In this issue - Should Code-switching be corrected? - Interview of an author - More on language disorder News and Views for Intercultural People - News from the USA Editor: Marjukka Grover 2001, Vol. 18 No.3 - Bilingualism with the help of TV

EDITORIAL CODE-SWITCHING IN BILINGUAL CHILDREN AT THE Interest in bilingualism has grown enormously during the last twenty AGE OF THREE - Should It Be Corrected? years. There are now many more books Ulf Schuetze on how to raise bilingual children and I sometimes wonder if the Newsletter has served its purpose and is no longer Language development at the age of ‘Sonja a- je SCHENK ca’ needed. However, the subscriber figures three don’t show any sign of declining and Sonja has- I give this (as a present) comments like the one from Helga (French/German; Meisel 1994: 434) Around the age of two, children start building semantic (meaning of language) Rhein warm my heart. ‘Your This sentence was uttered by Annika. At fields: they often invent words to give publication, including the various books the time, Annika was 3 years, 2 months them meaning or they over- or recommended in BFN, have given me and 24 days old. Her mother is French, underextend the meaning of a word. For lots of inspiration and food for thought. her father is German. Her parents decided example, they refer to everything that flies Just like other readers have mentioned to raise her in both languages following as a bird. It is around this time that the before, yours is one of the journals I the one person, one language principle. first signs of syntax (sentence structure) get, which is immediately read from Her mother speaks French with Annika, front to back the minute it arrives. Hope and morphology (the internal structure of you keep going strong for long!’ words) become apparent. They are Another reader writes ‘I enjoy reading restricted to two-word utterances at this the Newsletter, but it would be “Of what is known about the point and it is not before the age of three interesting if there could be some lexicon of children who speak that children start forming more complex scientific input as well as the anecdotal two or more languages is that sentences. A bit later, around the age of three, children start to develop articles, and particularly on the they can access words of all the question of the acquisition of three metalinguistic awareness. languages.’ languages they speak at the same time.” Metalinguistic awareness refers to the That wish has been granted in this issue ability to reflect upon language. This – although not on trilingualism. Ulf includes opinions or attitudes about Schuetze’s article on code switching content or style of utterances, perception needs concentration from those of us her father German. Annika is growing up of segmentation of words into sounds, who are not linguists, but gives a good in Hamburg. In this sentence, Annika categorial and abstract knowledge about insight into a child’s language inserted a German word into a French the structure of language and its uses. In acquisition and reassures parents that sentence. This kind of Code-Switching is other words, they are able to analyse the mixing of languages is a normal called intrasentential. It refers to structure separately from meaning. phenomena – nothing to worry about. switching between two languages within Adult speech to children at the age of The reader will get more practical hints the same phrase. In the example, Annika three on multilingual upbringing from the not only uses a German verb but also does interview of Tracey Tokuhama- not apply a correct ending (morphology). As noted, around the age of two, the first Espinosa, the author of a new book The first person singular of ‘schenken’ semantic networks have been established. Raising Multilingual Children, corresponding to French ‘je’ would be At the same time, children begin to apply (a review will appear in the December ‘schenke’. If Annika was my daughter, I rules of syntax and morphology to their issue). And the question on language would ask myself two questions. First, speech which is a process that becomes disorder published in Vol.18: 1 caused should I correct her? Second, if I decide more and more important in the third year. an interesting discussion among our to correct her, what do I correct: do I However, while parents provide feedback readers. provide proper inflection in saying when talking to children, research has So – please keep writing. The subject ‘schenke’, do I mention the infinitive shown that parent’s speech mainly shows of multilingualism is never exhausted. ‘schenken’ to indicate the base form of the verb, do I give the French phrase ‘je Continued on page two Marjukka Grover donne’? 2 The Bilingual Family Newsletter 2001

CODE-SWITCHING from page one CONFERENCE REPORT languages are coming back into everyday children how words are used and use. The last speaker, Suzanne Romaine, of The Third International categorized. The rules of syntax or Merton College, Oxford University, described the unusual linguistic situation in morphology are rarely taught. Symposium on Bilingualism UWE 18-20 April 2001 Hawaii. Local language activists have started Nevertheless, over time children seem to a campaign to change all written signs back master these rules just fine. In fact, Suzanne Barron-Hauwaert into authentic Hawaiian spellings, which research has demonstrated that children were originally recorded by English cannot and do not learn the morphology The Third International Symposium on missionaries. For example, Hawaii should of a language by repeating specific Bilingualism was held in Bristol, at the read hawai’i. As locals come to terms with examples they have heard from others University of the West of England last April. forgotten spellings there is also a push to The organisers brought together a wide range (Tager-Flugsberg in Gleason 1997, pronounce words correctly and to return of international participants with speakers on place names to their original names. Chapter 5). subjects as diverse as I participated in a seminar group discussing Children are quite creative in applying a - Bilingual Identity trilingualism, chaired by Charlotte Hoffmann morphological rule when it should not be - Bilingual Education and Jasone Cenoz. We discussed childhood applied. For example they add the regular - Language Minorities trilingualism and the importance peer group past tense ‘–ed’ on to irregular verbs such - Acquisition of Languages friends and school had on the language, and as ‘falled’. This is a form they have not - Code-Switching how parents could balance language input. The five main plenary speakers all gave Another theme was how to order languages thought-provoking lectures. Professor Jurgen and work out which one is first, second or “I don’t see that any form of Miesel, from the University of Hamburg, third. correction regarding Code- started the conference with a talk on Finally, I joined in a seminar on bilingual bilingual language acquisition and how identity which covered many interesting Switching at this point will language features such as grammar can papers, such as how to educate bilingual foster Annika’s language change over time. Professor Thomas Roper Japanese-American children. Mari Allik development in either of the two (University of Massachusetts) continued talked about three generations of Estonians with a discussion on the role of Universal living in Sweden and their thoughts on languages.” grammar. This is a theory that all languages bilingualism. Linda Thompson also gave a have similarities or universal systems. fascinating account of a study made in Young children could possibly speak several Singapore on young children’s language languages as they are much more open to patterns. The children were hearing two or heard from their parents. It seems that any language. Dr. Tom Dijkstra (Nijmegan more languages daily from family and children simply know the rules that Institute) reviewed bilingual word school. Their ability to switch, adapt and live govern morphology. However, applying recognition. Words in a multilingual are with multilingualism was refreshing to hear! these rules correctly takes some time and automatically activated in the brain and Tom explained how similar cognate, or root words The conference was jointly sponsored by The at the age of three children are at the Linguistic Association of Great Britain, The beginning of this process. could overlap in languages. Professor Nancy Hornberger of the University of British Academy and Multilingual Matters. It Bilingualism Pennsylvania discussed language policies was a very sociable conference, with a drinks and enlightened us to the human right to be party sponsored by Multilingual Matters. We A central question in studies on multilingual. She told of how the look forward to the next International bilingualism is in what way learning two one-nation-one-language policies which Symposium in two years, to be held at languages at the same time affects a were held rigidly in many countries such as Arizona State University, USA. child’s personal and academic South Africa are relaxing now and native development. Among others, Cummins pursued this question and came up with the idea of ‘The linguistic they appeal for linguistic assistance. before. With the pronoun following the interdependence model’ (Cummins 1983, Köppe and Meisel (1995) found that verb, ‘schenken’ is then correctly 1989). He argues that although the surface children also comment on their language inflected to ‘schenk’. features of languages are different, there and ask for translations. These are signs is an underlying cognitive and academic of metalinguistic awareness. Starting At least three processes took place in proficiency which is common across around three and a half years of age they Annika at this point. First, she was aware languages. It makes it possible to transfer ask a question such as ‘how does one say of the different meaning between skills from one language to another. again for?’ Quite often when children ‘donner’ and ‘schenken’. Her French and realize that they used a word from another German language system are If there is a common underlying language they correct themselves. interconnected. She compared the two proficiency, the next question is if meanings (in their syntactic and semantic bilingual children develop two systems, Discussion context) and chose ‘schenken’. Second, one for each language, or one. Of what is integrating ‘schenken’ in the French known about the lexicon of children who With regards to the example given at the beginning of this short article, Meisel sentence caused morphological problems. speak two or more languages is that they At that age mistakes in applying can access words of all the languages they points out that ‘donner’ does not unambigiously convey the German morphological rules are very common speak at the same time. Consequently, when just speaking one language. regardless if there are two systems or one, meaning of ‘to give a present’. An explanation for ‘schenk’ is that Annika Moreover, the interconnection of the two the languages are interconnected with systems allows her to apply a French each other. was trying to say ‘Sonja schenk ich das’. In fact, when her mother asked Annika ending to the German verb. Third, she Intrasentential Code-Switching what she was trying to say, Annika corrected herself in rephrasing the rephrased her sentence to ‘Schenk ich das’ sentence. Self-correction is a sign of Children use Code-Switching for different (Give I give that). This is a correct metalinguistic awareness and an integral purposes. Saunders (1988) reports that sentence in German. Annika left out the part of language development. Despite the they want to get the parent’s attention or referent, ‘Sonja’, because she said it Continued on page eight The Bilingual Family Newsletter 2001 3

INTERVIEW Tracey Tokuhama-Espinosa: Multilingualism in Action. By Suzanne Barron-Hauwaert

Tracey Tokuhama-Espinosa, 37, is an Do you plan for your children to continue American with Japanese roots and is married in the German school until leaving, or to Christian, an Ecuadorian diplomat. They are would you choose another school currently posted in Geneva, in the French language? speaking part of Switzerland. The family We have been extremely happy with the languages are English, Spanish, French and German school – the quality of education is Autistic Spectrum Disorder German. Their three multilingual children, excellent and I feel the children have aged eight, five and three, attend the German can go undetected benefitted greatly from this experience. School in Geneva. Tracey has just published The German school in Quito (Ecuador) was I meant to write back to you after my her first book, Raising Multilingual Children*, remodelled three years ago. It is one of the letter about the delay in my son’s which was inspired by her children and best campuses, academically and language development was published in meeting other families in similar situations. I architecturally, in South America, so I talked to Tracey about life with her polyglot Vol.11. No.2, 1994. At the time I had too presume we will continue in the system. family.... many worries about my son that I However, my children now have options to couldn’t get my thoughts together. How do you explain your success with the go to other German, English or even four languages? The query by Ann Giles about her In my book I write about the ten key factors daughter’s possible language disorder in influencing successful bilingualism or BFN 2001, Vol.18 No.1. reminded me multilingualism. In my own family’s case, I very much about the problems I had with think our success with the four languages has my son who was finally diagnosed with come primarily from our consistent strategy, Aspergers Syndrome (AS) two years ago the opportunities the children have had to use (at the age of eight). Dr Carolyn Letts’ their languages in meaningful situations on a reply that ‘any hint of Autistic Spectrum daily basis, and having been exposed to Disorder (of which Aspergers Syndrome languages at critical periods in their is one) would probably have been upbringing. This means the factors of Strategy, detected by now’ is quite different from Consistency, Opportunity and Timing have all been key to our own family mix. the reality. What languages do you and your husband No-one who came into contact with my speak? son mentioned the possibility that he might have AS. None of the professionals I am half-Japanese and studied Japanese at high-school and as a college student. Christian – his teachers, his GP, the child was sent on a year-long course for diplomats psychologist we went to see about his in Tokyo, so he learned basic Japanese too. toiletting problems – mentioned it. It was We were then posted in Tokyo for three years by pure chance that I heard of it from a right after we were married. Christian attended person I came to know on the Internet. the German school in Quito, Ecuador and so is Yet when he was diagnosed we were told fluent in German. Right now I have it was a ‘typical case’ of AS. Many ‘second-grade’ German – my goal is to learn people have had a similar experience, and along with the kids! Christian also studied many cases just go undetected until they French at the Sorbonne in Paris for a summer, are adults. and I have been learning French since arriving Tracey reading her new book in Switzerland three years ago, so we are both Autism is a ‘Spectrum Disorder’ which fairly capable in French. French schools in Ecuador, or anywhere means there is an extremely wide range in Why did you choose a German language else in the world we may be sent. I think severity from the classic Autism (the school? this will also serve them later in life, when person doesn’t have any interest in they think about university study as well. When my oldest child, Natalie, was three and a They will have options many other students communicating with the outside world), half we had to make a decision about which would not be able to entertain, given their to near ‘normal’ (the person may be very school she would attend. We were in Boston language background. intelligent and is willing to communicate, (USA) at the time and had very little choice but does so in an odd manner). The about where to apply. We had to choose How do you pass on your parental cultural symptoms vary greatly too and no one between the German School or the American heritages of Japanese-American and Ecuadorian to the children? Autistic child is exactly like the other. AS School. We realised that coming from the is at the ‘normal’ end of the spectrum and German system Natalie would always have the All of my father’s side of the family lives that makes it very difficult to detect. My option to return to the American school, but if in Hawaii and we try to visit frequently. son had problems at school listening to she started with the American system she Last summer we celebrated my teachers, concentrating, finishing tasks, would not be able to change to a German grandmother’s eightieth birthday with school due to the language barrier. family, and it was wonderful to see how making friends, etc., and was on the Special Needs Register for over two In Geneva we had the option of the local the warmth of family doesn’t cool because of our distant address. We traced back our years, but because he always scored French speaking schools, but chose to stick above average in tests, (to his teacher’s with the German system as we realised the family trees two years ago – the children children would learn French from the loved helping with the old photos and amazement) the school wasn’t prepared to environment, and the German school had a discovering their roots. Natalie, do anything about his difficulties. better reputation than the local French- Continued on page seven Continued on page four speaking school in our village. 4 The Bilingual Family Newsletter 2001

CAN AUTISTIC... from page three NEWS FROM THE USA: We are an English/ Japanese family. Bilingualism - At What Cost? When I wrote to you about my son’s language problems, he was three and had James Crawford only just started talking. Once he started Are American schools spending too much talking in sentences, (at the age of four) on children whose English is limited? That he talked in English and Japanese at about has long been the contention of those the same level and never mixed the two seeking to outlaw bilingual education. Their languages. When he started school at five argument seems to resonate with voters in he learned to read very quickly and at states like California and Arizona, where times he seemed to learn to speak by English-only school initiatives have recently reading books! Even now, his reading passed. It taps resentments about what some ability in both Japanese and English, is far consider to be excessive public expenditures ahead of his peers, and far more advanced on ‘special’ programs for immigrants. The irony is that reliable data are almost than his speaking ability (which is 6-9 from overall school expenditures. Few months behind, according to his speech entirely lacking on the costs of bilingual education. State and federal governments outside researchers have managed to quantify therapist). Someone suggested that it’s them either. probably because reading is a one-way have rarely tried to study this issue in a process which is easier for him to handle serious way. So it is difficult to justify One exception, a California study conducted claims that programs for English learners are in the late 1980s, reported some fascinating than talking. ‘too expensive’ – or conversely, that schools results. It found that – with an adequate should be spending more. supply of qualified teachers – schools spent Of course, lack of evidence has never been about the same (an extra $200 per child each “But there are many things we an obstacle for English-only proponents. In year) to provide quick-exit bilingual can do to help him cope with his the early 1990s, the US English organization education, late-exit bilingual education, or all-English immersion. What cost problems now that we know simply concocted its own estimate. The financial burden of bilingual schooling on substantially more ($876) was dual exactly what they are.” federal, state, and local governments, they immersion and ESL ‘pullout’ ($1,198) claimed, was a shocking $8 to $12 billion because of the additional administrative and each year. teaching staff required, respectively. In point of fact, actual expenditures at the More than a decade later, a federal court He’s ten now and is a more balanced found that the state of Arizona had set an bilingual than his sister, who is two years time – under the federal Bilingual Education Act – totalled approximately 2% of the US arbitrary $150 ceiling on per capita subsidies older than him. Two years ago, just before for LEP students. That amount was his diagnosis, we moved him from the English estimate (State and local spending was mostly impossible to quantify). Pressed obviously too little, the judge said, because it local state primary school to a very small on how it had arrived at the $8 to $12 billion forced poor districts to terminate language Steiner/Waldorf school, (only 9 children figure, the group explained that it had taken assistance programs for many students who in a class) where the class teacher stays the average per-pupil expenditure for all 50 still needed them. But exactly how much with the same class throughout the lower states and multiplied that amount by the spending was appropriate remains to be school programme (age 6-14). Although estimated range of limited-English- determined. Pending a final decision in the proficient (LEP) students nationwide. case, Flores v. Arizona, the state legislature he still has his problems, he is much has declined to increase the expenditures. happier at school and made friends with This crude procedure involved two all the children in his class in the first erroneous assumptions: Sadly, there is one consideration that gets term. He takes it in his stride learning little notice in this debate: the economic French and German, and loves knitting First, that all LEP children are in bilingual benefits that accrue from second-language programs – which is far from the case. skills, both for individuals and for a society (part of Handcraft curriculum) and circus Studies have consistently shown that a that faces a shortage of functional bilinguals skills (equivalent of PE in other schools). majority of these students are enrolled in and biliterates. Rather than gripe about the The ‘social skills’ workshop last summer, various forms of all-English instruction. financial burden of English learners, run by the speech therapy unit Second, that the cost of educating LEP Americans should consider the opposite side students is identical to the cost of educating of the coin. A nation that fails to cultivate its specializing in Autism, made him (and us) linguistic resources will ultimately pay what aware of which area in communication he non-LEP students. That would be welcome news, if true. It would also vindicate the Kenji Hakuta and Catherine Snow have found difficult. Autism is not curable. My called ‘the costs of monolingualism’. son will always have AS. But there are cost-effectiveness of current programs for English learners. Unfortunately, it is not ------many things we can do to help him cope true. As any educator can attest, special with his problems now that we know populations cost more to teach because of For further information visit his web site at: exactly what they are. We have become extra demands for training, materials, http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/ more tolerant of his quirky behaviour and assessment and administration. jwcrawford/ know what to do in advance to alleviate So the relevant question becomes: what is James Crawford’s some of the more difficult problems. the marginal expense of these programs? In latest book is Sorry it’s gone on so long – I can’t stop other words, how much more does bilingual At War with when I start talking about AS. I went education – or its English-only alternatives – Diversity: U.S. through hell for years feeling as though I cost than mainstream schooling? This is Language Policy in what policymakers need to know (but had failed as a mother, I’d like to help an Age of Anxiety usually do not) in order to budget reasonable Published by anyone who may be going through the subsidies to help school districts serve the Multilingual Matters, same thing. Thank you for reading. needs of LEP children. 2000, 143p. Kazumi Honda, Reading, England. States and localities rarely collect reliable ISBN 1-85359-505-5 email: [email protected] details removed data in this area. The problem is that such Price £9.95/ $15.95 costs are extremely difficult to disaggregate The Bilingual Family Newsletter 2001 5

that they don’t become so boring for the TV-THEORY More comments on adults; I often get drawn in by an Semantic-Pragmatic Disorder I am German and have lived in Edinburgh interesting report on for instance ‘how do for over 20 years together with my the holes get into Swiss cheese’ or ‘how I was very interested in the letter from Scottish partner who does not speak are wellies made’ with the result that we Ann Giles (Vol. 18 No.1). My daughter, German. We have always stuck to the one talk about it. Even John, my partner, likes Ruth, now 13, was diagnosed when quite parent, one language approach. Our son them and has picked up an enormous young as having semantic-pragmatic Robbie is now six and half and speaks amount of German by watching the tapes. language disorder and autistic tendencies. German and English equally fluently, but Other than these video tapes we generally I made sure she received appropriate help of course they are differently strong in don’t watch much TV with Robbie, only and her difficulties have now been different circumstances. At times his once or twice a week selected programs. substantially overcome. I now spend quite German (the minority language) has been a lot of my time supporting other parents possibly even stronger than English. of children with similar difficulties. I think there is one distinguishing feature I quite agree with Dr. Carolyn Letts, who which played a major role in his good answered the query, that any Autistic accent-free acquisition of German. When Spectrum Disorder should have been I would permit some TV watching, (he picked up by now but, sadly, I know from was around two years) we decided to experience how often it fails to be make it German videos only. Then it was identified. Parents who are having the taped regular weekly children’s difficulty obtaining a satisfactory program ‘Die Sendung mit der Maus’, diagnosis should be aware that there are a which a friend offered to tape for us. This number of specialist assessment centres gave Robbie an excellent varied and that can help. Most of them unfortunately ongoing children’s program which was up have very long waiting lists, but at least to date with the latest children’s you will eventually get satisfactory characters in Germany and which used a answers to your questions. At one stage, our daughter’s language was so poor, we were happy to accept “This gave Robbie an excellent anything from her, in whatever language varied and ongoing children’s it came. She received intensive language program which was up to date therapy in a language unit, and her English really took off then. We were so with the latest children’s delighted to be able to converse with her characters in Germany...” Robbie at all that we did not push the German and that has lagged behind, though she is now My main point is: the powerful medium learning it at secondary school. We do of TV can be used constructively to variety of accents from different German feel that it is better to master one boost the minority language. I think the regions. It has now become a very popular language, and get by in another, than to be child can be helped to develop an event when this friend arrives (about struggling in two or more languages. enthusiasm in the minority language by every three months) with another full four the provision of a good recorded Parents in the UK who are concerned hours of a ‘Maus’ tape. We treat and regular children’s program, which must about their children’s language pamper him appropriately – so long may be ongoing and contemporary. It should development can get information and it last! not be too difficult to obtain, either by advice from the charity Afasic. However, I am always mean with the time recording these programs yourself or The helpline number is 08453 55 55 77. Robbie is allowed in front of the box: a asking a grandparent or a friend to do it Alison Hüneke, Wallington, England. maximum of half an hour twice a day . for you. Also, initially, (not now) I was very keen And just to finish our story – although Problems on diagnosing for him not to watch any TV or videos in this has nothing to do with my point of English, which he did anyway in Autistic Spectrum Disorder making use of TV power. Since Robbie childminder’s houses or at friends, so he was on the road to grasping both While the characteristics of ‘classic’ wasn’t deprived of the knowledge of languages well, I agreed for him to go Autistic Spectrum Disorder should be ‘Tele-Tubbies’or ‘Tom and Jerry’. to a Gaelic medium nursery at three and apparent by at least school-entry age, I To have this kind of program on tape (as half and school at five. My partner was recognise that professionals may be opposed to children’s feature films or very keen on Gaelic, his forefathers reluctant to use the diagnosis until comics) makes the program presenters or spoke it and he had learned it as an absolutely certain. With milder instances the figures in it more of an ongoing adult. There is also a revival of Scottish (as found with Asperger’s Syndrome) reality, since they continue from month to Gaelic – a Gaelic-medium primary there may be uncertainty (and sometimes month to produce different stories. These school opened in Edinburgh about 12 disagreement between professionals) characters have become his friends. Also years ago. That means that he speaks about whether a child falls into this other children in Germany know them and English to his father and most friends category or not. This may explain some of we can recognize pictures and figures outside the house and German to his the difficulties experienced by your when visiting bookshops or other stores in mother and some friends (aided by readers in getting a firm diagnosis. Germany. He now mostly chooses to German TV) and Gaelic to everyone at Autism is identified on the basis of watch ‘Maus’ but occasionally he decides school. I imagine that he will probably difficulties in three areas of functioning to watch an English video. Another never be as fluent in Gaelic than in the (sometimes referred to as the ‘autistic advantage of ongoing new programs is Continued on page seven Continued on page six 6 The Bilingual Family Newsletter 2001

easily after the move, as it will be the PROBLEMS...from page five language of the country where they are triad’), but in some cases the impairment living and where they go to school. in one or more of these areas may be If you decide to adopt the one parent, one comparatively mild. These areas are, language policy you will also have to first, a social impairment: the individual decide which language(s) to use when does not interact socially with others in speaking to your husband. Suzanne the normal way and may not seek social Barron-Hauwaert, writing in the BFN contact in the same way that others do. Vol. 17, No.1, 2000, says that in reality it This may be manifest mainly in verbal is often very difficult for parents just to communication with the milder forms, but keep speaking one language and that very there will usually be problems with often ‘trilingualism is much more of a non-verbal social interaction (e.g. use of Adoption and fluid and changeable phenomenon than gesture, facial expression, ‘behaviour’ in Trilingualism bilingualism’. She also says that it is social situations) as well. important that trilingual children are Second, a communication impairment: Two months ago we adopted a girl aged three years and a boy who has reassured that parents understand and also again although poor language may be a just turned two. The children are speak all three languages, to a certain feature, the autistic individual will find English. The boy has just started to degree, so that they will be a position to other forms of communication difficult as speak (he has around 20 words) understand when their children go well. Alternatively, they may have and the girl started nursery in through the stage of mixing their comparatively well developed language, January. I would really appreciate languages in their efforts to communicate. but use it in socially inappropriate ways input on raising my two adopted Also, in this way, parents can act as (often the case with Asperger’s children trilingually. appropriate role models for their children, Syndrome). who can see how they switch language to Third, impairment of imaginative I am an EAL teacher and bilingual Italian/English. I was myself a suit the particular situation. behaviour, with repetitive, meaningless trilingual child with Italian, activities (e.g. lining up toy cars as English and Swedish. My husband I would recommend that you start using opposed to creating imaginative scenarios is English and he has some Italian. Italian with your children as soon as with them) often predominating. This In the near future we are going to possible, especially since they have had means that even though language per se move to Holland for some time. some contact with this language, due to may be very limited (or hard to assess your parents’ recent visit. The because it is not the native language of the I would like my children to learn importance of establishing effective professional assessing), if the child is able Italian, but with issues such as relationships in one particular language settling in and bonding I have to engage in some symbolic or opted not to speak to them in and helping children to identify a imaginative play then s/he is unlikely to Italian yet. My parents have been particular language with a particular be autistic. here recently for four weeks so they speaker has been emphasised by many researchers, and would seem to be of There should be no way in which ‘being have picked up a few words. special importance in your situation bilingual’ can mask these characteristics. Yasmin Ferrari Beveridge, England. where the children involved are adopted. Where a child does not interact socially If they feel comfortable relating to you in with others in the expected way, has poor Italian they will cease wondering why you general communication (linguistic and You obviously have had experience have decided to change from using non-linguistic) and displays repetitive or yourself of being trilingual in your English in your dealings with them. obsessive behaviour to the detriment of childhood, which is a big advantage. You know that it is possible to keep three creativity, (with some this may mean Anne-Marie de Mejía obsessive talking about favourite topics) languages in play and not turn out mixed Dr Anne-Marie de Mejía is a memebr of the BFN then autism may be a possibility. This is up or confused, as many people believe. The fact that you actively plan to raise advisory board and works at the Universidad del independent of cultural or linguistic Valle, Cali, Colombia. background. your children trilingually also indicates that you have a positive attitude to them The issue of whether to ‘drop’ one or developing proficiency in three more of the child’s languages should s/he languages.You will therefore have the HUMOUR, HUMOUR be diagnosed with a communication patience to encourage them to impairment is one which understandably communicate in Italian, English and Max Knight (7 years), bilingual (German causes a lot of concern. As a speech and Dutch, without them becoming too -English), from New York City was language therapist (SALT), I feel this is a frustrated or unwilling to continue with looking at a photo of a boy in a yellow decision that must be driven by the needs the process. It is important that your shirt of the family, wider cultural group and the husband is in agreement with the idea of Max: Hier ist der Junge, der keine Mutter child. It should not be dictated by the children being brought up trilingually und keinen Vater mehr hat. (Here’s the language of teachers and therapists (and and with the family language policy to be boy who doesn’t have a mom and a dad indeed this is expressly indicated in adopted. anymore.) professional guidelines for SALTs); I Mother: Ach, er war ein Waisenkind. recognise, though, that lack of appropriate Probably the most well-known strategy (Oh, he was an orphan.) Max: Nein, ein gelbes Kind. (No, a resources (to employ bilingual co-workers for bilingual family language development is the one parent, one yellow kid.) for example) may cause difficulties in Weiss or waise is a homophone. some areas. language approach, where each parent speaks a different language to the Waisenkind means ‘orphan’ (child) children. In your situation, the third weisses Kind means ‘white child’, or here Dr Carolyn Letts child dressed in white. Department of Speech, University of Newcastle, language will probably be Dutch, which Newcastle uponContact Tyne NE1details 7RU, removed England. your children will most likely pick up Gabriele Dehn-Knight, New York. The Bilingual Family Newsletter 2001 7

INTERVIEW ... from page three Please send us any material which you Gabriel and Mateo realised their names came language is not needed for survival, such as think might be of interest to our from relatives several generations back. getting through school and playing with readers. Remember the Newsletter is Being with the Ecuadorian embassy here in local children. for you, but above all, by you! Switzerland we have a lot of contact with other And the disadvantages? Ecuadorian families and share national holidays with them. We also visit Ecuador Being an expatriate can have disadvantages TV-THEORY...from page five yearly, and are lucky to have relatives from if one is not prepared for the challenges or both sides of the family visit us here in begins without a strategy for success. As a other two. But – who knows! In any case, Switzerland. counsellor in international schools in Tokyo that is not the point. He is now obtaining a and Ecuador I realised that many problems How do you celebrate special days such as valuable insight into one part of Scottish were linked to transition. The children were culture which has suffered a lot of Christmas, Thanksgiving or Carnival in your either just arriving, just getting ready to multicultural household? leave (or their best friend was just arriving oppression over the few centuries. I have also started to learn Gaelic and I am At Christmas we have a tree with decorations or getting ready to leave) and so they spent from all around the world, and three Nativity much of their time in transition, and unable fascinated by so many aspects of my host scenes – from Ecuador, America and Japan, to focus on settling in and enjoying their country (music and songs, place names, which friends have given to us. I am situation. Luckily we came with a plan to community spirit and cultural events, etc.) particularly partial to Thanksgiving, however, get the most out of our situation and to take which I was not aware of before. So, I because it’s the one holiday that all Americans advantage of the opportunities available, have now Robbie helping me with my celebrate, despite their religious views. I think including the exposure to languages. homework and I help him with his! It the simple value of being thankful for all is a What are your future plans now? works and it’s great! I am told by other cross-cultural one that should be cultivated native Gaelic speakers that Robbie is very I am currently compiling a collection of Carnival was not celebrated in my upbringing, essays for a second book, Issues in good with his Gaelic and that he has but here in Switzerland and in Ecuador there is Multilingualism, based on the fascinating excellent pronunciation. I have the a great deal of festivity and dressing-up. We questions that come up in the workshops I impression (and I think others have explain to the kids where and how the holiday give for parents and teachers on raising mentioned this) that it has something to originates and let them point out the multilingual children. These include do with him being already primed to differences to us, so they acknowledge the questions such as ‘Is there a link between understand the concept of different similarities themselves. musical ability and foreign language languages and that his tongue was already Which languages do you use when you all sit ability?’, ‘What language do multilinguals used to acrobatics! down together as a family at the dinner table? do math in (and does it matter?)’, ‘Is there a P.S. difference between trilingualism and Other points to mention are that there At dinner I always speak in English and my bilingualism?’, and on issues such as husband in Spanish. Together we speak ‘Adoption and bilingualism’ and should be a lack of embarrassment when English, probably because we started using ‘Bilingualism from the womb’. I continue to talking in a minority language to the child English while at university together. The give several workshops a month in in public because embarressment children only address their father in Spanish Switzerland and France and love this transmits from the adult to the child. and me in English. That’s part of the contact. I get a real rush of energy by And songs and jokes – how important are consistency I mentioned earlier which is so sharing my research and helping other they? Robbies latest joke is that he important for children, especially when they families on the road to successful imitates my accent in English (which I are young. multilingualism. will probably never lose), or he says ‘go What languages do you read and sing to your ------and say this or that again (in English)’ and children? * Raising Multilingual Children - Foreign then he laughs his head off when I say it. Language Acquisition and Children. I read to my children primarily in English, but By T. Tokuhama-Espinosa (2001) Also how do you handle bilingual that is because the kids and I are used to that. Bergin & Garvey. ISBN 0-89789-750. domestic arguments? Having to translate If they ask for a book in French, Spanish or in these circumstances drives me mad! German I’ll read that as well, but they usually ask for English books. My husband reads Helga Rhein, Edinburgh, Scotland. mainly in Spanish and when going through non-Spanish books likes to point out the Spanish equivalent for the children. I love learning songs with my children, who are all very musical, but I have a terrible voice! I enjoy much more hearing them than singing myself! I ask them to teach me the German and French songs they hear from school. What are the advantages of being an expatriate multilingual family? Being an expatriate has a wealth of advantages that lend themselves to multilingualism. The key factor for my children has been opportunities – using their languages in a meaningful context means they have many Reflections on Multiliterate Lives is a Many of the ideas and perceptions given in chances to practice, experiment and develop collection of personal accounts of the the first edition of this best-selling book their language skills. formative literacy experiences of highly have been extended and enriched in this A child who is in a monolingual environment successful second language users. second edition. faces a much greater challenge to cultivate Pbk ISBN 1-85359-521-7, price £19.95/ Pbk 1-85359-455-5, price £9.95 /US$15.95 foreign language skills, because the US$29.95, February 2001 vii+211 pp May 2000, xvi+219pp opportunities for meaningful use are far less. Motivation is diminished, because the foreign 8 The Bilingual Family Newsletter 2001

The editor, with the help of the International Editorial Board, is happy to answer any queries you may have on bilingualism /biculturalism. We CONTACTS reserve the right to edit any letters published. All contributions to the If you wish your name and address to be included in the contact BFN should be sent to: section, please send us the following information: Editor: Marjukka Grover Name, address, languages spoken in the family, children’s birth Editorial Board: dates and specification of the types of families with whom you Rose-Marie Aghdami, Goring-on-Thames, Great Britain. would like to get in touch. Alathea Anderssohn, El Jadida, Morocco. Colin Baker, Bangor, Wales, Great Britain. Suzanne Barron-Hauwaert, Bassersdorf, Switzerland. Jayson Campeau, Chatham, Ontario, Canada. Great Britain Renato Corsetti & Anna Lowenstein, Palestrina, Italy. James Crawford, Silver Spring, USA. Carl & Miki Ames Terry Haywood, Milano, Italy. Tel: 01746 761389 e-mail: [email protected] Nobuyuki Honna, Tokyo, Japan. English, German and Japanese speaking family living in Li Wei, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Great Britain. Shropshire. Kai (son) born 17.02.00. Looking to meet other Anne-Maria de Mejíá, Cali, Colombia. German and Japanese speaking families in the Midlands area. Michael Rosanova, Oak Park, Illinois, USA. Stephen Ryan, Osaka, Japan Janice Weiss e-mail: [email protected] If you want to get in touch with any member of the board please send Janice with her bilingualContact German/English details removed family will re-locate to your letter to c/o Multilingual Matters and we will forward it to Berlin in the summer of 2002 and would be most grateful if anyone him/her. could give her any useful information and tips about bilingual education in that area. If you do not already subscribe to The Bilingual Family Newsletter, use the form below to enter a subscription for the next four issues. If you Carole Paquis e-mail: [email protected] know of any other families who may be interested in BFN enter their Carole plans to start a French school for bilingual children in address on the form and we will send them a free sample of a recent Walsall / North Birmingham area. She would like to get in touch issue. with anyone who has experience of starting a minority language school. Any advice would be gratefully received. Multilingual Matters Frankfurt Lodge, Clevedon Hall, Victoria Road Clevedon, England. BS21 7HH GLOSSARY Tel: + 44-(0)1275-876519; Fax:+44-(0)1275-871673 Incipient Bilingualism = The early stages of bilingualism E-mail: [email protected] http://www.multilingual-matters.com where one language is not strongly developed. Beginning to acquire a second language.

Vol. 18, No.3, 2001 CODE-SWITCHING continued from page two NAME...... mistakes children make when applying morphological rules ADDRESS...... where they shouldn’t, eventually they use those rules correctly...... As has been shown, the speech of adults has little to do with that. TOWN...... All in all, these three processes show that Annika is on her way COUNTRY...... PostCode...... to developing both of her languages in a sophisticated manner. So if I was Annika’s parent, I wouldn’t see that any form of Please enter a subscription to BFN £11.00 / US$18.00 correction regarding Code-Switching at this point would help Please send me the book...... Annika’s development in either of the two languages. She is Payment or authority to charge your credit card (Visa/ Master/ Euro already handling three processes at the same time; to try to Card) must accompany each order. correct her code-switching would only confuse her. However, apart from these linguistic arguments, I have to look at Annika’s Remittance enclosed for £/ $...... Please make your cheques payable to Multilingual Matters needs. If she asks for a correct translation, that cannot be ignoret. It is an appeal for linguistic assistance and part of her Charge my Visa/ Master/ Euro Card metalinguistic development. That development cannot be taught Card No...... but Annika needs feedback. A significant factor in language Expiry Date...... development is social interaction. My interaction with Annika Signature...... could look like this. I ask her if she knows a similar word or if she can describe it. If that is not successful, I say the complete PLEASE NOTE you can order all Multilingual Matters books sentence in French and ask her to say the sentence in German. advertised in this Newsletter either by sending the order and payment by post to us, or through our fully searchable, secure online ordering However, this violates the one person, one language principle web-site. It offers the benefit of FREE postage to any address in the which is why asking for a similar word or description should be world. The ordering system is fully compliant with the latest security tried first. An alternative strategy is to simply wait a moment and software, so you can order with confidence! see if Annika corrects herself. Please send a sample copy of BFN to: References NAME...... Cummins, J. (1989) Language and literacy acquisition in bilingual contexts. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 10, 17-31. ADDRESS...... Gleason, J.B. (1997) The Development of Language (4th edn). Boston: Allyn and ...... Bacon. Köppe, R. and Meisel, J. (1995) Code-switching in bilingual first language ...... acquisition. In L. Milroy and P. Muysken (eds) One Speaker, Two Languages: Cross-disciplinary Perspectives on Code-Switching (pp. 276-301). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Saunders, G. (1988) Bilingual Children: From Birth to Teens. Clevedon: Printed by Severn Graphics, Clevedon, England. Multilingual Matters (out of print). ISSN 0952-4096 © 2001 Multilingual Matters Ltd