Planck Presenting Einstein with the First Planck Gold Medal in 1929

Home , Carl Neuberg, Ernst Chain, Gustav Embden, Otto Heinrich Warburg

Planck presenting Einstein with the first Planck Gold Medal in 1929. These two titans symbolize the new era in the history of science and humanity. David Nachmansohn

GERMAN -JEWISH PIONEERS IN SCIENCE 1900- 1933

Highlights in Atomic Physics, Chemistry, and Biochemistry

Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York DAVID NACHMANSOHN, M.D. Professor emeritus of Biochemistry Departments of Biochemistry and Neurology Columbia University, New York, N.Y. lOOp

With 27 figures.

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Nachmansohn, David, 1899- German-Jewish pioneers in science, 1900-1933.

Bibliography: p. 1. Chemists-Germany-Biography. 2. Bio~hemists -Germany-Biography. 3. Physicists-Germany--Biography. 4. Jews in Germany-Biography. I. Title. QD2LN33 509'2'2 [B] 79-10550

No part of this book may be translated or reproduced in any form without written permission from Springer-Verlag.

The use of general descriptive names, trade names, trademarks, etc. in this publication, even if the former are not especially identified, is not to be taken as a sign ti'dt such names, as understood by the Trade Marks and Merchandise Marks Act, may accordingly be used freely by anyone.

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lSBN-13: 978-1-4612-9972-1 e-lSBN-13: 978-1-4612-9970-7 DOl: 10.1007/ 978-1-4612-9970-7 This book is dedicated to the memory of Siegfried Moses, president of the Leo Baeck Institute and for two decades one of its most dynamic leaders. The author was invited by the Leo Baeck Institute to give the first Siegfried Moses Memorial Lecture, an honor for which he takes the opportunity to ex• press his gratitude. The topic of the lecture, given in N ovem• ber 1976 in Jerusalem, was the role of German-Jewish pio• neers in science in the early twentieth century. This work is an extended version of the lecture. Preface

The Leo Baeck Institute, to whose late president this book is dedicated, has three branches, located in Jerusalem, London, and New York. Its chief aim is the collection of documents describing the history of Jews in German-speaking countries, the manifold aspects of the association of the two ethnic groups, over a period of about 150 years; that is, from the time of the Enlightenment until the rise to power of the Nazi regime. Twenty-three Year Books (1956-1978) so far and many additional vol• umes about special fields have been published by the institute. They offer an impressive documentation of the role Jews played in Germany, some of their great achievements, the difficulties they encountered in their struggle for equal rights, as well as its slow but seemingly success• ful progress. A wealth of interesting material describes the mutual stimu• lation of the creative forces of the two ethnic groups in a great variety of fields-literature, music, the performing arts, philosophy, humanities, the shaping of public opinion, economy, commerce, and industry. Since the destruction of the Second Temple by the Romans, there have been only a few periods during which Jews played such an eminent role in the history of their host nation. As was forcefully emphasized by Gerson D. Cohen (1975) in his introduction to the twentieth Year Book of the Leo Baeck Institute, the material published so far has already become an invaluable and indispensable source for scholars interested in both Jewish and German history. In addition, it provides a magnificent record of a glorious period that is an integral part of West European civilization. One special area, which had dramatic effects of tremendous impor• tance for the whole of mankind, has been relatively neglected: the development of science and technology. In the meteoric rise of these two interdependent fields in Germany in the last three decades of the Vlll Preface

nineteenth centuries and the first three decades of the twentieth, the intimate collaboration of German and Jewish scientists was instrumental, especially after the turn of this century. The mutual influence and inspiration were extremely strong. Many close friendships existed among these scientists. Science is international in character and favors the ex• change of ideas and information among scientists all over the world. This exchange sometimes leads to combined efforts in the search to find an answer to a problem; such efforts may be facilitated and encouraged by a variety of factors. The atmosphere and the conditions in Germany prevailing at the turn of the century were particularly favorable for the scientific collaboration between the two ethnic groups. This book is a limited and-because of the selection of a few topics only-quite restricted attempt at filling the gap that exists in the presen• tations of the Leo Baeck Institute. Dr. Franz Winkler invited the author to give a lecture on some of the great contributions of German-Jewish scientists. The lecture was given in the spring of 1972 at the Leo Baeck Institute in New York. An article on the same topic was to be written but was postponed because of the death of Aharon Katzir-Katchalsky of the Weizmann Institute during the massacre at Lod in May 1972.* In 1976 the author was invited by the Free University of Berlin to give a historical lecture on the occasion of the bicentennial celebrations honor• ing the United States. The topic was the great era of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institutes in Berlin-Dahlem in the 1 920S. At about the same time the author was invited to give the first Siegfried Moses Memorial Lecture. The topic was the collaboration between German and Jewish scientists in the early twentieth century. The response of many colleagues to the three lectures encouraged the author to write this book. It must be stressed that this book is not intended to be a systematic presentation of the scientific developments of the fields selected. The author is a biochemist; biochemistry is one of the topics. The history of biochemistry, including the period covered here, has heen described in a highly competent, masterful, systematic, and superbly documented way by Marcel Florkin (1977); four volumes have appeared, and two more are in preparation. This history and a great number of other excellent books and publications, such as Joseph Fruton's book Molecules and Life (1972), are addressed specifically to biochemists. The present book also includes a chapter on atomic physics. In that field the same situation exists. However, the aims of this book are quite different from

.. The tragedy, in addition to the personal shock, disrupted a project on which Katchalsky and the author had collaborated: to work out a model integrating the existing biophysical, biochemical and thermodynamic data. Professor Eberhard Neumann, who had spent three years with Katchalsky in the Weizmann Institute, had become greatly interested in the project and in the following years, initially in close collaboration with the author, he succeeded in decisively advancing the project. Preface ix those of the other works cited. It tries to convey to the reader some idea of the intellectual atmosphere prevailing during that period, the enthusiasm and excitement about the spectacular achievements, the feel• ing of a new era in science. The humanistic tradition and the respect for ethical values were very strong. Many of the leaders had been educated in humanistic gymnasiums. The works of Plato, Kant, Goethe, and others were for the scientists of the period described not documents of a forgotten past; their ideas were still very much alive. Many of these scientists were accomplished musicians and loved to play chamber music together. Sharing the same passions and ideals helped forge close ties. The deep devotion to the search for the understanding of nature, the unraveling of its forces and mysteries, was linked to the hope, in fact the firm conviction, that these efforts would contribute to and prepare a better future for mankind. Some of the most significant achievements are mentioned, using language not too technical for many readers. The description of the close collaboration between German and Jewish scientists forms an integral part of the book. Some profiles are given and family backgrounds mentioned, an aspect pertinent for a better understanding of many attitudes, views, psychological factors, and re• actions; some of these may be difficult to understand today without such background. There a~e two reasons for including a few· highlights of atomic physics. First, it was the field in which the greatest break• throughs were made, breakthroughs that have revolutionized all of science in this century. It had and will continue to have the profoundest impact on the fate of society. Second, in no other area was the collabora• tion of the two ethnic groups equally conspicuous and important. The author was fortunate to work for several years in the Kaiser Wilhelm Institutes in Berlin-Dahlem in the second· part of the 1 92OS. He was fortunate to know personally several illustrious scientists work• ing there. The smallness of the institutes and the relatively small number of scientists favored personal contacts between young people and the famous leaders, in contrast to today's giant institutes and their huge number of scientists. Some parts of the book are based not on research and reading of the literature, but on personal recollections and reflec• tions. The author's enthusiasm may have affected his "objectivity." The notion of objectivity is in any event questionable, as every historian knows. Even evaluations of scientific contributions are frequently far from being objective. The author has tried to keep his presentation as close to truth and reality as possible. Ultra posse nemo obligatur. The reader should realize that onl~' a few highlights of the various topics selected have been described. The amount of space devoted to personalities or contributions should not be considered an indication of their importance. The familiarity of the author, the sources readily available to him, and his unequal competence in such a wide area played a role. Overall space considerations were also a factor. x Preface

The presentation of each of the two main fields has been differently organized: that of chemistry, including biochemistry, is subdivided into the description of personalities. In the case of atomic physics such a subdivision appeared more difficult in view of the frequently inseparable interaction between the various concepts and personalities involved. A subdivision of this field based on personalities would lead to many repetitions. Finally, the description of the work, the life, and the personality of the greatest German-Jewish scientist, Albert Einstein, whose one-hundredth birthday is being celebrated in 1979, has been omitted for obvious rea• sons. A vast number of books have been written about him on all levels, and they are readily available. Therefore references to Einstein's work, ideas, or personality have only been made where they seemed essential for the material discussed. The book is a monument to the iIIustrious scientists described. At the same time it is a tribute from the author to all those who-either per• sonally or by their writings-influenced his own scientific and cultural formation.

New York, May 1979 D.N.

Taken in 1920 at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute in Berlin-Dahlem. Standing, left to right: Hugo Grotrian, Wilhelm Westphal, Otto von Baeyer, Peter Pringsheim, Gustav Hertz; Seated, left to right: Hertha Sponer, Albert Einstein, Ingrid Franck, James Franck, Lise Meitner, Fritz Haber, Otto Hahn. Max von Laue Max Planck

James Franck Gustav Hertz Max Born Niels Bohr

Werner Heisenberg Erwin Schrodinger Walther Nernst Fritz Haber

Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn Manfred Eigen Adolf von Baeyer Paul Ehrlich

Richard Willstatter Heinrich Wieland Otto Warburg Otto Meyerhof

Carl Neuberg Gustav Embden Hans Krebs Severo Ochoa

Rudolf Schoenheimer Ernst Chain Table of Contents

Introduction

I. Historical Background 3 A. The Rise of Science in Germany 3 B. Entrance of Jews into German Science 6

II. Atomic Physics in the Early Twentieth Century 2 I A. Developments in Physics in the Late Nineteenth Century 2 I B. The Period Before World War I 26 C. The Twenties 38 D. The Lives of Franck and Born; Gustav Hertz 62 E. Effects on Philosophy and Epistemology 87 F. The Effects on Chemistry, Biochemistry, and Other Fields 106 G. The Late Nineteen-Twenties; Rise of the Nazi Movement 115 H. Nuclear Fission 128 I. Nuclear Energy and the Atom Bomb 137

III. Developments in Chemistry and Physiology in the Nineteenth Century 151 A. Chemistry 151 B. Physiology 158

IV. Chemistry and Biochemistry in the Early 20th Century. The Kaiser Wilhelm Institutes in Berlin-Dahlem 166 A. Fritz Haber (1868-1934) 168 B. Richard Willstatter (1872-1942) 195 C. Otto Heinrich Warburg (1883-1970) 233 D. Otto Meyerhof (1884-1951) 268 E. Carl Neuberg (1877-1956) 311 F. Gustav Embden ( 1874-1933) 327 G. General Growth of German Biochemistry 336 H. Reflections on the Roots and Fruits of the Collaboration between German and Jewish Scientists 338 xviii Contents

V. Worldwide Effects on Biochemistry Due to Nazi Persecution 342 A. Hans A. Krebs (1900- ) 349 B. Severo ()choa (1905- ) 353 C. Rudolf Schoenheimer (1898-1941) 357 D. Ernst B. Chain (1906- ) 360 E. Collaboration between German and Israeli Scientis~s 366

Concluding Remarks: Science and Society 373

References 381 Acknowledgments

The author would like to acknowledge the help of several friends and colleagues in the preparation of the manuscript. In the first place he is most grateful to Professor Hans Herken for reading the whole manuscript and making a number of most valuable suggestions. He thanks Sir Hans Krebs for giving authorization to use his superbly written biographical notes about Otto H. Warburg. Many of the formu• lations were so excellent that some sentences were, with his permission, reproduced without change. Professor John T. Edsall made valuable comments on the portrayal of Otto Meyerhof. This description was endorsed by Professor Severo Ochoa, a close friend of both Meyerhof and the author since 1929, when they met in Meyerhof's laboratory. It was also read by Sir Hans Krebs and Dr. Hermann Blaschko; the latter was also an associate of Meyerhof. Professor Daniel Greenberg went over some parts of the chapter on atomic physics. I greatly appre• ciate the help of Mrs. Elisabeth Heisenberg for providing much impor• tant information about her husband's personality, facts which I did not find anywhere else, and for the permission to mention in the text her still unpublished memoirs about her husband. Mrs. Elisabeth Lisco, the daughter of James Franck and wife of Professor Hermann Lisco, Harvard University, kindly provided the author with the family history of her father. Dr. Irene Forrest, the daughter of Carl Neuberg, was kind enough to read the chapter about her father and to make some correc• tions. Professor Ochoa also read and corrected the pages in which his work is described. Professor Eberhard Neumann kindl~Y helped the author in the discussion of ~ H and ~ G values in the light of non• equilibrium thermodynamics. The author would like to express his appreciation of the help and encouragement of Professor Lewis P. Row- xx Acknowledgments land, chairman of the Department of Neurology, Columbia University, who provided him with the facilities required. The deep devotion and efficiency of Ms. Eva-Renate Busse, and her invaluable help in many respects in preparing the manuscript is gratefully acknowledged. Without the encouragement of many other scientific friends and col• leagues in the United States, Israel, Germany, France and other coun• tries this book would not have been written.