our context to see to unemployment, a larger portion whether relative disadvantages can

226 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course really be proven for the very large proximately 15% had finished one. cohorts of the 1964 generation. Although the majority of these indi- While political measures were effec- viduals were attaining higher quali- tive for the most part in compensat- fications and only a small percent- ing for the shortage of apprentice- age switched their occupation after ships, when the 1964 generation ar- a period of unemployment, this as- rived at the second threshold after pect demonstrates that starting a completion of training, they faced career takes longer and is more major problems in finding a job that fraught with difficulties than in the fit their qualifications. This may have past. The fact that almost 40% of been due to the fact that a relatively the 1964 generation had started a large number of men had only been second period of training by the age able to find an apprenticeship in one of 33 and one third had already fin- of the trades. A smaller percentage ished one provides further evidence of this birth cohort completed the that a new structure of educational Abitur (upper secondary school- and occupational life courses is leaving certificate) or a university emerging. A further indication of education (around one third less this is the growing average number than the 1971 and 1960 cohorts). of different jobs that members of They were also more often overqual- the two cohorts held up to the age ified for their first jobs than the of 27, whereas men from the 1964 other cohorts. cohort had held around two jobs, the 1971 men had held nearly five, On the Way to a Seven-Threshold and women went from holding un- Society? der two to nearly three jobs. For both of our birth cohorts, the The typical (male) life course tradi- difficult conditions on the educa- tionally included two thresholds: tional and labor market—together starting school and making the with the extended educational phas- transition from school to working es—had the main effect of shifting life. First for men and then gradually the transitional phase preceding for women as well, a third threshold working life to a later point in time. emerged with the increased preva- On average, men and women born in lence of a specific educational 1964 and 1971 were 20 years old phase: The transition to fixed em- and those born in 1971 were 21 ployment after completion of voca- when they started their first job, and tional education, including the risk approximately one year older when of not being offered a job at the they started their first stable job, company where training took place. that is, one lasting at least six The expansion of secondary school- months. A clear trend can also be ing led to a further threshold seen in the rising percentage of in- becoming anchored in school life. dividuals undergoing a second peri- Almost 40% of our two cohorts od of vocational training or general successfully completed Realschule education. By the age of 27, just un- (intermediate secondary school), der 30% of both cohorts had started while over one fifth of the 1964 and a second training program and ap- almost one third of the 1971 cohort

Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course 227 completed the Abitur. For a very age of 33. The men born in 1971 large minority, a second period of also moved out on their own at the training brings with it two further age of 24, but at the age of 27 only thresholds (entry and completion). 17% of them were married and only Finally, even the first job is ever 11 % were fathers. The women born more rarely a stable one. After the in 1964 started their first household first fixed-term job, another transi- at over 22 years of age, married at tion takes place—either to a perma- almost 26, and had their first child nent position with the same compa- at 28. The women born in 1971 ny or a change to another company. started their first household at 22 Although we have evidence that af- and at the age of 27, only 39% ter eight years, fixed-term employ- were married and only 27% had ees do not differ from permanent children. In a longer-term compari- employees in their employment son of the cohorts, for those born in chances, they also find that these 1964 and 1971 the age at which employees’ life courses are more personal life events occur remains complicated and potentially riskier. relatively constant rather than We therefore appear to be on the showing noticeable deviations from way toward what could be called a the trend. West German men and “seven-threshold society”—an obsta- women tend to move out of their cle course with numerous hurdles. parents’ homes at a relatively early age, live with their partners before Look Before You Leap? Establishing marriage, marry relatively late, and a Household, Marrying or Living With become parents late—if at all. The a Partner, Starting a Family percentage of women without any The decisions young people make children has increased dramatically about when to move out of their to over 30%. Of women born in parents’ home and into their own 1940, 10% were childless, as were apartments, when to move in with a 15% of those born in 1950, and partner, get married, and have chil- 20% of those born in 1955. Esti- dren are often expressions of values mates for women born in 1960 and and social norms. The trend toward 1965 are between 23% and 31%. an increasing value placed on indi- For women who have completed a vidual autonomy is indisputable. university degree, childlessness has Decisions like these affecting the become almost the norm, such that private sphere are also frequently in the year 2000, 44% of women influenced by the length of educa- with a university degree still had no tional phases, difficulties encoun- child by the age of 39. tered in making the transition to the This means that a pattern is emerg- labor market, and individual percep- ing of delaying events associated tions of how promising one’s em- with family life to later points in ployment and income prospects are. time (with the exception of starting On average, the men in the 1964 one’s own household), and that with cohort started their first household our two cohorts, these events have at the age of 24, married at the age been pushed even further into the of 29, and became fathers at the future. Starting a family increasingly

228 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course only takes place in the fourth Germans who had not completed decade of life, and for one third of vocational education was much the individuals in our cohorts, par- lower, though, the number of indi- enthood is not a part of their life viduals in training was higher, and experience at all. the percentage of individuals attending upper secondary school in Integration Accompanied by preparation for the Abitur (22% vs. Handicaps: Starting a Career in East 32%) or the university (17% vs. and West Germany 23%) was lower. This also meant— The reunification of the two German mainly because of the less differen- states and cultures offers social sci- tiated school system—a much higher entists an extraordinarily unusual standardization in age at the transi- “natural experiment” that makes it tion from school to working life. As possible to examine the collective a result, at the beginning of their life history of one birth cohort in the working lives (and around the time context of two dramatically differ- when the Berlin Wall fell), East Ger- ent systems. From our life-course mans had higher vocational qualifi- studies, we have data on the men cations than West Germans, while and women born in 1971 in both the latter had higher levels of West Germany (including West schooling. Berlin) and East Germany. This en- But what effects did this upheaval ables comparison of the two groups have thereafter? Above all, it creat- from a twofold perspective. On the ed different risks of unemployment: one hand, we can better estimate Half of the East Germans and one how large (or small) the problems fifth of the West Germans either and difficulties of West Germans are lost or did not find a job after fin- under “normal” business cycles and ishing school and vocational train- structural crises in contrast to the ing. The young people from the two much more dramatic upheavals that German states also made very dif- East Germans underwent through ferent discoveries about the “stabili- the system change from socialism to ty” of the first profession they had a social market economy. On the trained for. Seven years after the fall other hand, we can look at the life of the Berlin Wall (and after they courses of East Germans as a result had, on average, completed their of disadvantages stemming from ex- first period of vocational training), ogenously triggered system change. 42% of the West Germans and 34% Up to their 18th year of life, the life of the East Germans still worked in courses of East and West Germans the same occupation they had start- born in 1970 were fundamentally ed in. This means that even under shaped by their different social con- the more “normal” conditions of the texts. Nevertheless, East and West West German labor market, a major- Germany had in common a strong ity of young people still had to vocational orientation in their edu- reorient themselves, but not the cational systems and a high extreme majority of two thirds seen vocational segmentation of labor in East Germany. Many people in markets. The percentage of East both East and West undertook major

Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course 229 efforts to get training in a new field, How should these different experi- with the surprising result that a ences be interpreted beyond the in- similarly large proportion ultimately dividual level? First, with the fall of worked in a field for which they had the Berlin Wall, the East Germans completed training, although not in born in 1971 already had an impor- their first occupation (approximately tant relative advantage for several 65%). However, not only do East reasons: Most had by that time al- and West Germany differ in terms of ready completed a vocational edu- the percentages completing training cation (which was shorter than in for a second career (26% in the the West), their East German educa- East, 15% in the West), they also tional degrees were recognized un- differ in terms of the level of the der the unification treaty of August second career relative to the first: In 1990, and the overall rate of voca- West Germany, almost half of these tional education had been higher in individuals obtained a higher level the East. Second, the forced privati- of qualification, while in East Ger- zation and restructuring of the East many up to two thirds obtained dif- German economy and thus of occu- ferent qualifications at the same pational structures compelled East level in order to avoid becoming un- Germans to achieve much more in employed or having to take up un- terms of adjusting and reorienting skilled work. Astonishingly, East and themselves, although some also re- West Germans from the 1971 co- ceived government support through hort—despite their different risks of occupational training or retraining unemployment—do not show differ- measures. Third, East Germans made ent rates of labor force participation the transition into working life ap- at the end of the observation period proximately two years sooner in the (1996). This is due in part to the ex- beginning (at the age of 19 rather tensive labor market measures un- than 21), but the transition later dertaken in East Germany, in part to became much more difficult and the marked and much stronger ten- dramatic. In the final result, they dency of East German women to achieved levels of integration into participate in the labor market. East the labor market similar to West Germans broke with the “normal Germans, but on a lower level of biography” of German Democratic occupational status—a legacy of the Republic (GDR) times in one other GDR occupational structures. respect: Of those born in 1960, 76% of the women and 50% of the men Ongoing Gender Inequalities Despite were married by the age of 25, Promotion of Occupational Equality while 86% were mothers and 70% and Increasing Similarity of Life- fathers. This biographical “given” Course Patterns disintegrated under the uncertain- The life courses of (West German) ties of German reunification: By the women have come to resemble age of 25, only 26% of women and those of men in many respects in 11 % of men were married, while recent decades. With historical de- 32% had become mothers and 13% lays, they have caught up in educa- fathers. tional participation and university

230 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course attendance and have even overtaken Abitur. In university attendance as men in schooling. Women show a well, men and women are nearly rate of educational participation at equal (with approximately 17% the beginning of working life that is holding a university degree). as high as men’s, and they disrupt In the rate of occupational training, their careers less often and for however, men remain ahead. In our shorter periods after the birth of cohorts, the percentage of women their first child. Given the difficult without any occupational training overall situation of the 1964 and has dropped significantly, but is still 1971 cohorts at the beginning of twice as high as the percentage of working life, the question arises men. whether women have suffered more While the percentage of the men in from these difficulties than men and our two cohorts who took jobs for whether their gains in educational which they were overqualified was and occupational opportunities comparatively large in historical stagnated or even declined again. comparison (11% and 9% respec- In their first jobs, women worked in tively), the percentages were lower occupations with a higher average among women (8% and 4% respec- occupational status than men. While tively). Women also show better re- the initial occupational status of the sults in terms of working in the oc- men in our cohorts tended to stag- cupation for which they were last nate, the women achieved steady trained: In our cohorts, the percent- gains. This is no doubt a result of ages of individuals working in an the fact that women profited more occupation different from the last from the growth of the service trained are for the first time lower industries. The women in our two among women (approximately 17%) cohorts overtook men by a large than among men (almost 25%). margin, both in attendance of The improved position of women ap- Realschule and completion of the pears less positive, however, when

3,000 Figure 2. Average net in- At labor market entry come (in DEM) of full-time 2,500 At the time of the interview employed women and men born in 1971.

2,000

1,500

1,000 Net income (in DEM)

500

0 Women Men Women Men West Germany East Germany

Source. Trappe, 2004, p. 150.

Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course 231 one looks at limited-term first job Marginalization Through a Lack of contracts and occupational training Education and Training? for a second career. The percentage In the 1980s and 1990s, concerns of fixed-term contracts is not higher intensified that the youth growing for women in full-time jobs, but up at the time were becoming a their part-time jobs tend to be “lost generation,” ever more margin- fixed-term, and part-time employ- alized and expendable. Our findings ment is generally concentrated in fundamentally refute that view. Al- fields of “women’s work.“ Although though the paths to a job and a ca- women have caught up with and reer have become more difficult and even overtaken men to some extent protracted, the life prospects of the in their first period of occupational young people born in these years in training, the gap widens again with West Germany do not differ marked- the second. Not only do women go ly from previous generations. In part, through a second period of training and particularly for women, their less often than men (25% to 39%); chances are significantly better. At when they do, it is less frequently the same time, it is important to for the purpose of achieving a high- carefully evaluate whether tenden- er level of qualification. cies toward social exclusion exist, Women also earn less than men how large the groups affected are, overall, despite equal levels of edu- and what mechanisms underlie cation and a higher average occupa- these tendencies. In our study we tional status: 82% of men’s wages are looking at three groups for at the start of their career and 85% which one could expect social and at the point in time of the interview economic exclusion: young foreign- (see Figure 2). ers and young adults with low levels

1964 Figure 3. School degrees of ITA/GRE/ESP/POR foreign birth cohorts 1964 Ex Yugoslavia and 1971 by countries of origin. Turkey Rest of EU and USA Rest of world 1971 ITA/GRE/ESP/POR Ex Yugoslavia Turkey Rest of EU and USA Rest of world

01020304050 60 70 8090100 Percent Without school Lower secondary Intermediate secondary Upper secondary certificate certificate certificate certificate

Source. Seibert, 2004b, p. 101.

232 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course of schooling and occupational train- come from what are known as the ing, East Germans, and foreigners. “recruitment countries” (of them ap- Bringing in additional data on non- proximately one third from Turkey) Germans is crucial because they and the Balkans. Of the Turkish for- correct the otherwise too positive eign nationals, who make up the picture that emerges here due to most important problem group, one the fact that in our representative fifth of those born in 1964 had not sample we have too few cases with- completed school at all, and nearly out German citizenship. two thirds had only completed But first, we turn to the lack of edu- Hauptschule; among those born in cation among the West Germans in 1971 it was over 10% and 70% re- our birth cohorts: Approximately 6% spectively (see Figure 3). Less than of the girls and 9% of the boys left 30% of Turkish members of the for- school without having completed mer cohort received occupational the Hauptschule (lower secondary training, and approximately 40% of school) while 4% attend a Sonder- the latter cohort. On the one hand, schule (remedial school). Further- we can see from this comparison of more, approximately one third of the two cohorts that the disadvan- those born in 1964 and 1971 only taging and adverse overall starting completed Hauptschule. conditions are unlikely to continue The low levels of schooling mean affecting later cohorts to this same above all lower chances of obtaining degree if the young people were vocational education. Of those born and went to school in Ger- members of our cohorts who had many. On the other hand, however, not completed school, almost 40% this will undoubtedly mean that also did not complete vocational ed- around half of these Turkish mem- ucation, and of those who had only bers of the cohorts observed here completed Hauptschule, approxi- will spend the rest of their lives on mately 10%. A lower level of the lower margins of society. schooling means also more frequent It is obviously difficult to extra- and longer periods of unemploy- polate from these figures precisely ment. Forty percent of individuals how large a marginal socioeconomic who had not completed Hauptschule group may exist in our two birth were unemployed, and almost half years. However, we can say with of these were long-term unem- some degree of certainty that ployed. Many of these young adults between 5% and 15% of these ultimately have to take menial jobs: individuals will find themselves in one third of those who had not precarious living situations in the completed school and one fourth of relatively long term. those who had completed only Hauptschule. Contrary to Expectations: Evidence of Slightly more than 10% of the men Stability in Change and women born in 1964 and al- The men and women born in West most 20% of those born in 1971 do Germany in 1964 and 1971 crossed not have German citizenship. Of the thresholds crucial for the later these, approximately three fourths course of their lives during two

Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course 233 decades profoundly affected by and career opportunities have con- structural crisis and major problems tinued to improve relative to men’s on the educational and labor mar- despite adverse conditions in the ket, and by the effects of German overall environment. reunification. In the assessment of Although the ultimate results of in- many contemporary observers, these tegration into the working world difficult conditions caused a struc- hardly differ between these cohorts tural break and a dramatic trend re- and their predecessors, the detailed versal, resulting in major upheavals patterns of transition have changed in the relationship between school- dramatically and possibly perma- ing, occupational training, and the nently. Today, entering a stable oc- initial years of working life, and cupational position adequate to producing entirely new life-course one’s level of qualification takes patterns. The life prospects of these longer, and for a growing number of generations were also influenced by individuals, it means going through two demographic developments: the a second course of occupational large birth cohort sizes of the early training as well as intermittent 1960s and the sharp decline there- phases of unemployment, work for after (with the introduction of the which one is overqualified, or limit- birth control pill) as well as the ed-term contracts. Even the “baby major inflow of people born outside boom” of the 1964 cohort was by no of Germany into these cohorts. Thus, means without negative conse- in addition to assuming a “genera- quences: The resulting increased tional break,” critical observers also competition for occupational train- expected to see dramatically in- ing and jobs means more limited op- creasing “generational inequality” in portunities for at least some sub- the sense of a significant decline in groups. There are, however, many in- educational and occupational op- dications that the extended phases portunities, and even long-term im- of transition into adult life observed poverishment and marginalization. have more than just structural caus- Our findings do not confirm these es. Although lengthier educational grim prognoses. Rather, we find first phases and insecure career biogra- of all overwhelming evidence of a phies do render decisions about per- relatively high level of continuity in manent relationships and starting a the basic structures of transition family more difficult, they probably between school and career, and rel- cannot entirely explain the observ- atively stable payoffs on individual able overall lifetime patterns. Indi- investments in occupational train- vidual expectations regarding life- ing. Second, these two birth cohorts style and consumption standards benefited from long-term improve- and personal autonomy in planning ments in educational participation, one’s life also play an important opportunities for occupational train- role. ing and increasing levels of qualifi- Our findings also do not imply an cation in occupational structures. absence of institutional problems or Third, women’s school attendance, difficult personal situations, or in occupational training, and earnings other words, of serious challenges

234 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course for social policy. The temporal “fray- ondary school) and either did or did ing” of occupational training into not complete it. Multiple education- individual phases points to a deal degrees and further training cre- creasing efficacy of institutional co- ate even more advantages for those ordination between the lengthened who are already privileged by virtue phase of general education and of their relatively high levels of standard training, and a decreasing education. Furthermore, the increase adequacy of occupational training in childlessness points to a lack of and its subject matter to the de- institutional support in providing mands of work. An increasing per- childcare options for working centage of young men are being women. trained for occupations—such as The findings presented remove any industrial manufacturing—which doubt that contemporary observers already lack enough jobs for gradu- and social scientist gurus have ates and certainly offer no chances dramatically and even grotesquely of lifelong employment. Moreover, exaggerated the extent of the crisis an increasing percentage of young and the trend changes on the edu- women are being trained in occupa- cational and labor market for young tions with low chances of being people in the Federal Republic of hired after the apprenticeship has Germany in the 1980s and 1990s. been concluded, for example, legal Taking a more distanced view, a ret- secretaries or doctors’ assistants. rospective analysis of life-course The still considerable power of occu- developments and representative pational training—especially in its population data presents a picture dual form (classroom instruction of both continuity and change. At combined with on-the-job train- the same time, there is strong evi- ing)—to foster integration also has dence that the stability observed is its drawbacks. It excludes, in some also an expression of institutional cases permanently, those who are rigidity, which suggests both that unable to find an apprenticeship: in essential adjustments still need to particular foreigners, emigrants of be made, and that they will be fol- German descent primarily from the lowed by more far-reaching changes former Soviet Union, and others who in life-course patterns. attended Hauptschule (lower sec-

Returns to Skills: Vocational Schult and Mayer (2004), we there- Key Reference Training in Germany 1935–2000 fore investigate if, and to what Pollmann-Schult, M., & The institutional setting of the Ger- extent, trajectories into the labor Mayer, K. U. (2004). Re- turns to skills: Vocational man system of vocational training is market have changed in the past training in Germany supposed to offer young adults a decades. To this end, using worklife 1935–2000. Yale Journal of Sociology, 4 , 73–98. smooth transition to the first job. history data from the German Life However, many observers assume History Study (GLHS), we focus on that the labor market outcome of three major dimensions of transition vocationally trained youth deterio- outcomes for eight birth cohorts rated since the 1970s. In Pollmann- born between 1919 and 1971. We

Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course 235 find that the educational back- Although this is a truly remarkable ground of vocationally trained peo- story of the stability of institutional ple has become more heterogeneous arrangements and their effects in the past decades. The majority of across a large span of time, we youth entering vocational training would be cautious in extrapolating after 1980 held an intermediate or this as a kind of ultra-stability into upper secondary school-leaving the future. In contrast, there are certificate. Young people who com- good reasons to assume that we pleted upper secondary schooling deal here with a case of institutional increasingly take up a vocational and behavioral inertia and delayed training instead of going to college. adaptation. The expansion of sec- Further, we observe a shift from ap- ondary and higher education is still prenticeships in the low status craft in a precarious disequilibrium with sector to those in the commercial participation in vocational training, sector that comprises jobs of a high- and the adding on of apprentice- er status. ships to longer periods of general Our results regarding the transition education appears neither to be ef- outcomes contradict the widespread ficient in the usage of life time nor assumption of decreasing benefits an optimal way of skill formation. In from vocational training. It has been addition, the new cost-conscious- shown that the overall transition ness of firms has put some strains regime into the labor market of vo- on their willingness to invest in cationally trained workers did not training. The very recent reaction of change substantially in terms of the government to threaten with a overeducation, occupational mis- levy for firms which do not train match, and occupational prestige. might well produce the opposite ef- However, there is empirical evidence fect of what is intended. It might for gender-specific trends after act as an incentive for firms to buy 1980. Labor market outcomes some- themselves out of training obliga- what deteriorated for men and im- tions. Moreover, the fact that the proved for women. Men who en- dual system of vocational training tered the labor market in the past has practically broken down in East two decades faced a significant Germany due to the lack of training higher risk of overeducation than firms might trigger changes in the previous cohorts, whereas women direction of less firm and more entering the labor market in the school-based provision of vocational 1990s had better chances of secur- skills. The jury on the viability of the ing a job that matches their qualifi- German dual system of vocational cation level. Moreover, since 1980 training is still out. the risk of occupational mismatch dropped for female labor market entrants.

236 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course Ethnic Differences in the Process school also subject to statistical dis- Key References of Recruiting Employees Holding a crimination (see Seibert, in press). Seibert, H. (in press). Vocational Degree in Germany A further step to integration lies in Integration durch Ausbil- dung? Berufliche Social and economic integration of the participation of foreign youth in Platzierung ausländischer ethnic groups in Germany is after the vocational training system be- Ausbildungsabsolventen der Geburtsjahrgänge 1960 decades of neglect more and more cause it provides good transition bis 1971. Berlin: Logos. to be found on the political agenda. chances into the labor market. Thus, Konietzka, D., & Seibert, How can integration into the Ger- we ask whether a successfully com- H. (2003). Deutsche und Ausländer an der ”zweiten man society be forced? One way ob- pleted apprenticeship could dispel, Schwelle.“ Eine verglei- viously is to prepare foreign youth or at least weaken, the disadvan- chende Analyse der Berufseinstiegskohorten for the German labor market. Espe- tages of young foreigners vis-à-vis 1976–1995 in West- cially in school, foreign children are natives. Do young foreigners and deutschland. Zeitschrift für less successful, compared to German Germans who have been trained Pädagogik, 49, 567–590. peers. As Figure 4 shows, one fifth reach the same labor market posi- of the foreign school leaver’s popu- tions in respect to the quality level lation in 2002 do not hold a leaving of their jobs as well as to the occu- certificate. Among Germans, only pational match between job and 8% leave school without a leaving training? certificate. About 60% of foreign With occupational registry data school leavers do not reach upper from the Employment Study of the intermediate level (Realschule). Federal Institute for Employment This comparatively bad performance Research (IAB) in Nuremberg, we in school has lasting consequences can show that young foreigners for the transition from school to holding a vocational degree do in- training. With lower leaving certifi- deed reach similar labor market cates, it does not only take more positions as natives do—except for time find an apprenticeship for all Turkish men (Seibert, in press; German and foreign school leavers, Konietzka & Seibert, 2003). They are foreign school leavers are due to less able to find appropriate jobs or their lower average performance in enter the labor market in the occu-

100 Upper secondary certificate Figure 4. School leavers in (Abitur, Fachabitur) 2002 by leaving certificate. 80 Intermediate secondary certificate (Realschule) 60 Lower secondary certificate (Hauptschule) Percent 40 Without school certificate

0 German Foreign school leavers school leavers

Source. Federal Statistical Office Germany.

Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course 237 pation trained for in comparison This hypothesis will be tested with with Germans. the Employment Study again. In a These findings refer to ethnically logistic regression model, we ask differentiated recruitment patterns whether foreigners and Germans of the firms who hire graduates of reach skilled (vs. unskilled) positions apprenticeship programs. How can when they enter the labor market different recruitment patterns be after finishing their vocational train- shown empirically? Given that em- ing. We distinguish ethnic groups ployers sort their applicants by qual- between Germans, Turks, the group ification only there should be no ad- of respondents from Italy, Greece, vantages for any ethnic group. If Spain, Portugal, or former Yugoslavia ethnicity counts negatively—that is, (the former recruitment countries), if Turkish nationality is a negative and the remaining countries. As a selection criterion—the correspon- further independent variable we ding group should show weaker la- take the corresponding labor market bor market outcomes, compared to condition into account. As an indi- other ethnic groups. This mechanism cator for the labor market condition, however can only be shown under we take the yearly unemployment weak labor-market conditions when rate of graduates of apprenticeship the number of applicants signifi- programs. Furthermore, we control cantly exceed, the number of vacan- for the size of the training firm, the cies. Given any sorting of applicants, occupation trained for, and if the the ethnic group(s) at the end of the occupation trained for was left at queue will show a weaker labor labor market entry. These three vari- market performance than all the ables, however, will not be shown in other groups.

Table 1 Determinants of skilled position (vs. unskilled) at labor market entry (only male blue-collar workers, logistic regression)

Model 1 Model 2 Exp(B) Exp(B)

Nationality Germany (Reference) 1 1 Turkey 0.44*** n.s. Italy, Greece, Spain, Portugal, Yugoslavia n.s. n.s. Remaining countries n.s. n.s. Labor market condition Good (Reference) 1 1 Weak 0.74*** 0.75*** Interaction: Germany × weak (Reference) 1 Nationality × Labor Turkey × weak 0.35** market condition Italy, Greece etc. × weak n.s. Remaining countries × weak n.s. Chi2 3,694.13*** 3,703.33*** Pseudo R 2 0.34 0.34 Degrees of freedom 11 14 n 19,353 19,353 Significance levels: *** < .001, ** < .01. Source. Employment Study 1975–1995 (Federal Institute for Employment Research, Nuremberg).

238 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course the analyses as they are regarded as the labor market condition remain pure control variables. almost constant. The interaction ef- Due to the data structure, only male fect shows, however, that Turks have blue-collar workers can be analyzed a lower probability to find a skilled here. Table 1 shows the estimates of position only under weak labor mar- the logistic regression model. In ket conditions. In good times, they Model 1, we only consider nationali- do not differ from Germans in re- ty and labor market conditions as spect to their labor market positions. independent variables. Here, only Overall, these analyses show the in- Turkish men show a significantly tegrational capacity of the German lower probability (0.44) of reaching apprenticeship system for foreigners: a skilled position after finishing a Labor market outcomes of foreign vocational training. The labor market workers holding a vocational degree condition has a significant influence are very similar to German workers. on finding skilled work too. Under On the other hand, the results also weak conditions, the probability val- identify the limits: Integration ues are significantly lower (0.74), through vocational training only compared to times of good labor works under good economic condi- market conditions. tions. If vacancies run short, Turks In Model 2, we introduce an inter- seem to loose competition. Conse- action term between nationality and quently, a successfully completed labor market condition. Thus, we an- apprenticeship can only weaken, but alyze the different ethnic groups not dispel disadvantages for Turks. under good and weak labor market The other ethnic groups seem to conditions. The results show that have overcome the obstacles after there are no significant nationality finishing a vocational training. effects left, whereas the effects of

Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course 239 Education, Mismatch, and Mother’s Employment— In Memory of Felix Büchel

Key Reference Educational Mismatch in the Labor Market Büchel, F., & Mertens, A. A major of Felix Büchel’s research in the field of educational mismatch fo- (2004). Overeducation, cused on the causes and consequences of overeducation. From an economic undereducation, and the theory of career mobility. point of view, overeducation is considered as a waste of skills that has nega- Applied Economics, 36, tive effects not only on the individual level but also is costly on the societal 803–816. level. Overeducated workers earn substantially less than their similarly qualified peers who work in matched jobs. Furthermore, the underutilization of the qualifications gained in the educational system, which is largely publicly funded, can be seen as a waste of public resources. In a series of papers, Felix Büchel analyzed the decision making in the job-matching process in order to scrutinize the motivations of both employees and employers to accept and tolerate this form of apparently suboptimal job match. Büchel and Mertens (2004) test one of the most popular explanations for the existence of overeducation, namely, the career mobility theory. According to this theory, put forward by Sicherman and Galor (1990), a part of the returns to education is in the form of a higher probability to get promoted. Thus, it may be rational for employees to accept jobs for which they are overeducated in the early career phase if wage losses are compensated by better subsequent promotion prospects. Sicherman (1991) was able to confirm this theory for the US labor market, however, using methods which are vulnerable to criti- cism. Performing a retest for the German labor market by using data from the German Socio-Economic Panel (GSOEP), Büchel and Mertens (2004) find that overeducated workers in Germany have markedly lower wage growth rates than matched workers. The plausibility of this result is supported by the finding that overeducated workers have less access to formal and infor- mal on-the-job training. Büchel’s and Mertens’ findings cast serious doubt on whether the career mobility theory is able to explain overeducation in Germany.

Felix Büchel passed away on July 12, 2004, at the age of 47 after a long and de- bilitating illness at his home in Kleinmachnow. With his death, the German educational and labor market research lost one of its most profound and productive scholars. Felix Büchel received a degree in mathematics at the Swiss Federal Insti- tute of Technology and in Political Science at the Free University of Berlin. He obtained a doctoral degree in 1991 at the Technical University of Berlin in Economics on the topic of re-employment quality after continuous and so-called ”perforated“ long-term unemployment. In 1998, Felix Büchel achieved his Habilitation in Eco- nomics from the Technical University of Berlin, writing on overeducation in the labor market. Besides his position as a Senior Researcher at the Center for Sociol- ogy and the Study of the Life Course at the Max Planck Institute for Human Development which he took up in 1998, Felix Büchel was an Honorary Professor at the Free University of Berlin, Institute of Sociology and an Adjunct Professor at the Faculty of Economics at the Technical University of Berlin. Further, Felix Büchel held a Research Professorship at both the Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA) and the German Institute for Economic Research (DIW).

240 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course Further, Büchel (2002) analyzes the sults of their analyses show that the Key References motivation of firms to employ work- size of the labor market is an impor- Büchel, F., & Battu, H. ers whose formal qualifications ex- tant factor in avoiding overeduca- (2003). The theory of differential overqualification: ceed the job requirement level. Most tion: Looking for a job in a large la- Does it work? Scottish of the previous research concluded bor market increases the probability Journal of Political Econo- my, 50, 1–16. that overeducated workers are less of finding a suitable job. Access to a Büchel, F., & van Ham, M. productive than their similarly quali- car for personal use and a longer (2003). Overeducation, re- fied peers who work in appropriate commuting time reduce the risk of gional labour markets and spatial flexibility. Journal jobs as a consequence of frustration. working in a job for which one is of Urban Economics, 53, This finding raises the question of overeducated. Within this context, 482–493. why firms hire overeducated work- Felix Büchel also explored the ques- Büchel, F. (2002). The effects of overeducation on ers. The results of Büchel (2002) re- tion of whether the existing gender- productivity in Germany— veal that overeducated workers are specific differences in the magnitude The firms' viewpoint. less productive only when compared of overeducation are caused by spa- Economics of Education Review, 21 (3), 263–275. with matched workers of the same tial constraints of married women. Büchel, F. (2000). Tied skill level, but far more productive According to the theory of differen- movers, tied stayers: The than their coworkers, who perform tial overeducation advanced by higher risk of overeducation among married the same type of job but possess Frank (1978), the husband seeks the women in West Germany. lower formal qualifications. Overed- best possible job for himself in the In S. S. Gustafsson & D. E. Meulders (Eds.), Gender ucated workers were found to be broader labor market. In doing so, he and labour market. Econo- healthier, more strongly work- and also determines the local labor mar- metric evidence of obstacles to achieving gender career-minded, more likely to par- ket in which both spouses will work. equality (pp. 133–146). ticipate in on-the-job training, and Once his decision has been made, London: Macmillian Press. had longer periods of tenure with the wife conducts her own individual Daly, M. C., Büchel, F., & the same firms than their less skilled search to find the best possible job Duncan, G. J. (2000). Pre- miums and penalties for coworkers. These findings are consis- for herself within that market. Since surplus and deficit educa- tent with the established fact that the number of job vacancies in the tion: Evidence from the United States and Ger- overeducated workers receive wage local market is much smaller than in many. Economics of Edu- premiums for their surplus schooling the broader labor market, the wife cation Review, 19 (2), (Daly, Büchel, & Duncan 2000) and may logically be expected to find 169–178. make the hiring of overeducated job only a poorer job match. In contra- seekers understandable. diction to findings for the USA, Felix Büchel also dedicated extensive Büchel (2000) as well as Büchel and research to the effect of special re- Battu (2003) shows that married strictions on the risk of not finding a women in Germany are more prone matched job. Access to suitable em- to over-education due to spatial re- ployment is often restricted by the strictions than unmarried women fact that workers look for jobs in the and married or unmarried men. regional labor market rather than In a series of papers, Felix Büchel the global one. In their paper, Büchel analyzed the individual dynamics of and van Ham (2003) analyze if re- overeducation using worklife history gional labor market characteristics data from the German Life History and the extent to which job Study collected by the Max Planck searchers are restricted to the re- Institute for Human Development, gional labor market explain the phe- Berlin. The primary focus of interest nomenon of overeducation. The re- was whether overeducation is a per-

Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course 241 Key References sistent or a temporary phenomenon position of day care on the employ- Pollmann-Schult, M., & for the affected workers. Pollmann- ment behavior of mothers with pre- Büchel, F. (2004). Career Schult and Büchel (2004) show that school children. Büchel and Spieß prospects of overeducated workers in Germany. Euro- the chances of upward mobility to a (2002a) find a strong correlation be- pean Sociological Review, higher skilled job and the risk of tween day-care arrangements of 20, 321–331. downward mobility to unemploy- children and the labor market par- Spieß, C. K., Büchel, F., & Wagner, G. G. (2003). Chil- ment are to a great extent affected ticipation of their mothers (see Fig- dren's school placement in by the quality of the initial voca- ure 5). Taking this finding as a start- Germany: Does Kinder- garten attendance matter? tional training. Their results suggest ing point, Büchel and Spieß (2002b) Early Childhood Research that for workers who had completed analyze the effects of the regional Quarterly, 18, 255–270. initial vocational training of inter- provision of day care on the em- Büchel, F., & Spieß, C. K. (2002a). Form der Kinder- mediate or high quality, overeduca- ployment behavior of mothers with betreuung und Arbeits- tion is not a persistent labor market preschool children in Germany. marktverhalten von Müt- status. These workers have signifi- According to this study, a better tern in West- und Ost- deutschland. Report on cantly better career prospects than provision with day-care slots for behalf of the Federal Min- their unskilled coworkers. In con- pre-school children of three years istry for Family Affairs, Se- nior Citizens, Women and trast, the career chances of overedu- and older on the district level in- Youth. Stuttgart: W. cated workers with low-quality ini- creases the probability to work part Kohlhammer, Vol. 220 of the Ministry's Series. tial vocational training and unskilled time. A higher proportion of full-day Büchel, F., & Spieß, C. K. workers are similar. Thus, for the for- day care among all day-care slots (2002b). Kindertagesein- mer, overeducation proves to be a increases the probability of working richtungen und Mütter- erwerbstätigkeit—Neue long-run phenomenon. part time as well as full time. From Ergebnisse zu einem a policy perspective, these results bekannten Zusammen- Female Labor Supply are of great importance, as they hang. Vierteljahrshefte zur Wirtschaftsforschung— In several papers and a report on show that a broader provision of Quarterly Journal of Eco- behalf of the Federal Ministry for full-day day care is needed to ease nomic Research, 71 (1), 96–114. Family Affairs, Senior Citizens, the possibility to combine work and Women and Youth, Felix Büchel an- the upbringing of children. These alyzed the effects of the regional findings on the correlation between

Figure 5. Percentage of Full-day kindergarten and mothers in employment, Non-institutional day care* by type of day-care arrangements of their chil- Full-time kindergarten only dren. Half-day kindergarten and Non-institutional day care*

Half-day kindergarten only

Non-institutional day care only

Parental childcare only

01020304050 60 70 8090 Percentage of mothers in employment

* Non-institutional day care = day care provided on a regular basis by family members, friends, or nannies.

242 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course institutional child care and mother’s access of mothers to the labor mar- Key References employment have substantially in- ket caused by the higher require- Büchel, F., & Engelhardt, fluenced the current political discus- ments of mothers taking child-care H. (2003). Missing the partner and his earnings: sion on the compatibility of work responsibilities. Using data for East Income situation and and family. The positive effects of and West Germany for the 1990s, labour market participation of single mothers in daycare provision have also been es- Büchel and Trappe (2001) find for West and East Germany. In tablished in another context than in West Germany that the income situ- B. García, R. Anker, & A. Pinelli (Eds.), Women in the that of female labor supply. The ation of large German families im- labour market in changing study by Spieß, Büchel, and Wagner proved slightly over time and stayed economies: Demographic issues (pp. 87–103). (2003) examines the relationship stable for immigrant families. In Oxford: Oxford University between Kindergarten attendance contrast to these findings, the rela- Press. and children’s school performance. tive income position of large East Büchel, F., & Trappe, H. The results indicate a significant ef- German families deteriorated (2001). Die Entwicklung der Einkommensposition fect of the Kindergarten attendance markedly over the years following kinderreicher Familien in on the school performance of chil- unification. In both East and West Deutschland. Zeitschrift für Familienforschung, 13 (2), dren in immigrant households, but German households, the mother’s 5–28. not for children of German citizens. employment status has a strong im- This result showed the importance pact on the household income posi- of offering sufficient day-care facili- tion, while in large immigrant fami- ties for immigrant children. lies, public transfers, such as child Related to this line of research is allowance, seem to play a more im- the question to which extent the portant role. willingness to work is affected by In a second study within the re- the labor market situation and the search field of family type and local childcare provision. Van Ham poverty, Büchel and Engelhardt and Büchel (2003) show that high (2003) focus on the income situa- regional unemployment discourages tion and labor market participation women from entering the labor of single mothers. In West Germany, market. Further, these findings indi- the relative income position of sin- cate that women with young chil- gle mother households is much low- dren are willing to work, but that er than for married parent families those mothers who are discontented (see Figure 6). with the situation of the regional Between 1990 and 1997, there was childcare provision are prone to re- little change in the income relation frain from job search. These findings between single mothers and married indicate that high institutional and parent family households. Similarly, spatial barriers discourage mothers in East Germany, single mother from entering employment. households are worse off than married parent families. East German Family Type and Poverty single mother households with one Families of “atypical” constellations, child only, however, are much better such as families with three or more off than comparable households in children or single parent families, West Germany. On the other hand, face a disproportionate risk of being the relative income position of East poor. As a major reason for this, Fe- German single mother households lix Büchel identified the restricted with two or more children is the

Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course 243 Figure 6. Median-related 110 relative income position of households with depend- 100 ent children, by household structure. 90

50 1990 1997 1990 1997 West Germany East Germany

Single mother family, two or more children Married parent family, two or more children Single mother family, one child Married parent family, one child

worst among all analysed socioeco- ing immigrant population in nomic groups: They are among the Germany profits more from the re- losers of the growing income distri- distribution system than immigrants bution gap in East Germany after with similar socioeconomic attrib- reunification. utes in the UK. Using a similar approach, the study Key References Economic Performance of by Büchel and Frick (in press) com- Büchel, F., & Frick, J. R. (in Immigrants pares the economic performance of press). Immigrants’ economic performance across Based on data from the UK and immigrants in Great Britain, West Europe: Does immigration West Germany, Büchel and Frick Germany, Denmark, Luxembourg, policy matter? Population (2004) analyze the economic per- Ireland, Italy, Spain, and Austria to Research and Policy Re- view. formance of various ethnic groups in that of the respective indigenous Büchel, F., & Frick, J. R. these two countries. Taking the in- population. Economic performance (2004). Immigrants in the digenous population of each country is measured in terms of the country- UK and in West Germany: Relative income position, as the reference category, this study specific pre-government income po- income portfolio, and re- finds that, as a whole, the non-in- sition and change in the relative in- distribution effects. Jour- nal of Population Econom- digenous population in the UK fares come position due to redistribution ics, 17, 553–581. much better than the immigrant processes within the respective tax population in Germany. However, the and social security systems. This range of economic performance work is based on the premise that across different ethnic groups in the countries may be categorized—simi- UK is much larger than that in Ger- larly to the categorization concept many. The German corporatist wel- of welfare regimes—according to the fare system is characterized by nature of their immigration policy. much stronger redistribution effects The basic premise of this study is than the liberal UK system. Conse- that a successful and integrative im- quently, the relatively low-perform- migration policy should result in a

244 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course nonsignificant differential between immigrants. This suggests that not the economic performance of immi- only do the conditions of entry to a grants and that of the indigenous country impact on immigrants’ eco- population. The results show, how- nomic performance but also coun- ever, that this “ideal” is not attained try-specific institutional aspects, in all of the analyzed countries, par- such as restrictions on access to the ticularly in Germany and Denmark, labor market and parts of the social where the economic performance of security system that are related to immigrants is much lower than that citizenship or immigrant status. The of the indigenous population. Sub- great extent of heterogeneity across stantial cross-country differences in EU member states should be taken the immigrant/native-born perform- into account when working toward ance differential persist, even when the harmonization of national EU controlling in detail for the social immigration policies. structure and level of integration of

Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course 245 Employment Relationships at Risk

A key concept in current debates on the changing nature of work is flexibility. Many European labor markets are highly regulated in comparison with, for example, the United States or Great Britain. In fact, one major difference between many West European and the Anglo-Saxon countries is high employment protection for those in work. The basic effect of employment protection is that firing is made very expensive, leading to employers refraining from hiring in times of low demand and uncertain expectations about the future business cycle. Those who follow the German debate on a possible reduction of employment protection know that it is a very difficult and emotional topic. It has been on the agenda in Germany since the 1980s. It was then that the Employment Promotion Act (1985) was passed. With that Act, policy makers tried to achieve two goals simultaneously. Without changing overall employment protection, the Act aimed to facilitate hiring by legaliz- ing fixed-term contracts without a specific reason for a maximum period of 18 months (currently 24 months). While welcomed by some commentators, who saw fixed-term contracts as a means of reducing unemployment, others argued that fixed-term contracts would severely erode employment protection. For some, a fixed-term contract is seen as a very disadvantageous labor market situation for the individual, with low wages, bad conditions of employment, and poor prospects, a “trap.” For others, a fixed-term contract is seen as a stepping stone to permanent employment, often facilitating the transition into employment from outside the labor market, a “bridge.” The central aim of the project “Employment Relationships at Risk” is to investigate the implications of fixed-term contracts and other “nonstandard” employment relationships for the individuals concerned. The opposing perspectives “trap” or ”bridge” frame many of our research questions.

So far we have examined a number and women. In the fourth part, we of key issues in fixed-term employ- widen the focus to compare fixed- ment. First, wages are seen as an im- term contracts in a number of other portant indicator of job quality and European countries. productivity. In the first part of the The project has a number of project, we examined the wage strengths. Firstly, we use high-qual- penalty associated with fixed-term ity longitudinal data for our analysis. contracts and how this develops over This allows us to follow individuals time (wage growth). Second, fixed- over time and analyze subsequent term contracts are often argued to labor market transitions and wage play a key role in the transition from growth. This is crucial, given that education to work. This is the focus temporary contracts are by nature of of another part of the project. In a short duration. Secondly, this data third part, we investigate in more allows us to apply a number of depth whether the consequences of sophisticated models, such as fixed- fixed-term contracts vary for men effects models, quantile regression,

246 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course and propensity score matching to in- In our first paper, we examined the Key References vestigate our research questions. wages of fixed-term employees in McGinnity, F., & Mertens, Thirdly, while the primary focus is on East and West Germany using Ger- A. (in press) Lohnverluste durch befristete Beschäf- Germany, we also investigate fixed- man Socio-Economic Panel (GSOEP) tigung? Ein Überblick term contracts and their conse- data from the late 1990s. Previous über den Stand der Debatte in Deutschland. quences in other countries. To what research using Ordinary Least In M. Kronauer & G. Linne extent do the consequences of fixed- Squares (OLS) regression has found (Eds), Flexicurity. Die Bindung von Sicherheit an term contracts depend on national that fixed-term workers earn signifi- Flexibilität. Berlin: edition institutional configurations? The cantly less than their permanent sigma. German example is especially inter- counterparts. Compared to simple Mertens, A., & McGinnity, F. (in press). A ”two-tier“ esting as it is an intermediate case OLS estimates, using a fixed-effects labour market for fixed- between countries with high em- model reduces wage differentials term jobs? Evaluating evi- ployment protection and high rates between permanent and fixed-term dence from West Germany using quantile regression. of fixed-term jobs like Spain, France, workers. This suggests that fixed- Schmollers Jahrbuch, 125. Italy, and countries with low em- term workers differ in unobservable Mertens, A., & McGinnity, ployment protection and low fixed- ways from permanent workers. F. (2004). Wages and wage growth of fixed-term term employment like the UK or the Moreover, on average fixed-term workers in East and West USA. In the latter countries, employ- employees are found to experience Germany. Applied Econom- ment protection is very low and significantly higher wage growth ics Quarterly, 50, 139–163. fixed-term contracts consequently than workers on permanent con- do not have the same significance as tracts, indicating that at least some in high employment protection of the fixed-term workers are able countries. We compare the charac- to “catch up” (McGinnity & Mertens, teristics and consequences of fixed- in press; Mertens & McGinnity, term employment across a number 2004). of different countries. Finally, the Much recent discussion of fixed- project is interdisciplinary in nature, term contracts tends to ignore the combining insights and methods considerable variation in the quality from both sociology and economics. of these jobs and wages associated with them (e.g., Booth et al., 2002). A Wage Penalty for Fixed-Term In a second paper, we developed the Contracts in Germany? concept of a “two-tier” labor market Taking wages as a key indicator of for fixed-term contracts in Germany job quality, in this part of the proj- and tested this concept using quan- ect Antje Mertens and Frances tile regression. In the standard OLS McGinnity investigated wages and (or mean) approach regression, coef- wage growth of fixed-term workers ficients are assumed to be constant in Germany, comparing them to across the whole conditional wage their permanent counterparts. If distribution. Our two-tier theory wages were indeed lower, the intro- suggests, however, that this need duction and growth of fixed-term not be the case. Indeed, fixed-term contracts could lead to rising wage workers at different ends of the inequality and polarization of the wage distribution may not face the workforce into those with low-paid same risk of receiving lower wages insecure jobs and those with secure than their permanent counterparts. and well-paid jobs. Is this the case? Therefore, we estimate quantile re-

Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course 247 Figure 7. Percentages of 60 0.00 fixed-term workers found in the different quartiles of 50 –0.05 the wage distribution. 40 –0.10 Figure 8. Wage differences 30

between fixed-term and Percent –0.15 permanent workers with 20 tenure of less than two Coefficient estimates –0.20 years: comparing OLS re- 10 sults (mean) and quantiles. 0 –0.25 321 4 Quartile 10th 25th 50th 75th 90th Mean

Note. Quartile 1 refers to the lowest quartile Note. Coefficients on the dummy for fixed-term and quartile 4 to the highest quartile of the contract workers with tenure of less than two wage level distribution. The dotted line at 25% years in OLS (mean) and quantile wage regres- represents the proportion of fixed-term workers sions. Control group: workers with permanent we would expect in each quartile. contract and tenure of less than two years. Source. Own calculations based on pooled Source. Own calculations based on pooled waves 1995–2000 of the GSOEP sample A. waves 1995–2000 of the GSOEP sample A.

gression models, as introduced by were able to show that while those Koenker and Basset (1978), that fit with high-wage fixed-term con- quantiles to a linear function of co- tracts earn only slightly less than variates. Supplementing the usual permanent counterparts, those with estimation of conditional mean low-wage temporary jobs earn much functions with conditional median less (see Figure 8). The wage penalty and other conditional quantile func- for fixed-term contracts is clearly tions allows us to look at the com- not the same for all workers, but plete conditional wage distribution. those with low wages are doubly In fact, "potentially different solu- disadvantaged: They have a short- tions to distinct quantiles may be term employment contract and very interpreted as differences in the re- low wages. But are these findings sponse of the dependent variable to confined to Germany? We will con- changes in the regressors at various tinue working on this project from a points in the conditional distribution comparative perspective. of the dependent variable" (Buchinsky, 1998). A Bad Start? Temporary Contracts Once again using data from the and the Transition From Education GSOEP, we found that OLS regres- to Work sion misses important aspects of the In this part of the project, we exam- wage structure of fixed-term work- ine the role of temporary contracts ers (Mertens & McGinnity, in press). in the transition from education to First, Figure 7 shows that fixed-term work. Fixed-term contracts are seen contracts are clustered in the lowest as particularly relevant in this tran- quartile of the wage distribution. sition (OECD, 1998), they are also Second, and most importantly we concentrated among young people

248 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course in Germany. Some commentators ar- ing life in Germany and how this Key Reference gue that fixed-term contracts affects their subsequent labor mar- McGinnity, F., & Mertens, should have an integrative function ket career using life history data. A. (2004). Befristete Verträge und Berufsein- in the transition from school to Our initial findings are summarized stieg. In S. Hillmert & K. U. work, providing a ”bridge“ to the la- in McGinnity and Mertens (2004). Mayer (Eds.), Geboren 1964 und 1971. Neuere bor market. A contrasting perspec- One key finding is that fixed-term Untersuchungen zu Ausbil- tive is that they hinder successful contracts are found among those for dungs- und Berufschancen in Westdeutschland integration into the labor market by whom the school-to-work transition (pp. 115–131). Wiesbaden: leading to a repeating cycle of tem- is not so coordinated, and includes VS Verlag für Sozial- porary jobs and unemployment. We both high-skilled and low-skilled wissenschaften. choose Germany, characterized by a labor market entrants. Looking at regulated labor market and a ”coor- the majority of job starters in dinated“ education-to-work transi- Germany, that is, those with voca- tion, to investigate this issue. tional training in Figures 9 and 10, We consider who gets a fixed-term we see that unemployment and contract at the beginning of work- nonparticipation rates of those who

100 Figure 9. Time budgets for 90 vocationally trained work- 80 ers, first job permanent. 70 60 50

Percent 40 30 Other Education 20 Unemployed 10 Employed 0 1 12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 Months since finishing education

100 Figure 10. Time budgets for 90 vocationally trained workers, first job fixed-term. 80 70 60 50

Percent 40 30 Other Education 20 Unemployed 10 Employed 0 1 12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 Months since finishing education

Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course 249 start in a permanent job and those nation of the educational back- who start in fixed-term employment ground reveals important differences converge after about two to three between young workers who com- years. pleted apprenticeships in the dual Following this introductory work, system of vocational training, and McGinnity, Mertens, and Gundert university graduates. An interesting have recently investigated subse- story emerges: quent employment chances in more Previous work has shown how work- depth using multinomial logistic reers with a vocational training in gressions. One of our key findings Germany are less likely to get a here is that after several years for- fixed-term contract (McGinnity & merly fixed-term job starters are no Mertens, 2004), but this turns out to more likely to become unemployed be a gender-specific effect. Women than other labor market entrants. benefit from doing an apprentice- Beginning working life with a fixed- ship in two ways. First, female work- term contract does not clearly signal ers leaving the dual system are less a “bad start” in Germany. likely to be hired on a fixed-term contract than men. Second, appren- Fixed-Term Contracts Over the ticeships seem to function as gener- Life Course: A Gender Perspective al ”safeguards“ against temporary Stefanie Gundert’s dissertation employment for women as the prob- project is an empirical examination ability of getting a fixed-term con- of the role of fixed-term contracts tract is higher among unskilled in different points in the life course women as well as female university of men and women in Germany. Fo- graduates. By contrast, for men, vo- cusing separately on labor market cational training per se does not entrants, mothers, and older work- protect against temporary contracts. ers, her project will address the Only male apprentices who are re- question of whether fixed-term contained by their employer after their tracts serve to integrate women into apprenticeship have a higher chance the labor market or whether they of being offered permanent employ- reinforce gender inequalities in ment: Men who change employer occupational chances. after their apprenticeship training Early results for young labor market do not have a lower risk of getting entrants suggest that women are fixed-term jobs than those with no not generally disadvantaged com- qualifications or a university degree. pared to men with regard to the risk Further research needs to focus on of beginning working life with a the subsequent employment of this fixed-term contract. On the con- educational group in order to find trary, whereas in previous studies no out whether the concentration of particular gender differences con- fixed-term contracts among men cerning temporary employment have has lasting negative consequences been detected, there is evidence of a in early working life. This finding of higher incidence of fixed-term con- gender differences in the protective tracts among male workers in their function of apprentices is important first jobs. However, a closer exami- as the majority of young workers in

250 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course Germany have been trained in the temporary workers. The primary ex- dual system. pectation of the analysis is that However, the picture looks different temporary workers will make differ- for university graduates. Among ent labor market transitions as a re- high-skilled labor market entrants sult of the different institutional women’s risk of getting a fixed-term configurations in the different coun- contract is higher than that of men. tries. Using seven waves of the Eu- The gender difference is partly a re- ropean Community Household Panel sult of the higher incidence of edu- (ECHP) survey, spanning a period cation-related fixed-term working from 1995 to 2001, the transitions periods among women, for example, to and from flexibilized labor are in- among prospective doctors, teach- vestigated using event history ers, or lawyers. Nevertheless, highly analysis techniques. The research re- educated women who work in other veals that temporary contract work- occupational fields are also more ers make considerable transitions to likely to get a fixed-term contract permanent contract employment, than men. Overall, the results indi- suggesting that temporary employ- cate an ambivalent situation for ment is more likely to be a bridge young women: Whereas for the ma- than a trap. Moreover, the hypothe- jority (those with vocational train- sis of national divergence is sup- ing) the chances of finding perma- ported, as can be seen in Figure 11 nent employment are good, for which presents the proportion of highly educated women getting a temporary contract workers who do permanent job seems to be more not make transitions to permanent difficult. contract employment by country. In other work in her doctoral thesis, Comparative Perspective Vanessa Gash examined the quality As pointed out above, fixed-term of atypical employment, in an effort contracts are not equally significant to determine whether support for in different countries. Their signifi- the generation of temporary and cance primarily depends on the de- part-time jobs is an effective policy gree of employment protection and for labor market renewal, or hence the relative flexibility of the whether it leads to labor market labor markets in which they are segmentation. This issue is investi- found. Adopting an institutionalist gated through analyses of the quali- framework, three countries with dif- ty of atypical employment, including ferent forms of welfare and market working conditions, wages, exposure flexibility are looked at in a compar- to unemployment and/or labor mar- ative perspective: Denmark, France, ket drop out as well as the extent to and the UK. In her work “Bridge or which atypical employment leads to trap?: To what extent do temporary the standard employment contract, workers make more transitions to termed its ”bridging function.“ The unemployment than to the standard overall conclusion is that strong and employment contract,“ Vanessa consistent variation in the quality of Gash presents a comparative analy- atypical work (relative to standard sis of the labor market transitions of contract employment) combined

Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course 251 Figure 11. Temporary work- 1.2 ers’ transitions to perma- Denmark nent employment, by 1.0 France country, using waves 2–8 U.K. of the European Commu- nity Household Panel 0.8 (1995–2001). 0.6

0.4 Proportion surviving

0.2

0.0 0 12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 Months since job start

with evidence of a weak bridging Finally, Antje Mertens, Frances function is taken as an indicator of McGinnity and Vanessa Gash com- labor market marginalization for pare the wage penalty for temporary these workers. work in Germany and in Spain. Like In current work, we compare Ger- in Germany, temporary work was in- many with France and Spain, two troduced in Spain in the mid-1980s, countries which also introduced though since then rates of tempo- fixed-term contracts in the 1980s. rary employment have soared, and Vanessa Gash and Frances temporary employment there has McGinnity seek to challenge the no- been the source of much political tion that the consequences of fixed- and research attention. In general, term contracts are similar across the results of Spanish research have European countries in their compari- highlighted the negative conse- son of France and Germany. Using quences of temporary employment propensity score matching with pan- to a much greater extent than in el models, employees are matched Germany. In the first German-Span- on the probability of getting a ish comparison of temporary em- fixed-term contract. Fixed-term ployment, we compare the wage workers are then compared with penalty associated with these con- permanent workers on a number of tracts and link these results to poli- key outcomes—wages, wage insta- cy and labor market differences. bility, subsequent employment, and unemployment.

252 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course Reinterviewing With “TrueTales”—A New Survey Key References Instrument Künster, R., Matthes, B., & Reimer, M. (in press), "TrueTales"—Ein neues One of the important aims of collecting data of the East and West German Instrument zur Erhebung birth cohort 1971 was to find out how the differences between the life von Längsschnittdaten. Arbeitsbericht 2 des Pro- courses of the young East and West Germans can be understood as conse- jektes LV Panel 71. Berlin: quences of earlier life conditions. The first interviews of the 1971 cohort Max Planck Institute for took place in 1996 and 1998, when the East Germans were aged 25 and Human Development. Matthes, B. (in press), LV- West Germans were aged 27, respectively. Thus, analyses of labor market Panel 71—Eine Wieder- entry were restricted to persons who served an apprenticeship. Analyzing holungsbefragung der labor market entry of academics does not make sense until age 30. In view ost- und westdeutschen Geburtskohorte 1971. of the difficulties of getting a job after completing an apprenticeship at the Arbeitsbericht 1 des Pro- beginning of the East German transformation, this short observation window jektes LV Panel 71. Berlin: Max Planck Institute for is similarly problematic. Also in West Germany, labor market entry lagged as Human Development. a result of extending schooling, increasing waiting time before and between Pape, S., & Weidner, C. (in training and multiple training. Furthermore, analyses of family formation press). Verbesserung von Frageformulierungen durch were limited to persons who married and had children very early. Since the kognitive Pretests. Arbeits- East German process of family formation was not yet complete at the time bericht 3 des Projektes LV Panel 71. Berlin: Max of the first survey, it would be impossible to make a conclusive comparison Planck Institute for Human of the East and West German marital and fertility data. We, therefore, Development. decided to reinterview the East and West German respondents of the 1971 cohort in 2004 and 2005 (see Figure 12).

Figure 12. The German Life History Study: Retrospective surveys and birth cohorts

East German 1929–31 Surveys 1939–41 1991/92 LV-DDR 1951–53 1996/97 LV-Ost Panel 1959–61 1971 1996/97 LV-Ost 71 2004 LV-Panel 71 1964/1971 West German 1998/99 LV-West 64/71 Surveys 1959–61 1988/89 LV-West III 1954–56 1949–51 1939–41 1981/83 LV-West I 1929–31 Berlin Aging 1919–21 1985/87 LV-West II Study 1887–1922 1990/93 Survey + 3 follow-ups

1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 Source. German Life History Study, Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Berlin.

Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course 253 The main focus of this retrospective tion and at the same place]?“). In life-course panel is to investigate the brackets, the answer to the open how early careers were embedded in question of their professional activi- the contexts of regional mobility ty at the time of the last interview and family formation. Because of is retrieved by the system and incor- the problems faced in creating con- porated into a standard text. tinuous and consistent event histo- If a respondent has difficulties re- ries from discontinuous panel waves, constructing the end date for the we also included a methodological job, the interviewer can display—on experiment in the project. Building their own initiative—the episodes on experiences in previous studies reported in the previous modules, and findings about memory effects and flexibly on demand generate a in the German History Study (GLHS), personalized parallel or sequential we designed and evaluated “True- probe (”I recorded here that you Tales,” a new computer-assisted in- moved to Munich in 9/2000, did terview instrument that enables us your job end before that? Or after? to connect retrospective life-course Or at the same time?“). This way, panel waves and to moderate mem- respondents can explore the inter- ory problems. It maintains the prin- connections of their biographical ciples of modularization, filter context in order to achieve the cor- schemed CATI, and single case edi- rect date. tion, but improves them by person- If a respondent disagrees with the alizing cues and probes wherever incorporated activity, we assume possible, by making parallel and se- that respondents report actual quential recall pathways between episodes more valid than recalled life domains accessible and by per- episodes. We accept the activity mitting controlled flexibility in deal- reported at the last interview to be ing with individual biographies and a fact and put the date finishing the recall strategies. activity to the date of the last interview. Then we ask simply ”Did you Connecting Retrospective Life- have any other jobs?“ Course Panel Waves “TrueTales” deals with the connect- Consequent Modularization ing problem by using personalized Modularization means that the in- cues in order to interface the refer- terview is divided into modules each ence period with the past. A module assessing all episodes within a given starts with a general lead-in (”Let’s life domain with their start and end now turn to employment …“). After dates and other detailed variables. that, “TrueTales” draws on a data- Within each module, the interview base with the reports from the last starts with the first episode of its interview and generates a personal- kind and then progresses in forward ized cue (”In our last interview, we chronological order until the pres- recorded that in June 1998, you ent. This procedure helps interview- were employed as . Until when entation in the complexity of the did you do that [in the same posi- task. Consequent modularization is

254 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course necessary because we cannot as- biographical context. Only top-down sume that the life course is a con- recall pathways are made accessible. tinuous sequence of schooling, There is little possibility to use par- training, working, and other activi- allel across-domain pathways or se- ties. Further training often takes quential order of events. Another place on the job, work during the disadvantage is that gaps or incon- day is coupled with moonlighting, sistencies between modules are not respondents can work during mater- easily apparent to interviewers or nity leave, etc. Therefore—in con- respondents. Furthermore, retrospec- trast to the former survey—we ask tive reports rely on the respondents’ about training, further training, selective and reconstructive auto- working, and moonlighting together biographical memory. This can lead in one module and survey maternity to events being forgotten, incorrect- leave separately for every child ly remembered, or misdated, which when asked about the children. An- threatens data completeness, con- other extension is that at the end of sistency, and validity. an episode loop we do not ask In order to collect complete and ”What happened next?“ but rather consistent life history data in “True- ”Did you have any other ...?“ If one Tales,” we add to data assessment, simply progressed through a life where questions are asked and the asking questions like ”And what responses are recorded, a procedure happened next?“, one would be of data visualization and revision, inviting respondents to leave out where responses are checked for in- peripheral episodes and inconse- consistencies. These inconsistencies quential minor transitions. With that are communicated to, and resolved kind of procedure we prompt for in, collaboration with the respon- episodes likely to be forgotten. dent. The data revision starts with the revision screen (see Figure 13) Data Check and Revision that has three functions: Modularization has the disadvan- (a) All reported episodes are dis- tage that recall is lifted out of its played in a central episode list and

Figure 13. Start of the data revision section.

Check! Delete Insert Episode list Episode bars Emergency

Problem bars Time line

Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course 255 visualized in their temporal exten- number of buttons permit them to sion and biographical context as delete and insert episodes or change colored ”episode bars“ against a start and end dates by clicking them time line. Time periods for which no in the episode list. information is available yet about In order to employ “TrueTales’” op- the respondent’s state and overlaps portunities for collaborative inter- between states or for which starting viewing, interviewers need a thor- or ending time is missing are high- ough understanding of the study’s lighted by red “problem bars.” concepts, goals and data philosophy, (b) Interviewers can start a filtered and the cognitive and communica- revision routine by activating the tive processes of response genera- “check!” button. A scripted text ap- tion in standardized retrospective pears for the interviewer to read out interviews. This necessitates a small to the respondent—in this case, a staff with little turnover, intense time period. It describes the incon- and continuous training, and high sistency by drawing on respondents’ levels of motivation. Hence, for the free text answers to earlier ques- first time in the history of the GLHS, tions about activity type, place of we have not contracted the field- activity, and dates. For example, for work with an external research firm, a gap, it reads “As I have recorded but rather established our own tele- here, there’s a gap. I have recorded phone interview laboratory. here that you were working as To evaluate “TrueTales,” we conduct- until and from which 300 respondents were inter- were working as . There’s a gap; did I record the 300 with the standard technique. dates correctly and did you do Figure 14 shows the relative propor- something else in-between?” tion of episodes reported with the (c) Interviewers can ask about and old in comparison to the new instru- resolve inconsistencies flexibly. A ment. With the new instrument,

Figure 14. Proportion of 110 episodes reported with the 100 old in relation to the new instrument (100%). 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Training Employment Unemploy- Maternity Others Residence ment leave

256 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course more episodes were reported than revision is advantageous because with the old instrument. Forty per- interviewers clicked the “Check!”- cent more unemployment episodes button in the new instrument more and 25% more maternity leave than 400 times to modify reported episodes can be traced back to the starting or ending times and the fact, that we collected unemploy- “Delete”- or the “Insert”-button ment and maternity leave in the each nearly 40 times to delete or in- new instrument in separate mod- sert an episode. This indicates that ules. Twenty percent more training the respondents could recall their and 10% more employment biographies more accurately. Inter- episodes can be traced back to the viewers also reported higher levels modified question on the end of a of satisfaction and lower levels of loop (“Did you have any other …?”). effort for “TrueTales.” Also to add a data visualization and

The Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course 2004

Left to right: (front row) Holger Seibert, Vanessa Gash, Laura Romeu, Stefanie Gundert; (middle row) Anke Höhne, Hachiro Iwai, Steffen Hillmert, Antje Mertens, Vered Kraus; (back row) Britta Matthes, Heike Trappe, Bogdan Mach, Karl Ulrich Mayer; not pictured: Alessandra Rusconi, Maike Reimer, Gero Lenhardt, Frances McGinnity, Erika M. Hoerning.

Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course 257 Transformation Processes in Poland and East Germany

Generation of Historic Hope and Everyday Risk: Social Trajectories of Eighteen-Year-Olds From the Year 1989 in East Germany and Poland For sociology, it is life-course trajectory that gives meaning to even most dramatic individual status changes—it links and integrates different statuses across a time span. It stems from a continuous interplay of society and personality; of social constraints imposed by institutions, and free choices made by individuals. Radical social changes alter the mix of the two, and produce new trajectories. The best sociological way of interpreting all- encompassing, across-the-board changes is, therefore, to investigate the life- course trajectories that these changes bring about—and especially to investigate the role, that the resources, born out of the change, play in life- course transitions, taking place under new emerging systems. The most recent and most provocative examples of truly radical social changes are to be found in the post-1989 transformations of East and Central Europe— irrespective of whether it has taken ten years, ten months, ten weeks, or ten days for them to develop and alter everything in respective countries. The story line sketched above summarizes the basic reasoning behind our embarking on the comparative German-Polish project we have entitled “Generation of Historic Hope and Everyday Risk: Social Trajectories of Eigh- teen-Year-Olds from the Year 1989 in East Germany and Poland.” (Comparative research project of the Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course and the Institute of Political Studies of the Polish Academy of Sciences in Warsaw.)

Key Reference German Uniqueness? ent institutional conditions. Our Mach, B. W. (2003). Gen- There has been a parallel, yet closely comparative project focuses, thus, eration of historic hope and related, motivation for our project. on post-1989 life course of young everyday risk [in Polish], Institute of Political Because of a direct transfer of West people in East Germany and Studies, Polish Academy of German institutions to what used to Poland—two countries experiencing Sciences, Warsaw. be the German Democratic Republic, transformation under sharply con- the East German transformation to- trasted institutional and macroeco- ward market and democracy has nomic conditions. The project elabo- generally been depicted as a unique rates on the discussion of East sociopolitical phenomenon. But if German uniqueness and interprets radical social changes are best re- different institutional transforma- flected in the development of indi- tion pathways by reflecting on life- vidual life course, this general claim course outcomes brought about by to uniqueness can not be convinc- them. ingly substantiated without compar- As East Germany is not only a single ing life-courses trajectories observed case in the analysis of transforma- in East Germany after 1989 with tion toward market and democracy, post-1989 trajectories unfolding in but also a part of the new Federal other countries, transforming their Republic, we include in our project polities and economies under differ- West Germany (the old Federal

258 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course Republic) as well. In this way, we in- Data Analyzed in the Project ”Poland ten years, tend to capture the internal German The project uses three nationally Hungary ten East-West distinction. Without tak- representative retrospective life his- months, East Ger- ing this distinction into account, any tory data sets on persons born in many ten weeks, comparison of Germany to other 1971 in East Germany, West Ger- Czechoslovakia ten countries cannot be conceptualized many, and Poland. The highly com- days“ properly. parable data cover full education, written on a wall in job, and unemployment trajectories Prague in the Fall Litmus Test of Transformation as well as life-course accounts of 1989 Historic transformations toward other domains of life and a wide market and democracy in East and range of cross-sectional objective Central Europe have impinged on and subjective indicators, relating to the life course of all age cohorts. the date of interview. In East Ger- But history-making events are most many 610 interviews were collected likely to affect persons in their late between May 1996 and January adolescence and early adulthood. 1998—in West Germany 1,435 inter- The project has built on this concep- views between May 1998 and Janu- tual framework and interprets the ary 1999. In Poland 755 interviews post-state-socialist transformation were secured between November of East Germany and Poland from a 2000 and January 2001. The re- special angle of the life course of sponse rates were 50% in East Ger- people born in 1971—those boys and many, 66% in West Germany, and girls who were 18 years old in the 64% in Poland. All data sets have year 1989 and began their transition been translated into spell-oriented to legal adulthood in tandem with files, easy to handle in empirical historic changes started in that year life-course analyses. As the national in both countries. The main tenet of data were collected in different the project is that these individuals’ years, and cover people of different life-course trajectories represent the ages at the time of interview, most most powerful lens for interpretative of the analyses done in the project focusing on the East German and do not reach, unfortunately, behind the Polish transformation as trans- May of 1996—the time the first information processes “hit” the 1971 terviews were done in East Germany. cohort while they were entering the Our respondents were around 25 most vulnerable formative phase of years old at that time. In 2004, a their lives—when people have to panel study of the 1971 German co- make important choices and deci- horts was conducted by a group sions with long-term, sometimes ir- consisting of Britta Matthes, Maike reversible, consequences. Facing Reimer, and Michaela Kreyenfeld. everyday risks and uncertainties With new German data, it will be built into the transformation, they possible to extend our analyses up were at the same time a model gen- the end of the year 2000—the date eration with a historic hope for of the Polish study. The respondents freedom, integrity, and prosperity— were almost 30 years old at that which the transformation was ex- time. pected to bring.

Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course 259 East Germany and Poland: Sample of Results Basic Institutional Profiles Figures 15–17 aggregate the devel- East Germany and Poland stand for opment of individual life-course two different paths of institutional trajectories in East Germany, West development over a long period of Germany, and Poland over 11 years— time. This applies to the pre-state from May 1985 till May 1996. There socialist legacies, the nature and are tremendous differences in the functioning of state socialism imple- way these trajectories have devel- mented after the Second World War, oped in the three different institu- the mode of abandoning state so- tional contexts. cialism in the late 1980s, and later With respect to early education at- processes of adopting capitalism and tained in the 1980s, a clear distinc- making it work. In Table 2 we refrain tion can be seen between unitary from presenting the West German systems of East Germany and Poland profile as we think of it as depicting and a diversified system of West (at least till 1996) profound institu- Germany. In contrast, post-second- tional continuity and stability fun- ary education, the 1971 cohort was damentally different to the transfor- attaining only after 1989, differenti- mations unfolding in East Germany ates East and West Germany (with and Poland. the West German lead) from Poland, where less college and university participation has been seen over all transformation years.

Table 2 Characteristics of the transformation paths in East Germany and Poland

East Germany Poland Society of origin Political regime ”Frozen post-totalitarianism“ ”Mature post-totalitarianism“ State control over economy Strong, no market reforms Inconsistent market reforms, strengthening the power of dominant industries Labor market and school- Firm-centered, elaborate Industry-centered, school- to-work link system of vocational based vocational training on-the-job training Society of destination West German institutional Not predetermined, order endogenously evolving Rules and conditions of the Externally imposed Internally negotiated transformation process Implemented by West German Implemented by local political political and economic elites leaders under conditions of a under conditions of financial shortage of locally existing elites, transfer from the West resources, and institutional practices Marked by a fast pace of Marked by a slow pace of economic restructuring and no economic restructuring and need for macroeconomic macroeconomic stabilization stabilization by ”shock therapy“

260 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course East Germany Figures 15–17. Distribution 100 of education and employ- Extended Other 90 Secondary School ment in historical time. 80 Vocational training with secondary examination College and University 70 Vocational School 60 Vocational Training School Unemployment 4th job+ 50 ercent P 40 Unitary Politechnical 3rd job School 30 20 2nd job 10 1st job 0 ~14 ~15 ~16 ~17 ~18 ~19 ~20 ~21 ~22 ~23 ~24 ~25 (5/85) (5/86) (5/87) (5/88) (5/89) (5/90) (5/91) (5/92) (5/93) (5/94) (5/95) (5/96) Age (year)

Poland 100 90 Other Secondary General School 80 College and University 70 Unemployment 60 Secondary Vocational School 4th job+ 50 Elementary School 3rd job Percent 40 Basic Vocational School 30 2nd job 20 10 1st job 0 ~14 ~15 ~16 ~17 ~18 ~19 ~20 ~21 ~22 ~23 ~24 ~25 (5/85) (5/86) (5/87) (5/88) (5/89) (5/90) (5/91) (5/92) (5/93) (5/94) (5/95) (5/96) Age (year)

West Germany 100 Other 90 Secondary School 80 College and University 70

60 Vocational School 4th job+ Six-form Unemployment 3rd job 50 High School Vocational Training (Realschule) Percent 40 One-year job 30 preparatory 2nd job

20 Elementary 10 School 1st job 0 ~14 ~15 ~16 ~17 ~18 ~19 ~20 ~21 ~22 ~23 ~24 ~25 (5/85) (5/86) (5/87) (5/88) (5/89) (5/90) (5/91) (5/92) (5/93) (5/94) (5/95) (5/96) Age (year)

Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course 261 Although in May 1996, at the time respect, Poland was rather like West we close our observation window, Germany than East Germany. employment rates were almost the While the project does not find oth- same in East Germany (61%), West er similarities between Poland and Germany (61%), and Poland (58%), West Germany, the differences the internal composition of the found between East Germany and group of employed persons with re- Poland are abundant and in most spect to the stage they were in the cases some similarities among both development of their job career var- parts of Germany are visible. ied very much between East Ger- Unemployment became a distinctly many and Poland. While only 12% painful experience of Polish youth of East Germans were still in their under transformation and was, over first job at that time, the respective the whole period studied, signifi- percentage in Poland was nearly cantly higher in Poland than in East twice as high (21%)—and close to Germany (especially after 1991). the West German level (22%). Per- Even if the East German level was centage of those born in 1971 who much higher than the West German were already in their at least fourth one (which was very low then), the job in 1996 was 15% in East Ger- East German-Polish difference is still many, while it was only 5% in remarkable—usually the Polish level Poland (it was 5% in West Germany is twice the East German one. Al- as well). ready in September 1990, the unem- Not only the May 1996 snapshot il- ployment was 10% in Poland and lustrates that transformation- 5% in East Germany. In September induced changes in job mobility and next year, there was a leveling of occupational structure were much both rates (10% in Poland and 8% more radical in East Germany than in Germany), but after the following in Poland. Starting with the 1990s, year, respective rates were 16% and the percentage of those still in the 7% and a similar distance between first job in East Germany was dra- them could be observed since then. matically declining over first trans- Needless to say, unemployment al- formation years and moderately de- lowances in Poland were both in ab- clining over subsequent years—it solute and relative terms much low- was 43% in September 1990, 19% er than in East Germany. in September 1992, and 12% in Extensive and prolonged stays with- May 1996. In Poland, the respective in the educational system (especially percentages were 25%, 26%, and at the college and university level) 21 %. The percentages of those still are characteristic of strategies in the first job were, thus, in Poland young Germans (both East and unusually stable over all transforma- West) use in coping with labor mar- tion years—young Poles did not ex- ket risks. Both general availability of perience anything like an instant, education at this level and highly forced, and dramatic job mobility in- institutionalized education-occupa- duced in East Germany by a radical tion links make a longer staying dismantling of the old state-socialist within the educational system a ra- industrial structure. In this special tional choice to many. When we

262 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course close our observation window in that the percentage of self-em- May 1996, 22% of West Germans, ployed outside agriculture was con- 16% of East Germans, and only 9% sistently higher in Poland than in of Poles were attending a college or either part of Germany. In Septem- a university—and the range of re- ber 1992, it was 3.8% in Poland, spective differences was attained al- 1.1% in East Germany, and 0.5% in ready in 1993 and maintained since West Germany. In May 1996, re- then. spective percentages were 7.2%, Some strategies of coping with labor 1.8%, and 2.1%. Taking self-em- market situation by young Poles are ployed farmers into account would reflected in a systematically higher increase the percentages to a much Polish proportion of “other” activi- greater extent in Poland than in ties (the most upper parts of Fig- either part of Germany. No doubt ures) in the development of the life that in the 1971 cohort self-employ- course. While in the case of women, ment has been in Poland a more sig- most “other” activities are centered nificant element of individual coping around taking care of children and strategies than it is in Germany. the home, in the case of men, they also stand for a range of nonstan- Internal Differentiation Within the dard possible illegal or “gray zone” Three Institutional Contexts work situations, occasional working Patterned differences among East trips abroad, and other sub-self-em- Germany, West Germany, and Poland ployment (or rather self-assistance) do not imply that these three insti- activities. Although our project has tutional contexts are homogenous not been designed to deal in a sys- with respect to life-course trajecto- tematic way with this type of “tak- ries they produce. Below we present ing care of one’s own life,” some ev- one extreme example from Poland. idence pointing in the suggested di- Our observation window reaches rection can be found in Polish this time to November 2000—the answers to open questions about date the first Polish interviews were successes and failures in personal done. and occupational life which were Gender and place of residence are asked in the project of both Poles the two most important factors dif- and East Germans and are available ferentiating life-course trajectories in our data sets. of young Poles. The two Figures We cannot be certain about the ex- (18–19) present a cumulative distri- tent of “sub-self-employment”—we bution of “the state individuals were can, however, precisely document in” for every month between No- the extent of self-employment in vember 1989 and November 2000, Germany and Poland. Had we differ- there being five possible states: entiated in figures like Figures “work,” “work and schooling,” 15–17 the group of employed, not “schooling,” “unemployment,” and according to the number of the job “other.” Figure 18 presents a distri- persons were in but according to bution for men living in large cities, whether they were or were not self- Figure 19 for women living in rural employed, we would have found areas. There is a huge gap between

Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course 263 these two segments of the 1971 co- their unemployment rate has rarely hort in terms of the volume of work fallen below 20% since the early and education available to them 1990s. In November 2000, only 54% throughout the transformation of them were working, 17% were years. If we focus on the moment of unemployed, and 28% were out of the study (November 2000) we con- the labor force. clude that only 2% of men in large cities were unemployed, while 92% Reaching the Limits of the Data Sets of them had work (some combining In the project we try to study the work with schooling). Women in ru- role which new individual re- ral areas live, however, in a very dif- sources—brought about or altered in ferent world: Throughout the trans- their meaning by the transforma- formation period, their employment tion—might have on structuring life- rate has rarely surpassed 50%, it course transitions. The long list of has been very atypical for them to such resources include being self- combine work and schooling, and employed, experience of unemploy-

Figure 18. Social trajecto- Polish men living in large cities 100 ries of men living in large Other cities, November 90 Unemployment 1989–November 2000. 80 70 Work and schooling 60 Schooling 50

Percent 40 Work 30 20 10 0 1989 19901991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

Figure 19. Social trajecto- Polish women living in rural areas ries of women living in ru- 100 Other ral areas, November 90 1989–November 2000. 80 70 Unemployment 60 50 Schooling

Percent 40 Work and schooling 30 Work 20 10 0 1989 19901991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

264 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course ment, working in state versus pri- Toward Basic Conclusion vate sector, having a fixed-term There are fundamental differences work contract, being over- or under- between life-course trajectories of qualified, working for a foreign firm, young Poles and East Germans. East and having achievement-related German trajectories display more job personality traits. One interesting changes, less unemployment, and question is if personality facilitates more prolonged stays in the educa- making transitions and achieving tional system. Polish trajectories are goals. Some would argue that under characterized by significantly higher conditions of structural rupture, per- levels of self-employment, unem- sonality is what counts most. As ployment, and out-of-the-labor- psychological measures in our proj- force activities. The differences ect refer to the interview time only, found clearly attest to the more we are unable to be sure about radical character of East German oc- causal effects personality might cupational restructuring, to the have. In Poland, we have found, for more institutionally regulated East example, that occupation-centered German school-to-work transition, control beliefs are significantly re- and to the more individualistically lated to job income, even if one oriented coping and adjustment controls for gender, education, pres- strategies on the part of young tige of the job, and hours worked. Poles. Life courses of young East But is it control beliefs which affect Germans and Poles reflect two income or is it the other way round? clearly distinct transformation paths, Can the finding of no such an effect conditioned by differing national in- in either part of Germany be inter- stitutional contexts and material re- preted as an evidence of no casual sources. In most comparisons, East- link between personality and income West German differences in the de- in Germany? Panel studies of Ger- velopment of the life are less visible man cohorts undertaken in 2004 than differences between East Ger- will enable answering some of such many and Poland. questions.

Gender Stratification After of society in East Germany. Basically, Key Reference Reunification in East and West this transformation process has left Rosenfeld, R. A., Trappe, Germany no life domain untouched and has H., & Gornick, J. C. (2004). Gender and work in Ger- The German reunification provides had deep consequences for social many: Before and after re- the unique opportunity to study the stratification in general and gender unification. Annual Review of Sociology, 30, 103–124. consequences of accelerated social stratification in particular. The change for gender stratification in quasi-experimental situation in both parts of the country. Following Germany allows for a detailed inves- reunification, large institutional tigation of how differences and transfers from the West to the East similarities across institutional con- and substantial financial support oc- texts and economic conditions curred and resulted in a comparably shape gender stratification and rapid and thorough transformation inequality.

Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course 265 Key Reference Aggregate developments across ma- highly gender-typed occupational Trappe, H. (2004). Chan- jor dimensions of work (labor market fields. However, only women’s em- cen West, Chancen Ost— attachment, working hours, gender ployment opportunities were differ- Frauen und Männer des Geburtsjahrgangs 1971 im wage gap, employment sector and entially affected by the gender type Vergleich. In S. Hillmert & occupational sex segregation, gender of their occupational preparation. K. U. Mayer (Eds.), Geboren 1964 und 1971. Neuere division of unpaid work) suggest that East German women benefited from Untersuchungen zu Ausbil- over the course of the 1990s the two training for female-typical occupa- dungs- und Berufschancen in Westdeutschland parts of the country partially con- tions because of lower unemploy- (pp. 133–153). Wiesbaden: verged toward a dual-earner/female ment risks and more favorable em- VS Verlag für Sozial- wissenschaften. part-time carer arrangement, in ployment prospects in these fields. In which men are employed full-time contrast, West German women capi- and their partners hold part-time talized on training in integrated or jobs and retain the majority of care- male-dominated occupations for giving responsibilities. This resulted their subsequent employment from a gradual strengthening of prospects. women’s labor market attachment in Over the course of their early work the West and, in the East, some vol- histories (largely before family for- untary reduction in women’s labor mation), West German women accu- supply, compounded by severe de- mulated the same level of employ- mand-side constraints that hit ment experience, even in full-time women especially hard (Rosenfeld, work, as men, whereas women in Trappe, & Gornick, 2004). East Germany acquired considerably However, this macrolevel account of less employment experience than social change is very general and ab- men. This was largely due to East stains from continuing differences in German women’s higher and longer the gender division of labor in East unemployment (Figure 20). Fifty-six and West Germany. Such a cross- percent of young women and 51% sectional approach is unable to re- of men were unemployed at least veal the mechanisms that contribute once between 1990 and 1996 in to economic gender inequality. East Germany, but women’s unem- Therefore, a closer look at a birth co- ployment lasted on average twice as hort which came of age when the long than men’s! The barriers for Wall came down proves to be in- women to reenter employment were sightful. noticeably higher than for men even if structural characteristics of prior Economic Gender Inequality Between employment and personal character- Women and Men Born in 1971 istics were taken into account. Obvi- Young women in both parts of Ger- ously, under conditions of an ongo- many have partially surpassed young ing economic crisis and contraction, men in their level of vocational gender was a salient selection crite- training and higher education, but rion for employers. So it does not they continued to achieve different come to a great surprise that more types of occupational credentials. young women than men from East Furthermore, women, and to a larger Germany opted for commuting or extent even men, received their moving to the West to seek employ- training and entered employment in ment.

266 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course In both parts of Germany, young men. However, economic gender in- full-time employed women earned equality takes on different expres- less than men, with a greater dis- sions in East and West Germany and crepancy in the West than in the is clearly shaped by economic condi- East owing to the greater earnings tions. In the West, women’s disad- compression in the East. The gender vantage showed mainly with respect wage gap was partially due to occu- to their employment rewards, pational sex segregation because oc- whereas in the East gender inequali- cupations dominated by women ty was more pronounced and bla- were least well paid. tant, and employment opportunities, Overall, in both parts of Germany particularly for women, were highly young women were disadvantaged constraint by the unfavorable labor- in the labor market, compared to market situation (Trappe, 2004).

20 Figure 20. Unemployment West German women West German men over the early life course East German women East German men in East and West 15 Germany—birth cohort 1971.

10 Percent

0 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Age

Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course 267 Further Projects

Gero Lenhardt Higher Education in Germany and the United States

Key Reference The comparative study of higher ed- pendent citizens, whose personal Lenhardt, G. (in press). ucation in Germany and the USA is autonomy includes technical compe- Hochschulen in Deutsch- completed. It focuses on normative tencies. Their principle homogeneity land und den USA. Frank- furt a.M.: Campus. concepts of the individual and the is manifest in the wide passages social order, which are manifest in from community colleges to PhD the institutional structure of higher programs of research universities. education in both countries. Starting Moreover, the categorization of point is the educational reform de- higher education institutions finds bate in Germany, in which the Amer- less attention and is less strict than ican universities are claimed to be in Germany. German higher educa- the model. The reformers attribute tion categories are legally institu- three characteristics to American tionalized, and are a matter of seri- higher education. ous social conflicts over the demar- cation of social estates. German First: More Restrictive Admission tertiary education differentiates not German reformers claim that admis- only between institutions with and sion to higher education is more re- without (or limited) academic free- strictive in the USA, whereas in more dom but also between theoretical liberal Germany a deplorable number and other programs. The apprentice- of untalented students would stifle ship system, where the majority of the progress of their more talented the young people are enrolled, pro- comrades. Therefore, they demand a vides above all in-plant training. It more restrictive selection of stu- can be demanding, yet often it offers dents. Yet, as the national student only the chance of blind imitation or ratios indicate, access to higher edu- the experience of unskilled labor for cation in the USA is less restrictive a low compensation. In short, Ger- than in Germany. The selectivity of man tertiary education seems more the German educational system is unequal than its American counter- unparalleled in the Western world, part. Whether the German universi- as PISA demonstrates. ties are more equal or unequal than American research universities is an Second: More Inequality open question. The American system of higher education, German reformers claim, is Third: Market Mechanism and more unequal and therefore more Productivity productive than its German counter- German educational reformers main- part. A closer look reveals the fol- tain that American higher education lowing. American higher education institutions are more productive be- includes almost all tertiary educa- cause of their market-like structure. tion, and its institutions agree on Comparative studies do not exist, one educational goal: They want to not even serious definitions of pro- support the development of inde- ductivity. Yet, there are far more

268 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course than 1,000 studies on “How College born talents in predetermined quotas Affects Students,” which shed light to the various categories of higher on the functioning of higher educa- education according to assumed ob- tion. As Pascarella and Terenzini jective manpower needs. The mar- show in their careful summary of ket-like structure of American higher 20 years of research, competition education management, by contrast, between colleges produces only is expected to support the develop- distributional effects. The average ment of an individual and collective college-specific achievement scores definition and understanding of of the graduates differ, but the only higher education. This is the major variable which explains these differ- function of the separation of higher ences is the college-specific average educational institutions and the qualification of their freshmen. Col- state, of the close communication leges with higher prestige attract between higher education institu- better prepared students, but do not tions and the civil society, and of the have a higher net impact on their selection of higher education insti- education. In college everyday life, tutions by students and vice versa. this effect is known as ”Matthew Originally, religious orientations Effect“: ”Wer hat, dem wird were at stake, today secularized cul- gegeben.“ tural orientations. Americans believe in the potential of Thus, the imagery of American the individuals to improve their edu- higher education institutions, which cation and in their moral obligation is dominating in the German politi- to do so. This conviction is rooted in cal debate, is distorted. It is a projec- Protestantism and stands at the cen- tion of German educational idiosyn- ter of the American Dream. It in- crasies, which are alien to American cludes the liberal concept of the culture. The German belief that na- open society, whose development is ture equips the individuals by birth determined by the citizens. This per- with unequal talents, educational spective results in a general enthusi- possibilities, and life chances, looks asm for education which is unparal- like a secularized version of the feu- leled in Germany. German higher dal absolutist conviction that God education reformers share neither had equipped them by birth with un- this anthropological optimism nor do equal dignity and rank in the order they subscribe to the liberal concept of social estates. As the analysis of the open society. They rather be- shows, German higher education lieve in inborn talents and objective emancipates itself from these prede- manpower requirements, which both mocratic normative orientations. are perceived as insurmountable ob- With democracy becoming more stacles to higher education expan- effective in both countries, higher sion. education in Germany and the USA This orientation has consequences increasingly take on a similar con- also for reforms of educational man- tent and form. agement structures. In Germany, educational management is expected to more precisely allocate given in-

Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course 269 Erika M. Hoerning Professions as Frames in Times of Biographical Upheaval: Bourgeois and Non-Bourgeois Intelligentsia in the GDR and After 1990

The socialist intelligentsia, or the ed- observe the reorientation process ucated class, appeared with the retrospectively by examining the foundation of the GDR in 1949 and transition to ”new“ social, cultural, was dissolved along with the state in and political structures, and obtain- 1990. The original intention was for ing information about how retro- the ranks of the intelligentsia to be spective assessments change over open to social groups hitherto un- the course of time and life. The study concerned with education (workers shows that success (or failure) in and peasantry). But since the chil- coping with the transformation dren of this first generation of grad- process is not only a function of the uates demanded the same level of individual biographical capital but is education as their parents, GDR so- highly dependent on the historical ciety shifted increasingly toward development of the institutions (pro- stratum-specific differentiation and fessions) to which individuals be- a reproduction of societal structures. long. The institutional and biograph- Hoerning looks at case studies of the ical transfer to/integration into the ”socialist intelligentsia“ that exam- ”new“ Federal Republic is being ex- ined the role of the profession in bi- plored in case studies on a number ographical (re)orientation. The pro- of professional groups: medical, law, fessional and life histories (narra- media, and science professionals, tives) of 31 women and men born university professors, managers in between 1929 and 1938 (the gener- industry and science, and the clergy. ation that rebuilt Germany after the A special chapter will be devoted to Second World War) and between the professional careers of women in 1950 and 1960 (the children of the the nomenklatura-cadre/adminis- ”heros“) were recorded on repeated strative class. In 2003/2004, the case occasions, allowing us to describe studies of journalists/journalism in the social character of the educated the Western states and in the GDR class (the new socialist intelli- were worked out. These case studies gentsia) and the professional cul- will be discussed within the frame- tures of the former GDR as well as work of current theoretical debates the life courses of both bourgeois on professions in a book in progress: and non-bourgeois members of the ”Intelligenz, Experten, Professionen.“ intelligentsia. It was then possible to

270 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course Publications 2003–2004

Brose, H.-G., Diewald, M., & and labour market participation Büchel, F., & Pannenberg, M. Panel (Teile 1 und 2). Berlin: Goedicke, A. (2004). Arbeiten of single mothers in West and (in press). Berufliche Weiterbil- Max-Planck-Institut für Bil- und Haushalten. In O. Struck & East Germany. In B. Garcia, R. dung in West- und Ostdeutsch- dungsforschung (Materialien C. Köhler (Eds.), Beschäfti- Anker, & A. Pinnelli (Eds.), land—Teilnehmer, Struktur und aus der Bildungsforschung 75). gungsstabilität im Wandel? Women in the labour market in individueller Ertrag. Zeitschrift • (2004b). Dokumentations- Empirische Befunde und theo- changing economies: Demo- für Arbeitsfragen. handbuch Ostdeutsche retische Erklärungen für West- graphic issues (pp. 87–103). Lebensverläufe im Transforma- und Ostdeutschland (pp. 287– Oxford: Oxford University Press. Büchel, F., & Pollmann-Schult, tionsprozeß: LV-Ost 71 (Teile 1 309). München: Hampp. M. (in press). Unemployment und 2). Berlin: Max-Planck- Büchel, F., & Frick, J. R. (in benefits, unemployment Institut für Bildungsforschung Brückner, H., & Mayer, K. U. press). Immigrants' economic duration, and subsequent job (Materialien aus der Bildungs- (forthcoming). The de-stan- performance across Europe: quality: Evidence from West forschung 76). dardization of the life course: Does immigration policy mat- Germany. Acta Sociologica. • (2004c). Dokumentations- What it might mean and if it ter? Population Research and • (2004). Overeducation and handbuch Ostdeutsche means anything whether it ac- Policy Review. human capital endowments. Lebensverläufe im Transforma- tually took place. Advances in • (2004). Immigrants in the UK International Journal of Man- tionsprozeß: LV-Ost Nonre- Life Course Research. and in West Germany: Relative power, 25, 150–166. sponse. Berlin: Max-Planck- income positions, income port- Institut für Bildungsforschung Büchel, F. (in press). [Review of folio, and redistribution effects. Corsten, M., & Hillmert, S. (Materialien aus der Bildungs- the book ”Der kausale Effekt Journal of Population Econom- (2003). Bildungs- und Berufs- forschung 77). von Bildungsinvestitionen: Em- ics, 17, 553–581. karrieren in Zeiten gestiegener pirische Evidenz für Deutsch- Konkurrenz: Eine lebenslauf- Goedicke, A., & Solga, H. land“]. In W. Franz, H. J. Büchel, F., Jürges, H., & theoretische Perspektive auf (2003). Strukturwandel und Ramser, & M. Stadler (Eds.), Bil- Schneider, K. (2004). Leistungs- den Wandel der Arbeitsge- berufliche Mobilität: Berufsbil- dung. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck. und Signaleffekte zentraler Ab- sellschaft und ihr theoretischer dung für eine globale • (2003a). "Das duale System schlußprüfungen: Eine TIMSS- Ertrag. Zeitschrift für Berufs- Gesellschaft—Perspektiven im zeigt zusehends Probleme": Auswertung bei deutschen und Wirtschaftpädagogik, 99, 21. Jahrhundert: 4. BIBB- [Interview des Bundesministe- Haupt- und Realschülern. In 42–60. Fachkongreß 2002 (Arbeitskreis riums für Wirtschaft und Ar- U. Backes-Gellner & P. Moog 1.1 “Der strukturelle Wandel beit]. In Bundesministerium für (Eds.), Ökonomie der Evaluation Cortina, K. S., Baumert, J., der Arbeitswelt im Spiegel der Wirtschaft und Arbeit (Ed.), von Schulen und Hochschulen Leschinsky, A., Mayer, K. U., Sozialforschung“) [CD-ROM]. Wirtschaftsbericht 2003: (pp. 53–73). Berlin: Duncker & & Trommer, L. (Eds.). (2003). Bonn: BIBB. Brücken in den Arbeitsmarkt Humblot. Das Bildungswesen in der (p. 60). Berlin: BMWA. • (2003). Die Auswirkungen Bundesrepublik Deutschland: Goedicke, A., & Trappe, H. • (2003b). Welche Probleme zentraler Abschlußprüfungen Strukturen und Entwicklungen (in press-a). Occupational sex gibt es bei Ausbildung und auf die Schulleistung: Quasi- im Überblick. Reinbek: Rowohlt. segregation and societal Qualifizierung? [Interview des experimentelle Befunde aus der change. In B. Peper, L. den Dulk, Bundesministeriums für Wirt- deutschen TIMSS-Stichprobe. Diewald, M., Goedicke, A., & & A. von Doorne-Huiskes (Eds.), schaft und Arbeit]. Bundes- Vierteljahrshefte zur Wirt- Mayer, K. U. (Eds.). (forthcom- Flexible working and the inte- arbeitsblatt, 10, 8. schaftsforschung, 72, 238–251. ing). After the fall of the Berlin gration of work and personal Wall: Life courses in the trans- life in a context of organiza- Büchel, F., & Battu, H. (2003). Büchel, F., & Mertens, A. formation of East Germany. Palo tional change. The theory of differential (2004). Overeducation, under- Alto, CA: Stanford University • (in press-b). Occupational sex overqualification: Does it work? education and the theory of ca- Press. segregation in East and West Scottish Journal of Political reer mobility. Applied Econom- Germany: Convergence or con- Economy, 50, 1–16. ics, 36, 803–816. Engelhardt, H., Trappe, H., & tinuing differences? In B. Peper, Dronkers, J. (2003). Differences L. den Dulk, & A. von Doorne- Büchel, F., de Grip, A., & in family policy and the inter- Huiskes (Eds.), Flexible working Mertens, A. (Eds.). (2003a). generational transmission of and the integration of work and Overeducation in Europe: Cur- divorce: A comparison between personal life in a context of rent issues in theory and policy. the former East and West Ger- organizational change. Cheltenham, UK: Elgar. many. In Austrian Academy of • (2003b). The overeducated Sciences (Ed.), Vienna yearbook Grunow, D., Kurz, K., & European? In F. Büchel, A. de of population research 2003 Hillmert, S. (in press). Des- Grip, & A. Mertens (Eds.), Over- (pp. 121–142). Vienna: Verlag integration am Arbeitsmarkt? education in Europe: Current der Österreichischen Akademie Eine empirische Analyse zur issues in theory and policy der Wissenschaften. Stabilität von Erwerbsverläufen. (pp. 3–10). Cheltenham, UK: In J. Berger (Ed.), Mannheimer Elgar. Goedicke, A., Lichtwardt, B., Zentrum für Europäische Sozial- & Mayer, K. U. (Eds.). (2004a). forschung: Jahrbuch 2004. Büchel, F., & Engelhardt, H. Dokumentationshandbuch Ost- (2003). Missing the partner and deutsche Lebensverläufe im Hillmert, S. (2004a). Berufs- his earnings: Income situation Transformationsprozeß: LV-Ost einstieg in Krisenzeiten: Ausbil-

Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course 271 dungs- und Arbeitsmarktchan- aus dem Bereich der Ausbil- und Ostdeutschland (pp. 63- (Eds.), "Wenn zwei das Gleiche cen in den 1980er und 1990er dungsberufe. In R. Hitzler & 86). München: Hampp. tun …"—Ideal und Realität Jahren. In S. Hillmert & K. U. M. Pfadenhauer (Eds.), Karriere- sozialer (Un-)Gleichheit in Dual Mayer (Eds.), Geboren 1964 und politik: Beiträge zur Rekonstruk- Hillmert, S., & Mayer, K. U. Career Couples. Opladen: Verlag 1971: Neuere Untersuchungen tion erfolgsorientierten Han- (Eds.). (2004). Geboren 1964 Barbara Budrich. zu Ausbildungs- und Berufs- delns (pp. 81–96). Opladen: und 1971: Neuere Untersuchun- chancen in Westdeutschland Leske + Budrich (Soziologie der gen zu Ausbildungs- und Jacob, M. (2004). Mehrfach- (pp. 23–38). Wiesbaden: VS Politik 6). Berufschancen in Westdeutsch- ausbildungen in Deutschland. Verlag für Sozialwissen- • (2003e). Soziale Ungleichheit land. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Karriere, Collage, Kompensa- schaften. im Bildungsverlauf: Zum Ver- Sozialwissenschaften. tion? Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für • (2004b). From old to new hältnis von Institutionen und Sozialwissenschaften. structures: A long-term com- Entscheidungen. Berlin: Max- parison of transition to adult- Planck-Institut für Bildungs- Konietzka, D., & Seibert, H. hood in West and East Germany. forschung (Arbeitspapier des (2003). Deutsche und Ausländer Berlin: Max Planck Institute for Projekts Ausbildungs- und an der ”zweiten Schwelle“: Eine Human Development (Working Berufsverläufe der Geburts- vergleichende Analyse der Paper 8). kohorten 1964 und 1971 in Berufseinstiegskohorten • (2004c). Die Geburtsjahr- Westdeutschland 7). 1976–1995 in Westdeutsch- gänge 1964 und 1971: Ein land. Zeitschrift für Pädagogik, Überblick. In S. Hillmert & Hillmert, S., & Jacob, M. 49, 567–590. K. U. Mayer (Eds.), Geboren (2004). Qualifikationsprozesse 1964 und 1971: Neuere Unter- zwischen Diskontinuität und Korpi, T., & Mertens, A. (2004). suchungen zu Ausbildungs- und Karriere: Die Struktur von Training and industrial restruc- Berufschancen in Westdeutsch- Mehrfachausbildungen. In S. turing: Structural change and land (pp. 17–22). Wiesbaden: Hillmert & K. U. Mayer (Eds.), labour mobility in West Ger- VS Verlag für Sozialwissen- Geboren 1964 und 1971: Neuere many and Sweden. Interna- schaften. Untersuchungen zu Ausbil- tional Journal of Manpower, 25, • (2004d). Die Westdeutsche dungs- und Berufschancen in 90–103. Lebensverlaufsstudie, Kohorten Westdeutschland (pp. 65-89). • (2003). Training systems and 1964 und 1971: Projekt, Daten- Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Hoerning, E. M. (in press). labor mobility: A comparison erhebung und Edition. In S. Sozialwissenschaften. Journalismus als Beruf: Kritik, between Germany and Sweden. Hillmert & K. U. Mayer (Eds.), • (2003a). Bildungsprozesse Kompetenz und das Alltags- Scandinavian Journal of Eco- Geboren 1964 und 1971: zwischen Diskontinuität und geschäft. In M. Pfadenhauer nomics, 105, 597–617. Neuere Untersuchungen zu Karriere: Das Phänomen der (Ed.), Professionelles Handeln. Ausbildungs- und Berufs- Mehrfachausbildungen. Zeit- Konstanz: UVK. Künster, R. (2004). Bericht chancen in Westdeutschland schrift für Soziologie, 32, • (2003a). Ärztinnen und Ärzte über die Prüfung der Daten. In (pp. 215-230). Wiesbaden: 325–345. in der DDR. In H. Mieg & A. Goedicke, B. Lichtwardt, & VS Verlag für Sozialwissen- • (2003b). Social inequality in M. Pfadenhauer (Eds.), Profes- K. U. Mayer (Eds.), Dokumen- schaften. higher education: Is vocational sionelle Leistung—Professional tationshandbuch Ostdeutsche • (2003a). Altersstruktur und training a pathway leading to Performance: Positionen der Lebensverläufe im Transfor- Karrierewege der Professorin- or away from university? Euro- Professionssoziologie (pp. 111– mationsprozess: LV-Ost 71 nen und Professoren in der pean Sociological Review, 19, 145). Konstanz: UVK. (Teil 2, pp. 161–168). Berlin: deutschen Soziologie. Kölner 319–334. • (2003b). Karrierepolitik: Max-Planck-Institut für Bil- Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Professionelle Frauen: Zur dungsforschung (Materialien Sozialpsychologie, 55, 116– Hillmert, S., Künster, R., Konstruktion symbolischer aus der Bildungsforschung 76). 135. Spengemann, P., & Mayer, K. Ordnung. In R. Hitzler & • (2003b). ”Ausbildungs- und U. (2004). Projekt “Ausbildungs- M. Pfadenhauer (Eds.), Karriere- Kurz, K., Hillmert, S., & Grunow, Berufsverläufe der Geburts- und Berufsverläufe der Geburts- politik: Beiträge zur Rekonstruk- D. (in press). Increasing instabil- kohorten 1964 und 1971 in kohorten 1964 und 1971 in tion erfolgsorientierten Han- ity in employment careers? Westdeutschland“: Die jüngste Westdeutschland“: Dokumenta- delns (pp. 231–243). Opladen: Men's job mobility and unem- Teilstudie der Lebensverlaufs- tion (Teile 1–9). Berlin: Max- Leske + Budrich. ployment in West Germany: A studie als Scientific Use File. Planck-Institut für Bildung- • (2003c). Professionen zwi- comparison of the birth cohorts ZA-Information, 53, 167–177. forschung (Materialien aus der schen Autonomie und kritischer 1940, 1955 and 1964. In H.-P. • (2003c). Die Bedeutung einer Bildungsforschung 78). Also Öffentlichkeit. In J. Allmen- Blossfeld & M. Mills (Eds.), The einzelfallorientierten Daten- CD-ROM (Materialien aus der dinger (Ed.), Entstaatlichung winners in a globalizing world: edition im Prozess der empi- Bildungsforschung 79). und soziale Sicherheit: Verhand- Mid-career men. rischen Sozialforschung. In lungen des 31. Kongresses der J. Allmendinger (Ed.), Entstaat- Hillmert, S., Kurz, K., & Deutschen Gesellschaft für Lampert, T., Maas, I., & Mayer, lichung und soziale Sicherheit: Grunow, D. (2004). Beschäfti- Soziologie in Leipzig 2002 K. U. (in press). Sozio-ökono- Verhandlungen des 31. Kongres- gungsmobilität in der ersten [CD-ROM]. Opladen: Leske + mische Disparitäten in der Mor- ses der Deutschen Gesellschaft Hälfte des Erwerbslebens: Ein Budrich. talität: Wie stark sind die Un- für Soziologie in Leipzig 2002 Kohortenvergleich. In O. Struck terschiede im hohen Alter aus- [CD-ROM]. Opladen: Leske + & C. Köhler (Eds.), Beschäfti- Höhne, A. (in press). Akademi- geprägt? In J. Behrens & Budrich. gungsstabilität im Wandel? kerpartnerschaften im ostdeut- P. Berger (Eds.), Ungleiche • (2003d). Karrieren und insti- Empirische Befunde und theo- schen Transformationsprozess. Gesundheit und die Soziologie tutioneller Kontext: Fallstudien retische Erklärungen für West- In H. Solga & C. Wimbauer sozialer Ungleichheit.

272 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course Lenhardt, G. (in press). Hoch- Wandels: Ost- und westdeut- perspective. Palo Alto, CA: • (2003e). The role of peer schulen in Deutschland und den sche Jugendliche auf dem Weg Stanford University Press. review in safeguarding quality USA. Frankfurt a.M.: Campus. ins Erwerbsleben. In S. Hillmert • (2004a). Unordnung und in research: Introduction. In • (in press). Bildung—die soziale & K. U. Mayer (Eds.), Geboren frühes Leid? Bildungs- und Science between evaluation Frage des 21. Jahrhunderts: Zu- 1964 und 1971: Neuere Unter- Berufsverläufe in den 1980er and innovation: A conference sammenfassung des Vortrags suchungen zu Ausbildungs- und und 1990er Jahren. In S. on peer review (pp. 27–32). auf dem Landeselterntag im Berufschancen in Westdeutsch- Hillmert & K. U. Mayer (Eds.), München: Max-Planck-Gesell- November 2003. LandesEltern- land (pp. 173– Geboren 1964 und 1971: Neuere schaft. Beirat (Elternarbeit in Rhein- 199). Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Untersuchungen zu Ausbil- • (2003f). The sociology of the land-Pfalz. Berichte und Infor- Sozialwissenschaften. dungs- und Berufschancen in life course and lifespan psy- mationen). • (2004c). Intergenerationale Westdeutschland (pp. 201– chology: Diverging or con- • (2004a). Bildung und Lehrer- Mobilität beim Erwerbseinstieg 213). Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für verging pathways? In U. M. bildung in Deutschland—eine während der ostdeutschen Sozialwissenschaften. Staudinger & U. Lindenberger verzögerte Erfolgsgeschichte. In Transformation. In M. Szydlik • (2004b). Vorwort. In S. (Eds.), Understanding human U. Beckmann, H. Brandt, & H. (Ed.), Generation und Ungleich- Hillmert & K. U. Mayer (Eds.), development: Dialogues with Wagner (Eds.), Ein neues Bild heit (pp. 168–190). Wiesbaden: Geboren 1964 und 1971: lifespan psychology (pp. 463– vom Lehrerberuf? Pädagogische VS Verlag für Sozialwissen- Neuere Untersuchungen zu Aus- 481). Boston: Kluwer. Professionalität nach PISA schaften. bildungs- und Berufschancen in (pp. 26–38). Weinheim: Beltz. • (2003). Das Teilprojekt ”Ost- Westdeutschland (pp. 13–15). Mayer, K. U., & Hillmert, S. • (2004b). Europäische und deutsche Lebensverläufe im Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für (2004a). Neue Flexibilitäten deutsche Perspektiven der Transformationsprozess (LV- Sozialwissenschaften. oder blockierte Gesellschaft? Hochschulpolitik. Die Hoch- Ost)“ der Deutschen Lebensver- • (2004c). Whose lives? How Sozialstruktur und Lebensver- schule, 13, 17–28. laufsstudie. ZA-Information, 53, history, societies and institu- läufe in Deutschland 1960– • (2004c). Vergleichende Bil- 156–166. tions define and shape life 2000. In R. Kecskes, M. Wagner, dungsforschung: Bildung, courses. Research in Human & C. Wolf (Eds.), Angewandte Nationalstaat und Weltgesell- Matthes, B., Goedicke, A., Development, 1, 161–187. Soziologie (pp. 129-158). schaft. In W. Helsper & Lichtwardt, B., & Mayer, K. U. • (2004d). Yale, Harvard & Co.: Wiebaden: VS Verlag für J. Böhme (Eds.), Handbuch der (Eds.). (2004). Dokumentations- Mythos oder Modell für Sozialwissenschaften. Schulforschung (pp. 665–984). handbuch Ostdeutsche Lebens- Deutschland? Forschung und • (2004b). New ways of life or Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für verläufe im Transformations- Lehre, 10, 538–542. old rigidities? Changes in social Sozialwissenschaften. prozeß: LV-Ost Panel, LV-Ost 71, • (2003a). Friedrich Edding: structures and life courses and LV-Ost Nonresponse [CD-ROM]. 23.6.1909–14.9.2002. In Max- their political impact. In H. Lichtwardt, B. (2004). Berlin: Max-Planck-Institut Planck-Gesellschaft zur Kitschelt & W. Streeck (Eds.), Nachrecherchebericht für die für Bildungsforschung (Mate- Förderung der Wissenschaften Germany: Beyond the stable Studie “Ostdeutsche Lebens- rialien aus der Bildungs- (Ed.), Jahrbuch (pp. 105–106). state (pp. 79-100). London: verläufe im Transformations- forschung 80). München: Saur. Cass. prozeß“ (LV-Ost 71). In A. • (2003b). Das Hochschul- • (2003a). Neue Flexibilitäten Goedicke, B. Lichtwardt, & Matthes, B., & Lichtwardt, B. wesen. In K. S. Cortina, J. oder blockierte Gesellschaft? K. U. Mayer (Eds.), Dokumen- (2004). Editionsbericht für die Baumert, A. Leschinsky, K. U. Sozialstruktur und Lebens- tationshandbuch Ostdeutsche Lebensverlaufsstudie Ost, Mayer, & L. Trommer (Eds.), verläufe in Deutschland Lebensverläufe im Transforma- Geburtskohorte 1971. In A. Das Bildungswesen in der 1960–2000. In Max-Planck- tionsprozess: LV-Ost 71 (Teil 2, Goedicke, B. Lichtwardt, & Bundesrepublik Deutschland: Gesellschaft zur Förderung der pp. 93–141). Berlin: Max- K. U. Mayer (Eds.), Dokumen- Strukturen und Entwicklungen Wissenschaften (Ed.), Jahrbuch Planck-Institut für Bildungs- tationshandbuch Ostdeutsche im Überblick (pp. 581–624). (pp. 74–100). München: Saur. forschung (Materialien aus der Lebensverläufe im Transforma- Reinbek: Rowohlt. Bildungsforschung 76). tionsprozess: LV-Ost 71 (Teil 2, • (2003c). Laudatio zur Verlei- McGinnity, F. (2004a). Einkom- pp. 27–92). Berlin: Max-Planck- hung des René-König-Lehr- mensarmut von Arbeitslosen in Mach, B. W. (2003). Genera- Institut für Bildungsforschung buchpreises der Deutschen Großbritannien und Deutsch- tion of historic hope and every- (Materialien aus der Bildungs- Gesellschaft für Soziologie. land. In G. Schmid, M. Gangl, day risk [in Polish]. Warsaw: forschung 76). In J. Allmendinger (Ed.), Ent- & P. Kupka (Eds.), Arbeitsmarkt- Polish Academy of Sciences, staatlichung und soziale politik und Strukturwandel: Em- Institute of Political Studies. Matthes, B., & Wehner, S. Sicherheit: Verhandlungen des pirische Analysen (pp. 73–96). (2004). Repräsentativität der 31.Kongresses der Deutschen Nürnberg: Institut für Arbeits- Matthes, B. (2004a). Codierung Lebensverlaufsstudie Ost Gesellschaft für Soziologie in markt- und Berufsforschung. der (halb-)offenen Angaben. In (Geburtskohorte 1971): Ein Ver- Leipzig 2002 (Vol. 1, pp. 59–60). • (2004b). Welfare for the A. Goedicke, B. Lichtwardt, & K. gleich ausgewählter Rand- Opladen: Leske + Budrich. unemployed in Britain and U. Mayer (Eds.), Dokumenta- verteilungen mit den Erhebun- • (2003d). PISA und die Sozio- Germany: Who benefits? tionshandbuch Ostdeutsche gen des Mikrozensus. ZUMA- logie: Bildungschancen und Bil- Cheltenham, UK: Elgar. Lebensverläufe im Transforma- Nachrichten, 28, 6-38. dungsergebnisse—Zur Einfüh- tionsprozess: LV-Ost 71 (Teil 2, rung. In J. Allmendinger (Ed.), McGinnity, F., & Hillmert, S. pp. 143–160). Berlin: Max- Mayer, K. U. (forthcoming). Entstaatlichung und soziale (2004). Persisting class inequal- Planck-Institut für Bildungs- Life courses and life chances in Sicherheit: Verhandlungen des ity? Comparing class-specific forschung (Materialien aus der a comparative perspective. In 31. Kongresses der Deutschen unemployment in early working BIldungsforschung 76). S. Svallfors (Ed.), Analyzing Gesellschaft für Soziologie in life in Britain and West Ger- • (2004b). Der Erwerbseinstieg inequality: Life chances and Leipzig 2002 (Vol. 2, pp. 1027– many. European Societies, 6, in Zeiten gesellschaftlichen social mobility in comparative 1028). Opladen: Leske + Budrich. 383-408.

Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course 273 Pollmann-Schult, M., & Germany: Opportunities and • (2004). Chancen West, Chan- Büchel, F. (2004a). Career constraints. Doctoral disser- cen Ost—Frauen und Männer prospects of overeducated tation, Free University of Berlin. des Geburtsjahrgangs 1971 im workers in West Germany. Vergleich. In S. Hillmert & K. U. European Sociological Review, Seibert, H. (in press). Integra- Mayer (Eds.), Geboren 1964 und 20, 321–331. tion durch Ausbildung? Beruf- 1971: Neuere Untersuchungen • (2004b). Wege aus Arbeits- liche Platzierung von Ausbil- zu Ausbildungs- und Berufs- losigkeit in ausbildungsadä- dungsabsolventen der Geburts- chancen in Westdeutschland quate Erwerbstätigkeit: Kann jahrgänge 1960–1971. Berlin: (pp. 133–153). Wiesbaden: unterwertige Beschäftigung Logos. VS Verlag für Sozialwissen- eine Brückenfunktion ein- • (2004a). Ausbildungs- und schaften. nehmen? In S. Hillmert & K. U. Berufsverläufe der Geburts- Mayer (Eds.), Geboren 1964 und kohorten 1964 und 1971 in Trappe, H. (2003). Putting Ger- 1971: Neuere Untersuchungen Westdeutschland. In Das man feminism in a historical zu Ausbildungs- und Berufs- Forschungsdatenzentrum der perspective [Review of the book chancen in Westdeutschland gesetzlichen Rentenversiche- ”Atempause: Feminismus als (pp. 155–171). Wiesbaden: rung (FDZ-RV) im Aufbau: demokratisches Projekt“]. Con- VS Verlag für Sozialwissen- Bericht vom ersten Workshop temporary Sociology, 32, (1), schaften. des FDZ-RV am 28. und 29. Juni 12–14. McGinnity, F., & Mertens, A. 2004 in Würzburg (pp. 156- (in press). Lohnverluste durch Pollmann-Schult, M., & 161). Frankfurt a.M.: Verband Trappe, H., & Goedicke, A. befristete Beschäftigung? Ein Mayer, K. U. (2004). Returns to Deutscher Rentenversiche- (2003). Ein Land—zwei Er- Überblick über den Stand der skills: Vocational training in rungsträger. werbssysteme? Die Folgen Debatte in Deutschland. In M. Germany 1935–2000. Yale • (2004b). “Wer zu spät geschlechtstypischer Berufs- Kronauer & G. Linne (Eds.), Journal of Sociology, 4, 73-98. kommt …“: Schulausbildung entscheidungen in Ost- und Flexicurity: Die Bindung von und der Erwerbseinstieg von Westdeutschland. In J. Allmen- Sicherheit an Flexibilität. Reimer, M. (2004). Collecting Ausbildungsabsolventen aus- dinger (Ed.), Entstaatlichung Berlin: edition sigma. event history data about work ländischer Herkunft in Deutsch- und soziale Sicherheit: Verhand- • (2004). Befristete Verträge careers retrospectively: land. In S. Hillmert & lungen des 31. Kongresses der und Berufseinstieg. In Mistakes that occur and ways K. U. Mayer (Eds.), Geboren Deutschen Gesellschaft für S. Hillmert & K. U. Mayer (Eds.), to prevent them. Berlin: Max- 1964 und 1971: Neuere Unter- Soziologie in Leipzig 2002 Geboren 1964 und 1971: Neuere Planck-Institut für Bildungs- suchungen zu Ausbildungs- [CD-ROM]. Opladen: Leske + Untersuchungen zu Ausbil- forschung (Arbeitspapier des und Berufschancen in West- Budrich. dungs- und Berufschancen in Projekts Kognition und Kom- deutschland (pp. 91–114). Westdeutschland (pp. 115-131). munikation bei der Längs- Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Trappe, H., & Rosenfeld, R. A. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für schnittdatenerhebung 1). Sozialwissenschaften. (2004). Occupational sex segre- Sozialwissenschaften. • (2003). Autobiografisches gation and family formation in Erinnern und retrospektive Spieß, C. K., & Büchel, F. the former East and West Ger- McGinnity, F., Mertens, A., & Längsschnittdatenerhebung: (2003). Effekte der regionalen many. Work and Occupations, Gundert, S. (2005). A bad Was wissen wir, und was wür- Kindergarteninfrastruktur auf 31, 155–192. start? Fixed term contracts and den wir gerne wissen? BIOS, das Arbeitsangebot von Müt- the transition from education to 16, 27–45. tern. In W. Schmähl (Ed.), Trappe, H., & Sorensen, A. (in work in West Germany. Euro- Soziale Sicherung und Arbeits- press). Economic relations be- pean Sociological Review, Reimer, M., & Künster, R. markt (pp. 95–126). Berlin: tween women and men in Ger- 21 (4). (2004). Linking job episodes Duncker & Humblot (Schriften many: An East-West German from retrospective surveys and des Vereins für Socialpolitik, comparison after reunification. Mertens, A., & McGinnity, F. social security data: Specific Neue Folge 294). Special Issue of "Feminist Eco- (in press). A “two-tier“ labour challenges, feasibility and qual- nomics" on "Gender and change market for fixed-term jobs? ity of outcome. Berlin: Max- Spiess, C. K., Büchel, F., & in Central and Eastern Europe". Evaluating evidence from West Planck-Institut für Bildungs- Wagner, G. G. (2003). Children‘s Germany using quantile regres- forschung (Arbeitspapier des school placement in Germany: Van Ham, M., & Büchel, F. sion. Schmollers Jahrbuch. Projekts Ausbildungs- und Does Kindergarten attendance (2003). Overeducation, regional • (2004). Wages and wage Berufsverläufe der Geburts- matter? Early Childhood Re- labor markets, and spatial growth of fixed-term workers kohorten 1964 und 1971 in search Quarterly, 18, 255–270. flexibility. Journal of Urban Eco- in East and West Germany. Westdeutschland 8). nomics, 53 (3), 482–493. Applied Economics Quarterly, Trappe, H. (in press). Gender 50, 139–163. Rosenfeld, R. A., Trappe, H., & inequality in the East German Zaidi, A., Frick, J. R., & Büchel, Gornick, J. C. (2004). Gender labor market seen through a F. (in press). Income risks within O'Connell, P. J., McGinnity, F., and work in Germany: Before generational lens. In K. U. retirement in Great Britain and & Russell, H. (2003). Working- and after reunification. Annual Mayer, M. Diewald, & A. Germany. Ageing and Society. time flexibility in Ireland. In J. Review of Sociology, 30, 103– Goedicke (Eds.), After the fall of • (2003). Income risks within O‘Reilly (Ed.), Regulating work- 124. the Berlin Wall: Life courses in retirement in Great Britain and ing-time transitions in Europe the transformation of East Germany. Schmollers Jahrbuch, (pp. 240–279). Cheltenham, UK: Rusconi, A. (2003). Leaving the Germany. Stanford, CA: Stan- 123, 163–176. Elgar. parental home in Italy and West ford University Press.

274 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course 275

Independent Research Group Lack of Training: Employment and Life Chances of the Less Educated Contents

Research Agenda …………………………………………………………………………………… 279

Research Areas and Results …………………………………………………………………… 280

Publications 2003–2004 ………………………………………………………………………… 290

Duration: January 2000–May 2005

Head of Research Group: Heike Solga Postdoctoral Research Fellows: Justin J. W. Powell Sandra J. Wagner (until July 2004) Research Scientist: Alessandra Rusconi (October 2003—June 2004) Predoctoral Research Fellow: Lisa Pfahl (LIFE fellow)

278 Independent Research Group Research Agenda

We investigate the causes and consequences of less education from a life- course perspective and analyze changes over time as well as regionally and cross-nationally. Our joint research questions are: How do less educated persons’ disadvantages at multiple status passages cumulate over their life courses? What changes, especially in institutional rules, norms, and processes, have occurred over the postwar period and what consequences have these had?

The Causes of Less Education competition. Yet, that explanation Among Youth does not include the “production We investigate how initial inequali- process” of less education in its ties are transformed into exclusion analysis. Our project offers a socio- from training and education, focus- logical explanation for the increasing on the educational and training ing labor market vulnerability of less systems and their social mecha- educated youth, emphasizing the nisms: sorting and selection func- consequences of historically declin- tions, the learning environments ing proportions of less educated that they provide for children with youth. This sociological explanation different characteristics—given ini- takes into account changes in group tial inequalities—and the recruit- size, group composition, and em- ment practices of firms for appren- ployers’ perceptions over the course ticeships or on-the-job training of educational expansion—contribut- opportunities. ing to the phenomenon that less education itself has become a social Social Consequences of Less stigma in education societies. Education The group’s second research focus Data are the coping strategies of less Much of our research compares dif- educated youth with the stigma of ferent West German birth cohorts, low education, especially during allowing us to investigate the two their school-to-work transitions, and research questions in changing edu- less educated youth’s often tenuous cational norms and institutional set- participation in labor markets. We tings in educational and training know that in many Western coun- systems as well as under varying tries, less educated persons consti- economic circumstances. In our tute an increasing share of the long- comparison of (Western) Germany term unemployed. They are less able with the United States, we examine to enter into even unskilled jobs. The whether and how the degree of lo- dominant (mainly economic) expla- cational “segregation” in educational nation is the so-called “displace- systems—a highly differentiated and ment” argument, which theorizes hierarchical school system in con- that, given an oversupply of quali- trast to tracking or ability grouping fied persons, trained persons out- within comprehensive schools—in- qualify less educated persons in job fluences the production of differen-

Independent Research Group 279 tial educational attainment levels for “learning disabled” children) derived ascriptive groups. Further, we use from a pilot project on “job coach- the Life Course Studies of the Insti- ing” based at the University of tute’s Center for Sociology and the Cologne in North Rhine-Westphalia. Study of the Life Course and the Besides a standardized life history German Socio-Economic Panel Study survey, we conducted biographical (GSOEP, an annual panel study con- interviews with a sample of these ducted by the German Institute for school leavers from special schools Economic Research, DIW). We com- as well as with their job coaches. plement our analyses of representa- This data set is particularly valuable tive population surveys and collec- because most large-scale educa- tions of aggregate statistics with our tional studies in Germany do not in- own life history database (of 106 clude (representative) samples of school leavers from schools for special school pupils or graduates.

Research Areas and Results

The Social Production of Less Educated Youth

Project 1 Research Project 1 due to educational expansion and Sandra Wagner Youth Without Vocational Training: qualitative reforms and structural A Longitudinal Study of the Influence transformations, and (2) how these Key Reference of School, Social Background, and compositional changes contributed Wagner, S. (in press-b). Gender on Educational Opportunities to the exacerbation of the problem Jugendliche ohne Beruf- This quantitative longitudinal study of less educated youth. The disser- sausbildung: Eine Längss- chnittstudie zum Einfluss analyzes an educational group long tation’s contribution lies in the his- von Schule, Herkunft und ignored by educational sociology: torical investigation of this educa- Geschlecht auf ihre Bil- dungschancen. Aachen: youth without vocational training. tional group and the problems its Shaker Verlag. Although in comparison with other members face in the German countries, Germany succeeds well in schooling and vocational training having among the least proportions systems. of youth without any secondary Due to the difficult data situation, school certificate, the remaining especially regarding migration expe- group of youth without training rep- riences and patterns, the study uti- resent a ”problem group“ increas- lized diverse data sources, joining ingly at risk in (vocational) educa- official statistics with analyses tion systems and in labor markets. based on the GSOEP with the Ger- Changes in this group’s size and man Life History Survey and the composition vis-à-vis educational Independent Research Group’s own level, social background, ethnic her- survey of school leavers from special itage, and gender are key aspects schools (category ”learning disabil- addressed by this project (Figure 1). ity“), among others. Findings showed The goal of the empirical analyses is that this educational group’s size to show (1) which changes result has declined since the 1950s and mainly from quantitative change 1960s and it is more than ever com-

280 Independent Research Group 80 Figure 1. Proportion of persons without complet- 70 Total ed vocational education at Women age 25 (in %, only West 60 Men German origin)*. Incl. non-native West Germans** 51 50

40 34 30 23 20 15 13 10 11 8 0 1930 1940 1950 1955 1960 1964 1971 (1947) (1957) (1967) (1972) (1977) (1981) (1988) Birth cohorts (calendar year at age 17)

* Without persons with an A level; persons still in vocational education at age 25 are not counted as “without” completed vocational education. **Persons aged 25 to 29 (birth cohorts, source: Survey of the Federal Institute for Vocational Education (BIBB). Source. German Life History Study, Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Berlin. posed of young men and ethnic mi- tain more certificates than in the norities, who nevertheless spend rel- past. atively more time in school and at-

Research Project 2 of all students in Germany, but 12% Project 2 Institutional Barriers to Inclusion in the United States are classified as Justin Powell Despite similar citizenship rights, “having special educational needs.” discourses of equality and merit, and Why did these countries institution- Key Reference dis/ability paradigms, the German alize school integration to such dif- Powell, J. (forthcoming). and American special education sys- ferent extents? Justin Powell investi- Barriers to inclusion: Special education in the tems diverged considerably over the gated three major phases in these United States and 20th century. Resisting a multitude systems’ institutionalization: first, Germany. Boulder: Paradigm. of international, national, and re- the copying of the general educa- gional reform initiatives, German tional system’s logic (isomorphism); Länder maintain at least ten types of second, the diffusion and differen- segregated special schools; less than tiation of special education organi- 15% of disabled students attend zations (expansion); and third, the general schools. By contrast, 95% of persistence of segregation and sepa- all disabled students in the United ration (inertia). Empirically, he ana- States attend general schools, but lyzed (1) students’ classification into spend part of their school day sepa- special education, (2) their allocation rated from their peers in general ed- to learning opportunity structures ucation classrooms. Nationally, 5% (along a continuum from segrega-

Independent Research Group 281 tion to full-time inclusion), and (3) grams have largely failed: They their resulting educational attain- remain the core groups participating ments. in special education. With universalized compulsory Education reforms over the last cen- schooling, general education systems tury reflect shifts but also continu- expanded massively, and special ed- ities, in ideologies, institutions and ucation grew apace (Figure 2). The organizations, interest group power, subsidiary organizations of special as well as political decision-making education experienced exogenous structures. Both societies gradually and endogenous growth from two eliminated the exclusion of disabled main sources, most rapidly since the children and youth from public mid-1950s: (1) the reduced exclu- schooling. Yet the persistent ongoing sion of children with perceived im- challenge is to similarly reduce in- pairments, and (2) general education terschool segregation or intraschool teachers’ increasing transfer of “ab- separation by restructuring schools normal” or “exceptional” students to educate all children together in into special education. The resulting the same classes—as education re- increasingly heterogeneous student search has demonstrated that inclu- bodies challenged the rationalized sive education benefits all students. standardized organizational struc- While a quarter of American special tures and processes of German and education students drop out or age American school systems. Efforts out of high school, half succeed in over the past three decades to ad- graduating from high school with a dress and reduce the overrepresenta- standard diploma. In contrast, only tion of male, ethnic minority, and 2% of German special school leavers poor children and youth in such pro- earn a diploma (mittlere Reife or

Figure 2. Proportion of 14 students classified as having “special educational 12 needs“ in Germany and the United States, 1931— USA 2000*. 10

Percent 6

4 Germany 2 (West, 1952-90)

0 1931 1942 1952 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 * For Germany, figures for students ”with special educational needs (SEN)” attending general schools (”Integrationsschüler”), representing between 10% and 15% of all students with SEN, have only been published by the Kultusministerkonferenz since 2000. Source. Powell, 2004a.

282 Independent Research Group Abitur); 80% do not even attain the choices (not certainty) are responsi- lowest qualified secondary school ble for the unequal distribution of certificate (Hauptschulabschluss). learning opportunities to students These individuals face extremely served in special education organi- limited opportunities for vocational zations, for their stigmatization, and training and employment, and the for their low educational attainment resulting reduced life chances rates. The major barrier to inclu- (Wagner, in press-b; Pfahl, 2003; sion—the institutionalization of spe- Solga, 2003a). Considerable dispari- cial education itself—is an ongoing ties remain between, and within, process, not a fixed state. Thus, these societies in disabled students’ while neither federal nation has yet differentiation, their educational ex- achieved inclusive education to the periences, and their probabilities of degree called for by advocates or education attainment (Powell, mandated in educational policies 2004a). and antidiscrimination laws, some Significant disparities found among Länder and states are well on their the 16 German Länder and in the way of replacing special with in- 50 States of the USA demonstrate clusive education organizations. In that political conflicts (not consen- so doing, they provide models for sus) and professional and parental others to follow.

Social Consequences of Less Education

Research Project 3 special schools gain social recogni- Project 3 Consequences of Special Schooling tion through different socializational Lisa Pfahl for the Identity Formation of Socially contexts. In doing so, the project Disadvantaged Youth explores the school leavers’ reactions Begun in October 2003, this disser- to their situation as well as the con- tation project inquires into the life sequences of their adaptive behavior. courses of young adults with little Here, it is important to take the educational capital. Its main goal is reciprocal interaction between to find out whether, and how, school biographies and the opportunity leavers from special schools (for structures, cultural and material “learning disabled” students) can resources, recognition, and (lacking) yield to the expectations of work or- competencies into consideration. ganizations and labor markets, and The sampling strategy partly follows how they attain social recognition the explorative style of grounded via the paths of social integration theory. Yet, with our self-conducted they choose. The project focuses on survey of 106 special school leavers the formation of the biographical (see above), we have the opportunity selves of young leavers of special to select the cases for the biographi- schools that can be traced back cal studies using the collected infor- partly to their subjectivation in mation. Several contrasting groups school. Comparatively, Lisa Pfahl ex- were selected for further investiga- amines if, and how, graduates of tion that allow us to contrast “suc-

Independent Research Group 283 Figure 3. The life courses Special needs Special education Social policies of interventions of youth with “learning disabilities“ participating in special education (SE). 20% different paths (SE life course)

70 % prevocational training measures 10 % successful reintegration

(”normal” life course)

Primary school Secondary school School-to-work transition Occupational training

Primary Secondary Occupational socialization socialization socialization

25 in-depth interviews with (former) SE students (at age 18, 20, and 35).

cessful” with “unsuccessful” careers youth follow different paths, such as as well as to explore short-term and pretraining (remedial) programs, un- long-term coping strategies due to employment, teenage motherhood, the stigmatizing classification of or delinquent activities. These young “learning disability” early in their adults’ biographical constructions lives: (1) youth who successfully be- will be contrasted to those of “more gan an occupational training place- successful” youth. ment (interviewed in 2002 at the The early educational “careers” of end of their schooling and again in these youth demonstrate some com- Summer/Fall 2004); (2) youth who petencies of marginalized young follow an “alternative” path of social people—namely in managing their integration, such as teenage mother- stigmatization and keeping an hood or delinquent activities; and (3) “intact” personal identity (Pfahl, occupationally established adults 2003). Examining persons who who attended a special school. developed successful occupational The biographies of school leavers orientations, we still find a stance of from special schools offer insights “withdrawal” from societal expecta- into marginalization caused by the tions and opportunities. First results contemporary German educational show gender variations including a system. Separated early in their prevalent lack of perspective and school careers, only one fifth of the confidence among females, but an young people who attended schools overestimation of status and compe- for pupils with so-called learning tence levels among males. Ethnicity disabilities (most of whom are so- also proved to be relevant for cially disadvantaged) receives a processes of stigma management certificate (Hauptschulabschluss or because of their different cultural higher). resources. These aspects will be Even less—one tenth—manages to studied in depth in the next phase of enter vocational training. Instead of research. entering the training market, these

284 Independent Research Group Research Project 4 labor markets. As the norms of edu- Project 4 The Rise of Educational Disadvan- cational attainment have risen, the Heike Solga tage in Germany: Explaining Less less educated group’s decreasing size Educated Persons’ Decreasing Em- and institutionalized segregation en- Key Reference ployment Opportunities—Economic sure its visibility and stigma, with Solga, H. (in press-b). and Sociological Insights enhanced relevance for foreclosing Ohne Abschluss in die Bil- dungsgesellschaft: Die Turning to employment chances of employment opportunities. Not only Erwerbschancen gering less educated persons, Heike Solga individual aspirations and expecta- qualifizierter Personen aus soziologischer und has developed four mechanisms that tions but also skills, cultural and ökonomischer Perspektive. need to be taken into account if his- network capital, and certificates are Opladen: Barbara Budrich. torical shifts in opportunities are to reduced in those who become less be fully understood: (1) displace- educated. ment, (2) discredit, (3) impoverished These four mechanisms are derived resources (especially networks), and from a multidimensional concept of (4) stigmatization. Among the fac- education and educational groups in tors are changing group size and which (low) education is considered composition, educational experi- to be much more than just skills and ences in changing school settings, qualifications. Instead, low educa- and employers’ recruitment tion is analyzed here as a social phe- processes. While the less educated nomenon that reflects a host of so- group has always been considered a cial meanings and social relations. “problem” group, the impoverished This concept allows us to investigate network and stigma mechanisms changes in the individualized have grown in importance as certifi- processes of skill certification and cation has developed into a “master attribution as well as changes in ed- status.” Through increased diffusion, ucational groups’ social relation- official educational attainment ships, available resources, and social legimitately determines allocation in identity formation.

Multidimensional Concept of Education and Educational Categories Individual characteristics: Skill certification Individualized group characteristic: Skill attribution (connected to social meanings of, or beliefs about, “low education”) Actual group membership: Defining social relationships and networks Defining social identity concepts (social meanings and in-/outgroup-relationships)

Heike Solga’s analyses based on group”—and that all four processes OECD data and policy reports on less are dealt with in public discourses, educated youth show that these social research as well as social and mechanisms do not only apply to labor market policies. Nonetheless, Germany with its standardized these analyses indicate that their schooling and vocational training relative weight varies between coun- systems. They reveal that in many tries. For example, whereas all four Western societies, less educated mechanisms are crucial to under- youth are considered a “problem stand the labor market situation of

Independent Research Group 285 Table 1. Relative weight of Impoverished displacement, discredit, Country Displacement Discredit networks Stigmatization impoverished networks, and stigmatization (select- Countries in which the share of less educated young adults (25- to 34-year-olds) ed OECD countries). is less than 20% Finland ♦ Canada ♦ Norway ♦ Sweden ♦ Denmark ♦♦ USA ♦♦ Czech Republic ♦♦♦ ♦ Germany ♦♦♦ ♦ Austria ♦♦♦ ♦

Countries in which the share of less educated young adults (25-to 34-year-olds) is less than 20% France ♦♦ Australia ♦♦ United Kingdom ♦♦ Belgium ♦♦♦ Ireland ♦♦♦ The Netherlands ♦♦♦ Greece (Less educated young adults do not face relative labor market disadvantages, compared to young adults with completed upper secondary education)

Source. Solga, 2003d, Chapter 11.

less educated youth in Germany, in prived networks”—seem to be of pri- the USA two mechanisms—namely mary importance. “displacement” and “increasingly de-

Concluding Conference

The Independent Research Group’s themes addressed by members of concluding conference “The Causes the Independent Research Group and Consequences of Low Education over the past five years. The confer- in Contemporary Europe” was held in ence attracted more than 60 partici- Granada, Spain, from September pants, from doctoral candidates to 18—23, 2004. As a collaboration senior scholars, in sociology as well with the European Consortium for as economics, psychology, and edu- Sociological Research (ECSR), the cation. Alongside the conference conference was financed jointly by organizers Heike Solga, Paul M. de the Max Planck Institute for Human Graaf, and Marlis Buchmann, discus- Development and the European sions were initiated or chaired by Science Foundation (European Hans-Peter Blossfeld, Richard Breen, Commission, Research General Robert Erikson, John Goldthorpe, Directorate, High-Level Scientific Anthony Heath, Johannes Huinink, Conferences). Roxane Silberman, Wout Ultee, Researchers from all parts of Europe Michael Wagner, and Christopher came together to discuss the key Whelan.

286 Independent Research Group Themes covered in ten paper ses- ries. Family background, religious sions and lively poster presentations beliefs, neighborhood characteristics, included the social production or and truancy were also discussed as causes of low education, ethnic mi- factors in educational experiences norities and their educational and and attainment. At the level of re- occupational attainments, school- gions and nations, education and to-work transitions of less educated social policies and the school and youth, low education and its conse- vocational training systems they quences for social exclusion, and the influence are clearly implicated in employment careers of less educated producing, exacerbating, or amelio- persons. Methodologically, longitudi- rating individual dis/advantages. Ap- nal and cross-sectional quantitative proaches leading the way forward analyses were rounded out by histor- attend to cross-national measure- ical-comparative and biographical ment problems in their analysis of studies that emphasized the histori- the effects of educational expansion cal contingency of “low education” and continuing inequalities in learn- as a relatively recent phenomenon ing opportunities. since postwar education expansion Besides the paper presented by Heike in European societies. Alongside Solga (see above) and Stephen Europe and OECD-wide comparative Nickell’s paper on labor market par- work on education systems and labor ticipation, other consequences of market research, countries specifi- low education presented included cally examined in conference contri- lower wages, continuing disadvan- butions included Austria, Denmark, tage and even deprivation, ill health Estonia, Finnland, France, Germany, and smoking as well as disability. Great Britain, Ireland, Italy, Hungary, Findings focused on low education’s Lithuania, the Netherlands, Norway, role in difficult school-to-work tran- Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovenia, sitions, its negative effects on fertil- Sweden, and Switzerland. ity, and its consequences for family The presented results, divided along formation and divorce patterns. the lines of the original research Social commitments, neighborhood program of our research group—(1) integration, voting patterns and the social production of low educa- voluntary participation, and social tion and (2) its consequences for life exclusion more broadly were also course outcomes—show the com- analyzed. plexity of the individual and contex- In the paper/poster presentations tual dimensions of low education. and discussions, the conference Individual disadvantages, such as participants agreed that in Europe, poor language skills, social origins, education is an increasingly valued stigmas such as caste status, immi- individual and public good; however, gration experience, and impairment beyond a minimal level, it has not or disability interact with such social yet been secured as a right for all and cultural aspects as school struc- citizens. Access for specific disad- tures, tracking/streaming systems, vantaged groups, especially from and language and learning difficul- lower social class backgrounds, im- ties to impact educational trajecto- migrants and ethnic minorities, and

Independent Research Group 287 disabled children remains tenuous or ment negatively affects their em- has been ensured only at the bottom ployment opportunities and life of stratified educational systems. chances in contemporary education The resulting low educational attain- societies.

Collaborative Research Project (in Collaboration With the Young Academy of Science, Project Germany: Dual Career Couples) Heike Solga Alessandra Not only at the lower end of the ed- dren are mostly not taken into Rusconi ucational hierarchy but also at the account when evaluating the publi- higher end, we find disadvantages in cation lists of applicants. employment opportunities, albeit With regard to topic (b), we organ- with different sources and qualities. ized a special session on dual career Due to increasing female participa- couples in Germany at the 32nd tion rates in higher education, the Congress of the German Sociological share of “academic couples“—in Association (2004) with Christine which both partners hold a universi- Wimbauer (Yale University) to exam- ty degree—has risen over the past ine the sources of disadvantage decades in many European socie- within couples (Solga & Wimbauer, ties. Nonetheless, in Germany as in press). Our own contribution to well as other modern societies, dual that session and the resulting edited careers are still not the norm among volume examines the influence of these couples, mostly because they the age relationship of couples on cannot be realized due to obstacles their chances of realizing a dual for, and restrictions on, women career (Solga, Rusconi, & Krüger, in seeking (full-time) professional ca- press). One of the dominant expla- reers. nations for this ”failure“ of dual In terms of dual careers, the interest careers is that because of ”rational“ of the Independent Research Group decision making within couples to has been twofold: (a) What are the prioritize the partner who first institutional obstacles that hinder achieves a desirable career opportu- female academic careers, and (b) nity, a ”primary“ and a ”secondary“ what are sources within couples career are defined. Given the age that negatively affect the realization difference between the partners and of dual careers in academic couples? the differences in career time caused In collaboration with the Young by it, the older partner typically has Academy, we investigated institu- the ”primary“ career during a signifi- tional obstacles by conducting inter- cant proportion of the life course. views with 181 university represen- Moreover, given the typical age rela- tatives (out of 322) (cf. Solga & tionship in couples, that is, women Rusconi, 2004). One of the major are mostly younger than their male findings is the gender-neutral out- partners, men will have the ”pri- put orientation of German search mary“ career and women then have committees: In recruiting new asso- the ”secondary“ one. But this expla- ciate or full-time professors, chil- nation raises the question of

288 Independent Research Group whether women in partnerships with of realizing dual careers among aca- an atypical age relationship, that is, demic couples in Germany. Our main couples where the woman is older finding is that both explanations fall than the man, have better career short. Women in age-atypical cou- chances than women in age-typical ples do not have the same career partnerships and whether, therefore, chances as men in couples where dual careers in these age-atypical they are the older partner (this find- partnerships are more common. Fol- ing contradicts the gender-neutral lowing another dominant explana- age explanation). On the other hand, tion for the ”failure“ of dual careers, these women in atypical couples do this may not be the case. Due to have higher career chances than (age-neutral) gender ideologies and women in typical couples (this find- gendered labor market practices, it ing contradicts the age-neutral gen- could be that women always have der role explanation). We therefore poorer career chances than men—in- introduced the explanation of gen- dependent of the age relationship dered age concepts in couples and within such partnerships. Utilizing suggested their further investigation empirical analyses based on the in order to explore the questions: German Microcensus (1997), we ex- Whether, and why, age-atypical amined these two explanations—the couples have more egalitarian gen- gender-neutral age relationship ex- der identities and divisions of family planation and the age-neutral gen- duties than do age-typical couples? der role explanation—of the chances

Left to right: Lisa Pfahl, Justin Powell, Heike Solga (not pictured: Alessandra Rusconi, Sandra Wagner).

Independent Research Group 289 Publications 2003–2004

Goedicke, A., & Solga, H. • (in press-a, b, c, d). Entries: Rusconi, A., & Solga, H. • (2004a). Ausgrenzungs- (2003). Strukturwandel und Eugenics, euthanasia, special (2004a). Dual careers: erfahrungen trotz Integration— berufliche Mobilität. In Doku- needs, stigma. In T. Fitzpatrick Akademikerpartnerschaften an Die Übergangsbiografien von mentation zum 4. BIBB- et al. (Eds.), International ency- deutschen Hochschulen. In C. Jugendlichen ohne Schulab- Fachkongress 2002, Arbeitskreis clopedia of social policy. Schuster (Ed.), Physikerinnen schluss. In S. Hillmert & K. U. 1.1 „Der strukturelle Wandel London: Routledge. stellen sich vor. Dokumentation Mayer (Eds.), Geboren 1964 und der Arbeitswelt im Spiegel der • (in press-e). Sonderpädago- der Deutschen Physikerinnen- 1971. Neuere Untersuchungen Sozialforschung“. Bonn: BIBB gische Fördersysteme im 20. tagung 2003 (pp. 144–157). zu Ausbildungs- und Berufs- (CD-ROM). Jahrhundert: Ein deutsch- Berlin: Logos Verlag (Augs- chancen in der Bundesrepublik amerikanischer Vergleich. burger Schriften zur Mathe- Deutschland (pp. 39–63). Wies- Krappmann, L., Leschinsky, A., & Vierteljahresschrift für Heil- matik, Physik und Informatik 3). baden: VS Verlag für Sozial- Powell, J. (2003). Kinder, die pädagogik und ihre Nachbar- • (2004b). Kommt der Partner wissenschaften. besonderer pädagogischer gebiete. mit?—Die Sicht der Hochschule. • (2004b). Berufsbildung und Förderung bedürfen. In K. S. • (2004a). Barriers to inclusion: In Deutscher Hochschullehre- soziale Strukturierung. In BMBF Cortina, J. Baumert, A. The institutionalization of spe- rinnenbund (Ed.), Hochschul- (Ed.), Bildungsreform: Vol. 8. Ex- Leschinsky, K. U. Mayer, & L. cial education in Germany and frauen als akademische Noma- pertisen zu den konzeptionellen Trommer (Eds.), Das Bil- the United States and Germany. den? Vom Nutzen und Nachteil Grundlagen für einen Nationa- dungswesen in der Bundesre- Doctoral dissertation, Free Uni- der Mobilität (pp. 58–69). Ta- len Bildungsbericht—Berufliche publik Deutschland. Strukturen versity of Berlin. gungsbeiträge des öffentlichen Bildung und Weiterbildung/ und Entwicklungen im Überblick • (2004b). Schulische Integra- Kolloquiums, Berlin. Lebenslanges Lernen (pp. 223– (pp. 755–786). Reinbek: tion als Bürgerrecht in den 279). Berlin: BMBF. Rowohlt. USA. In U. Becker & A. Graser Solga, H. (forthcoming). The • (2004c). Gering Qualifizierte (Eds.), Perspektiven der schulis- rise of meritocracy? Class mo- in der Bildungsgesellschaft. Maschke, M., & Powell, J. chen Integration von Kindern bility in East Germany before Theorie und Praxis. In G. (2003). Behinderungsbegriffe mit Behinderung: Interdiszipli- and after 1989. In K. U. Mayer, Schmid, M. Gangl, & P. Kupka und ihre Folgen in Schule und näre und vergleichende Betra- M. Diewald, & A. Goedicke (Eds.), Arbeitsmarktpolitik und Arbeit. In G. Hermes & chtungen (pp. 93–124). Baden- (Eds.), From a closed to an open Strukturwandel: Empirische S. Köbsell (Eds.), Disability Baden: Nomos (Schriftenreihe society? Life courses and em- Analysen (pp. 37–56). Nürn- Studies in Deutschland. Behin- des MPI für ausländisches und ployment careers of East berg: IAB (Beiträge aus der derung neu denken (pp. 80–86). internationales Sozialrecht 33). Germans before and after 1989. Arbeitsmarkt- und Berufs- Kassel: Bifos. • (2003a). Constructing disabil- Palo Alto, CA: Stanford Univer- forschung 286). ity and social inequality early in sity Press. • (2004d). Increasing risks of Pfahl, L. (2003). Stigma- the life course: The case of spe- • (in press-a). Meritokratie—Die stigmatization. Changes in Management im Job-Coaching. cial education in Germany and moderne Legitimation unglei- school-to-work transitions of Berufsorientierungen benach- the United States. Disability cher Bildungschancen. In P. A. less-educated West Germans. teiligter Jugendlicher. Diploma Studies Quarterly, 23, 57–75. Berger & H. Kahlert (Eds.), Insti- Yale Journal of Sociology, 4, thesis, Free University of Berlin. • (2003b). Grenzen der Inklu- tutionalisierte Ungleichheiten? 99–129. sion: Die Institutionalisierung Stabilität und Wandel von press-a). Die Exklusion von Förderbedarf in Deutschland Juventa. • (2004e). Kontinuitäten und Schülern mit sonderpädagogis- und den USA, 1970–2000. In J. • (in press-b). Ohne Abschluss Diskontinuitäten beim Über- chem Förderbedarf—Ein Beitrag Allmendinger (Ed.), Entstaat- in die Bildungsgesellschaft: Die gang ins Erwerbsleben von Ju- zur Debatte um nationale Bil- lichung und Soziale Sicherheit. Erwerbschancen gering quali- gendlichen ohne Schulab- dungsstandards und die Schule Opladen: Leske + Budrich fizierter Personen aus soziolo- schluss. In F. Behringer, für alle. Gemeinsam Leben, (2 Vols. + CD-ROM). gischer und ökonomischer Per- A. Bolder, R. Klein, & A. Seiverth Zeitschrift für integrative • (2003c). Hochbegabt, behin- spektive. Opladen: Barbara (Eds.), Diskontinuierliche Er- Erziehung. dert oder normal? Klassifika- Budrich. werbsbiografien. Zur gesell- tionssysteme des sonderpäda- schaftlichen Konstruktion und Pfahl, L., & Traue, B. (2004). gogischen Förderbedarfs in Bearbeitung eines normalen Tagungsbericht: Lesarten quali- Deutschland und den Vere- Phänomens (pp. 120–132). tativer Forschung—Methoden- inigten Staaten. In G. Cloerkes Baltmannsweiler: Schneider Workshop. Forum Qualitative (Ed.), Wie man behindert wird. Verlag Hohengehren. Sozialforschung / Forum: Quali- Texte zur Konstruktion einer • (2004f). Das Scheitern gering tative Social Research 5 (2), Art. sozialen Rolle und zur Lebens- qualifizierter Jugendlicher an 15. Verfügbar über: situation betroffener Menschen den Normalisierungspflichten http://www.qualitative- (pp. 103–140). Heidelberg: moderner Bildungsgesellschaf- research.net/fqs-texte/2-04/2- Winter. ten. In M. Junge & G. Lechner 04tagung-pfahltraue-d.htm. (Eds.), Scheitern. Aspekte eines Rusconi, A. (in press). Leaving sozialen Phänomens (pp. 97– Powell, J. (forthcoming). Barri- the parental home in Italy and 121). Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für ers to inclusion: Special educa- West Germany: Opportunities Sozialwissenschaften. tion in the United States and and constraints. Aachen: • (2003a). Jugendliche ohne Germany. Boulder: Paradigm. Shaker. Schulabschluss und ihre Wege

290 Independent Research Group in den Arbeitsmarkt. In K. S. Konzepte, Perspektiven (pp. Wagner, S. (in press-a). Wagner, S., & Powell, J. Cortina, J. Baumert, A. 64–89). Frankfurt a.M.: Hertie- Brücken und Barrieren: (2003). Ethnisch-kulturelle Un- Leschinsky, K. U. Mayer, & L. Stiftung. Bildungsverläufe von Sonder- gleichheit im deutschen Bil- Trommer (Eds.), Das Bildungs- schülerinnen und Sonder- dungssystem: Zur Über- wesen in der Bundesrepublik Solga, H., Rusconi, A., & schülern in Deutschland. In repräsentanz von Migrantenju- Deutschland. Strukturen und Krüger, H. (in press). Her career K. Felkendorff & E. Lischer gendlichen an Sonderschulen. Entwicklungen im Überblick gets started after his—so what? (Eds.), Barrierefreie Übergänge? In G. Cloerkes (Ed.), Wie man (pp. 710–754). Reinbek: Der Einfluss der Alterskonstella- Jugendliche mit Behinderungen behindert wird. Texte zur Kon- Rowohlt. tion in Akademikerpartner- und Schulschwierigkeiten zwi- struktion einer sozialen Rolle • (2003b). Ein Leben ohne schaften auf die Realisierungs- schen Schule und Beruf. Zürich: und zur Lebenssituation betrof- Schulabschluss—Das ständige chancen von Doppelkarrieren. Verlag Pestalozzianum. fener Menschen (pp. 183–208). Scheitern an der Normalbio- In H. Solga & C. Wimbauer • (in press-b). Jugendliche ohne Heidelberg: Winter. graphie. In J. Allmendinger (Eds.), Wenn zwei das Gleiche Berufsausbildung: Eine Längss- (Ed.), Entstaatlichung und sozi- tun …—Ideal und Realität chnittstudie zum Einfluss von Wagner, S., & Seibert, H. (in ale Sicherheit. Verhandlungen sozialer (Un-)Gleichheit in Dual Schule, Herkunft und press). Internationale Erfahrun- des 31. Kongresses der Deut- Career Couples. Opladen: Geschlecht auf ihre Bildungs- gen: Erhebungspraxis von Bil- schen Gesellschaft für Sozio- Barbara Budrich. chancen. Aachen: Shaker. dungsdaten bei Personen mit logie in Leipzig 2002 (Vol. 1, • (2004). Nachrecherchebericht Migrationshintergrund in der pp. 546–564). Opladen: Leske + Solga, H., & Wagner, S. zur LV-Ost Nonresponse-Studie. amtlichen Statistik ausgewähl- Budrich. (2004a). Die Bildungsexpansion In A. Goedicke, B. Lichtwardt, & ter Einwanderungsländer. In • (2003c). Das Paradox der und ihre Konsequenzen für das K. U. Mayer (Eds.), Dokumen- Bundesministerium für Bildung integrierten Ausgrenzung von soziale Kapital der Hauptschule. tationshandbuch Ostdeutsche und Forschung (Ed.), Tagungs- gering qualifizierten Jugend- In S. Engler & B. Krais (Eds.), Lebensverläufe im Transfor- band zum Expertenforum “Bil- lichen. Aus Politik und Zeit- Das kulturelle Kapital und die mationsprozess, LV-Ost Nonre- dungsdaten und Migrations- geschichte, B21–22, 19–25. Macht der Klassenstrukturen sponse. Berlin: Max-Planck- hintergrund.“ Bonn: BMBF. (pp. 97–114). Weinheim: Institut für Bildungsforschung Solga, H., Powell, J., & Juventa. (Materialen aus der Bildungs- Wagner, S., & Visser, K. (2004). Wagner, S. (2003). Ausbil- • (2004b). Die Zurückgelasse- forschung 77). Die telefonische und schrift- dungslosigkeit: Bedingungen nen—Die soziale Verarmung der liche Nachrecherche zur Panel- und Folgen mangelnder Beruf- Lernumwelt von Hauptschülern studie “Ostdeutsche Lebensver- sausbildung: Aktuelle For- und Hauptschülerinnen. In läufe im Transformationspro- schungsprojekte zur Sozial- R. Becker & W. Lauterbach zess (LV-Ost Panel).” In struktur und sozialer Ungleich- (Eds.), Bildung als Privileg? A. Goedicke, B. Lichtwardt, & heit. In J. Allmendinger (Ed.), Ursachen von Bildungsun- K. U. Mayer (Eds.), Dokumenta- Entstaatlichung und soziale gleichheit aus soziologischer tionshandbuch Ostdeutsche Sicherheit. Opladen: Leske + Sicht (pp. 195–224). Wies- Lebensverläufe im Transforma- Budrich (2 Vols. + CD-ROM). baden: VS Verlag für Sozial- tionsprozess, LV-Ost Panel, Teil wissenschaften. II. Berlin: Max-Planck-Institut Solga, H., & Rusconi, A. für Bildungsforschung (2004). Deutsche Hochschulen Solga, H., & Wimbauer, C. (Materialien aus der Bildungs- und ihr ambivalentes Verhältnis (Eds.). (in press). Wenn zwei das forschung 75). zu Doppelkarrieren in Gleiche tun …—Ideal und Reali- Akademikerpartnerschaften. tät sozialer (Un-)Gleichheit in In G. Vedder (Ed.), Familien- Dual Career Couples. Opladen: gerechte Hochschule: Analysen, Barbara Budrich.

Independent Research Group 291

Service Units Contents

Library and Research Information ………………………………………………………… 295

Information Processing Center ……………………………………………………………… 297

Scientific and Professional Staff (2003–2004)

Library and Research Information: Nicole Engelhardt, Ursula Flitner, Lydia Lange Information Processing Center: Wolfgang Assmann, Peter Grund

294 Service Units Library and Research Information

Rapid access to printed and digital information is an important prerequisite for successful studies and for internationally renowned research. The Library and Research Information Unit of the Max Planck Institute for Human Development aims to anticipate, determine, and respond to, the Institute’s needs for information in the areas of education, sociology, psychology, and neighboring disciplines. To support the research, teaching, and publishing activities of the Institute's researchers, the Library seeks to provide an environment and facilities conducive to efficient and independent use and dissemination of information.

The Library’s collection currently a sound basis for interdisciplinary comprises of around 190,000 vol- research. umes, 500 printed periodicals, and Further licencing contracts with an extensive selection of electronic publishers in the fields of social and resources. It offers easy and fast ac- behavioral sciences are being agreed. cess to own materials and informa- Unfortunately, German publishers tion worldwide. are still slow to provide electronic Comprehensive intranet services in- versions even of major scientific clude, among other things, online journals. Nevertheless, in 2004, doc- access to major bibliographic and ument delivery orders declined for abstract databases, document deliv- the first time since the introduction ery services, listings of new acquisi- of e-journals on a large scale in tions, and e-journals in full text. 2000. This seems to indicate that the In 2003 and 2004 the range of elec- collection of centrally and locally tronic full texts available as a basic licenced e-journals, accessible from supply was expanded to include a every office desk in the Institute, is total of well over 5,000 journals on well on its way to attaining the all fields of science, thus providing quality needed to satisfy a major

Service Units 295 part of our researchers’ needs for has taken several initiatives: Our journal literature. catalog, and thus all institute publi- The interdisciplinary database Online cations, have been integrated into Contents (OLC) was added to the Li- the online Berlin-Brandenburg Union brary’s table of contents services. Catalog (KOBV). OLC currently offers more than 21 Since 2003, the Library feeds meta- million articles indexed from over data of all researchers’ publications 18,000 journals. As it is linked to into E-Doc. This is a centrally main- German document delivery services, tained server and portal for all pub- OLC is also a convenient tool for the lications of the Max Planck Society efficient organization of interlibrary that was released in Fall 2002. It loan. can be harvested systematically by The staff of the Library continue to search engines. offer regular training in the use of The aim, however, must be to pro- databases. vide both the scientific community and the public not only with meta- data but with full text of articles produced. Therefore, the Library took up digi- talization in 2004. As a pilot project, the Institute’s se- rials published since 1965, Studien und Berichte and Materialien aus der Bildungsforschung, with a total of 173 volumes and 42,688 pages were digitized. The formats offered will facilitate smooth access both from within and outside high-performance networks. A user interface was designed and programmed, and is now being tested; its release is projected for Spring 2005. While continuing to digitize past publications, the Library intends to gradually include current research With the appointment of Ulman output of the Institute. Lindenberger as the new Director of In this context, and in compliance the Center for Lifespan Psychology, with the “Berlin Declaration” of the new research interests and literature Max Planck Society supporting the needs arose in 2003. Additional idea of Open Access, we have inten- funds were raised, and extensive sified efforts to share with the Insti- purchases were made by the Library tute’s authors our knowledge of to satisfy the Center’s requirements. copyright regulations, of the dos and To enhance the visibility of the Insti- don’ts when signing contracts with tute’s scientific output, the Library publishers.

296 Service Units The newly acquired overhead scan- reaching back until 1691—, cata- ner is also employed for electronic loguing of these titles was out- document delivery, and can be used sourced. The company, located in by researchers for their own pur- Hannover, upgrades our catalog on- poses as well. line via remote data transmission To speed up electronic cataloguing and is scheduled to finish its work by of approximately 12,000 titles of the the end of March 2005. Library’s collection, contained only in Last but not least, an audit of Library the card catalog of the Library so accounts was carried out in 2004. far—mainly publications of the It went smoothly, as expected, and 1960s and 1970s and grey literature yielded good results: Only minor from the former Documentation Unit losses were registered and books of the Institute, but also rare titles believed to be lost were found again.

Information Processing Center

The Information Processing Center supports the projects and other service units at the Institute through its central facilities. Central servers are installed with Windows 2000/2003 or LINUX for dedicated purposes: internet/intranet servers, software server, etc. Five Windows 2000-cluster systems with big RAID storage installations provide the capacity (more than 10 Tbyte) for the central data management. Several powerful terminal servers establish a CITRIX server farm. They allow the user to run programs (SPSS, SAS, MAT-Lab, EQS, etc.) on the server CPUs from their own workstations (Windows or Apple PC) or the Internet. “Server-based computing” helps to overcome the constraints of the different workstations concerning CPU power and local storage.

The decentralized personal comput- Apple workstations to avoid data ing capacity comprises of about 300 loss caused by viruses. Intel PCs and 150 Apple computers. The Local Area Network (LAN) inte- Apple computers are running Mac- gration of all desktop computers OS, Intel PCs are operating on Microsoft’s Windows 2000 or Win- dows XP. A central backup service is provided for all data on cluster disks. A wide array of software is available for the desktop systems. To provide the necessary security, a Cisco-PIX firewall system was installed which allows the failure of certain modules without a complete breakdown. Central virus scanner software—continuously updated via the internet—monitor all Intel and

Service Units 297 provides access to central resources – mending and updating Windows and cluster capacity. In 1998 the 2000 and XP operating systems; traditional standard- and thin-wire – centralized printing capacity, Ethernet was substituted by a new including high-speed and color network based on fiber optic cable. printers; At the end of 2004 the previous – LAN integration of desktop com- “fiber-to-desktop” solution of 10 puters and the continuous Mbit/s was replaced by the “fiber- enhancement of LAN facilities; to-office” concept. Each office is – national and international connec- now connected with 1,000 Mbit/s tivity (Wide Area Network); and here the change-over from fiber – internet services: E-mail, WWW, to four copper ports takes place by NEWS, FTP, and Telnet; using a small Gigabit Ethernet – maintenance and webmaster tasks Switch. of the Institute’s internet and Since the Institute has installed a intranet servers; Funk-LAN, notebook users can con- – security measures; nect to the internet wireless. – management of the central tele- The Institute’s connectivity to Wide phone system, including the voice- Area Networks (internet, etc.) is pro- mail server; vided via the Research Network – user support and trouble-shooting (WIN) of German Telekom and the for Intel PCs and Apple computers; German Research Network Associa- – coordination and technical support tion (Deutsches Forschungsnetz for desktop computers and soft- [DFN]). Late in the year 2000, the ware; GIGA-WIN (1 Gbit/s) was installed – software acquisition. allowing the Institute to increase the use of high-speed connectivity. The Center provides: – general design and coordination of The Center’s services include: the Institute’s information tech- – operating, optimizing, and devel- nology equipment; oping the devices of the central – the documentation of data con- cluster and network equipment; cerning the existing computer and network equipment; – an overview of market developments; – advice for the Institute’s boards and departments; – the promotion of new concepts for state-of-the-art computer equipment.

298 Service Units Service Units 299 Appendix

Contents

1. Research Colloquia 2003-2004 ………………………………………………………… 303

2. Visiting Scientists 2003-2004 …………………………………………………………… 305

3. Other Professional Activities 2003-2004 …………………………………………… 306

4. Academic Degrees 2003-2004 ………………………………………………………… 310

5. Scientific and Professional Staff 2003-2004 ……………………………………… 312

302 Appendix 1. Research Colloquia 2003-2004

Phillip L. Ackerman Avraham Kluger 2004 Georgia Institute of Technology: The Hebrew University of Jerusalem: Adult intellectual development: Trait complexes Feedforward first, feedback later, September 7 and knowledge structures, March 9 Kai Konrad Andrey P. Anokhin Wissenschaftszentrum Berlin: Washington University School of Medicine: Education, preference on redistributive taxation Genetics, brain, and human behavior: Experi- and confidence, December 17 mental approaches, May 25 Arthur F. Kramer Matthias Baer, Sonja Bischoff, & Beckman Institute and Department of Psychol- Titus Guldimann ogy, University of Illinois: Pädagogische Hochschulen St. Gallen/ Healthy body, healthy mind? The relationship Rorschach und Zürich: among fitness, cognition, brain structure and Adaptive Lehrkompetenz - Analyse von Struktur, function, February 17 Veränderbarkeit und Wirkung handlungs- Frauke Kreuter steuernden Lehrerwissens, September 14 University of California at Los Angeles: Fergus I. M. Craik Design effects in face-to-face surveys, August 2 The Rotman Research Institute, Toronto: Kevin F. Miller Age-related decrements in memory and execu- University of Michigan: tive control: Locating the loss and lightening Symbolic development in China and the U.S.: the load, September 20 Disentangling influences of culture, language, Lloyd Demetrius and educational practices, November 10 Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics, Aljoscha Neubauer Berlin: Karl-Franzens-Universität Graz: Mortality plateau and evolutionary entropy Die Biopsychologie der menschlichen Intelli- January 13 genz, March 18 Andrew J. Elliot Marcel V. J. Veenman University of Rochester: Leiden University: Approach and avoidance motivation in achieve- The nature of metacognitive skills: Their general ment situations, March 8 vs. domain-specific nature, their relation with Christopher D. Frith intelligence, and a developmental perspective, University College of London: March 4 Neural hermeneutics: The biological basis of so- Michael Waldmann cial interactions, February 10 Universität Göttingen: David C. Geary Causal models in learning, reasoning, and act- University of Missouri-Columbia: ing, June 28 The origin of mind: Evolution of brain, cogni- Brian Wansink tion, and general intelligence, November 1 University of Illinois: Jarkko Hautamäki, Sirkku Kupiainen, & Mindless eating: Ubiquitous consumption cues Pekka Arinen that unknowingly drive consumption intake, University of Helsinki: July 19 The mastery of thinking and the perspective of Regina Werum hope: The framework for assessing the learning- Emory University Atlanta: to-learn in Finland, December 2 Sectionalism and economic interests: Access to David A. Jaeger vocational training in the U.S. South, 1920- College of William and Mary & IZA Bonn: 1937, March 25 An empirical analysis of violence in the Pales- tinian-Israeli conflict, March 19 Wolfgang Klimesch Universität Salzburg: Event-related EEG-Oscillations: Their meaning for memory and cognitive performance, November 16 Torkel Klingberg Karolinska Institute, Stockholm: Computerized training of working memory in children, December 7

Appendix 303 2003 David P. Baker Peter Leathwood Pennsylvania State University: Centre de Recherche NESTLE, Lausanne: Are we getting smarter? Neuro-development, Optimising consumer appreciation of foods: An institutionalization of schooling, and the demo- industry view, January 20 graphy of fluid IQ 1900-2000, December 17 Tanja van der Lippe Eva L. Baker University of Utrecht: National Center for Research on Evaluation, Work-family balance in European countries, Standards, and Student Testing (CRESST), UCLA: June 20 Policy and science in standard-based assess- Herbert W. Marsh ment systems, March 20 University of Western Sydney: Fredda Blanchard-Fields Self-concept: Theory, measurement, research Georgia Institute of Technology: and practice, May 20 Social judgement biases: Developmental John W. Meyer dynamics, July 15 Stanford University: Lynn Prince Cooke Globalization: The expansion of higher educa- Nuffield College, Oxford: tion, November 14 The gendered division of domestic labor and Harry O'Neil family outcomes, March 28 University of Southern California: Helmut Fend Improving performance on high stakes tests: Universität Zürich: Cognitive and motivational interventions, Die LIFE-STUDIE: Lebensverläufe von der späten March 20 Kindheit ins frühe Erwachsenenalter. Götz Rohwer Probleme der Kontaktaufnahme mit Adoles- Ruhr-Universität Bochum: zenten nach 20 Jahren—Methoden und erste Verweildauern und Übergangsraten bei Ergebnisse, June 17 mehreren Folgezuständen, June 13 Vanessa Gash Richard Ryan Nuffield College, Oxford: University of Rochester: Bridge or trap? The transitions of atypical work- Basic psychological needs and their significance ers to the standard employment contract in across time, persons and cultures: A self-deter- Denmark, France and the United Kingdom, mination perspective, September 30 December 12 Carmi Schooler Paul van Geert National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, University of Groningen: MD: Wobbles, humps and sudden jumps: A dynamic Psychological effects on the elderly of environ- systems view on transitions, variability and am- mental complexity in work and leisure, biguity in development, October 7 October 6 Alexander Grob Paul M. Sniderman Universität Bern: Stanford University: Life markers and subjective well-being of people Muslims and multiculturalism in Western Eu- from three generations—Indicators for the loose rope: A clash of values, December 15 coupling of individuals and socio-historical con- Viktor Steiner text, October 28 German Institute for Economic Research, Berlin: Hendrik Jürges Cohort effects and the returns to education in Universität Mannheim: West Germany, May 9 The effect of central exit examinations on stu- Carola Suárez-Orozco & dent achievement: Quasi-experimental evidence Marcelo M. Suárez-Orozco from TIMSS Germany, January 16 Harvard University: Michaela Kreyenfeld Immigration and education: The best of Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research, times/the worst of times? June 23 Rostock: Family formation in times of social and economic change: An analysis of the East German cohort 1971, December 5

304 Appendix 2. Visiting Scientists 2003–2004

Lars Bäckman Frauke Kreuter 2004 Stockholm Gerontology Research Center, June University of California at Los Angeles, July– 2004–August 2005 August 2004 Matthias Baer-Heikkilä Bogdan Mach Pädagogische Hochschule Zürich, March–April Polish Academy of Sciences, February– 2004 July 2004 Nathan Berg Herbert Marsh University of Texas at Dallas, June–July 2004 University of Western Sidney, July 2004 Gary Brase Kevin Miller University of Missouri-Columbia, July 2004 University of Michigan, November 2004 Gayle Christensen Leo Montada Stanford University, October 2004–September Universität Trier, September 2004 2005 Sam Nelson Kai S. Cortina Yale University, June–August 2004 University of Michigan, June, December 2004 Simona Sacchi Agneta Herlitz Università degli Studi di Milano-Bicocca, Stockholm University, Juni 2004–August 2005 June–August 2004 Hachiro Iwai António Teiga Zilhão Kyoto University, March 2004–January 2005 Faculdade de Letras de Lisboa, October– Vered Kraus December 2004 University of Haifa, September 2004–June 2005 Helen Watt Jutta Kray University of Michigan, October 2004 Universität des Saarlandes, August–September Hans N. Weiler 2004 Stanford University, August–October 2004

David P. Baker Herbert W. Marsh 2003 Pennsylvania State University, August 2003– University of Western Sidney, May 2003 May 2004 Patricia McManus Rolf Becker Indiana University, July 2003–July 2004 Technische Universität Dresden, August–October John Meyer 2003 Stanford University, October–November 2003 Fredda Blanchard-Fields Juan Rafael Morillas Georgia Institute of Technology, April–July 2003 Fundación Centro de Estudios Andaluces, Pavlo Blavatsky Granada, August 2003 CERGE–EI, Prague, February–March 2003 John R. Nesselroade Maria Auxiliadora da Silva Campos Dessen University of Virginia, January–May 2003 University of Brasilia, January–April 2003 Manuel Miguel Ramos Álvarez Ed Elbers Universidad de Jaén, February 2003 University of Utrecht, January–August 2003 Olga Rodriguez-Sierra Helmut Fend Universidas Nacional Autónoma de México Universität Zürich, May–June 2003 October 2002–January 2003 Maarten van Ham Paul M. Sniderman University of Amsterdam, July–August 2003 Stanford University, December 2003 Joe Johnson Denny Vågerö Indiana University, May–July 2003 Stockholm University, August 2003–August Mary Luszcz 2004 Flinders University, Australia, April–June 2003 Szymon Wichary Bodgan Mach Jagiellonian University, Cracow, March–May Polish Academy of Sciences, February–July 2003 2003 Edouard Machery Université de Paris-Sorbonne, October 2003– June 2004

Appendix 305 3. Other Professional Activities 2003–2004

Claudia Artelt – Expertise commissioned by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research "Fostering text and reading comprehension" (Editor).

Paul B. Baltes – Academia Europaea (Election Committee, Section on Psychology and Behavioral Sciences; Member of Trust). – Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften (Vice-Chair, Working Group on Science History and Psychology History). – US National Academy of Sciences and National Research Council (Mem- ber of Committee on Future Research in Cognitive Aging, 2002–2003, and of Committee on Assessing Behavioral and Social Science Research on Aging, 2004–). – International University of Bremen (Member of Board of Governors). – Jacobs Foundation (Member of Board of Trustees and Jacobs Family Council). – Deutsche Akademie der Naturforscher Leopoldina (Vice-President). – IPSEN Foundation, IPSEN Longevity Award (Member of Jury Selection). – University of Konstanz, Center for Junior Research Fellows (Member of Kuratorium)

Jürgen Baumert – German Children and Youth Foundation, Berlin (Member of Board of Trustees). – (Member of Board of Trustees) Jacobs Foundation, Zurich, Switzerland (Member of Board of Trustees). – Institute for Quality Development in the Education System of the Laen- der of the Federal Republic of Germany, Humboldt University, Berlin (Member of Board of Trustees). – German Research Foundation (Member of Nomination Committee for the Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Award). – Research Program “Professional Minds of Teachers. On the Development of Standards for Vocational Teachers”, University of Fribourg, Switzerland (Member of Advisory Board). – Quality Agency of the State Institute of School Education and Educatio- nal Research (ISB), Munich (Member of Board of Scientific Advisers). – Interuniversity Center for Educational Research (ICO), Netherlands (Member of Review Committee). – University of Twente, Institute for Behavioral Research (IBR) (Member of Board of Trustees). – Action Program “New Paths in Teacher Training”, Founders’ Association of German Science, Bonn (Member of Board of Scientific Advisers). – Educational Sciences at the Universities and Teacher Colleges of Baden- Wuerttemberg (Member and Vice-Chair of International Review Committee). – Elite Network Bavaria (Chair of Review Committee). – Educational Sciences at the Universities of Bavaria (Member of Inter- national Review Committee). – German Research Foundation (Member and Chair of Advisory Board for the research funding initiative “Research groups in the field of empirical research on education”). – Leibniz Association (Member of Senate and Evaluation Committee). – Internationale Grundschul-Lese-Untersuchung (IGLU)/Progress in Inter- national Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) (Member of Advisory Board). – Center for Research on Learning and Instruction, University of Erfurt (Member of Advisory Board). – Psychologie in Erziehung und Unterricht (Member of Advisory Board). – Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Bildungswissenschaften (Member of Advi- sory Board). – BLK Pilot Program “Increasing Efficiency in Mathematics and Science Education” (SINUS) (Member of Advisory Board).

306 Appendix – Zeitschrift für Erziehungswissenschaft (Coeditor). – German Research Foundation (Member of Senate and Grants Committee). – Zeitschrift für Pädagogische Psychologie (Member of Advisory Board). – Center for School Research and Questions of Teacher Education, Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg (Member of Advisory Board). –Waxmann Verlag, Reihe Pädagogische Psychologie und Entwicklungs- psychologie (Member of Advisory Board). – Zeitschrift für Unterrichtswissenschaft (Coeditor).

Felix Büchel – Economics of Education Review (Member of Editorial Board). –Verein für Socialpolitik, Sozialpolitischer Ausschuss (Member). –Verein für Socialpolitik, Bildungsökonomischer Ausschuss (Member). – Swiss National Science Foundation, National Research Programme No. 52: “Childhood, Youth and Intergenerational Relationships in a Changing Society” (Member of Steering Committee). – The Berlin-Brandenburg Economics Forum BBEF (Active Member). – Institute for the Study of Labor IZA, Bonn (Research Fellow). – Swiss Household Panel SHP (Member of Scientific Advisory Board).

Wolfgang Edelstein – Institut für angewandte Familien-, Kindheits- und Jugendforschung e.V., Potsdam (Member of Board of Scientific Advisers). – Stiftung “Brandenburger Tor der Bankgesellschaft Berlin” (Member of Board of Scientific Advisers, responsible for Program “Youth Takes Responsibility”). – Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung (Member of Commission for the Future of Education). – BLK Program “Demokratie lernen & leben” (Member of Steering Commit- tee). – Irmgard-Coninx-Stiftung (Member of Advisory Council). – Beiträge zur Soziogenese der Handlungsfähigkeit, Series with Suhrkamp Verlag, Frankfurt a.M. (Editor). – Social Justice Research, New York (Member of Editorial Board). – New Directions for Youth Development, New York (Member of Editorial Board). – Kulturstiftung der Länder, Program “Kinder zum Olymp” (Member of Board of Trustees).

Gerd Gigerenzer – Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften (Member). – Deutsche Akademie der Naturforscher Leopoldina (Fellow). – Theory and Psychology (Coeditor). – Journal of Behavioral Decision Making (Editorial Board). – Evolution and Human Behavior (Editorial Board). – Summer Institute on Bounded Rationality in Psychology and Economics (Codirector). – Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (Program Committee). – Winter Institute on Bounded Rationality in Psychology and Management, Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India (Coorganizer) – British Medical Journal (Advisory Committee Member) – Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Process (Editorial Board)

Erika M. Hoerning – International Yearbook of Oral History and Life Stories (Coeditor). – Oral History Association, USA (Corresponding Member). – BIOS, Zeitschrift für Biographieforschung und Oral History (Coeditor).

Ulrich Hoffrage – Memory, Special Issue “Hindsight Bias” (Coeditor). – Zeitschrift für ärztliche Fortbildung und Qualitätssicherung (Advisory Board).

John M. C. Hutchinson – Animal Behavior (Consulting Editor). – Folia Malacologica (Advisory Board).

Appendix 307 Konstantinos Katsikopoulos –IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics (Associate Editor).

Monika Keller – Jean Piaget Society for the Development of Knowledge (Member of Board of Directors). – Zeitschrift für Ethik und Sozialwissenschaften (Editorial Board). – Child Development (Consulting Editor).

Gero Lenhardt – Educação & Sociedade (Editorial Board).

Shu-Chen Li – Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews (Consulting Editor).

Karl Ulrich Mayer – American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) Fellow. – Jacobs Center for Productive Youth Development, Universität Zürich (Member of Advisory Board). – Graduate School of Social Sciences (GSSS) Bremen (Member of Advisory Board). – American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Member). – Austrian Academy of Sciences (Chair of Review Committee of the Social Science Institute). – Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften (Member). – Berliner Journal für Sozialforschung (Editorial Board). – British Academy of Sciences (Corresponding Fellow). – Center for Research on Inequalities and the Life Course-CIQLE, Yale University. – Deutsche Akademie der Naturforscher Leopoldina (Member). – Deutsche Gesellschaft für Soziologie (Member of the Board). – Deutsches Institut für Wirtschaftsforschung (Member of Advisory Board). – European Academy of Sociology (Founding Member). – European Academy of Sciences (Member). – Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie (Coeditor). – Max-Planck-Institut für demografische Forschung (Member of Board of Scientific Advisers). – Sozio-ökonomisches Panel (Member of Advisory Board). – Stiftung Hanse-Wissenschaftskolleg, Delmenhorst (Member of Advisory Board). – Swedish Level of Living Survey (Member of Review Committee).

Antje Mertens – Hans-Böckler-Stiftung, Project “Temporary work and fixed-term contracts” (Member of Advisory Board). – Network on Low Wage Employment (LoWER) (Member).

Jacqui Smith – Academia Europaea (Member). – Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences (Member of Editorial Board). – Berlin Aging Study (BASE) (Steering Committee). – Graduate Program Free University of Berlin “Neuropsychiatry and Psychology of Aging” (Steering Committee). – English Longitudinal Study (ELSA) (Member of Advisory Board). – Survey of Older Adults in Germany (Member of Advisory Board). – China Healthy Longevity Study (Research Consultant). – Norwegian Longitudinal and Cohort Study of Aging (Research Consul- tant). – Max Planck International Research Network on Aging (Deputy Director) – Max Planck Society (Institute Scientific Staff Representative in the Human Sciences Section) – Max Planck Society (Scientific Staff Representative of the Human Sciences Section in the Inter-Sectional Committee)

308 Appendix Heike Solga – “Die Junge Akademie” an der Berlin-Brandenburgischen Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Deutschen Akademie der Naturforscher Leopoldina (Member). – ALLBUS (Member of Scientific Advisory Board). – Council of Social and Economic Data (Vice-Chairperson). –Koelner Zeitschrift fuer Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie (Editor). – Deutsche Gesellschaft für Soziologie (Member of Council).

Elsbeth Stern – Academy of Finland (Board of Reviewers for Educational Research). – Zeitschrift für Pädagogische Psychologie (Member of Editorial Board). – Deutsches Instritut für Internationale Pädagogische Forschung (Member of Evaluation Group). – Microsoft-Stiftung “Wissenswert” (Member of Scientific Board). – Max Planck Society, Working Committee for the Advancement of Women in Science (Vice-Chair).

Masanori Takezawa – 16th Annual Meeting of the Human Behavior and Evolution Society (HBES) 2004 (Member of Program Committee).

Peter M. Todd – Adaptive Behavior, MIT Press (Editor-in-Chief). – Winter Institute on Bounded Rationality in Psychology and Management, Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India (Coorganizer). – 16th Annual Meeting of the Human Behavior and Evolution Society (HBES) 2004 (Head of Program Committee).

Andreas Wilke – 16th Annual Meeting of the Human Behavior and Evolution Society (HBES) 2004 (Member of Program Committee).

Appendix 309 4. Academic Degrees 2003–2004

Habilitations

Hertwig, R. (2003). Unbinding bounded rationa- Solga, H. (2003). Ohne Abschluss in die Bildungs- lity: Theoretical, empirical, and methodological in- gesellschaft. Die Erwerbschancen gering qualifi- vestigations. Freie Universität Berlin. zierter Personen aus soziologischer und ökonomi- Krampe, R. (2003). Die Rolle persönlicher Ziele für scher Perspektive. Freie Universität Berlin. die Entwicklung. Universität Potsdam.

Doctoral Dissertations

Bondar, A. (2003). Balance and cognition: Re- untersuchung für Nicht-Akademiker in West- source allocation and its control in young and ol- deutschland. Freie Universität Berlin. der adults. Freie Universität Berlin. Powell, J. (2004). Barriers to inclusion: The institu- Chang, P.-H. (2004). Transformation of vocational tionalization of special education in Germany and secondary schools: A study of the vocational Gym- the United States. Freie Universität Berlin. nasium in Germany. Freie Universität Berlin. Rapp, M. (2003). Dual-task performance in Gerstorf, D. (2004). Heterogeneity and differential memory and balance: The role of aging and Alz- development in old age: A systemic-wholistic heimer's disease. Freie Universität Berlin. approach. Freie Universität Berlin. Reimer, M. (2004). Autobiografisches Gedächtnis Hanoch, Y. (2003). Emotions and bounded ratio- und retrospektive Datenerhebung: Die Rekonstruk- nality: The role of emotions in the decision-making tion und Validität von Lebensverläufen. Freie Uni- process. University of Haifa. versität Berlin. Hoppmann, C. (2004) Interpersonal contributions Rusconi, A. (2003). Leaving the parental home in to the pursuit of work- and family-related goals in Italy and West Germany: Opportunities and cons- middle adulthood. Freie Universität Berlin. traints. Freie Universität Berlin. Jacob, M. (2003). Ausmaß, Strukturen und Ursa- Schmiedek, F. (2003). The structure of cognitive chen von Mehrfachausbildungen. Eine Analyse von abilities in old and very old age: On the impor- Ausbildungsverläufen in den achtziger und neunzi- tance of specific group factors in a dedifferentia- ger Jahren in Westdeutschland. Freie Universität ted factor space. Freie Universität Berlin. Berlin. Seibert, H. (2004). Integration durch Ausbildung? Jopp, D. (2003). Erfolgreiches Altern: Zum funktio- Berufliche Platzierung ausländischer Ausbildungs- nalen Zusammenspiel von personalen Ressourcen absolventen der Geburtsjahrgänge 1960 bis 1971. und adaptiven Strategien des Lebensmanage- Freie Universität Berlin. ments. Freie Universität Berlin. Wagner, S. J. (2004). Jugendliche ohne Berufs- Kunter, M. (2004). Multiple Ziele im Mathematik- ausbildung. Konsequenzen der Bildungsexpansion unterricht. Freie Universität Berlin. für die sozialstrukturelle Zusammensetzung der Kurzenhäuser, S. (2003). Natural frequencies in Gruppe ausbildungsloser Jugendlicher in der medical risk communication: Applications of a Bundesrepublik Deutschland nach 1949. Freie simple mental tool to improve statistical thinking Universität Berlin. in physicians and patients. Freie Universität Berlin. Wallin, A. (2003). Explaining everyday problem Lißmann, I. (2003). Intraindividuelle Veränderun- solving, Lund University (Sweden). gen von Extraversion und Neurotizismus im hohen Wirth, J. (2003). Selbstreguliertes Lernen in Alter: Die Bedeutung sensorischer Beeinträchti- dynamischen Systemen. Humboldt-Universität gung. Freie Universität Berlin. zu Berlin. Lüdtke, O. (2004). Persönliche Ziele im frühen Er- Wolf, R. (2003). Soziale Vergleiche beim Über- wachsenenalter. Freie Universität Berlin gang von der Schule in den Beruf. Freie Univer- Pollmann-Schult, M. (2003). Unterwertige Be- sität Berlin. schäftigung im Berufsverlauf. Eine Längsschnitt-

310 Appendix Master’s and Diploma Theses

Aschenberner, D. (2003). Anwendung der Theorie Kuppe, F. (2004). Subjektives Altersbild: Alters- des geplanten Verhaltens auf die Studierneigung – bezogene Unterschiede und Veränderungen im Eine Untersuchung bei Abiturientinnen und Abitu- hohen Alter. Universität Leipzig. rienten an allgemein bildenden und beruflichen Leucht, M. (2003). Validierung eines Instrumentes Gymnasien. Freie Universität Berlin. zur Erfassung von Englischleistungen in Schulleis- Becker, M. (2003). Bildungsexpansion und ihre tungsstudien. Freie Universität Berlin. Folgen: Intelligenz- und mathematische Schulleis- Liebeskind, U. (2003). Einkommen von Männern tungsentwicklung in Nordrhein-Westfalen und und Frauen in Deutschland: Zum Zusammenhang Hessen zwischen 1964 und 1997. Freie Universität von Arbeitsmarktsegregation und Einkommens- Berlin. ungleichheit. Universität Leipzig. Burkett, S. (2003). Planungsprozesse bei körper- Mayser, S. (2004). (Un)Erreichbar fern: Ein Ver- licher Aktivität: Ausführungs- und Bewältigungs- gleich persönlicher Ziele und Sehnsüchte. planung und das Alter. Freie Universität Berlin. Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin. Fleischer, J. (2003). Bildungsentscheidungen und Pfahl, L. (2003). Stigma-Management im Job- Kompetenzerwerb—Der Einfluss familiärer Umwel- Coaching—Berufsorientierungen benachteiligter ten. Freie Universität Berlin. Jugendlicher. Freie Universität Berlin. Fleischhauer, C. (2004). Altersunterschiede in Rauers, A. (2004). Dyadische Ziele in Partner- Metakognition: Effekt von Training auf subjektive schaften: Die Adaptivität koordinierter Selektion. Gedächtnis- und Gleichgewichtsleistung. Freie Freie Universität Berlin. Universität Berlin. Schepers, A. ( 2004). Die Bedeutung von Kontext- Gleibs, I. H. (2003). Nationale Identität 14-jähri- faktoren bei der Wahrnehmung von Studiengän- ger Jugendlicher in Deutschland und Italien. Er- gen: Eine Untersuchung an allgemein bildenden gebnisse aus dem Civic-Education-Projekt der IEA. und beruflichen Gymnasien in Baden-Württem- Freie Universität Berlin. berg. Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin. Guzmán, C. (2004). Testcoaching für eine Schul- Stadelhofer, B. (2003). Concept Maps als Unter- leistungstudie: Motivationale Effekte. Freie Univer- stützung beim Lernen aus Texten: Der Einfluss der sität Berlin. Eigenaktivität. Technische Universität Berlin. Klusmann, U. (2003). Lebensziele junger Erwach- Winkelmann, H. (2004). Prädiktoren differenziel- sener und ihre Bedeutung für das subjektive Wohl- len Teilnahmeverhaltens in Längsschnittstudien— befinden: Validierung einer deutschen Version des Eine Untersuchung der Panelmortalität in der Aspiration Index. Freie Universität Berlin. TOSCA-Studie. Freie Universität Berlin. Kotter, D. (2004). Alterszufriedenheit: Altersbe- Wittig, J. (2004). To give or not to give: Group dingte Unterschiede, zeitbedingte Veränderungen negotiations about sharing from a developmental und prädiktive Variablen bei 70+Jährigen. Tech- perspective. Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin nische Universität Dresden.

Appendix 311 5. Scientific and Professional Staff 2003–2004

Artelt, Cordula (Dr. phil. in Psychology, 1999, Uni- reference effect; meta-analysis; experimental de- versität Potsdam): Research in learning (learning sign and analysis; philosophy of psychology (mind strategies and metacognition); reading; cognitive and consciousness). development. Delius, Julia (Dr. med. in Medicine, 1993, Univer- Assmann, Wolfgang (Head of Information Pro- sität Frankfurt a.M.): Coordination of the Interna- cessing Center): Service management in research tional Max Planck Research School (LIFE); interdis- institutions; information technology in the social ciplinary gerontology in the context of the Berlin and behavioral sciences. Aging Study (BASE); BASE Website design and management; coordination of conferences and mee- Baltes, Paul B. (Dr. phil. in Psychology, 1967, Uni- tings; editorial projects. versität des Saarlandes; Fellow of the Max Planck Society; Co-director of the Institute; as of July Dieckmann, Anja (Dipl.-Psych., 1999, Universität 2004: Director, MaxnetAging; Professor of Psycho- Würzburg): Medical decision making; food choice; logy, Freie Universität Berlin; as of November experimental investigation of people‘s use of sim- 2004: Distinguished Professor of Psychology, and ple heuristics; animal numerical competence. Permanent Fellow at the Shannon Center for Ad- vanced Study, University of Virginia [part-time]): Engelhardt, Nicole (MA in Cultural Anthropology, Lifespan human development: Evolution and onto- 2001, Universität zu Köln; Wissenschaftliche Do- genesis; aging of the mind (intelligence, memory, kumentarin/Information Specialist, Fachhoch- personality, wisdom); theory of successful develop- schule Potsdam, 2003; Subject Librarian): Scienti- ment; science policy: interdisciplinarity, history, fic electronic information systems, classification, and internationality. bibliometrics.

Baumert, Jürgen (State Examination for Teachers, Flitner, Ursula (MA in American Studies and Ger- 1968, Hamburg; Dr. phil., 1968, Universität Tübin- man Literature, 1991, Freie Universität Berlin; gen; Habilitation in Educational Science, 1982, State Examination in Library and Information Freie Universität Berlin; Fellow of the Max Planck Science, 1995, Senatsverwaltung für Kulturelle Society; Co-director of the Institute; Professor of Angelegenheiten Berlin/Köln; Head of the Library Educational Sciences, Freie Universität Berlin and and Information Research Unit): Information man- Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin): Research on lear- agement; electronic resources and networked in- ning and instruction; development of cognition formation systems; human resources development. and motivation during adolescence; large-scale assessment and international comparison; dyna- Gigerenzer, Gerd (Dr. phil. in Psychology, 1977, mics of institutional change. Universität München; Habilitation in Psychology, 1982, Universität München; Fellow of the Max Baumgarten, Jürgen (Dr. phil. in German Planck Society; Co-director of the Institute; Pro- Language and Literature, 1973, Freie Universität fessor of Psychology, Freie Universität Berlin): Berlin; Head of the Editorial and Publications Models of bounded rationality; social intelligence; Unit): Prehistory of the Middle East; neolithization; ecological rationality; heuristics of scientific nomadic cultures. discovery; philosophy, history, and methodology of social sciences. Büchel, Felix (Dr. rer. pol. in Political Science, 1991, Freie Universität Berlin; Habilitation in Goedicke, Anne (Dipl.-Soz., 1996, Humboldt-Uni- Economics, 1998, Technische Universität Berlin; versität zu Berlin; Dr. phil. in Sociology, 2001, Honorary Professor of Sociology, Freie Universität Freie Universität Berlin): Social stratification and Berlin; Senior Lecturer of Economics, Technische formal organizations; transformation of former Universität Berlin; Research Professor, DIW Berlin; socialist countries; life course; social mobility; Senior Research Scientist): Economics of educa- labor markets, firms, and occupations (as of 2003: tion; labor-market research; social policy research Universität Duisburg). (deceased July 2004). Grund, Peter (Dipl.-Inform., 1981, Technische Uni- Czienskowski, Uwe (Dr. phil. in Psychology, 1995, versität Berlin): Statistical software and database Freie Universität Berlin): Scientific software de- management systems. velopment (resource distribution in social networks; feature-pattern analysis; computer-based Hardy, Ilonca (PhD in Educational Psychology, scientific research); modeling and simulation; self- 1998, University of Iowa): Learning environments

312 Appendix incorporating the social character of cognition Keller, Monika (Dr. phil. in Psychology, 1974, (emphasis: collaborative learning); the role of Universität Heidelberg; Habilitation in Psycho- language in problem solving; effects and uses of logy, 1994, Freie Universität Berlin): Development external representations. in cultural context; social and moral development and emotions in cultural context; social perspec- Hartung, Dirk (Dr. rer. pol. in Sociology, 1973, tive taking, theory of mind, and domains of Universität Bremen): Educational training and em- social and moral reasoning; social rationality: ployment; Chairperson of the Works Council of contracts and emotions in cheating detection; the Max Planck Society (on leave from the Center social and moral education in nursery school for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course). and in school.

Hertwig, Ralph (Dr. rer. soc. in Psychology, 1995, Köhler, Helmut (Dr. phil. in Educational Econom- Universität Konstanz): Decision making under risk; ics, 1975, Technische Universität Berlin): Statistical simple heuristics for resource allocation (parental analysis of educational development; social back- investment), estimation, and judgments of risk ground and educational careers; national and (e.g., health risks); methodology of social science international education indicators; research on (as of 2003: Universität Basel). school statistics of the GDR.

Hillmert, Steffen (Dipl.-Soz., 1996, Universität Körner, Nina (Second State Examination in Law, Bamberg; Dr. phil. in Sociology, 2000, Freie Univer- 1973, Universität Hamburg; Head Administrator of sität Berlin): Life courses and institutional change; the Institute). comparative studies; education and training; occupational careers; research methods. Krampe, Ralf T. (Dr. phil. in Psychology, 1992, Freie Universität Berlin): Sensorimotor functions Hoerning, Erika M. (Dr. rer. pol. in Sociology, and aging; acquisition and maintenance of 1977, Freie Universität Berlin; Habilitation in So- expertise; movement, timing, and coordination; ciology of Education, 1994, Universität Bremen; cognitive aging; interindividual differences in Venia legendi in Sociology of Education, 1995, learning and motivation (as of 2004: University Freie Universität Berlin): Biographical and life- of Leuven). course research; qualitative methods; historical generations and social change; professions, intelli- Krauss, Stefan (First State Examination in Math- gentsia, and intellectuals. ematics and Physics, 1995, Universität Erlangen- Nürnberg; Dr. phil. in Psychology, 2001, Freie Uni- Hoffrage, Ulrich (Dr. phil. in Psychology, 1995, versität Berlin): Research on teaching and learn- Universität Salzburg; Habilitation in Psychology, ing; didactics of mathematics, especially didactics 2001, Freie Universität Berlin): Risk communica- of statistics; probabilistic reasoning (Bayesian tion, in particular, Bayesian inference and the im- inferences). pact of external representations of information; models of cognitive processes underlying choices Kunter, Mareike (Dipl.-Psych., 1999, Julius- and probability judgments; analytical study of sim- Maximilians-Universität Würzburg): Dr. phil. in ple heuristics; models of cognitive processes in Psychology, 2004, Freie Universität Berlin): Re- hindsight bias and the reiteration effect, and the search in instruction and learning; multiple educa- co-occurrence of both effects (as of 2004: Univer- tional objectives; motivational processes in the sity of Lausanne). classroom; assessment of instructional processes; mathematics education. Hutchinson, John M. C. (DPhil in Biology, 1990, University of York): Behavioral ecology and opti- Kunzmann, Ute (Dr. phil. in Psychology, 1998, mality modeling; rules of thumb in animals and Freie Universität Berlin): Wisdom and other prag- plants (e.g., weather prediction); spatial decisions matic forms of cognition; emotional compe- in biology and the social sciences; daily routines: tencies (emotional reactivity, regulation, and the dawn chorus of birds; skylark behavior and understanding); lifespan developmental psycho- morphology; sexual selection of slug genitalia; logy (as of 2004: Internationale Universität theoretical morphology. Bremen).

Katsikopoulos, Konstantinos (PhD in Human Factors, Lange, Lydia (Dr. phil. in Social Psychology, 1966, 1999, University of Massachusetts): Mathematical Universität Jena; Dr. sc. phil. [habil.] in Methods of analyses of the ecological rationality of simple heu- Empirical Social Research, 1986, Humboldt-Uni- ristics; simple descriptive models of human choice versität zu Berlin): Bibliometrics; history of and their relation to normative models. psychology.

Appendix 313 Lenhardt, Gero (Dr. rer. soc. in Sociology, 1974, urement of higher-order correlations in non-linear Universität Konstanz; Habilitation in Sociology, environments; Bayesian strategies for statistical 1983, Universität Frankfurt a.M.): Sociology of inference and machine learning, compared to fast education, work, and development; sociology of and frugal algorithms for human adaptive beha- higher education; sociology of minority groups. vior; model search in the Bayesian framework; the didactics of Bayesian reasoning based on adequate Li, Shu-Chen (PhD in Psychology, 1994, University information formats; stochastics and probability in of Oklahoma): Cognitive and neurocognitive devel- general (as of 2003: Pädagogische Hochschule opment through the lifespan; behavioral and neu- Ludwigsburg). rocognitive dynamics of intraindividual processes and between-person interactions; neurocomputa- Matthes, Britta (Dipl.-Soz., 1995, Universität tional and cognitive models of lifespan cognitive Leipzig; Dr. phil. in Sociology, 2002, Freie Univer- development; mechanisms and processes for reci- sität Berlin): Life courses in transformation procal interactive biocultural influences on life- processes; labor-market entry in international span development; theoretical studies of computa- comparisons; methods of life-course research. tional complexity. Mayer, Karl Ulrich (Dr. rer. soc., 1973, Universität Lindenberger, Ulman (Dr. phil. in Psychology, Konstanz; Habilitation in Sociology, 1977, Univer- 1990, Freie Universität Berlin; Habilitation in sität Mannheim; Fellow of the Max Planck Society; Psychology, 1998, Freie Universität Berlin; Fellow Co-director of the Institute; Honorary Professor of of the Max Planck Society; Co-director of the In- Sociology, Freie Universität Berlin; Professor of So- stitute; Honorary Professor of Psychology, Univer- ciology, Yale University): Social stratification and sität des Saarlandes, Freie Universität Berlin, and mobility; comparative analysis of social structure; Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin): Lifespan psychol- sociology of the life course; occupational structu- ogy: Theories and methods; behavioral plasticity res and labor-market processes. and its neural correlates in childhood and old age; sensorimotor and cognitive development; multi- Mertens, Antje (Dr. rer. pol. in Economics, 1998, variate measurement of change and variability. Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin): Empirical labor economics, especially labor mobility, training, and Lövdén, Martin (BA in Psychology, 1998, Lund wages. University, Sweden; PhD in Psychology, 2002, Stoc- kholm University, Sweden): Cognitive aging; the Müller, Viktor (Dr. rer. soc., 1996, Universität sensorimotor-cognition interaction; the lifestyle- Tübingen): Lifespan psychology and aging mecha- cognition interaction; the episodic memory-know- nisms; psychophysiology of social interactions; ledge interaction; spatial navigation; methodologi- complexity and brain dynamics; cortical synchroni- cal interests: Methods for analyzing longitudinal zation: local and global networks. data; structural equation modeling; pattern-oriented analyses. Oesterreich, Detlef (Dipl.-Psych., 1968, Freie Uni- versität Berlin; Dr. phil. in Psychology, 1975, Freie Lüdtke, Oliver (Dipl.-Psych., 2000, Freie Univer- Universität Berlin): Theory of authoritarianism, sität Berlin; Dr. phil. in Psychology, 2004, Freie authoritarianism and political consciousness; civic Universität Berlin): Research in teaching education of adolescents. and learning; quantitative methods in empirical research; personal goals. Pollmann-Schult, Matthias (Dipl.-Soz., 2000, Freie Universität Berlin; Dr. phil. in Sociology, McGinnity, Frances (MSc in Sociology, 1995, 2003, Freie Universität Berlin): Labor-market London School of Economics; DPhil in Sociology, research; social inequality; social stratification 2001, Oxford University): Unemployment: Financial (as of 2004: Universität Bielefeld). and psychological consequences; active labor- market policy; comparative social research; labor- Reimer, Maike (Dipl.-Psych., 2000, Freie Univer- market transitions; temporary employment (as of sität Berlin; Dr. phil., 2004, Freie Universität 2004: Economic and Social Research Institute, Berlin): Autobiographical memory; cognitive as- Dublin). pects of survey methodology; individual biographies in institutional contexts (as of 2005: Martignon, Laura (Dr. rer. nat. in Mathematics, Bavarian State Institute for Research in Higher 1978, Universität Tübingen; Habilitation in Neuro- Education). informatics, 1998, Universität Ulm): Simple heuristics vs. complex decision machines; analysis of le- Riediger, Michaela (Dipl.-Psych., 1997, Humboldt- xicographic algorithms for comparison, estimation, Universität zu Berlin; Dr. phil. in Psychology, 2001, and categorization tasks; detection and meas- Freie Universität Berlin): Lifespan developmental

314 Appendix psychology; future-orientation, motivation, and ethnic minorities and migration (as of 2005: Insti- volition: functions and development; social aspects tute for Labor Market and Employment Research, of motivational processes. Berlin-Brandenburg).

Rieskamp, Jörg (Dipl.-Psych., 1998, Technische Singer, Tania (Dr. phil. in Psychology, 2000, Freie Universität Berlin; Dr. phil. in Psychology, 2001, Universität Berlin): Lifespan psychology; cognition Freie Universität Berlin): Cognitive modeling of and aging; longitudinal research (as of 2003: Well- judgment and decision making; the role of learn- come Dept. of Imaging Neuroscience, London). ing in decision making; experimental examinations and evolutionary simulations of simple strategies Smith, Jacqui (PhD in Psychology, 1984, Macqua- for social interactions. rie University, Sydney; Habilitation in Psychology, 1999, Freie Universität Berlin; Honorary Professor Rochow, Thomas (Dipl.-Kfm., 1986, in Betriebs- of Psychology, 2003, Freie Universität Berlin; wirtschaftslehre, Technische Universität Berlin): Deputy Director, MaxnetAging; Senior Research Statistics (descriptive statistics, time series analy- Scientist): Profiles of psychological functioning in sis, longitudinal analyses); school statistics (indi- the old and oldest-old; psychological predictors of cators, developments); mathematics (understand- longevity; potentials and risks for development ing and comprehension). and successful aging; application of intelligence and life knowledge during adulthood. Rötger, Antonia (Dipl.-Phys., 1989, Universität Karlsruhe; Docteur ès Sciences de l’Université Solga, Heike (Dr. phil. in Sociology, 1994, Freie Joseph Fourier de Grenoble, 1993; science commu- Universität Berlin; Head of the Independent Re- nication): Behavioral sciences; neuroscience and search Group Lack of Training: Employment and mathematical modeling of complex systems. Life Chances of the Less Educated): Social stratification; social mobility; life course; labor-market Rusconi, Alessandra (Dipl.-Pol., 1997, Università research (as of 2004: Universität Leipzig). degli studi di Firenze; Dr. phil. in Sociology, 2003, Freie Universität Berlin): Demographic transforma- Stanat, Petra (Dipl.-Psych., 1992, Freie Universität tion in East Germany; German–Italian comparison Berlin; PhD in Psychology, 1998, University of in the life courses of young adults (as of 2004: Massachusetts at Amherst): Conditions of immi- Universität Bremen). grant students' school success; international and comparative educational research; gender diffe- Schmiedek, Florian (Dipl.-Psych., 2000, Univer- rences in school performance; social competence. sität Mannheim; Dr. phil. in Psychology, 2003, Freie Universität Berlin): Cognitive lifespan psychology; Stern, Elsbeth (Dipl.-Psych., 1982, Universität intraindividual variability; model-based analyses of Hamburg; Dr. phil. in Psychology, 1986, Universität reaction time distributions; multivariate modeling Hamburg; Habilitation in Psychology, 1994, Uni- of cognitive developmental processes; typical in- versität München; Univ.-Prof. 1994, Universität tellectual engagement; structural equation mode- Leipzig; Senior Research Scientist): Cognitive de- ling, latent growth modeling, time series analysis; velopment; intelligence and knowledge; research item response theory. in teaching and learning.

Schooler, Lael (PhD in Cognitive Psychology, 1993, Todd, Peter M. (PhD in Psychology, 1992, Stan- Carnegie Mellon University): Adaptation of human ford University; Senior Research Scientist): Evolu- memory to the statistical structure of the environ- tion of behavior (computer simulations of popula- ment; computational models of human memory; tions of simple organisms adapting to different memory’s role in judgment and decision making. environmental structures, both physical and social); simple heuristics for sequential search (in- Schümer, Gundel (First and Second State Exami- cluding mate choice), categorization (including nation for Teachers, 1962, Stuttgart; 1970, Tübin- intention-from-motion), and multi-step processes gen; Dr. phil. in Educational Science, 1977, Univer- (including parental investment); psychological sität Hamburg): School systems and instruction; selection; rhythmic and time-based behavior theories of instruction and methods of instructio- (including music, sequence learning/production, nal research; comparative research on schools and and evolution of song); connectionist models of instruction; the language of the classroom. cognition.

Seibert, Holger (MA in Sociology, 2000, Univer- Trappe, Heike (Dr. phil. in Sociology, 1994, Freie sität Rostock; Dr. phil. in Sociology, 2004, Freie Universität Berlin): Gender and social inequality; Universität Berlin): Education, training, and labor- life-course and labor-market research; life courses market entry; unemployment in early adulthood; and institutional change; work-family research.

Appendix 315 Trautwein, Ulrich (Dipl.-Psych., 1999, Universität Watermann, Rainer (Dipl.-Päd., 1996, Universität Göttingen; Dr. phil. in Psychology, 2002, Freie Uni- Münster; Dr. phil. in Educational Science, 2002, versität Berlin): Development of self-related cogni- Freie Universität Berlin): International and com- tions in educational settings; school development parative educational research; quantitative meth- and management; effects of homework assign- ods of social research; political socialization. ment on academic achievement.

Emeritus Members of the Max Planck Society

Edelstein, Wolfgang (Dr. phil. in Medieval Studies, conditions of successful learning; conditions of 1962, Universität Heidelberg; Fellow of the Max successful school transformation. Planck Society; until 1997 Co-director of the Insti- tute; Honorary Doctorate in Social Science, Uni- Roeder, Peter M. (Dr. phil., 1960, Universität Mar- versity of Iceland; Honorary Professor of Educatio- burg; Habilitation in Educational Science, 1966, nal Science, Freie Universität Berlin and Univer- Universität Marburg; Fellow of the Max Planck So- sität Potsdam): Development and socialization; ciety; until 1995 Co-director of the Institute; Spe- social-cognitive and moral development; develop- cial Professor of Educational Science, Freie Univer- mental and structural aspects of curriculum and sität Berlin): Educational science; school research; instruction; developmental and school-related history of educational science.

Postdoctoral Research Fellows

Bennis, Will (PhD in Psychology, 2004, University College, Oxford University): Temporary employ- of Chicago): Cultural, subcultural, & environmental ment; part-time employment and female labor- relationship to decision processes and their evalu- market integration; comparative labor-market ation; gamblers‘ judgment and decision making research. processes. Gerstorf, Denis (Dipl.-Psych., 2001, Freie Univer- Bondar, Albina (Dipl.-Psych., 1999, Freie Univer- sität Berlin; Dr. phil. in Pychology, 2004, Freie Uni- sität Berlin; Dr. phil. in Psychology, 2003, Freie versität Berlin): Psychological predictors of longe- Universität Berlin): Balance and cognition: vity; profiles of psychological functioning in the resource allocation and dual-task costs in young old and oldest-old; cohort differences in levels of and old adults. functioning; examine intraindividual fluctuations in psychological functioning as a tool to better un- Brighton, Henry J. (PhD in Cognitive Science, derstand lifespan development. 2003, The University of Edinburgh): Machine learning and AI; complex systems and the model- Kurzenhäuser, Stephanie (Dipl.-Psych., 1999, Uni- ing of culture; foundations and philosophy of cog- versität Heidelberg; Dr. phil. in Psychology, 2003, nitive science; computational modeling of the Freie Universität Berlin): The impact of external re- evolution of language; language as an evolutio- presentations on statistical thinking, especially nary system. Bayesian reasoning; legal and political implications of bounded rationality; communication of Ebner, Natalie C. (Dipl.-Psych., 2001, Freie Univer- uncertainty and risk in medicine (as of 2004: Uni- sität Berlin): Processes of developmental regula- versität Basel). tion; future-oriented motivation across the lifespan; multi-method approach to personal goals; Luan, Shenghua (PhD in Psychology, 2004, Uni- physical activity as lifestyle over the lifespan. versity of Florida): Applied signal detection theory; information integration and advice-taking behav- Fasolo, Barbara (PhD in Social Psychology, 2002, iors; group decision processes; simple heuristics for University of Colorado, Boulder): Judgment and individual and group decision making. decision making (as of 2004: London School of Economics). Morillas Martinéz, Juan Rafael (DPhil in Sociol- ogy, 2002, Nuffield College, Oxford University; PhD Gash, Vanessa (MSc in Sociology, 1997, University in Social Sciences, 2002, Center for the Advanced College Dublin; DPhil in Sociology, 2004, Nuffield Study in the Social Sciences, Juan March Institute,

316 Appendix Madrid): Social and economic stratification and Scheibe, Susanne (Dipl.-Psych., 2001, Humboldt- mobility. Universität zu Berlin): The psychology of longing; longing and successful development over the life Persson, Magnus (PhD in Psychology, 2004, course; lifespan development of interindividual Uppsala University): Decision making under uncer- differences; the role of interindividual differences tainty; bounded rationality; exemplar models; for psychopathology. computer go. Schooler, Julia (PhD in Psychology, 1996, Univer- Powell, Justin (BA, 1992, Swarthmore College; sity of Pittsburgh): Cues determining portion size; MA, 1999, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin; Dr. phil. memory for enjoyed food; understanding and rein Sociology, 2004, Freie Universität Berlin): Soci- membering health claims on packages. ology of education; social stratification; social policy; disability studies; life course. Takezawa, Masanori (MA in Social Psychology, 1997, Hokkaido University, Japan; PhD in Social Raab, Markus (Dr. phil. in Sport Psychology, 2000, Psychology, 2001, Hokkaido University, Japan): Universität Heidelberg): Decision making in sports; Adaptive heuristic approach in distributive decision making under time pressure; motor con- bargaining under incomplete information; devel- trol and motor learning; cognitive neuroscience; opment and emergence of social preferences— simple heuristics in sports; search, stop, and deci- altruism, reciprocity, egalitarianism and moral sion rules in individual decision making; hot-hand punishment; social intelligence in cooperative/ phenomenon in sports; predicting sport results; competitive situations; human experiments and judgment of players and team performance (as of computer simulations. 2003: Universität Flensburg). Wagner, Sandra (Dipl.-Soz., 1997, Humboldt-Uni- Reimer, Torsten (Dr. phil. in Psychology, 1996, versität zu Berlin; Dr. phil. in Sociology, 2004, Freie Freie Universität Berlin): Cognitive aspects of Universität Berlin): Social stratification; sociology group decision making and problem solving (as of of education; life-course research; migration and 2003: Universität Basel). ethnic minorities (as of 2004: Federal Ministry of Education and Science). Romeu Gordo, Laura (MSc in Public Economics, 1999, University of York, UK; Dr. in Economics, Wallin, Annika (PhD candidate, Lund University): 2004, Technische Universität Berlin): Aging; econ- How people structure their decision environment; omy of health; economy of labor. the use of social information in decision making and problem solving (as of 2004: University of Lund).

Predoctoral Research Fellows

Brehmer, Yvonne (Dipl.-Psych., 2003, Universität Brunner, Martin (Dipl.-Psych., 2002, Universität des Saarlandes): Dynamic and plasticity of cogni- Mannheim): Research in instruction and learning; tive development and aging; computational structural equation modeling and item response modeling of cognitive processes; neural correlates theory; mathematics achievement; cognitive abili- of age-related changes. ties.

Biele, Guido (Dipl.-Psych., 1999, Freie Universität Chang, Ping-Huang (Master of Education, 1998, Berlin): Modeling social heuristics for cooperation National Taiwan Normal University; Dr. phil. in in groups; ecological rationality of (social) heuris- Educational Science, 2004, Freie Universität tics. Berlin): Comparative research of school systems; educational policy (as of 2004: National Taiwan Bothe, Tobias (Dipl.-Psych., 2003, Universität Normal University). Mannheim): Economic reasoning and behavior; judgment and decision making; knowledge assess- Demmrich, Anke (Dipl.-Psych., 1999, Universität ment; lifespan psychology; generalizability theory; Potsdam): Research in instruction and learning; measurement theory; quasi-experiments of nature cooperative learning; working memory (as of 2003: (LIFE). Universität Jena).

Appendix 317 Denissen, Jaap (MA in Psychology, 2001, Radboud tionary psychology; female coalitions; female University Nijmegen): Personality; interpersonal competition; reputation and gossip (LIFE). communication; identity and life narratives; online research; evolutionary psychology (LIFE). Höhne, Anke (Dipl.-Soz., 2000, Humboldt-Univer- sität zu Berlin): Gender-segregated labor market; Dudey, Thomas (Dipl. in Economics, 1998, Univer- coupled careers; political and social transforma- sität Bonn): Game theory; experimental econo- tion in East Germany. mics; bounded rationality; sequential search (as of 2004: itelligence AG). Husemann, Nicole (Dipl.-Psych., 2004, Unversität Bielefeld): Research in teaching and education; Ehrhorn, Susanne (Dipl.-Psych., 1999, Technische personal goals; academic cheating. Universität Braunschweig): Social relationships and loneliness in old age (as of 2003: Hospital Huxhold, Oliver (Dipl.-Psych., 2002, Freie Univer- Liebenburg). sität Berlin): Lifespan cognitive development and cognitive aging; intra-individual and inter-individ- Felbrich, Anja (Dipl.-Psych., 2000, Universität ual variability in cognitive performance; cognitive Potsdam): Research in teaching and learning; processes contributing to balance control (LIFE). development of graphing competencies (as of 2004: Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin). Jacob, Marita (Dipl.-Soz., 2000, Universität Gießen; Dr. phil. in Sociology, 2003, Freie Univer- Gaissmaier, Wolfgang (Dipl.-Psych., 2002, Freie sität Berlin): Education and training in Germany in Universität Berlin): Adaptive memory; perception the 1990s; rational choice theory and educational of statistical parameters; changes in the environ- inequality; research methods (as of 2003: Institute ment. for Labor Market and Employment Research, Nürnberg). Grühn, Daniel (Dipl.-Psych., 2002, Freie Univer- sität Berlin): Emotion and emotion regulation Johnson, Timothy (BA, 2004, R.D. Clark Honors across the lifespan; cognitive functioning in the College, University of Oregon): Experimental eco- old and the oldest-old; cognitive and emotional nomics; cooperation; political science methodol- mechanisms of successful aging. ogy; voting behavior; institutions.

Gummerum, Michaela (Dipl.-Psych., 2002, Freie Kleinspehn, Anna (Dipl.-Psych., 2004, Freie Uni- Universität Berlin): Development of prosocial versität Berlin): Development of emotional and behavior (integration of psychological, economic, self-related processes across the lifespan; age dif- and evolutionary research); ontogenetic develop- ferences in cooperative behavior; individual differ- ment of social norms and the psychological ences and context covariates underlying interper- mechanisms underlying their expression and sonal interactions; subjective experience of own maintenance; social rationality; intergroup aging. behavior; cross-cultural psychology; moral development. Kotter, Dana (Dipl.-Psych., 2004, Technische Uni- versität Dresden): The psychology of longing Gundert, Stefanie (Dipl.-Soz., 2003, Universität (Sehnsucht); psychological development in old Duisburg-Essen): Life-course and labor-market age; changes in subjective well-being and domain- research; temporary employment and fixed-term specific satisfaction (e.g., aging satisfaction) over contracts; women’s employment. the lifespan; aging stereotypes.

Hanoch, Yaniv (PhD in Philosophy, 2004, Univer- Limbird, Christina (Dipl.-Psych., MA in Psychology, sity of Haifa, Israel): Emotion theory; bounded 2002, Technische Universität Braunschweig): Lite- rationality; rational decision making (MINERVA racy acquisition and disorders; education in multi- Fellowship; as of 2004: University of California at ethnic contexts; multilingualism; migration and Los Angeles). educational systems (LIFE).

Helversen, Bettina von (Dipl.Psych., 2004, Univer- Maaz, Kai (Dipl.-Soz.-Päd. (FH), 1998, Katholische sität Erlangen-Nürnberg): Categorization and esti- Fachhochschule Berlin; Dipl.-Soz., 2002, Hum- mation strategies; ontogenetic development of boldt-Universität zu Berlin): Transition from school heuristic strategies; adaptiveness of basic cogni- to university and work; social background and tive capacities to environmental structures. educational and vocational chances.

Hess, Nicole (MA in Biosocial Anthropology, 1999, Mata, Rui (Dipl.-Psych., 2002, FPCE University of University of California at Santa Barbara): Evolu- Lisbon): Adaptation of human memory to the sta-

318 Appendix tistical structure of the environment; social cogni- Scheibehenne, Benjamin (Dipl.-Psych., 2004, tion (the discipline, not ToM) (LIFE). Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin): Cognitive modeling of preferentical choice; effects of having too McElvany, Nele (Dipl.-Psych., 2001, Freie Univer- much choice; food choice. sität Berlin): Research in instruction and learning; reading literacy; self-regulated learning; socializa- Schellenbach, Michael (Dipl.-Inf., 2004, Univer- tion in the family. sität des Saarlandes): Spatial navigation; hybrid pedestrian assistance systems; intelligent instru- Müller, Andrea G. (MA in Sociology, 2000, Univer- mented environments. sity of Iowa; MA in Educational Science/Sociology, 2002, Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Witten- Schneider, Michael (Dipl.-Psych., 2002, Techni- berg): Conditions of immigrant students' school sche Universität Berlin): Cognitive learning theo- success; bilingual education and second language ries; conceptual and procedural knowledge; dia- acquisition; everyday school-related communica- grams as cognitive tools. tion skills (LIFE). Shing, Yee Lee (MA, 2003, University of Georgia): Nagy, Gabriel (Dipl.-Psych., 2002, Freie Universität Cognitive development and aging; development of Berlin): Research in teaching and learning; deve- children's strategy use. lopmental regulation across the lifespan; transition from school to vocational training; quantita- Stange, Antje (Dipl.-Psych., 2000, Freie Univer- tive methods of empirical social research (LIFE). sität Berlin): Wisdom; social perception; nonverbal expressiveness; lifespan development (as of 2004: Pachur, Thorsten (Dipl.-Psych., 2002, Freie Univer- Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta). sität Berlin; MSc in Health Psychology, 2002, Sussex): Role of recognition in decision making; Tsai, Yi-Miau (MS in Psychology, 2003, National sampling based simple heuristics; ecological ratio- Taiwan University, Taiwan): Research in learning nality; process models of decision under uncer- and instruction; achievement motivation and tainty; risk perception and communication. goals; context and cultural effects on motivation.

Pfahl, Lisa (Dipl.-Soz., 2003, Freie Universität Werkle-Bergner, Markus (Dipl.-Psych., 2004, Uni- Berlin): Sociology of youth and education; versität des Saarlandes): Lifespan development of biographical research; social constructions of memory and cognitive control functions; neuronal gender. correlates of lifespan plasticity and change; EEG methods in lifespan research; multivariate statis- Röcke, Christina (Dipl.-Psych., 2002, Freie Univer- tical models of variability and change. sität Berlin): Within-person coupling of well- being and cognitive performance across the life- Wilke, Andreas (Dipl.-Psych., 2002, Freie Univer- span; intraindividual variability as a tool to under- sität Berlin): Emotions; evolutionary psychology; stand lifespan development; emotion and emotion judgment and decision making (LIFE). regulation across the lifespan; social relationships and closeness across the lifespan. Wittig, Jutta (Dipl.-Psych., 2004, Humboldt-Uni- versität zu Berlin): Food choice (decision strate- Rünger, Dennis (Dipl.-Psych., 2002, Humboldt- gies, developmental aspects); nutrition behavior; University zu Berlin): Implicit learning; information development of prosocial behavior (behavioral reduction in cognitive skill acquisition; con- game experiments) (LIFE). sciousness (LIFE). Wolf, Regina (Dipl.-Psych., 2000, Technische Uni- Schäfer, Sabine (Dipl.-Psych., 2001, Freie Univer- versität Berlin): Control strategies in the lifespan; sität Berlin): Cognitive-sensorimotor coordination coping with finiteness; managing the transition across the lifespan; age differences in the regula- from school to work (as of 2003: Vocational Train- tion of sequential action (LIFE). ing Academy Plauen).

Appendix 319 s , social, historical, and institutional , social, historical, , and sociology reflect the current , and sociology reflect the current , and the humanities. he Max Planck Institute for Human Develop- Institute for Human Develop- he Max Planck

Max-Planck-Institut für Bildungsforschung Research Report 2003-2004 Max Planck Institute for Human Development