Social Sciences & Humanities
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 25 (3): 1139 - 1166 (2017)
SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES
Journal homepage: http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/
Morphological Features of Siquijodnon-Cebuano Language
Bantawig, R. B.* and Maraño, F. B. Siquijor State College, North Poblacion, Larena, Siquijor, Philippines
ABSTRACT This paper delves into the morphological features of Siquijodnon-Cebuano language. Using descriptive research methodology and adapting the linguistic theory, Contextualisation Lexicalisation, the study broadly examines free morphemes, bound morphemes and other morphological features of the Siquijodnon language. Qualitative data were taken from written folk literary works, documentaries, transcripts and oral traditions of selected Siquijodnon folks/informants who were chosen through convenient purposive sampling. They were gathered through snowball and/or Participatory Rapid Rural Appraisal (PRRA), interview and videotaping. The units of analysis include the linguistic morphological features: free morphemes, bound morphemes and other morphological phenomena of a language. The data were analysed in the framework of Congruent Lexicalisation and interpreted through interpretive analysis. The research instrument is an interview guide. Considering the aforementioned findings, it is concluded that Siquijodnon-Cebuano is a rule-governed language, which certainly shares a number of morphological features with English and other prevalent languages or dialects. The results also manifest the essential contribution of affixation in establishing inflectional bound tense-marking morphemes and derivational bound from class-marking morphemes. They further conclude that Siquijodnon encounters with other language speakers, brought about by colonisation, greatly influenced the morphological development of their language. Hence, the Siquijodnon language is a twinskin of Siquijor Island’s local identity, which likewise holds a utilitarian significance for its folk literary, historical, cultural and socio-cultural heritage and development..
Keywords: Morphological features, other morphological phenomena, Philippines, social ARTICLE INFO Article history: sciences Received: 22 April 2016 Accepted: 19 December 2016
E-mail addresses: INTRODUCTION [email protected]; [email protected] (Bantawig, R. B.), A number of experts and linguists define [email protected] (Maraño, F. B.) * Corresponding author linguistics as the systematic study of
ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press Bantawig, R. B. and Maraño, F. B. language (Lyons, 2002). They stress the nature of all these components and that language refers to any distinctive the universal aspects of all grammars” linguistic diverse unit, which is mutually (Fromkin, 2001). incomprehensible with other entities This present study focusses its (Campbell, 2006). That is why, linguistics investigation on the morphological aspect of can be generally categorised into its three a language, particularly on the Siquijodnon subfields of study: language in context, morphological features, based on the language meaning and language form framework of Congruent Lexicalisation in (Lyons, 2002). However, some scholars which Muysken (in Senaratne, 2009) that explicate that language is an intellectual characterises the structural similarity or system which is innate to normal human structural asymmetry of two grammatical being’s cerebral or psychological structure systems that possibly take place between (Radford, Atkison, Britain, Clashen, & either related dialects or a dialect and a Spencer, 2003; Senaratne, 2009; Ellis, 1996; standard language. It is anchored on the Cook, 1996). This emphasises that linguistics notion of style shifting and variation. In is also a branch of cognitive science, which CL, the two languages have either fully refers to a group of disciplines that define or partially shared the grammar of the and analyse human being’s ability to sentence. In other words, the grammatical think. Thus, the discipline of linguistics, system/structure is lexically accessible by along with psychology, philosophy and both systems. computer science, is vital sub-discipline In this study, Siquijodnon-Cebuano within cognitive science (Carnie, 2002). Variety and a standard language (English) For grammarians, linguistic theory does not are the two grammatical systems that only refer to the speakers’ knowledge of his share structural similarity, specifically in or her language, but also to the explanation the aspect of morphology. Morphology is of how that such knowledge is acquired one of the salient branches of linguistics (Fromkin, Rodman, & Hyams, 2007). which deals with the study of language. Language includes language acquisition, The term morphology consists of two-word neurolinguistics, psycholinguistics, elements, morph- which means ‘form’ sociolinguistics, historical linguistics, and and –ology which means ‘the study of’ evolutionary linguistics (Lyons, 2002). (Mhamad, 2016). A number of linguists and Categorically, the study of language morphologists define morphology as the structure or form centres on the system analysis of internal word structures or forms of rules that are observed by the speakers and/or morphemes and how they operate (or hearers) of a language to consist of in the structure of words. In 1859, August morphology, phonology, phonetics and Schleicher, a German linguist, utilised this syntax. Many linguistic experts point term for the first time in his study on the out that “a theory of grammar specifies form of words (McCarthy, 2011). Such
1140 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 25 (3): 1139 - 1166 (2017) Morphological Features of Siquijodnon-Cebuano Language claim is magnified by Hamawand (2011) which refer to the lexical nucleus of when he stresses that morphology aims to words that possesses an individual lexical disclose the principles on form and meaning meaning shared by no other morpheme of of morphological expression; explicates the language (for example, write for rewrites the manner of integrating morphological hope for hopeful, and order for disorder); units and interpret the end-result of word (b) non-root morphemes which includes formation; and shows the manner of inflectional and affixational morphemes. organising the morphological unit in the Moghees and Malik (2010) and Miller lexicon in terms of like-mindedness and (2006) enumerated several kinds of affixes contrast. such as: Banjar (2012) points out that words •• Prefix - a bound morpheme that precedes are the smallest unit of language called the root (e.g., misplace) morphemes with corresponding meanings; however, in some contexts morphemes •• Suffix - a bound morpheme that follows may or may not have meanings. Andriyani the root (e.g., kinanta) (2013) presents a clear-cut example of such •• Infix - a morpheme that goes “in the phenomenon. He explicates that morphemes middle” of a word. This is common have two or more syllables but with only one in Borneo and Philippine languages. morpheme (for examples, banana, apple, English has no infixes. papaya and honey). In contrary, some words •• Circumfix - an affix that “surrounds” the may have two morphemes and only one word, attached to the beginning and end syllable like cats, runs and barked. There of the word (e.g. enlightenment). are semantic classifications of morphemes given by Aidana and Makanbayeva (2013), •• Ablaut- is a change in a vowel that namely: (a) root-morphemes (radicals) carries extra meaning.
Table 1 Some illustrations of the other categories of affix given by Miller (2006)
Categories of Affixes Affix Example Schema Description Prefix un-do prefix-stem Appears before the stem Suffix/postfix look-ing stem-suffix Appears after the stem Suffixoid/ cat-like stem-suffixoid Appears after the stem, but is semi-suffix only partially bound to it Infix Minne(flippin’)sota st(infix)em Appears within the stem – common in Borneo– Philippines languages Circumfix en>light Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 25 (3): 1139 - 1166 (2017) 1141 Bantawig, R. B. and Maraño, F. B. Table 1 (continue) Interfix speed-o-meter stema-interfix-stemb Links two stems together in a compound Duplifix teeny~weeny stem~duplifix Incorporates a reduplicated portion of a stem (may occur before, after, or within the stem) Transfix Maltese: kt Considering that Siquijor Island is popularly Cebuano. This academic venture will surely known for its literary, historical and socio- preserve and promote Siquijodnon lexicon, cultural development, there is a dire need literary heritage and ethnic traditions as part to study its Siquijodnon-Cebuano language, and parcel of the ecotourism thrusts and which does not only serve as a mirror but priorities of Siquijor Island. also a vehicle in propagating its history, culture and tradition. This is supported by OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY Anzaldua (as McGroarty cited in Mackay, This study delves into the morphological 1998) when she claims that language is a features of the Siquijodnon-Cebuano twin skin of cultural identity. To simply language. It evaluates the linguistic put, language is a double-edged tool in aspects, particularly the lexicon and other establishing local identity and in promoting morphological features, or the phenomena socio-cultural heritage. of Siquijodnon-Cebuano Language, Additionally, the Tourism Industry of specifically its free morphemes (in terms Siquijor Island will benefit much from this of the words that indicate grammatical study. Siquijor Island will not only be known relations) and words that name items in the for its mystic paradise but also of its talented real world; bound morphemes (in terms people through their Siquijodnon dialect of inflectional and derivational affixes); (Cebuano Variety). As a result, tourists will and other morphological phenomena. This be more enticed to come to Siquijor Island to academic venture promotes the Siquijodnon discover more about its captivating natural lexicon or Cebuano variety as a double- scenery and its cultural heritage as revealed edged tool in establishing local identity, in pieces of literature written in Siquijodnon- as well as promoting and preserving the 1142 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 25 (3): 1139 - 1166 (2017) Morphological Features of Siquijodnon-Cebuano Language island’s folk literary, historical, and socio- a separate entity in 1971. Siquijor Island has cultural heritage. a total land area of 31,812.985 hectares. It is politically divided into 6 municipalities: MATERIALS AND METHODS Larena, Siquijor, Lazi, Maria, San Juan and This study is a descriptive research which Enrique Villanueva. uses linguistic analysis. The qualitative data were taken from documentaries, RESULTS AND DISCUSSION written folk literary works, documentaries, The results of the study vividly depict that transcripts and oral traditions of selected Siquijodnon-Cebuano is a rule-governed Siquijodnon folks/informants who had been language. In the perspective of Congruent chosen through the convenient purposive Lexicalisation theory, the morphological sampling. The qualitative data were gathered features of Siquijodnon language such as through snowball and/or Participatory free morphemes, bound morphemes and Rapid Rural Appraisal (PRRA), interview other morphological phenomena are evident and videotaping. Such methods of data in the Siquijodnon language. The findings collection were carried out when the likewise manifest the morphological researchers went to various far-flung places symmetry of the Siquijodnon and English of the island seeking for prospective local languages. informants as identified by local folks and co-informants in the island. The Siquijodnon Free Morphemes informants were then interviewed and Morphologically, the Siquijodnon-Cebuano videotaped. The units of analysis include language possesses free morphemes which the linguistic morphological features: free can stand alone semantically. One of these morphemes, bound morphemes and other are the content words which refer to the morphological phenomena of Siquijodnon- items in the real word. They include nouns, Cebuano language. The qualitative data were action verbs, adjectives and adverbs. analysed in the framework of Congruent Additionally, free morphemes refer to words Contextualisation and interpreted using that indicate grammatical relations like interpretive analysis through documentary functional words (i.e., auxiliaries, articles, or context analysis (in which morphological intensifiers, interrogatives, prepositions, features are analysed based on the word conjunctions and interjections), substitute formations contained in the literary works, words (i.e., pronouns; noun substitutes, verb documentaries and transcripts). The research substitutes, phrasal or clausal substitutes) instrument is an interview guide. The and expressions that signal the presence/ research locale of this study is the island absence of negatives (Tayao et al., 1998). of Siquijor. It is the smallest province Morpheme is the insignificant distinctive in Central Visayas and used to be a sub- element of grammar, however, it is the main province of Negros Oriental until it became concern of morphology. It is the smallest Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 25 (3): 1139 - 1166 (2017) 1143 Bantawig, R. B. and Maraño, F. B. functioning unit in word compositions. Siquijodnon Free Morphemes in Each word is made up of one, two or more Content Words (Nouns, Verbs) morphemes to form one meaningful unit This section includes the free morphemes in known as free morpheme Crystal (cited in content words like nouns and verbs. Table Mhamad, 2016). 2 specifically presents data on nouns and verbs. Table 2 Siquijodnon free morphemes in content words (nouns, verbs) Free Morphemes Morphological Analysis Examples Somehow, gambling is a destruction because many “lost from their shorts” (implicitly means, destroyed their lives)… Verb gama (make) Siquijodnon verbs are … misapigad sa atong kalawasan. sapigad (touch) composed of either a root pahít (bite) word or combination of a root … touched throughout our body... timô (eat) word and an affix. Theyshow actions or connect phrases or … bisag init hala timo. clauses. … even it is hot, continues to eat. Nouns in the Siquijodnon language are singular and plural meanings and functions composed of one morpheme or a root in English. word which functions independently or Almost the same scenario takes place in in isolation. Affixes are not attached to the Siquijodnon verbs. They are composed the root word. They carry with them their of one word as they show actions or connect 1144 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 25 (3): 1139 - 1166 (2017) Morphological Features of Siquijodnon-Cebuano Language phrases or clauses. They carry also with Siquijodnon Free Morphemes in them their singular and plural meanings Content Words (Adjectives and and functions in English. In some instances, Adverbs) however, affixes are attached to the base Other Siquijodnon Free Morphemes in form of the verb to emphasise their tenses. content words include the modifiers: adjectives and adverbs. Table 3 illustrates the corresponding data. Table 3 Free morphemes in content words (adjectives, adverbs) Free Morphemes Morphological Analysis Examples Like other content words, the Siquijodnon language, it is evident that the Siquijodnon- adjectives are composed of either a root Cebuano shares similar morphological and word or a combination of a root word and an syntactic features with English language, affix. They carry with them their meanings which is the second language of its local and functions in English as they modify speakers. These phenomena are supported nouns or pronouns. by the Matrix Language Frame Model The Siquijodnon adverbs, as one of (MLF) of Myers-Scotton, which suggests the content words, are composed of one that a dominant language named ‘matrix’ word which functions independently or language provides morpho-syntactic frame in isolation. They bring with them their for the bilingual utterance. While the other meaning and function in English as they language is the ‘embedded’ language which modify verbs, adjectives and other adverbs. acts as a guest in the utterance (Senaratne, Based on the aforementioned scenarios 2009). Ambridge, Pine, Rowland, Chang, of the content words in the Siquijodnon and Bidgood (2016), in their study, elucidate Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 25 (3): 1139 - 1166 (2017) 1145 Bantawig, R. B. and Maraño, F. B. that there is a conventional form used by all functional words (i.e., auxiliaries, articles, members of the speech community for adult intensifiers, interrogatives, prepositions, feedback and conventionality on the many conjunctions and interjections), substitute given meanings of utterances. words (i.e., pronouns; noun substitutes, verb substitutes, phrasal or clausal substitutes) Siquijodnon Free Morphemes in and expressions that signal presence/ Function Words absence of negatives (Tayao et al., 1998). Tables 4 shows the Siquijodnon free Free morphemes likewise refer to words morphemes with the function words articles that indicate grammatical relations such as and intensifiers. Table 4 Siquijodnon free morphemes in substitute words (pronouns and phrasal or clausal) Free Morphemes Morphological Analysis Examples The Siquijodnon articles have different In signalling or introducing plural noun, word forms but they mean the same. another form of the Siquijodnon article Interestingly, the Siquijodnon language which brings the same meaning with the has only one English equivalence for its other forms of article is added, which is mga. articles and that is, the. They are composed The same scenario applies to of one word which functions independently the Siquijodnon intensifier. They are as they introduce singular or plural nouns. formed with one word which functions 1146 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 25 (3): 1139 - 1166 (2017) Morphological Features of Siquijodnon-Cebuano Language independently or in isolation as qualifier Siquijodnon Free Morphemes in or intensifier of an adjective or a quantity Function Words (Interrogatives, pronoun. It is represented in various word Prepositions, etc.) forms but they carry the same meaning and This part presents the free morphemes in function in English. They have two English function words, specifically interrogatives, equivalence: so and the. prepositions, conjunctions and interjections. Tables 5 presents the said Siquijodnon function words. Table 5 Siquijodnon free morphemes in function words (interrogatives, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections) Free Morphemes Morphological Analysis Examples The crops are under the table. Conjunctions ug/og (and) Siquijodnon articles … tipik ug kabahin sa inadlaw- apan/pero (but) are composed of one adlaw panginabuhian. hinoon (however) word which functions para (for) independently or in … part and parcel of the daily life. aron (so that) isolation as they connect kung (if) phrases, clauses and … mapintas nga balud.. nga bisan samtang (while) sentences. sa atong pagkamalinawon mokuso- mao nang (that is why) kuso … unya (then) bisan man (which means, … the damaging wave tramples even, even if, although, though) even in the midst of our kay (because) peacefulness. Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 25 (3): 1139 - 1166 (2017) 1147 Bantawig, R. B. and Maraño, F. B. Table 5 (continue) Interjections hingsi-aw pud ka! Siquijodnon interjection Hingsi-aw pud ka! noy. (expressing irritation of one’s is in a form of phrase or action) clause which functions You’re too much! son. inay doy or inay lamang!, baya independently as they galing! express strong emotions. Agay! Natakilpo akong tiil. (expressing rejection or disagreement) Ouch! My foot slid on the ground. kamating gyud! Kamatay bati! masarang! Nasigaw! (expressing disappointment and surprise) Hala!, Yawards! (expressing amazement and/or amusement) Agay! or Agoy! (expressing pain) and many others. The data disclose that Siquijodnon-Cebuano the principles on form and meaning of possesses function words which exist morphological expression, explicates similarly with the function words in English. the manner of integrating morphological This shows that Siquijodnon speakers have units and interprets the end-result of word the linguistic capacity and facility to form formation, as well as shows the manner of words. According to Hurrford (2007), organising the morphological unit in the humans have innate capacity to produce lexicon in terms of like-mindedness and myriads of words, phrases and clauses, contrast (Hamawand, 2011). as well as countless ideas and original sentences. On the other hand, language Siquijodnon Free Morphemes in is noticeably flexible and extendable. Substitute Words Word meanings are continuously changing This section presents the substitute words and new words are added to a language that include pronouns and phrasal or clausal as the changing needs of the speaking substitutes. Table 6 shows the Siquijodnon community arise (Jindal, 2007). This substitute words. implies that morphology aims to disclose 1148 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 25 (3): 1139 - 1166 (2017) Morphological Features of Siquijodnon-Cebuano Language Table 6 Siquijodnon free morphemes in substitute words (pronouns and phrasal or clausal) Free Morphemes Morphological Analysis Examples …tears fall on these cheeks. Demonstrateive Pronouns so afraid of the war. kini/ning (this/these) kana (that/those) Quantity Pronouns tanan/puros (all) Siquijodnon quantity Tanan midayeg sa iyang kaanyag.. daghan (many, lots of, a lot of, pronouns are composed of several) one word which functions All appreciate his/her beauty. ubay-ubay (few) independently or in isolation gamay (a few) as they indicate the number or Gamay ra ang nahinumdom sa wala or wala ja or presence/absence of nouns or ilang panaaad. wala jud (none) pronouns. A few remember their promises. Phrasal/ Clausal nga (which or that) Siquijodnon phrasal/clausal … makita ang tubod Capilay nga unsa nga (what) is composed of one or gitawag sa mga Kastila ug Agua de nga kinsa (who) more words which function Makallipay. nga unsa (what) independently or in isolation nga kanus-a (when) as they substitute phrase/ The flowing water,which is called clause. by the Spaniards as Aqua de Makalipay is seen. Categorically, what makes the interrogative is English, has greatly influenced the pronouns and phrasal or clausal substitutes characteristics of the substitute words of distinct with each other in the Siquijodnon- their mother tongue. This is supported by Cebuano language is the presence of nga the theory of Congruent Lexicalisation, in in the latter. This result indicates that the which Muysken (2009) characterises the second language of the speakers, which structural similarity or structural asymmetry Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 25 (3): 1139 - 1166 (2017) 1149 Bantawig, R. B. and Maraño, F. B. of two grammatical systems that possibly Cebuano personal pronouns are not squarely take place between either related dialects delineated or categorised. They do not or a dialect and a standard language. It is possess lexical terms that specifically address anchored on the notion of style shifting and a male or a female. Hopp (2016) in his variation. In CL, the two languages have experiments suggests that the variability of either fully or partially shared the grammar lexical gender assignment affects processing of the sentence. This means the grammatical of gender agreement in natives and non- system/structure is lexically accessible by natives. both systems (Senaratne, 2009). In this study, it is most prominent between the Siquijodnon-Cebuano Inflectional Siquijodnon-Cebuano language and the Bound Morphemes (Verb Tense, standard English language, which somehow Number and Voice) share a grammatical system. Siquijodnon-Cebuano inflectional bound However, on top of the morphological morphemes mark tense. They are affixes that similarities of the Siquijodnon-Cebuano and signal tense of the verbs like present, past, English, it is apparent that the Siquijodnon- and future tense. Table 7 discloses the data. Table 7 Siquijodnon-Cebuano inflectional bound morphemes (mark tense: present, past, future tenses and number) Bound Morphemes Morphological Analysis Examples 1150 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 25 (3): 1139 - 1166 (2017) Morphological Features of Siquijodnon-Cebuano Language The Siquijodnon-Cebuano prefix and in spite of their various word forms. The data suffix are attached to the Siquijodnon root certainly show the congruent lexicalisation words. They carry with them their singular of the two languages. and plural meanings and functions in Other Siquijodnon-Cebuano inflectional English. Hence, the Siquijodnon-Cebuano tense-marking bound morphemes signal inflectional bound morphemes are rule- present, past and future passive voice. Table governed as they indicate past tense, present 8 reveals the data. tense, future tense and number in utterances Table 8 Siquijodnon inflectional bound morphemes (mark tense: present, past, and future voice of the verb Bound Morphemes Morphological Analysis Examples ... will prosper and will flourish, hence, inspire our fellowmen -hon (from dala, means bring) Siquijodnon suffix is attached Kining ube kasagaran dalhon sa to the root word as it indicates mga bisita nga nahiduaw. present passive voice. This ubi (crop) is usually brought by the visitors who have visited. gi Siquijodnon prefix is attached Ug magbayle sila, sista ang ilang to the root word as it indicates gigamit nga panukar. past passive voice. If they had disco, guitar was used as their musical instrument. i Siquijodnon prefix is attached Miduol ako sa Hapon sa pagtuo ma to the root word as it indicates nga ang iyang nilikit nga basahon future passive voice. ihatag kanako apan sa dako kong kasayop ug kakurat iya man hinoon akong gisabak,.. I went near to the Japanese expecting that the rolled paper will be given to me but with my big surprise, he put me on his lap. Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 25 (3): 1139 - 1166 (2017) 1151 Bantawig, R. B. and Maraño, F. B. Meanwhile, the Siquijodnon-Cebuano evident in example sentences in the past inflectional tense-marking morphemes not active and future passive voices in the above only signal simple present, past and future presentation. tenses of verbs but also the present, past, and future active and passive voice. The Siquijodnon-Cebuano Inflectional Siquijodnon-Cebuano prefix or suffix is Bound Morphemes (Trigger Change attached to the root word as it indicates or Omission on Some of the Vowel and the tense of the active and passive voice. Consonant Sounds of Nouns) They bring with them their meaning and Some Siquijodnon-Cebuano inflectional function in English in which the analyses bound morphemes in the forms of prefix and presentations of Siquijod-Cebuano and suffix are attached in the root word as language tense-marking morphemes are they trigger change or omission on some of lexically contextualised. the vowel and consonant sounds of nouns. Another observation is, the positions However, there are also the Siquijodnon- of Siquijodnon-Cebuano subjects and Cebuano inflectional bound morphemes adjectives in sentences do not have the same that do not display such scenarios. Table 9 positions in English sentences, although depicts these observations. they express the same thoughts. They are Table 9 Siquijodnon inflectional bound morphemes (mark affixes: trigger change or omission on some of the vowel and consonant sounds of nouns) Bound Morphemes Morphological Analysis Examples 1152 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 25 (3): 1139 - 1166 (2017) Morphological Features of Siquijodnon-Cebuano Language These data manifest the linguistic agreement. These results suggest that symmetry of Siquijodnon-Cebuano and adult L2 learners represent limitation English, specifically in the aspects of and agreement at an abstract level, rather inflections and linguistic assimilations. than being compromised in this domain, This implies that Siquijodnon-Cebuano supporting the Missing Surface Inflection is syntactically and semantically rule- Hypothesis (MSIH). This claim is justified governed like that of English language. This by Chondrogianni, Vasić , Marinis, andn is because historically, English as the second Blom (2016), whose findings suggest that language of the local speakers under study the errors of omission are not due to the brings influences to their language, which lack of abstract syntactic representations, were brought about by colonisation. but could result from processes implicated In some respect, a study of Prévost in the spell-out of definite articles. and Lydia White (2016) on Missing Surface Inflection or Impairment in Second Siquijodnon-Cebuano Derivational Language Acquisition? Evidence from Tense Bound Morphemes and Agreement depicts the manifestation This contains noun-marking affix, verb of inflections of English language. Their marking affix, adjective-marking affix, data show that predetermined forms do not and adverb-marking affix. Table 10 below occur in non-finite contexts, that learners illustrates the Siquijodnon-Cebuano unveil syntactic reflexes of finiteness and derivational bound morphemes. that inflected forms largely show accurate Table 10 Siquijodnon derivational bound morphemes (mark form class: noun-marking affix, verb- marking affix, adjective- marking affix, and adverb-marking affix) Bound Morphemes Morphological Analysis Examples pag Siquijodnon affix is attached pag- (prefix affix) + kaón (verb: ka and an to the root word, which eat) = pagkaon (noun: food/s) nang changes the form class, from magpa/pa noun to verb. ka- (prefix affix) + libot (verb: to go around) + _an (suffix affix) = kalibutan (noun: world) nang (prefix affix) + utang (noun: debt) = nangutang (verb: to lend money) magpa/pa (affix) + tagad (noun: attention) = magpatagad (verb: to call one’s attention) Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 25 (3): 1139 - 1166 (2017) 1153 Bantawig, R. B. and Maraño, F. B. Table 10 (continue) Verb-Marking nag- Siquijodnon affix is attached ha/hi (suffix affix) + abri ¬_ha/hi to the root word, which (adjective: open) = abriha, abrihi Ma changes the form class, from (verb: open) adjective to verb. magpa (affix) +gwapa (adjective: beautiful) = magpagwapa (verb: to beautify) Adverb-Marking gi- Siquijodnon affix is attached gi (prefix affix) + pahit (noun:bite) to the root word, which = gipahit (verb: bit) changes the form class, from verb to adverb. gi (prefix affix) + tuyo (purpose/ intention) = gituyô (adverb: purposely/intentionally) The Siquijodnon-Cebuano derivational morphemes, unlike Siquijodnon-Cebuano in bound morphemes: noun-marking affix, which both prefixes and suffixes contribute verb- marking affix, adjective- marking to the establishment of derivational class- affix, and adverb-marking affix are in the marking morphemes. forms of prefixes and suffixes. The affixes are attached to the root words as they change Other Categories of Bound Morphemes the form classes into from noun to verb, from (Affixes) adjective to verb, from verb to adjective, Interestingly, on top of the popular prefixes and from verb to adverb. They carry with and suffix, there are suffixoid semi-suffix, them their English meaning and function infix, circumfix, interfix, duplifix, transfix, in the utterances. However, a clear-cut simulfix, suprafix and disfix evident in contradiction between English language Siquijodnon-Cebuano language. Table 11 and Siquijodnon-Cebuano language is shows the examples that would justify this evident in the aspect of affixes utilisation. claim. In English language, only suffixes play a significant role in establishing class-marking 1154 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 25 (3): 1139 - 1166 (2017) Morphological Features of Siquijodnon-Cebuano Language Table 11 Other categories of bound morphemes (affixes) Categories of Affix Siquijodnon-Cebuano Terms Schema Prefix misapigad (touched) prefix-stem nagbanwag (spread /announce) nagkurosbot (pouting) mulumpag (topple down) gipahit (bit) kulu-kalisang (fearful) naaninaw (reminisced/realised) itimo (snack) iabilay (to carry on a shoulder Suffix/Postfix hapliton (sorcerize) stem-suffix gisanapan (spread) abriha/abrihi (open) Suffixoid/semi-suffix ilaha (theirs/them) stem-suffix inyoha (yours) akoa (mine) imoa (yours Infix nanimuyo (residing) st(infix)em hinaganas (gush) kinulasaw (restlessness, unruly act) gagmay (small/little) yag-as lagyo (far) dug-ol (near) Circumfix masupilon (disobedient/stubborn) circumfix-stem-circumfix dagitabnon (electric) inambitay (sharing blessings) kakaraanan (antiquity Interfix Duplifix pagpagiay-giay (to sway your hips) stem-duplifix pagdimdim (to taste) mitapya-tapya (touched) gisubli-subli (repeated/reiterated) gakaising-ising (avoid the confuse of someone) pikpikon (to pat on the shoulders) namilagpilag (glittering) dangoy-ngoy (sob) kuha-kuhaan (reduced/subtracted) Transfix tukar-panokar (root: music) s Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 25 (3): 1139 - 1166 (2017) 1155 Bantawig, R. B. and Maraño, F. B. Table 11 (continue) Suprafix pánit (skin) stem/suprafix panít- (kind of fish) ámo- (boss) amô – (ghost) túbo- (pipe) tubó- (sugar cane) Disfix isdog-idog-irog (move) st>disfix The Siquijodnon-Cebuano language between either related dialects or a dialect employs a very rich affixation. With and a standard language. Cook (cited in the illustration above, various forms of Ellis, 1996) categorically explicates the affixation give great influence to the word Chomskyan view of Universal Grammar: formation of the Siquijodnon-Cebuano language. Obviously, affixes are inserted “The language properties inherent in and combined in the root words to establish the human mind make up ‘Universal new word formations with different degrees Grammar’ consists not of particular of meanings. Nevertheless, interfix is rules or a particular language, but a not popular in the Siquijodnon-Cebuano set of general principles that apply language. It implies that native speakers to all languages.” of the said language are creative enough to combine word parts to come up with new Chomsky’s assertion for the innateness of set of morphemes. UG is that it would be impossible for a This goes to show that affixation child to learn the grammar of his/her mother plays a vital role in the word formations tongue without a set of innate principles. of Siquijodnon-Cebuano. This clearly This is because the data from the input are reflects that Siquijodnon-Cebuano and inadequate to enable the child to discover English language share a fraction of their specific rules. Moreover, language is an derivational morphemes. With these intellectual system which is innate to normal inflectional and derivational characteristic human being’s cerebral or psychological commonalities of Siquijodnon-Cebuano structure (Radford, Atkison, Britain, and English, the theory of Congruent Clashen, & Spencer, 2003; Senaratne, Lexicalisation and Universal Grammar of 2009; Ellis, 1996; Cook, 1996). This Chomsky have to be reviewed. Congruent emphasises that linguistics is also a branch Lexicalisation emphasises that the structural of cognitive science, which refers to a group similarity or structural asymmetry of the of disciplines that define and analyse human two grammatical systems that likely occur being’s ability to think. Thus, the discipline 1156 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 25 (3): 1139 - 1166 (2017) Morphological Features of Siquijodnon-Cebuano Language of linguistics along with psychology, forms involving regular affixation and a philosophy, and computer science are vital partial priming effect for irregular forms sub-disciplines within cognitive science irrespective of stem allomorph. By contrast, (Carnie, 2002). the data from the late bilinguals showed In this study, the Siquijodnon speakers reduced priming effects for both regular and use their knowledge in their L1 (Siquijodnon) irregular forms. We argue that late learners to enable them to discover and learn the rely more on lexically stored inflected word rules of the target language or the input forms during word recognition and less on (the English language) for communication morphological parsing than native speakers. purposes. Such scenario is further illustrated With such linguistic phenomena, it in the study of Kirkici and Clahsen (2016) is imperative that affixation is popular in on a series of masked priming experiments various languages across cultures. This is investigating the processing of inflectional because language refers to any distinctive and derivational phenomena in native linguistic diverse unit, which is mutually (L1) and non-native (L2) speakers in a incomprehensible with other entities non-Indo-European language, Turkish, in (Campbell, 2006). That is why, linguistics which they specifically compared regular can be generally categorised into its three (Aorist) verb inflection with deadjectival subfields of study: language in context, nominalisation, both of which are highly language meaning and language form frequent, productive and transparent in (Lyons, 2002). Turkish. The experiments revealed diverse priming patterns for inflection and derivation Other Siquijodnon-Cebuano within the L2 group. Morphological Phenomena Moreover, the study of Jacob, Gunnar, What is more interesting is morphological Fleischhauer Elisabeth, Clahsen, and phenomena like blending, compounding, Harald (2013) on a cross-modal priming full reduplicaton, partial reduplication, experiment, investigating inflected verb derivation, etymology, cliticisation, forms of a group of late learners of German borrowing, coinage and backformation with Russian as their native language are prevalent in the Siquijodnon-Cebuano (L1) and a control group of German L1 language. Table 12 presents the other speakers, revealed that the L1 German data Siquijodnon-Cebuano morphological yielded a stem-priming effect for inflected phenomena. Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 25 (3): 1139 - 1166 (2017) 1157 Bantawig, R. B. and Maraño, F. B. Table 12 Other morphological phenomena (blending, compounding, full reduplication, partial reduplication, etymology, clitisation, borrowing, coinage and backformation) Other Morphological Phenomena Morphological Analysis Blending hugpong (sentence) It comes from the words hugpong (group) and pulong (words) bungi (hare-lipped) It comes from bungal na ngipon (destroyed tooth) ginapusil It comes from the words ginamos (salted fish), pusil (gun) and sili (pepper). Compounding Camoting kahoy (cassava) It comes from camote (crop), nga (of) and kahoy (tree). Full Reduplication balay-balay (a toy house) The root word balay is repeated to imply sense of pusil-pusil (a toy gun) playfulness. lantanay-lantanay (bamboo raft) lanat-lanat (playful act of running) Siquijodnon-Cebuano nouns receive full kamang-kamang (a playful act of crawling) reduplication. ngisi-ngisi (a playful smile) kalag-kalag (Halloween) tangan-tangan (a kind of plant) tarak-tarak (a toy truck) Partial Reduplication paghapa-hapa (crawling) The root word balay is repeated to imply sense of pagdimdim (tasting) playfulness with prefix and suffix attached to it. iring-iringon (winning the heart of someone) bato-batoon (throw stone to something/ Siquijodnon-Cebuano nouns receive partial someone) reduplication because of the verb-marking affixes. mitapya-tapya (touching on a skin/ having closer contact of something) pagpagiay-giay (to shake or sway) Etymology orasyon (oracion: from Latin) The Siquijodnon-Cebuano nouns are derived Isla de fuego (island of fire:from Spanish) from foreign languages due to colonization kwarto (bedroom: from Spanish) influences that bring linguistic assimilations to the tener (own: from Spanish) Siquijodnon-Cebuano language. lamisa (table: from Spanish) radyo (radio: from English) suportahan (will be supported: from English) balansi (balance: from English) pulis (police: from English) bisita (visitor: from English) ibedensiya (evidence: from English) 1158 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 25 (3): 1139 - 1166 (2017) Morphological Features of Siquijodnon-Cebuano Language Table 12 (continue) Clitization napulo’g usa It comes from napulo og usa (eleven) wala sila’y tinguha It comes from wala sila oy tinguha (they do not have dream/ desire) Borrowing toothpaste They are borrowed from English language. tissue paper Borrowing happens because of the absence of piano equivalence in the Siquijodnon-Cebuano language. kutsara tenedor It is borrowed from Spanish language. Borrowing happens because of the absence of equivalence in the Siquijodnon-Cebuano language. Coinage Colgate Some Siquijodnons use the brand name, Colgate for the term toothpaste. Gilette Some Siquijodnons use Gilette for the term blade). In Siquijodnon-Cebuano, the consonant g is pronounced as /g/ instead of /dz/. Rayban Some Siquijodnons use Rayban for the term eyeglasses or goggles which is taken from the brand name of goggles, Rayban) Backformation The plural Siquijodnon-Cebuano noun, kasapaan sapa (rivers) from sapâ (noun: river) kaon The Siquijodnon-Cebuano kaon (verb: present tense of eat) from kalan-on or pagkaon (noun: food) inom The Siquijodnon-Cebuano verb, inom (present tense of drink) from ilimnon (noun: drinks) It can be seen in the aforementioned data morphological features, compounding is not that categorically, word formations of the that popular in the language under study, Siquijodnon-Cebuano language are anchored unlike reduplication and etymology. on other morphological phenomena like It is also worth noticing that a significant blending, compounding, full reduplication, number of the Siquijodnon-Cebuano terms partial reduplication, derivation, etymology, are taken or derived from Spanish and cliticisation, borrowing, coinage and American languages. These morphological backformation. However, among these other phenomena signify that the presence of the Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 25 (3): 1139 - 1166 (2017) 1159 Bantawig, R. B. and Maraño, F. B. two groups of coloniser (Spaniards and e.g. doorknob Americans) in the lives of the Siquijodnons guardhouse brings salient impacts to the word formations sun Burn of the Siquijodnon-Cebuano language, in particular, and its language development e) Reduplication - a matter of doubling a at large. syllable to do the same. This is common Saturnino (2012) and (Defaz, 2011) in foreign languages. explicate that morphology studies and f) Full reduplication - all of the syllables describe word forms which include are doubled. inflection, derivation, compounding and g) Partial Reduplication - not all of the other morphological phenomena like syllables are doubled. reduplication, gender marking, cliticisation, e.g. lapit-lalapit blending, suppletion, clipping, genitive and the like. Below are some examples of word dagsa-dadagsa formation process with their morphological h) Suppletion - replacement of the verb phenomenon given by Argente (2012), with one that is very different. In other Rubba (2006) and Loos et al. (2004). words, it is the replacement of one stem a) Blending- a process of combining two with another, which has no phonological words to create a new word. similarity to the other allomorphs (Loos et al., 2004). e.g. motel - a blend of motor and hotel e.g. go-went jeggings - a blend of jeans and leggings good-better-best b) Acronym- a process forming out of the i) Derivation - a free and at least one first letter. bound morphene are combined to form a new linguistic sign. e.g. COE - College of Education CBM - College of Business and Suffixation Management e.g. hopeful Telecast- television-broadcast Prefixation c) Clipping - is the reduction of a word into e.g. unload one of its component parts. Zero-derivation e.g. app.- application e.g. deer – deer fans - fanatics j) Etymology - refers to the origin of d) Compounding - combining two or more several words. Usually these words are roots to make a new word. originated from Latin or Greek. 1160 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 25 (3): 1139 - 1166 (2017) Morphological Features of Siquijodnon-Cebuano Language k) ero morpheme - no visible prefix or q) Genitives - a bound morpheme that suffix is attached. is attached phonologically to a free e.g. put vs. put morpheme. l) Internal Change (ablaut) – a vowel e.g. The Director’s car alternation that marks grammatical The Principal’s office contrast. It affects only the vowel. r) Morphophonemic change – Its main e.g. ring-rang focus is the change of sound in a give-gave morpheme. The pronunciation variants of a morpheme are called allomorphs. m) Criticisation - this is also known as The phenomenon of variation in contraction by which a complex word the pronunciation of a morpheme is formed by attaching a clitic to a fully is called allomorphic variation or inflected word. morphophonemic variation/change n) Borrowing - refers as the name claims (since it is the phonemic aspect of when a language borrows terms from a morpheme that is varying). Such other languages. variations are sometimes called e.g. Alcoholic (Arabic) morphophonological processes (Rubba, Yoghurt (Turkish) 2006). Piano (Italian) s) Allomorphic phenomenon - allomorph is any of the different forms of o) Coinage - refers to the invention of new morphemes. Allomorph has the formula terms into a language. Most of these {-d past tense} = /∂d/~/t/~/d/. These has words use proper names or trade names different types such as zero allomorph, which eventually become common in which there is no change in the shape words. They refer to a general type of of a word through some difference products (regardless of the brand), name in meaning is identified; replacive of inventors, etc. allomorph wherein these means that it e.g. zipper will signify some difference in meaning, nylon a sound is used to replace another sound Aspirin of a word just like drink-drank; and the suppletive allomorph in which it p) Backformation - when a word of one signifies some difference in meaning, type (usually a noun) is changed to there is a complete change in the another different type of a word (usually shape of a word, for instance, got the a verb) suppletive allomorph of {go} = went. e.g. donation (noun) - donate (verb) babysitter (noun) – babysit (verb) Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 25 (3): 1139 - 1166 (2017) 1161 Bantawig, R. B. and Maraño, F. B. Clearly, the morphological phenomena CONCLUSION like suppletion, zero morpheme, internal Considering the aforementioned findings, it change, genitives, and morphophonemic is concluded that Siquijodnon-Cebuano is change are not apparent in the Siquijodnon- a rule-governed language which certainly Cebuano language. This is a concrete shares a number of morphological features manifestation of a distinctive and limited with English and other prevalent languages linguistic features of one language. or dialects. The results also manifest the Thus, no two or more languages or essential contribution of affixation in dialects have consistent similarities and establishing inflectional bound tense- differences. Language holds any distinctive marking morphemes and derivational linguistic diverse unit which is mutually bound from class-marking morphemes. incomprehensible with other entities They further conclude that Siquijodnon (Campbell, 2006). That is why, linguistics encounters with other language speakers can be generally categorised into its three brought about by colonisation has greatly subfields of study: language in context, influenced the morphological development language meaning, and language form of their language. Hence, Siquijodnon (Lyons, 2002). language is a twinskin of Siquijor Island’s This inconsistency of two languages local identity, which likewise holds a is likewise demonstrated in the study of utilitarian significance for its folk literary, Zhang (2012) whose results showed that historical, cultural and socio-cultural the contribution of Chinese morphological heritage and development. awareness to English morphological awareness was larger for compound words ACKNOWLEDGMENT than for derived words, which are the exact The authors are indebted to the following opposite of the morphological features of scholars, experts, researchers, educators, the language under study. and Siquijodnon informants and musicians Thus, with the emergence of linguistic who have imparted countless assistance cross-linguistic transfer, there is a dire and provided wide array of information in need to evaluate word formations of making this academic attempt a reality. different languages not only for linguistic They would like to extend their in-depth uptake, curriculum enhancement and gratitude to the school administrators and academic advancement, but also for in- teachers of the Department of Education, depth actualisation on the indispensability Division of Siquijor who have initially of language and culture. 1162 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 25 (3): 1139 - 1166 (2017) Morphological Features of Siquijodnon-Cebuano Language gathered the collection of folk literature/ Siquijodnon informants and musicians for media (belief systems and folklores) in partaking their talents and skills. which part of the Siquijodnon culture Finally, they are beholden to their was drawn. They likewise express their respective families for their unconditional profound gratefulness to the Siquijor love and support; and above all, to the Provincial Tourism Office, Provincial Heavenly Father for His divine guidance Planning and Development Office (PPDO), and blessings. and Provincial Local Government Units (PLGU), Department of Interior and Local REFERENCES Government (DILG), and Municipal Aidana, K., & Makanbayeva, A. (2013). Types of Planning and Development Coordinators morphemes: roots, affixes, bases. 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