Word formation Part I 21 November 2007 Word formation

y Important part of Lexicology y By word-formation processes we mean the different devices which are used in English to build new words from existing ones. y Each word-formation process results in the production of a specific type of word. Consequently, an understanding of these processes is one way of studying the different types of word that exist in English. Word formation

y Here we have to recall some terminology already introduced: e.g . Free forms are forms that occur alone, bound forms are those that cannot occur alone. y Stems are forms that carry the basic meaning of the word; affixes add meaning to the stem. If a stem consists of a siilngle morpheme it is also called a root or a base. y Roots constitute the innermost core of words and carry their basic meaning. y Stems and roots may be bound or free but affixes are always bound. The affixes may be further classified as prefix, suffix, or suprafix, depending on whether they occur before, after, or simultaneously with the stem. Inflection and derivation

y Inflection is a general grammatical process which combines words and affixes (always suffixes in English) to produce alternative grammatical forms of words. y E.g. The plural morpheme is an inflectional morpheme. This implies that the plural form flowers, does not represent a lexical item fundamentally different from the singular form flower, it is simply an inflectional variant of the same word. y INFLECTION is a general grammatical process which combines words and affixes to prod uce alternati ve grammati cal forms of word s. y Inflectional affixes: -S (plural) y -ER (comparative) y -EST (superlative) y -IA, -IM, ... (irregular plural) Inflection and derivation

y On the other hand, derivation is a lexical ppyrocess which actually forms a new word out of an existing one by the addition of a derivational affix to a stem. y E.g. Resign, departure + suffixes ation, ure give resignation and departure. y E.g. the stem ACTIV +ate → activate y +ation →activation y +ely →actively y +eness →activeness y +ity →activity y +ism →activism y +ist →activist Inflection and derivation y From all said, we can see that the distinction between inflection and derivation is mainly morphological. While the application of inflection leads to the formation of alternative grammatical forms of the same word, application of deriv ation creates new lexical items. Derivation

y Deri vati on al affixes: Eng lis h has over 60 commo n derivational affixes, and there is no theoretical limit to their number. y Unlike inflectional affixes, derivational affixes can change the word class of the item they are added to. If both inflectional and derivational affixes are used, then the derivational affixes are inner, closer to the stem, and inflectional affixes are outer, furthest from the stem. y E.g. fright + en + ed = frightened resign + ation + s = resignations Derivational affixes y They are usually divided into class-changing and class-maintaining d.a. y Class-changi ng deri vat iona l a ffixes c hange t he word class of the word to which they are added . They are usuall y suffi xes. y resign (verb) + ation = resignation y active (adjective) + ist = activist. Class-changing deraffixesder.affixes y NOMINALIZERS (noun derivational affixes) y -age (leak+age=leakage) -ee (refer+ee= referee) y -ment (argue+ment=argument) -ure (depart+ure=departure) y -ation (resign+ation=resignation) -ance (disturb+ance=disturbance) y -ist (social+ist=socialist) -dom (free+dom=freedom) y VERBALIZERS (verb derivational affixes) y -en (fri ght+ en=f ri ght en ) -fy (l(glory +fy=g lor if)ify) y -ize (pressure+ize=pressurize) en- (en+title=entitle) y -en (soft+en=soften) -ify (pure+ify=purify) y en- (en+able=enable) -ize (legal+ize=legalize) Class-changing deraffixesder.affixes

y ADJECTIVIZERS ((jadjective derivational affixes ) y -al (season+al=seasonal) -an (suburb+an=suburban) y -en (gold+en=golden)-ful (hope+ful=hopeful) y -less (care+less=careless) -ish (child+ish=childish) y -ive (create+ive=creative) -ent (depend+ent=dependent)

y ADVERBIALIZERS (d(adver b derivational affixes) y -ly (slow+ly=slowly) (obvious+ly=obviously) y -ward(()home+ward=homeward) y -wise (clock+wise=clockwise) Class-maintaining deraffixesder.affixes

y CCasslass-mainta ining derivat io na l affixes do not ccahange ttehe word class of the word to which they are added. They are mainly prefixes: y anti+malaria → anti-malaria y dis+agree → disagree y scholar + ship → scholarship y un + tie → untie y ex + wife → ex-wife y green + ish → greenish y re + open → reopen Compounds y Compounding is the largest, and therefore the most important, source of new words. y A compound is a lexical unit which consists of more than one lexical stem. On the surface, there appear to be two, or more, lexemes present, but in fact the parts are functioning as a single item, which has its own meaning and grammar. y E.g. we have compounds such as bedside, black market, car-wash, flower-pot, and so on. y Compounds are usually distinguished as SYNTACTIC And LEXICAL compounds. y Syntactic compounds are formed by regular rules of grammar and are not listed in a dictionary. Their meaning is easily understood: e.g . shoemaker, bookkeeper, washing machine, candlelight. y Lexical compounds usually have a meaning which cannot be understood just from the rules of grammar, and they are usually listed in a dictionary. E.g. girlfriend, sweetheart, highlight, ice cream, crybaby. Classification of compounds

y Compou nd s cons ist of m or e tha n one root, but different roots need not belong to the same word class. When two parts of a compound belong to the same word class, the compound also belongs to the same group. y But when two parts of a compound belong to different word classes, the compound will belong to one of these classes. y As a general rule, the word class of the last element of the compound determines the class of the compound. Compounds y NOUN COMPOUNDS: any root+noun y N+N: ash-tray, arm-chair, text-book; y V+N: dare-devil, pick-pocket y ADJ+N: black-bird, blue-collar; y ADV+N: after-thought, back-talk… Verb compounds y N+V: baby-sit, brain-wash, house-keep; y V+V: dive-bomb, drop-kick… y ADJ+V: dry-clean, sweet-talk; y ADV+V: down-grade, over-do. ADJECTIVE COMPOUNDS y N+ADJ: earth-bound, ox-eyed, y ADJ+ADJ: blue-green, south-west y ADV+ADJ: near-sighted, off-white; ADVERB COMPOUNDS y ADV+ADV: in-to, through-out.