QUORUM The Queenswood Humanities Magazine | Issue 1

IN THIS ISSUE

QUORUM 2 Classical Civilisation What can modern authors learn ...is a reference to the minimum number from ancient writers? of people required on a deliberative Jemima Wolstencroft body to make a binding decision. This magazine embodies that idea; not only 6 History is it the collective product of the Heads Why was Machiavelli’s book The of Department in Humanities, working Prince so controversial? together to promote and make this Bella Massam collaborative record, but it would not be possible were it not for the large body of 13 Geography work the girls produce. Without each other, “The Paris Climate Change this magazine would not happen and so agreement is a ‘game-changer’ it is with some pleasure that we show you and will ensure global action to the heights that can be reached when staff limit carbon emissions.” Discuss. and pupil efforts, decisions and actions Valery Eroshenko come together. In Humanities we feel that this level of academic excellence should be 17 Geography trumpeted and we want to show you what How is Britain changing? the girls are capable of achieving. Many Alice Baker of the essays herein were awarded national recognition from Oxford or Cambridge 22 History and thus represent the cream of national Why did early modern people academic distinction attained again and accuse their neighbours of again by girls here at Queenswood. being witches? Welcome to QUORUM, the Eleanor Smalley Queenswood Humanities Magazine; prepare to be enlightened and impressed by the girls. 29 Religious Studies “Conscience is the super-ego.” Stephen Daughton Discuss Head of Humanities Faculty Meiyin Chen

The image on the cover is the ‘Mappa Mundi’. It is the oldest world map in England. Completed on vellum in the 13th Century, it stands for the HISTORY of this nation. It is a map of the world as people in that time saw it. Their north is our east, so to understand the map you will probably have to rotate the magazine 45 degrees clockwise to recognise it and then our GEOGRAPHY will match theirs. It is based upon the ancient maps of CLASSICAL CIVILISATIONS. It is written in LATIN and shows God, heaven and the angels at the top of the map, the Garden of Eden underneath and various biblical places, such as the Tower of Babel; it is therefore illuminated by RELIGIOUS STUDIES. This image gives a perfect example of how the Humanities complement each other in terms of understanding and, as such, we selected it as our cover image.

1 QUORUM CLASSICS

WHAT CAN MODERN AUTHORS LEARN FROM ANCIENT WRITERS?

Jemima Wolstencroft Highly commended: St John’s College, Oxford Classics and Ancient History Essay Competition

2 QUORUM What can modern authors learn from ancient writers? | Jemima Wolstencroft nterestingly, since the first printing press The parallelism in this couplet creates vivid imagery was not invented until around 1440-1460, of nature making it a pleasant experience to listen ancient writers such as Homer spread their to for the reader. Of course with the invention of works through word of mouth. As a result, the printing press a change in literature was spurred IHomer’s works were less accessible to common on with exhaustive novels becoming popular in people at the time, although the existence of the Victorian era as they possessed a value-for- illuminated manuscripts and the work of late money quality no longer found in short-stories or Antiquity scribes cannot be discredited as without poems. However, modern technology is growing their works most literature of Greece and Rome at an exponential rate, and authors such as Charlie would have perished. Yet the works of ancient Brooker are writing for television and even video writers were written to be spoken, hence great games. Salman Rushdie said if he had his time importance is given to the sounds of words and the again he would write for video games, showing how sentence structure - as is evident in Homer’s Odyssey: words are once again being written to be spoken ‘Apollo, Lord of the silver bow, protector of Chryse and and experienced, not just to be read on a page. It holy Cilla, and mighty ruler of Tenedos.’ is because of this fact that ancient writers are of even more importance today than ever before as This complex sentence is made longer through modern authors/poets can learn from them how Homer’s use of naming places, giving ‘Apollo’ to manipulate words, focusing on their sounds to greater importance as more time is spent describing enthral an audience; for is there any greater orator and introducing him. Arguably there was no than Cicero in his De Oratore? difference between ancient prose and poetry for In an age where we are able to interact with both were written to be sung, with the rhythm of technology, words are not only merely lines on hexameter or pentameter never lost on the ear of a page. I believe modern writers can now learn even the most uneducated listener due to the beauty from ancient writers how to wield words in three of their construction. Ovid’s Amores Book III is a dimensions, employing techniques of artistic merit prime example, where each line is written in strict such as homoioteleuton, parallelism and spondees elegiac couplets which creates a flowing piece: to give rhyme to verse thus capturing the attention ‘ipse sub arboreis vitabam frondibus aestum – fronde sub of listeners. IPods and speakers have enabled arborea sed tamen aestus erat’ people to carry music everywhere; as a result a ‘I escaped the heat under the leafy trees – under a leafy more musically-focused employment of the English tree but it was still burning hot.’ language may help modern writers to gain a wider audience. A prime example of this is Heine’s use of German, though not quite a modern example Heine’s match of German to music had the effect of making him a popular poet as by combining mediums of communication the audience is forced to pay attention, an experience which can perhaps be related to playing a video game such as Grand Theft Auto. Possibly the most obvious connection between ancient and modern writers is that Latin and Greek are the root of English and so surely the study of these languages would give the greatest understanding of literature – helping to improve the writings of modern authors? Yet, a plethora of new things have been discovered/created since the time of the ancient writers and so our language has changed. However, the existence of the Academie Française who work to ensure no English words

3 QUORUM What can modern authors learn from ancient writers? | Jemima Wolstencroft become part of the French language demonstrates The Homecoming in which pauses are used to how some people believe languages should keep make the audience come to their own conclusions. to their roots. Modern authors/poets can therefore Pinter’s use of the audience can be related to ancient learn from ancient writers how to see past modern writers such as Cicero in In Verrem. By addressing acronyms to portray their views in different ways to the Judges (‘Iudices’) or directly addressing the others of their time. I think that language constructs person in question (Verres) as ‘homo’ – ‘that man’ the way we think and view things and that by – and through the use of rhetorical questions naming an object or feeling we are able to interpret the audiences’ own morality is questioned. This it. The perfect example of this being words which demonstrates how modern authors should learn to cannot be translated e.g. ‘shantih’, which means interact with their audience more in order to achieve ‘the peace that passes all understanding’ yet there their desired effect. is no English equivalent therefore it is beyond our The Art of Poetry by Horace exemplifies scope of understanding, as without a name of ‘it’ techniques to be learnt from ancient writers, yet the how can we know it exists? So many new words rigid structure of e.g. Ovid’s Amores is the antithesis have been created; surely we interpret the world of the common free verse style often found today differently now than Ancient writers ever could as by poets such as Sylvia Plath, for example in new technologies, e.g. advancements in robotics, ‘Daddy’. Therefore what can we learn from these have led to a whole new genre of fiction, Sci-fi, such old grammatical techniques? Are they outdated? No. as MaddAddam by Margaret Atwood. Furthermore The ancients’ rigid structure, I believe, stems from perhaps the reason why the ancient writers seem their search for reason; they are reflecting their own so competent to speak about their world and structured society through their poetic techniques. humanity is because the world was simpler then, Today, surrounded by cameras and within a society demonstrating that a lesson to be learnt from the where we are constantly watched, the modern poets ancient writers is that we must focus on one feeling, use un-controlled means of expressing themselves in one human emotion in order to adequately portray order to escape the constricted society in which they it; and, in extension of that idea, perhaps the most live. So what can we learn from the ancients if our beautiful of works are the ones left open to the worlds have changed so much? interpretation of the reader. ‘pictoribus atque poetis quidlibet audendi semper fuit aequa A modern example of potestas’ this can be found in ‘But painters and poets have always shared the right to Harold Pinter’s dare anything’. plays such as Perhaps modern authors and poets can learn to take more risk, to learn from the ancients’ affinity to turn life into works of art as Grayson Perry highlighted in the 2013 Reith Lectures, ‘What Has Happened to the Avant-Garde?’. Horace, in ‘the pleasures of country life’ suggests a feeling of nostalgia is to be granted from our ancestors: ‘beatus ille qui procul negotiis, ut prisca gens mortalium’ ‘Happy is he who is far from business, like the ancient race of mortals.’ Horace is insinuating that merely because it is human nature to dislike change then we must therefore revert to old ways. Although one may argue that this idea cannot be conducive to new works, it represents another example of what modern poets/authors can learn from ancient writers, and that their works can still act as the basis

4 QUORUM to works today. Moreover, I believe writing has come to mean less in this modern day. Technology has given us the ability, as soon as a thought enters our head, to be able to be note it down with the greatest constraint of freedom to write being that one may only ‘tweet’ 140 characters at one time. Word order is less and less considered. Catullus in ‘Poem 13’ shows the opposite of this in ‘Catullus invites a friend to dinner’, which contains the lines ‘deos rogabis, totum ut te faciant, Fabulle, nasum’ ‘You will ask the gods, to make you all nose Fabullus’. Catullus has used unusual word order in this sentence to put ‘nasum’ – ‘nose’ at the end of the line adding weight to it. This has the effect that when the line is read emphasis is put on the perception of life at the time of the ancients has pleasure Fabullus will experience from smelling been entirely comprised from the nature of their the ‘perfume of his girl’. This shows a lesson to be writings and so if modern writers mearly copy what learnt from Horace when he said writers have dared has been said before, to future generations it will to do anything, that the modern writer has lost the seem as though no change has taken place. Therefore ability to play with words and the confidence to the lesson to be learnt from this is that we must give alter sentence construction as they subconsciously a more objective view of our lives; by this I mean conform to the standard English rules of word that modern authors and poets must learn to convey order. For these ancient writers made the rules of true emotion in their writings rather than copying grammar; if they broke them why shouldn’t we? what others have merely said before. The question It is outlined in the ‘Dictum of Goethe’ that a then arises: what is most important to write about? man never understands his mother tongue until That too I think has been predetermined for us as he has mastered some foreign language. From it is the works of the ancient writers that have put this I infer that to grasp another tongue one must importance on emotions such as love and jealousy as experiment in it and that within this process the in Tacitus’ Nero and Agrippina. experimentation transcends across into the mother In conclusion, the lesson to be learnt from tongue, which is conducive to new works therefore ancient writers is the ability to manipulate the demonstrating what should be learnt from ancient sounds of words to help convey meaning – joining writers is a confidence in your own language. mediums in our now multi-media world. In Yet, what can we learn from these dead addition, by reverting to the artistic uses of grammar languages when ‘text speak’ is the new elegy? The as portrayed in the works of the ancient writers celebrities of the ancient writers were mythical modern authors and poets can learn again the figures such as Hippodamia, and to compare a importance of the ‘lilt’ of words and use this to their woman to a myth was the greatest compliment. This advantage to help engage their audience. Finally, is the antithesis of today’s equivalent which is, in they can learn the importance of changing ancient contrast, the likes of Justin Bieber demonstrating works through different grammar techniques and how different today’s culture is compared to that new words in order to create new pieces that are true of Ancient Greece or Rome. As can be ascertained reflections of society today, as Aristotle said; ‘the aim from one glance at the Daily Mail website the of art is to represent not the outward appearance of majority of the population delight at seeing the things, but their inward significance’ demonstrating exploits of our stars rather than their conquests as how it is not important to recreate the works of the was more commonly practised at the time of ancient ancient writers but to make them relatable to the writers. Although our cultures appear different, our people of today in order to give them significance.

5 QUORUM HISTORY

WHY WAS MACHIAVELLI’S BOOK THE PRINCE SO CONTROVERSIAL?

Bella Massam Highly commended: Peterhouse College, Cambridge Vellacott History Prize

6 QUORUM Why was Machiavelli’s book The Prince so controversial? | Bella Massam y presenting Lorenzo de’ Medici with his role in the political world, far more than God’s treatise The Prince, Machiavelli followed will or grace. “Near the beginning of Chapter 25, the contemporary custom of giving gifts Machiavelli suggests that what is generally meant by Bto rulers, and the literary tradition of the ancient God is really nothing but chance”1. This, combined “mirror for princes” genre (in which rulers are with his frequent references to Roman glory and the given advice on conduct and governance), in that achievements of Romulus, without any recognition he sought to give Lorenzo de’ Medici guidance. of one of the Church’s strongest pillars (the so- However, Machiavelli’s treatise ignored traditional called divine right of kings, which encouraged values and focussed solely on the procurement rulers to be devout) was enough for many to of power. Such an ostensibly immoral work accuse Machiavelli of atheism, a serious crime in was always likely to create conflict in volatile that era. The Church’s attitude of condemnation Renaissance Europe. In presenting mankind as had instrumental influence in encouraging other egotistical and superficial, and despotism as the criticisms and condemnations amongst theorists and preferred quality to morality in a ruler, Machiavelli commentators over whether the ideas laid out in attacked contemporary Humanist ideals of the self The Prince were defensible, as it had high influence and of monarchs. He demonstrated the fallacy at this time. It indoctrinated the Papal-approved of ecclesiastical kingdoms, causing the Church, theses and had much control of historical records a powerful voice at this time and for centuries to during a period in which the majority remained come, to widely condemn the treatise. Yet others, illiterate. Equally, The Prince includes attacks on the such as Sir Francis Bacon, who opined that “We Catholic Church itself. The famous last chapter are much beholden to Machiavel and others that of the text (“An Exhortation to Deliver Italy from write what men do and not what they ought to the Barbarians”) is nothing less than a call to arms; do” found the book indispensable for its unusually “it is manifest how prone and ready she [Italy] is pragmatic attitude. Thus, The Prince in itself to follow the banner that any man will take up”. became a controversial work. Its purpose has been Machiavelli asserts that Lorenzo de’ Medici will a controversy in itself amongst philosophers for receive God’s help as Moses did; although “God centuries, with theorists as famous as Rousseau will not do everything immediately, because He will giving opinions on its ulterior motive. In addition, not deprive of us of our free will and the honour partially due to the ongoing controversy over the that devolves upon us”. Machiavelli, as a layperson, book itself, such a stigma grew up around The Prince claimed God’s authority for war and presumed to and its author that the book became controversial know God’s intentions, which would have been even amongst those who had not read it or whose extremely aggravating and even borderline heretical knowledge of The Prince was superficial. to churchmen, especially Catholics concerned over The Prince, published after Machiavelli’s death the rising tide of Protestant lay questioning of in 1532, shocked the ecclesiastical world, which Papal doctrine. Additionally, claiming that a war was already in turmoil due to the Reformation and was God’s will was always historically a matter for Counter Reformation. Machiavelli’s books were the Church and not laymen to decide. Therefore, included in the first Index Librorum Prohibitorum “His [Machiavelli’s] secularism and rejection of (list of banned books), and condemned by Pope ecclesiastical supremacy roused the hostility of the Clement VII. Any work so flagrantly contradicting Jesuits and evoked bitter attacks on his life and the love-thy-neighbour doctrine of the Church ideas”2. Additionally, Machiavelli states that in (“a prince, then, is not to regard the scandal unifying Italy, Lorenzo de’ Medici would accomplish of being cruel, if thereby he keeps his subjects God’s will, although a successful prince should avoid in their allegiance and united” [Chapter 17]) reliance upon the unpredictable Papal elections, and encouraging malevolent ambition would as Cesare Borgia’s downfall had proved [Chapter undoubtedly attract heavy criticism merely for 7]. Thus, dependency on the church was presented reasons of Christian morality. Likewise, it has as inadvisable. The troublesome aspect here is, as The Prince frequently been inferred that is an atheist 1 work. In The Prince, Machiavelli discusses Fortuna’s Leo Strauss, Machiavelli’s Intention: The Prince 2 Norman Wilde, Machiavelli

7 QUORUM Why was Machiavelli’s book The Prince so controversial? | Bella Massam Reformation inflamed Church controversy, the Pope found Machiavelli’s atheist outlook and rejection of ecclesiastical authority intolerable. The attitude of the Christian Church was one of disapproval. Such apparent opposition to the Church could not be tolerated in this time of escalating religious controversy; the Protestant Reformation had begun less than twenty years before the publication of The Prince and continued to divide Europe. Both Protestants and Catholics appear to have used the libel of being influenced by The Prince and Machiavelli against their religious opponents, further tarnishing Machiavelli’s reputation and thus causing The Prince to become even more controversial. For example, Cardinal Pole of England, a fervent Catholic who held the office of Cardinal under Mary I, was amongst those who used the persistent attitude to Machiavelli’s The Prince as slander. Pole’s attacks employing the negative associations with Machiavelli’s name have a fundamentally religious dynamic; he wrote that The Prince had been written “by Satan’s hand”. Pole, who as a Catholic clergyman is very likely to have been biased against The Prince, related that Thomas Cromwell, Lord Chancellor of England during the Strauss notes, “The liberation of Italy, which requires Reformation, advised him to read Machiavelli in the unification of Italy, requires therefore eventually place of the likes of Plato. However, Pole held the the secularization of the Papal States”. Machiavelli Protestant Cromwell responsible for his exile from has drawn the parallel of God’s desire for a unified the country; in attempting to restore Catholicism, Italy, and a unified Italy that can only be achieved Pole sought to denounce the Reformation; and it is by the diminishing of Papal power, an action that questionable whether Cromwell had even actually seems almost guaranteed to create disapproval read any Machiavelli at the time. It seems that amongst Catholic clergy. Strauss speculates, Pole used the name and the book as an attempt although there is no conclusive evidence, that the to discredit Cromwell, and even Protestants in Church became aware of this heretical implication general; The Prince, as has been outlined, can be and therefore moved to ban the treatise. Thus, The interpreted as more fundamentally Protestant Prince became controversial due to its relatively anti- than Catholic. Not only does Pole’s attitude Papal stance. There also remains the supposition demonstrate the state of Machiavelli’s reputation that The Prince refers at least in part to the Papal at the time, Pole’s opinions upon and reference court; “The Pope’s Court strictly prohibited this to Machiavelli’s The Prince seem to have caused book, which I can well believe, since that was the that reputation to further deteriorate; “It is no court he [Machiavelli] depicts most plainly”3. If the exaggeration to say that upon this declaration of Church thought likewise, there would have been Pole’s has been established Machiavelli’s influence… yet another reason for it to condemn The Prince. on all sixteenth-century English statesmen”4 . It As the Church had such power over contemporary could be speculated that both Protestants and influence it is likely that this controversy was Catholics had realised the potential success of such instrumental in shaping the negative reception of an attack. Innocent Gentillet, who published The Prince. As the Reformation and Counter-

3 Rousseau, The Social Contract 4 Weissberger, Machiavelli in Tudor England

8 QUORUM Why was Machiavelli’s book The Prince so controversial? | Bella Massam his Anti-Machiavel5 in 1576, seems to have been controversy due to the association of Machiavelli’s amongst the first to associate Machiavelli with name with religious deviousness. Catholic criminality, earning Machiavelli’s name The Prince was also condemned in lay circles, and treatise much dislike in the Protestant world. although it is unlikely that their condemnation Gentillet describes Machiavelli as the “inspiration of was uninfluenced by the political atmosphere and detestable policies adopted by the French court, and attitude of such a powerful entity as the Church. in particular by the Italians and Italianate courtiers Machiavelli had explained concepts that were who held sway over the Kingdom of France”. He inflammatory for both religious and purely moral theorized that these Catholic Italians were all reasons; “he seemed to have disrupted the ordered, followers of Machiavelli’s doctrine and went on God-centred Catholic universe which imposed to blame Machiavellian thinking as a cause of the proper limits on purely human ambition and upon St Bartholomew’s Day Massacre of 1572. This is purely political values”7. Whether or not those an excellent example of how an action that might who so freely criticised Machiavelli had in fact read be perceived as “Machiavellian” – cunning and only Innocent Gentillet’s treatise, (a thesis Edward unscrupulous – was often attributed to Machiavelli Meyer began in 1897 by suggesting that this was despite the lack of any reason to suppose the the course of events amongst English noblemen), perpetrator had ever read The Prince. “It may not it is clear that The Prince shocked contemporary be too much to say that it was St Bartholomew’s Eve society. This controversy over immorality was that turned Englishmen from a relatively favourable heightened by the common perception of Italy. reading of Machiavelli and caused them to recast his Englishmen of the period, in addition to the image in a Satanic mould”6 – Gentillet’s propaganda Protestant French amongst a large number of those being the cause of this erroneous interpretation. who opposed Catholicism, associated Italians with Gentillet’s assertion that a horrific “Machiavellian” the hated Papacy, political cunning and immorality. action perpetrated by Catholics was directly due to The Prince not only strengthened this attitude, it The Prince causes his doctrine to be fundamentally seemingly justified and even encouraged it. The flawed, inaccurate and a useful propaganda tool for moral questions surrounding Machiavelli were the Protestant Huguenots. However, Gentillet’s extended as he became the personification of attacks were highly influential in causing many to all the evils attributed to Italy. For the nobility turn from Machiavelli and began a long tradition in particular, controversy over universal morals of automatic refusal of Machiavellianism in was heightened by another fear. Ambition Europe, as well as the association of Machiavelli and aspirations were not viewed as positive with Catholicism and actions perceived as characteristics in countries where a system that was “Machiavellian”. Thus, The Prince and its author essentially feudal was beginning to disintegrate. quickly gained a self-reinforcing reputation of Machiavelli seems to actively encourage the Italian Catholic villainy according to Protestants and terrifying rise of self-made men, such as Wolsey and of Protestant atheist heresy according to Catholics. Cromwell. In the later sixteenth and seventeenth This controversy and these attitudes inevitably centuries, the nobility were aware of the dawn of the coloured the popular imagination of what The age in which birth was not necessarily a prerequisite Prince contained. Consequently, the European to power and of the threat such people would pose Churches and especially the Papacy objected to what to them. Other morals than kindness were being was actually stated and implied in The Prince, and disputed here; naturally a book that encouraged as both Protestants and Catholics used Machiavelli’s this threatening ambition would be condemned. name as a term of slander to discredit their religious However, Machiavelli’s theorems found some enemies, The Prince became embroiled in religious support. Sir Francis Bacon held a positive opinion 5 Innocent Gentillet, Discours sur les moyens de bien gouverner et of Machiavelli’s practicality. Henry Parker, Lord maintenir en bon paix un Royaume ou autre Principalité, Divisés Morely, commended The Prince to Thomas un trois partis; asavoir du Conseil, de la Religion et Police que Cromwell in 1537, as “a very special good thing doit tenir un Prince. Contre Nicholas Machiavel Florentin for your lordship… as I suppose your self [sic] shall 6 Christopher Morris, Machiavelli’s Reputation in Tudor England 7 Christopher Morris, ibid.

9 QUORUM Why was Machiavelli’s book The Prince so controversial? | Bella Massam judge when ye have seen the same”. Interestingly, propaganda, heavily influenced by Gentillet and Bacon and Morely, amongst other Elizabethans such Pole, condemning Machiavelli and ascribing The as the satirical dramatist John Marston, all took the Prince to the opposing Church. This reputation position of admirers of Machiavelli’s pragmatism for moral indefensibility was self-reinforcing. For and honesty, and we know that at least two of many it became almost impossible to disassociate Henry VIII’s officials could “quote Machiavelli the infamous Florentine with The Prince due with approval”8. Later, Spinoza’s representation of to the contemporary popular culture. The Machiavelli as a republican satirist indicates that tradition of Machiavelli as a character, or a name the defence of Machiavelli was not confined to that could immediately create association with Britain. Nevertheless, that Voltaire aided Frederick villainy, is thought to have begun in earnest with the Great with the composition of a second Anti- Christopher Marlowe, who in writing The Jew of Machiavel, a chapter-by-chapter refutation of The Malta became the first person to actually have a Prince, demonstrates that the traditional view of character on stage called Machiavel – evidently, by Machiavelli as a conniving and disreputable atheist the first performance of this play in 1592 it was was still widely accepted in Europe two hundred a sufficiently notorious name to be immediately years after publication. Hence there was a strong recognised by the public and instantly associated moral controversy surrounding the book, over with villainy. This demonstrates the growing whether the ambition and pragmatism it advised reputation of The Prince as an immoral work and was sinful, and whether its author was forgivable. reflects the popular interpretations of Machiavelli Due to the reputation of The Prince, people and The Prince at that time. As Marlowe was one sought automatically to condemn it or feared of the foremost playwrights of the day, his views to condone it; as Machiavelli’s name became a would also have encouraged other dramatists to synonym for deviousness, the text became seen imitate the successful character and reference to the as morally indefensible even amongst those further detriment of the reputation of The Prince. who had very little idea of what the treatise The following lines demonstrate the hypocrisy actually contained. Therefore, The Prince became surrounding Machiavelli at the time; continuously more controversial. This problem “Though some speak openly against my books of reputation was increased by the religious Yet will they read me.” Other sections of the prologue delivered by the character, such as references to the leader of the St Bartholomew’s Day Massacres, indicate the popularity of Gentillet’s thesis. It is estimated that Machiavelli is mentioned 400 times in Elizabethan drama, in which he was represented as Catholic, Jewish, Spanish, Italian, French, an atheist, a confidence trickster, a tyrant, an usurper, a conspirator, a rebel, a poisoner, an usurer, a bastard, an idiot and as a person of colour; all characteristics which the Elizabethans associated with villainy. This kind of all-pervasive notoriety would of course lead to Machiavelli’s works being automatically dismissed as evil by those who had not read them, and at least in part defended by those who had. The difficulties here added more controversy to The Prince, originally based upon its moral and religiously shocking content; due to what the name Machiavelli had come to be associated with, in comparison to what the book actually stated and the Christopher Marlowe ostensible purposes of the work – and the fact that 8 Christopher Morris, ibid.

10 QUORUM Why was Machiavelli’s book The Prince so controversial? | Bella Massam despite its continually reported iniquity, it evidently a new reading of Machiavelli that would see The continued to be read. Prince as a genuine cry for a republic based upon Having been roundly criticised by both the those who can be so powerful; “when the people Protestant and Catholic churches, and its moral are adverse the prince can never be safe” [Chapter value earnestly debated, The Prince became a 9, The Prince]. Thus there was a minor controversy source of conflict amongst philosophers and amongst these philosophers. Nevertheless, these theorists. Although The Prince seems to be two similar theses are also controversial when guidance for tyrants, there remains a strong considered together, because their central idea has school of academic thought, originating with been widely criticised as groundless; “a picture seventeenth and eighteenth-century republicans, prepared for the people would hardly have been holding that Machiavelli’s ideas in writing The consigned to the custody of a single individual, Prince were fundamentally republican. This and least of all to that of him who would have the thesis was in accordance most to apprehend from with the concepts that its publicity”10. This Machiavelli’s other works, conflict over noble such as The Discourses republicanism also on Livy, may suggest, seems incompatible (“For a Monarchy readily with the continued becomes a Tyranny”) perception, beginning although it contrasted with Gentillet’s Anti- with those who feel that Machiavel, continuing he aimed to promote through Frederick the absolute monarchy. For Great’s treatise, and example, Rousseau “chose lasting until present-day to reconcile The Prince with academic circles, that Machiavelli’s republican Machiavelli was simply works by insisting that teaching immorality; for it was a “handbook for a recent example, “We republicans” under the have noted his [Strauss’] guise of giving advice to intent to prove that kings”9. Rousseau believed Machiavelli’s teaching that by revealing the true Lorenzo de’ Medici is both immoral and nature of royal power, Machiavelli intended to spark irreligious”11. During the period that Rousseau, a revolution, and went on to describe Machiavelli Diderot and Spinoza defended Machiavelli, many himself as “a good citizen”. Certainly, the last still believed that “Machiavelli was the main chapter of The Prince, in which Machiavelli asks for source of… tyranny… justified arbitrary rule”12. a strong and unified Italy rather than the complex Montesquieu’s cautious attitude demonstrated the division into kingdoms in the area at that time, force of Machiavelli’s reputation; he “disassociated leaves no doubt that Machiavelli was indeed an [sic] Machiavelli from Machiavellism [sic] … Italian nationalist. However, others such as Diderot but declined to offer testimony in Machiavelli’s and Spinoza thought that The Prince was a satire; defense [sic] … Doubtless his primary reason was “The Prince must have been intended as a satire that he feared the negative force of Machiavelli’s to warn men of what tyrants could be and do, the reputation. Voltaire… was quick to charge guilt better to resist them” [Spinoza]. This thesis is not by association”13 and Voltaire’s influence with incompatible with Rousseau’s conception of The the Anti-Machiavel seems to show that he was as Prince as a republican treatise, although it should 10 Machiavelli (from an article in The North American Review, not be considered identical as Rousseau advocated 1835) 11 Robert McShea, Leo Strauss on Machiavelli 9 LA McKenzie, Rousseau’s Debate with Machiavelli in the Social 12 LA McKenzie, ibid. Contract 13 LA McKenzie, ibid.

11 QUORUM Why was Machiavelli’s book The Prince so controversial? | Bella Massam opposed to The Prince having any sort of moral as the book raised criticism in England and in France Diderot, Rousseau and Spinoza were convinced it for its immorality, whilst other notaries chose was in written in accord with republicanism. Hence to defend it. This issue was complicated by the it is clear that the Enlightenment philosophers popular image of the book’s author and its contents held incompatible views on the ultimate purpose which was further corrupted by Elizabethan of Machiavelli’s work, despite the assertion in dramatists and the continuing influences of Pole the Introduction that seems to indicate that and Gentillet. As can be seen by Frederick the Machiavelli’s object was to ingratiate himself Great’s decision to pen an Anti-Machiavel over two with the new Prince; “Being ambitious to present centuries since the publication of The Prince, this myself to your Highness with some testimony of moral dilemma continued in strength for many my devotions towards you” [The Prince, Niccolò years. Around the time of the publication of the Machiavelli to the Most Illustrious Lorenzo, Son of second Anti-Machiavel, European philosophers Piero de’ Medici]. Thus it is clear that controversy began to theorize in earnest about Machiavelli’s over Machiavelli’s own intentions has played a large intention in writing The Prince. Whether part in the modern-day reading of the text; these Machiavelli did intend to manipulate his way back differing interpretations have divided theorists and into a political position, to inspire the Risorgimento academics since The Prince became available to almost four hundred years too soon, or merely them. to teach immorality caused controversy amongst In conclusion, since its publication in 1532, Enlightenment thinkers as the question still does Machiavelli’s book The Prince has been controversial amongst today’s academics. It is fascinating to note at different times for different classes of people. an American newspaper of 1835 describe how “the Upon its publication in Italy it was met with a storm dark colouring with which calumny had surrounded of protest in the Church. The Prince contradicted all him, has passed away … [from] the dignified and that the Church taught; in the treatise, Machiavelli faithful ambassador of his country…the versatile ignores, criticises or condemns the concepts of genius”. However, modern connotations of the kindness to others, respect for the Papacy and adjective “Machiavellian” demonstrate that the belief in the Pope’s right to ecclesiastical kingdoms. perception of The Prince remains even to this day Such a work was unlikely to be tolerated for a long highly influenced by the critics and slanderers period of time by a Papacy that felt itself threatened such as Marlowe, Pole and Gentillet. For much by the rise of the Reformation. This controversy of the controversy that surrounds The Prince quickly came to be involved in the much wider today is indistinguishable from Machiavelli’s not religious controversy of Catholics and Protestants. entirely deserved nefarious reputation, which links Both churches accused the other of having been inextricably to the ethical dilemma with which the influenced by the immoral work. Contemporarily, author confronts us.

Florence in the 15th century

12 QUORUM GEOGRAPHY

“THE PARIS CLIMATE CHANGE AGREEMENT IS A ‘GAME-CHANGER’ AND WILL ENSURE GLOBAL ACTION TO LIMIT CARBON EMISSIONS.” DISCUSS

Valery Eroshenko Highly commended: Fitzwilliam College, Oxford Land Economy Essay Competition

t is not a secret that the modern world develops and ice has diminished and the sea level has risen. exponentially, and therefore it is tremendously From 1901 to 2010, the global average sea level important to keep the inputs and outputs of rose by 19cm as oceans expanded due to warming, Imaterial in equilibrium without them clashing glacier calving and melting. The sea ice extent in too much. By “material” we could mean many the Arctic has shrunk in every successive decade things: energy, fuels, biomass, carbon dioxide. since 1979, with 1.07 × 106 km² of ice loss per Even though the carbon cycle is a closed system, decade. Most aspects of climate change will persist it changes dynamically within itself. Nowadays, for many centuries, even if emissions are stopped the problem of global warming is met with serious at this moment. The average global sea level has concern for various reasons. From 1880 to 2012, risen nearly 178mm over the past 100 years. the average global temperature increased by 0.85°C. Aquifers containing reserves of drinking water will Oceans have become warmer, the amount of snow be contaminated with salted sea water as a result.

13 QUORUM The Paris Climate Change Agreement is a ‘game-changer’. Discuss | Valery Eroshenko Some communities are already investing in costly climate action plan, known as an INDC, and will be desalination plants in anticipation of hard times responsible for reporting their progress every 5 years. ahead, however this process is very expensive and The EU has led the way with an ambitious aim: to time-consuming. reduce carbon and other gas emissions by 40% over What makes CO2 so harmful for the the next 15 years. environment? It is the ability of carbon dioxide Why can this be a possible game changer? to reflect UV light, prohibiting the reflected sun First of all, the three things that really distinguish rays from leaving the stratosphere, which leads to this agreement from any previous are transparency, the troposphere warming up as if in a greenhouse. support and adequateness. Moreover, the lifespan of CO2 is uncommonly The backbone of the Paris Agreement is the long, compared to other gases. It is removed from transparency mechanism, which is fully described in the atmosphere by slower processes that take up Article 13. Because of a principle of Common But to several hundreds of thousands of years, such as Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR), INDCs chemical weathering and rock formation. Between or the Parties’ Intended Nationally Determined 65% and 80% of CO2 available in the air is Contributions will restrain a huge amount of dissolved in the ocean over a period of 20–200 variance in both format and ambition. This used to years. All of that means that once in the atmosphere, be a nightmare for transparency and accounting, carbon dioxide can continue to affect the climate for presenting the erosion of governmental authority thousands of years. and promoting corruption. Finally, the new Nowadays, when the carbon dioxide levels in transparency mechanism has been introduced, the air are at their highest in 650,000 years, it is which is going to be negotiated by 2018, and time for action to take place. The Paris Climate fully adopted in 2020. People are becoming aware Change Agreement is the international climate of what actions have been taken to be able to regime, which is built upon a clear understanding contribute. There are verifications and certifications of the threats posed by climate change. It entered of emissions reduction, including a mechanism that into force on 4 November 2016. It was the first promotes compliance in a non-adversarial manner, time all the major carbon-emitting nations agreed and reports annually to the COP. Result-based to stand together and publicly acknowledged payments have been introduced, which even further the threat climate change poses for the global supports the effectiveness of a treatment, motivating community. The language and tone of the the country and highlighting the transparency of all conference and the subsequent report indicated a of the operations. real change of direction and also set an unexpectedly The agreement requests the secretariat ambitious goal. The Paris Agreement’s central aim to systematically publish on the UNFCCC is to strengthen the global response to the threat website all parties’ low greenhouse gas emission of climate change. It does so by keeping global development strategies as communicated, in order temperature rise this century well below 2 degrees to facilitate clarity and understanding. This would Celsius above pre-industrial levels and to pursue include quantifiable data on the time frames, efforts to limit the temperature increase even further planning processes, limitations, assumptions and to 1.5 degrees Celsius. Furthermore, the Agreement methodological approaches. Moreover, there would aims to provide the support and finances as means be an estimation and accounting for anthropogenic for countries to efficiently fight this problem greenhouse gas emissions and, as appropriate, and overcome its impacts with a climate-resilient removals. All of the above would reflect how the pathway. To reach these ambitious goals, appropriate party considers that its nationally determined mobilisation and provision of financial resources, a contribution is fair and ambitious. new technology framework and enhanced capacity- The Kyoto Protocol, which was the first attempt building are to be put in place, thus supporting to combat the greenhouse effect, was adopted in action by developing countries and the most 1997, with a target to commit its parties by setting vulnerable countries, in line with their own national internationally binding emission reduction targets. objectives. Moreover, each country must produce a Twenty years have passed and the world is still

14 QUORUM The Paris Climate Change Agreement is a ‘game-changer’. Discuss | Valery Eroshenko fighting to strengthen the global response in the policy in favour of a more manifold and inclusive Paris Agreement. approach. By support, I mean finances and their Parties are ready to carry out further actions contribution to allow low-income countries to in all aspects of their objective such as agriculture, participate in the convention as they have certified energy and natural resources. They are trying to strategies and regulations. The Paris Agreement sets popularise eco-education in public places and a newly qualified goal of 100 billion US dollars, introduce eco-tourism, reinforcing fines for ‘carbon- taking into account the needs of developing positive’ tourists. The Convention also obliges countries. Incentives for reducing emissions from parties to share technology and to cooperate in other deforestation and sustainable management of forests ways to reduce GHG emissions, especially from by the Green Climate Fund have been introduced. energy, transport, industry, agriculture, forestry and Parties also submit to the secretariat their nationally waste management. determined contributions, for example sustainability However, this agreement contains quite a broad plans and deforestation fines at least 12 months in range of disadvantages, the severity of which may advance of the meeting, therefore we can see there is lead to a failure. To deliver and plan the actual work more control. of cutting emissions, member governments will Adequateness is key, meaning that the require outstanding levels of support from finance, achievable goals can be reached step by step. Carbon industry, infrastructure and energy technologists, dioxide removal is a very delicate process, especially not to mention the private sector. Only by creating when everything in the world is interrelated. The a mechanism for those fields to work together will issue has gone so far that it is absolutely impossible it be possible to bring the agreement to fruition. to aim for big reductions in a small time, as it Some would argue that the Paris Agreement alone used to be in the past. The agreement provides a will barely get human society started on the road to schedule for member-countries to take stock of their dealing with the global warming issue. The aims are emissions reduction commitments and make extra too weak and the governance is too uncertain. pledges. Moreover, a moral issue arises. While the USA The long-term target of the convention is to and other developed nations are able to cut their send a bold signal to the world’s financial markets emissions, countries like China and India did not that fossil fuels or any other forms of non-renewable have enough time in the past to industrialise and energy sources are on their way out, and that there invest in their trade, whereas now they are evolving should be a massive increase in investment in clean exponentially. Is it right to prohibit them from energy. One of the most prominent achievements of economic opportunities by cutting their emissions, the Paris Agreement was the dissolution of the ‘one especially in countries with such large populations? size fits all’ model of international environmental The Agreement as it stands will not prevent a The Paris Climate Change Agreement is a ‘game-changer’. Discuss | Valery Eroshenko catastrophe. The UN itself is clear that the current will need to be invested in the next 25 years – now pledges of emissions cuts do not yet set the world renewables make economic sense there is no reason on course for a 1.5 Celsius temperature rise. We for that new energy infrastructure to be anything are heading instead for a 2.6 Celsius rise. Of 161 other than clean. Our main objective is to make countries who have submitted data, just eight reach it actually happen. On the other hand, the new the category of ‘fully consistent’. Roughly half ideology has even drawn in sub-national participants the countries are ‘not consistent’, and so are on a and has introduced huge revenue streams. By the 2.5–3 Celsius pathway. The remaining 45%, which time COP21 started the NAZCA portal, listed includes South Africa, Australia, Canada, Japan and nearly 11,000 commitments from 2,250 cities, South Korea, are so inadequate as to place us on a 2,025 companies and 424 investors. 3–4 Celsius trajectory. The Paris Agreement The US has always been one supplies a framework, of the biggest carbon emitter, and allowing individual countries due to Obama’s carbon action plan and alliances of countries it had a chance to develop into a to achieve the overall goal ‘carbon-positive’ nation. However, of the Convention and the the new president does not seem Agreement according to quite as keen on resolving the their own capacities. The global problem. Mr Trump, whose risk remains, however, in the words have recently become a very negligent and irresponsible hot topic, called climate change a attitude and insufficient “hoax invented by the Chinese”. contribution of individual Mr President has promised to countries to the overall goal. undo Obama’s climate action Without enough financial plan and defund UN climate change orgainsations, and active support, and collective effort, the Paris which might be one of the reasons for the failure Agreement will remain a hollow shell unable to of the Paris Agreement, as America is one of the address the issue of climate change. biggest investors. In the long term, the collaborative approach of The skills that are vital to negotiate the the Paris Agreement should provide a sound basis agreement differ from those needed to deliver it. The for international cooperation on climate change. economic upswing opportunities are obtainable. For In a positive prognosis, the INDCs should become example, investment in renewable energy continues more ambitious and far reaching, given that the to grow. In 2015 it was $286 billion, compared climate change mitigation costs have decreased with just $130 billion for fossil fuel power plants. due to the willing support of technological Even though plants for renewables are costly, they advancements and alternative energy systems. The do not need any additional outlay as such. Wind current goal is achievable, but only as long as the plants, solar panels and tidal power do not have countries consider themselves responsible for the any running costs. Forecasts expect $12.1 trillion diligent adherence to the plan.

16 QUORUM GEOGRAPHY

HOW IS BRITAIN CHANGING?

Alice Baker Royal Geographical Society Young Geographer of the Year Award Entrant

ritain has changed significantly in the past 300 years. We have been through the industrial revolution, two world wars and, most recently, a referendum that will change British society as we know Bit today. One of the most prevailing issues facing Britain is migration, with EU net migration at around 180,000 since 2015. In 2011 the UK had the second highest population of foreign born people (8.0 million) after Germany (11.3 million). The UK also had the third highest population of foreign nationals (5.1 million) after Germany (6.1 million) and Spain (5.2 million). A recent study revealed that of the British population, 76% want immigration reduced, 4% wanted it increased. 14% want it unchanged. So what are the arguments for and against and what does it all mean for Britain?

17 QUORUM How is Britain changing? | Alice Baker Increase in Labour Force and total To cope, huge amounts of money would have to domestic demand be invested in the expansion of schools, roads, Between September 2013 and September 2014, the rail, health etc. but even the extra tax revenue majority of non-British citizens came in order to would not be enough for the development of such find a job. 36% came to study and only 16% arrived infrastructure. for family reasons. This means that migrants are To meet the increased need for housing, it most likely to be of a working age, resulting in an is estimated that Britain needs to build 240 000 increase in the labour force and a greater potential homes each year (nearly one every two minutes) output capacity for the British economy. Data has and official data shows that over the last 15 years, also shown that the number of working-age foreign- two thirds of the additional households in the UK born people in the UK increased from 2.9 million were sold to immigrants. But to accommodate the in 1993 to 6.6 million in 2014 which has helped surge in the population, we may be forced to build contribute to the growth in our economy. on greenfield sites. Greenfield sites are areas of land As well as providing labour, migrants also which are currently protected by laws restricting increase spending within the UK economy, meaning urban sprawl and they provide a ‘breathing space’ in there is a higher demand for labour. the ever industrialising world. But ultimately, with such high levels of migration, we won’t have a choice Dependency ratio and education and even though environmentally it may not be With an ageing population, the UK dependency preferable, we will be forced to exploit these areas. ratio is set to rise but migration helps to reduce this problem by increasing the number of younger Are we losing our national identity? people in the country, thus increasing the number of Another issue that divides public opinion is the (working) people who pay income tax. effect migrants have on the British culture. While Between 2010 and 2011 there were 428,225 some argue that immigrants create a richer society, international students studying in the Britain. These others feel that they are a source of tension and foreign students contribute £2.5bn each year in mistrust. Over the past years, Britain has become university fees which helps finance higher education a much more ethnically diverse nation with more across the country. than 300 languages spoken on a daily basis. With this in mind, it might be surprising to discover that Social issues in a recent poll, 95% thought that it was either very Many believe the current scale of immigration important or fairly important that migrants had an is unsustainable and there are concerns over the ability to speak English to become ‘truly British’. impacts that mass migration might bring and how However, the greater the number of new arrivals, the they can be dealt with. harder it is for everyone to become fully integrated The UK has always had periods of migration, in British society. but never at its current rate and this has resulted The growing population in Britain (caused, in rapid population growth. The UK population in part, by immigration) has also put considerable currently stands at around 65 million and the strain on the country’s infrastructure. Services such Office of National Statistics (ONS) has predicted as social housing, hospitals, education, GP surgeries that if migration continues at the present levels, and public transport are all under pressure and, in the population will grow by around 500 000 each 2011, 76% of the public thought that immigration year. This would mean that 15 years from now the put too much pressure on services. In 2014, 59% of population would have increased by 8 million and people thought that migrants should have to wait at of that figure,75% will have been caused by future least a year before being able to use public services. migrants and their children. So what’s the problem? On the other hand, although migrants contribute England is already a densely populated country to demand on the NHS, many argue that without suffering from housing shortages, and with the migrant workers, the NHS would collapse given population growing by the equivalent of a new city that 26% of doctors are born abroad. the size of Liverpool every year, it is increasingly difficult to meet the increased demand on resources.

18 QUORUM How is Britain changing? | Alice Baker UK’s approach The current UK immigration policy aims to balance Glossary the costs of migration with the benefits and only migration allows certain migrants into the country. But it the movement of people across national hasn’t always been that way. In the 1960/1970s or international boundaries to establish a a migration policy emerged which focused on new permanent place of residence limitation and integration. The laws had a ‘zero net net migration immigration’ goal and had an antidiscriminative the difference between immigration and approach. These policies remained much the emigration same until the late 80s when legislation changed in response to an influx of asylum seekers from migrant any person who has moved across a Germany and Yugoslavia. national or international boundary When Labour came into power in 1997, they adopted a much more liberal approach to asylum seeker immigration in an attempt to increase economic a person who has been forced to flee from migration into the country. Workers were given visas their country to seek refuge but is not yet accepted as a refugee based on their skills, regardless of whether or not they had a job offer. refugee The government achieved their target to boost a person who cannot return home numbers of migrants and the graph below illustrates because of the fear of prosecution this growth in the foreign population of Britain:

Percentage of the population of England and Wales that was foreign born, 1851-2011 Graph from Migration Watch UK

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10

8

6

4

2

0 1851 1861 1871 1881 1891 1901 1911 1921 1931 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011

Elements of the UK’s most recent policy include; potential and the worker registration scheme (WRS) restrictions on asylum seekers (accepting only which allows migrants from some eastern European genuine applicants), a points-based system which states to move to the UK to fill low-skill, low-wage favours those with skills, education and earning employment gaps.

19 QUORUM How is Britain changing? | Alice Baker The 5-tier points based system was introduced in the UK has increased significantly in the past 20 years. UK in 2008 to categorise non-EU immigrants: In 2015 just over 3 million people born in other EU countries were living in the UK (an increase of 1.9 Tier 1 Highly skilled individuals million since 2003). EU migration now makes up Tier 2 Skilled workers with a job offer to fill gaps around half of the number of people immigrating to in the UK labour force the UK and it is estimated that the Net migration of EU citizens was 178,000 in 2014, 123,000 Tier 3 Limited numbers of low-skilled workers more than in 2013. So what is it about Britain that needed to fill specific temporary labour attracts these migrants? shortages The key attributes of Britain are: Tier 4 Students Growing economy Tier 5 Youth mobility and temporary workers Record high levels of employment allowed to work in the UK for a limited Higher wages than other European countries period of time Do local figures match up? However, this policy does not apply to other The ONS estimates that from 2014-2015, there was members of the European Union. Particularly with a net inflow to Hertfordshire of 5,300 international Romania and Bulgaria gaining EU status, there has migrants. This compares to net international been a rise in the number of migrants moving more immigration of 1,600 2 years previously, showing freely across our borders. that South East England is following the trend of increased levels of migration across the UK. European migration Additionally, similar to overall migration In the most recent referendum debating whether patterns, the majority of immigrants in the East of the UK should remain in the EU, one of the main England are middle-aged (see graph below) and have issues raised was migration. EU migration to the moved to Britain to find work.

Non-UK born by age and sex: East of England 2011 Chart provided by migrationobservatory.ox.ac.uk

85+ 80 to 84 75 to 79 70 to 74 65 to 69 60 to 64 55 to 59 50 to 54 45 to 49 40 to 44 35 to 39 30 to 34 25 to 29 20 to 24 15 to 19 10 to 14 5 to 9 0 to 5 40K 35K 30K 25K 20K 15K 10K 5K 0K 0K 5K 10K 15K 20K 25K 30K 35K 40K

20 QUORUM How is Britain changing? | Alice Baker

Top non-UK countries of birth: East of England 2011 Chart provided by migrationobservatory.ox.ac.uk Poland India Ireland States United Pakistan Germany Africa South Lithuania Zimbabwe Bangladesh

60K

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40K

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20K Total UK residents Total

10K

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Country of Birth Passport Held

Statistics also suggest that Poland has now I have seen, first hand, the increased ethnic overtaken India as the most common non-UK diversity in my local community. Recently, there has country of birth for people living in Britain. been an increase in the number of Polish products Following this progression, in Hertfordshire, the being sold in local chain stores, as well as a new largest groups of applicants for national insurance Polish supermarket which opened earlier this year. were from Poland (620 people), India (350) and In addition, Turkish restaurants have also China (120). opened in both Hatfield and Hertford. Other than This map, taken from OpenStreetMap, increased diversity in foreign cuisine it is noticeable represents the extent to which migration has that the majority of workers at the local carwash are affected areas in Britain. As is shown on the map, European migrants. the Welwyn-Hatfield region (circled) has seen high levels of migration in the past decade. What next? Successive waves of immigration since the Second World War have transformed the cultural landscape of the Britain we know today. We have gone from being an agricultural nation, through an industrial revolution, to being a culturally diverse. Linguists are now predicting that by 2066, the “th” sound will vanish completely in England because of the extent of multiculturalism. Immigration is a significant issue in modern Britain, 50% of the population chose immigration as the most important issue facing them and their family - higher than the economy (46%) and the International Migration Health Service (42%). Following Brexit, new EU migration policies are uncertain and it is difficult to predict any effect that it may have on total Low High immigration.

21 QUORUM HISTORY

WHY DID EARLY MODERN PEOPLE ACCUSE THEIR NEIGHBOURS OF BEING WITCHES?

Eleanor Smalley Peterhouse College, Cambridge Vellacott History Prize Entrant

22 QUORUM etween 1450 and 1750, ecclesiastical and secular courts tried and executed tens of thousands of people throughout Europe for Bthe crime of witchcraft. Witchcraft was, in its most basic form, harmful or black magic: the alleged infliction of physical harm or misfortune by one person on another. It often took the form of either a spell or a curse, referred to as maleficium. Educated Europeans believed the witch’s maleficent power, at least during the early modem period, to have been acquired by a pact with the Devil. The other form was Diabolism, which applied to those who were accused of witchcraft upon the conviction that they met with the Devil and other members of the chosen sect at a secret assembly referred to as the Sabbat. To explore why people accused their neighbours of being witches fearful in the early modern period it is essential to look at about the influences at the time: that of the Reformation these spanning from 1520-1650 and the subsequent effect disturbances and therefore determined to cast out that had on the changing nature of theology and these rebellious witches and ensure the population demonology; furthermore, the reinforcement of knew they were devil-worshippers that needed to be these beliefs through powerful figures such as James abolished. I and the impact he had on the volumes of witch- As many rulers are obsessed with power, they hunts. A lot can also be said about the social and become paranoid and a prime example of this economic changes occurring at the time sparking is James I of England (previously James VI of cause for accusations and the fear that this created as Scotland) who in 1597 published Daemonologie a result of many accusations being made with little literally meaning ‘the science of demons’, his denial evidence. of Reginald Scot’s sceptical work, The Discoverie The leading reason so many people accused their of Witchcraft, which questioned the existence of neighbours was because they genuinely believed witches.3 James developed the ideas found in his that there were witches amongst them and this book after he became convinced that a coven of belief surged from a fear of the devil, as a witch was witches was involved in political conspiracy against considered to be a devil-worshipper and guilty of him.4 This belief was instilled firstly when he almost lèse majesté or treason against God.1 Yet the ruling lost his fiancé in 1590, Anne of Denmark, when she elite who at the time were troubled by the fear of was sailing across the North Sea. James determined rebellion, treason and unrest implemented this to collect her in person sailed across Denmark to fear. Their impact is evident when you look at get her but on their return voyage the royal fleet when the belief of witchcraft began to circulate. was battered by more storms and one of the ships This is considered to be signalled by a papal bull were lost. James immediately placed the blame on issued in December 1484 by Pope Innocent VIII witches and further to this other cases presented to demonstrating the beginning of serious official him such as a suspected local housemaid, Geillis action against witches2. This enters a time in Europe Duncan, confessing in 1590 to being a witch, after when there was great instability and persistent having endured great lengths of torture, led him to rebellions, such as the Wars of the Roses in the mid- 3 Mary Sharratt, King James I: Demonologist 1400s and subsequent English Civil War in mid http://www.wondersandmarvels.com/2014/07/king-james-i- 1600s. The ruling elite throughout Europe were so demonologist.html 4 C. Larner, ‘James VI and I and Witchcraft’ 1 Leutenbauer, Hexerei- und Zaubereidelikt http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/stuart-england/james-i- 2 Tracy Borman, (2013) James I and the English Witch-Hunts and-witchcraft/

23 QUORUM Why did early modern people accuse their neighbours of being witches? | Eleanor Smalley be convinced of their existence. He published his Pendle Witch case, one of the most famous beliefs in a book: Daemonologie, which presented examples of the period, demonstrated how the the idea of a vast conspiracy of satanic witches widespread hysteria on witches meant people were threatening to undermine the nation. James’ book even confessing themselves as being witches as had a clear impact in Scotland, which was one of they genuinely believed they possessed the powers the most active witch-hunting region, where up to associated. The protagonist in this case, Alison 4,000 people were burnt, more than double the rate Device, had allegedly cursed a pedlar who had in England.5 refused to give her some pins. In 1604, just a year When the pedlar later suffered after James ascended to the a stroke, Alison believed it was English throne, he passed his a result of her curse and racked new Witchcraft Act making with guilt confessed to being a hanging obligatory for a first witch, and in her subsequent offence of witchcraft, even if trial incriminated other the accused had not committed members of her family, who murder. An example of this in turn named other village is the case of the Witches of members. Thus, eight women Belvoir, where nine women and two men were hanged.9 were hanged as witches in Daemonologie had been Leicestershire for accusations reprinted twice during the of having bewitched a young year of his accession in 1603, boy and said to have kept cats and this had prompted a huge as familiars.6 If the witch in reappearance of pamphlets question was found to have about witchcraft in England. the devil’s mark on their body, These small works were it was enough to sentence overwhelmingly effective in them to death. This devil or whipping up popular fear, witches mark was thought anger and hatred towards those to be the initiating mark the Devil placed on the accused of witchcraft. In New England between witches’ body as a seal of their pledge of obedience the years of 1620-1725, 342 people were accused and service to him. Such marks were considered of witchcraft.10 This demonstrates the extent of proof that the person was a witch and individuals James’ influence on society in stimulating the accused of witchcraft in trials were thoroughly persecution of witchcraft, as his territories as far as searched for such marks. Scars, birthmarks, natural New England were affected. It is clear to see James’ blemishes, and insensitive patches of skin that failed influence on witch-hunting through his beliefs and to bleed qualified as Devil’s marks. Despite a firm subsequent publishing of these beliefs in his book belief at the time that natural blemishes were clearly were fundamental in the rise of witch-hunting. The distinguishable from Satan’s mark often this was not position James was in is key to describing why he the case, as victims would protest that marks found had such an influence. James was in a position to on their bodies were natural however, they were enforce his theories not only on his nobles and on often ignored.7 his council whom surrounded him and who would James’s new act was quick to take effect. A have been heavily influenced but also the rest of wave of witchcraft cases were brought before the the country being made aware of the presence of courts across the kingdom.8 One of which, the 1612 witches among them, evident by the fact his book 5 Tracy Borman, (2013) James I and the English Witch-Hunts 9 Dr Robert Poole and Charlotte Hodgman, History explorer: 6 “Witchcraft In Leicestershire”. Bygone Leicestershire the Pendle Witches 7 Guiley, Rosemary Ellen The Encyclopedia of Witches and http://www.historyextra.com/article/premium/history- Witchcraft. New York: Facts On File 1989. p. 99 explorer-pendle-witches 8 Tracy Borman, (2013) Witches: a tale of Sorcery, Scandal and 10 Brian P Levack (2006) The Witch-Hunt in Early Modern Seduction Europe

24 QUORUM was reprinted twice. Anyone disagreeing with him fire, contraction of disease and theft. Witches was essentially going against the views of the king offered a target to blame for such calamities that something made punishable. struck families and communities in the early Once the idea of witches had become modern period. Furthermore, the Reformation widespread, people began finding witches as a influenced popular belief, as it seemed the clash solution to personal guilt or grievances and witches between established Catholicism and emergent became an effective source of blame. People had Protestantism contributed to the collapse of a stable come to believe witches were certainly among them world-view, which eventually led to panic and and needed to be eradicated and that those who hyper-suspiciousness on the part of Catholic and doubted their existence were in danger of themselves Protestant authorities alike.13 Not only this, but at being accused of being in league with the devil. this time in history diseases were rife, wiping out Early modern people looked to their neighbours for whole families and communities, therefore people support and loyalty as often family was scattered were fearful of catching one and by hunting down and distant.11 Therefore, relations with neighbours and casting out witches they felt they were removing were close and could often descend into arguments this possibility. The development of blaming witches and allegations and those offended would then for family misfortune, although likely to be the find revenge in accusing their neighbour of being a most common trigger of the European witch-hunt, witch, acting maleficently against them, something was not the only cause. Sometimes individuals, that was happening everywhere. In the Holy Roman knowing the consequences of those being accused Empire for example between the years of 1530- of witchcraft, would accuse someone on grounds of 1730 it is recorded that 23,652 people were accused advancing a political career for example if the person and in Hungary between 1520-1777, 1,542 were they were accusing was a political rival or economic accused.12 competitor. In some cases, families would even Not only neighbourly vengeance but also accuse each other of such a crime if they were in often witchcraft and witches acted as a solution conflict to resolve their differences and cast revenge to personal catastrophe so the belief of witchcraft on them. offered an explanation for these often-unexpected Very often, it was old women who were events and hunting them down provided a accused, specifically old, poor women who possessed remedy. Such catastrophes included things like one of the few forms of evidence: a cat or bodily the death of a family member or farm animal,

11 Susan Brigden (2001) New Worlds, Lost Worlds 12 Brian P Levack (2006) The Witch-Hunt in Early Modern 13 Jenny Gibbons, Recent Developments in the Study of the Great Europe European Witch Hunt

25 QUORUM Why did early modern people accuse their neighbours of being witches? | Eleanor Smalley blemish.14 Poor women in a community would through accusation. usually ask around for aid and was very likely to Demonic possession, where a demonic spirit be denied. Thus, when something catastrophic enters the body of an individual and takes over their occurred to a family they would link this to it movements and personality, was a phenomenon being a witch seeking her vengeance on them for witches were held responsible for in the early denying her aid. These poor women were also easy modern period. This attack on the body resulted targets as they were often poor and had no man in various contortions, fits and other physical in the form of protection so many of the accused afflictions. Although it may seem that witchcraft fell into this category. An example of such a case is and possession are unlinked, as someone who is linked to Matthew Hopkins known as the ‘witch- possessed has no control over their action where as finder general’ operating from 1645 to 1646 and a witch does, it was often that witches were accused becoming known as one of the most feared men in of causing the possession. There was a traditional Eastern Europe. Hopkins’ witch-hunting spree was belief that a demon could enter a persons’ body as brief but significant: 300 convictions and deaths a result of a witch’s command.17 Therefore most are attributed to his work.15 His first victim carried of the witchcraft cases that began with incidents the description of many of the victims being a poor, of possession lead to the prosecution of a single old woman called Elizabeth Clarke who was also individual this could be seen in a number of cases disabled with only one leg. She was cantankerous of possession that occurred in France where witches and hated by the community who wanted rid of her were held directly responsible. The possession of but the only way they could have her convicted was nuns at Aix-en-Provence in 1611 led to the torture, to have evidence. Matthew Hopkins came with a confession and execution of Father Louis Gaufried passionate belief in the righteousness of his actions the following year. 18 and felt it was his duty to God to seek to eliminate Much of the witchcraft accusations were these servants to the devil. He heard of how the prompted by much social and economic change community felt about Clarke in 1645 and sent a that was occurring in this period of history and group of women to search her for witch’s marks. the subsequent difficult times people were living Once this form of evidence had been uncovered, through. As mentioned it was often the poorest of Hopkin needed a confession from Elizabeth. He people that were accused and it was inflation that set about using subtle methods of torture such as would have caused such poverty. This inflation starvation and sleep deprivation as torture was illegal would have been down to growing populations in England at the time. Eventually he obtained from stretching supply. Furthermore, economic crises her a confession as well as the naming of five other like famine and the outbreak of disease as well women who were part of her supposed coven.16 as disturbances as a result of war would’ve all Matthew Hopkins had made a name for himself, contributed to the surge of witch-hunts. When striving to ensure a suspected witch was convicted. looking at the 1612 Pendle Witch case, the pressures With this approach people would’ve relied on him on Pendle’s upland ‘cattle and cloth economy’ is and many other witch-hunters like Hopkins to thought to be very much linked to the individual ensure whomever they wanted condemned they accusations in the 1612 trial. A high proportion would find a way to prove their guilt. Largely, of the witchcraft cases in Pendle involved disputes Hopkins himself and the places he was employed over money and property or misfortunes involving to operate in presumed a certainty of finding milk and cattle, arguing that social and economic witches and this became a self-fulfilling expectation, pressures influenced the events of 1612. Magical effectively it became an official form of blame powers, offered or threatened, were themselves part of the local economy, what might be called a black 14 Brian P Levack (2006) The Witch-Hunt in Early Modern Europe 17 15 Sharpe, James (2002), “The Lancaster witches in historical Brian P Levack (1996) Possession, Witchcraft, and the law in context” Jacobean England 18 16 George Knowles, Witch finder General Brian P Levack (2006) The Witch-Hunt in Early Modern http://www.witchtrials.co.uk/matthew.html Europe

26 QUORUM Why did early modern people accuse their neighbours of being witches? | Eleanor Smalley economy of witchcraft.19 Whilst not being the leading cause the economic situation would have heightened different problems, acting as a symptom rather than a reason for accusations. Wolfgang Behringer has drawn a relationship between high volumes of witch-hunts and harsh climatic conditions.20 Witch-hunts did tend to be individual accusations but often accusations were made by a whole community and triggered by something that affected everyone such as a hailstorm, which could destroy an entire crop within minutes.21 It cannot be ignored that in the time of the great witch-hunts many fundamental changes were happening across Europe possibly more extensive changes than any other period in history before the Industrial Revolution. 22 It would have created a great fear, certainly among those who couldn’t cope with the uncertainty of the new world. Such a mood has led this period in Europe to become known as the ‘Age of Anxiety’23. The dominance of this anxiety created an aura that would have greatly advocated witch-hunting. There is debate and speculation over what influence the Reformation and organised religion had on the witch-hunt as opposed to simply existing folk beliefs. The Reformation, a period that spanned from 1520-1650 across Europe, restored the Church to its early Christian purity (in the eyes of its the Reformation, religious reform had little to do reformers). It denied the efficacy of Indulgences, with early modern witch-hunts.25 This argument redefined the meaning of the sacraments, eliminated seems inconsistent firstly as witchcraft prosecutions or drastically altered the Roman Catholic mass, and did increase during the first four decades of the changed the role of the clergy. It is during these Reformation, especially in the Holy Roman Empire, years that witch-hunting was most concentrated where the number of prosecutions had entered a and there is a belief that it was the Reformation period of decline before the turn of the sixteenth that served as the main springboard for the entire century. Between 1520 and 1560, most secular European Witch hunt.24 However, scholars have and ecclesiastical authorities were more concerned challenged any connection. Robert Thurston with real heretical sects than with witches, but a argues that as the trials for witchcraft pre-dated significant number of witch-trials did take place across Europe during these decades. Secondly, 19 Robert Poole, The Lancashire Witches: Histories and Stories witchcraft trials intensified greatly after 1560, 20 W. Behringer, ‘Weather, hunger and fear: Origins of the European witch-hunts in climate, society and mentality’, exactly at the time when confessional divisions 26 German society throughout Europe hardened. 21 Brian P Levack (2006) The Witch-Hunt in Early Modern With the Protestant’s strong emphasis on the Europe literal meaning of scriptures, the command in 22 Brian P Levack (2006) The Witch-Hunt in Early Modern Europe 25 Robert W. Thurston, The Witch Hunts: A History of the Witch 23 White, ‘Death and the Devil’ in The Darker Vision of the Persecutions in Europe and North America (Harlow, 2007), Renaissance 143–4. 24 Brian P Levack (2006) The Witch-Hunt in Early Modern 26 Gary L. Waite, Sixteenth-century religious reform and the Europe witch-hunts

27 QUORUM Why did early modern people accuse their neighbours of being witches? | Eleanor Smalley Exodus 22:18: “thou shall not suffer a witch to separates and witchcraft is brought more to the live,” was broadcast. Both John Calvin and Martin attention of the people as superstition is categorised Luther described their personal encounters with the as being bad but it’s not that this idea didn’t already devil and witches. Those areas of recent conversion exist but previously in the Catholic Church it to Protestantism, and where competition between was an accepted part of the religion. Thus, the Catholics and Protestants was most rigorous removal of superstitions from ordinary people’s lives for people’s religious loyalties, there were more meant that they still believed in these things and accusations, prosecutions and deaths. There is consequently it was easier for them to persecute and certainly evidence to suggest that the influence of point out witches. Protestantism influenced the magnitude of witch- The Reformation played a vital role in hunts. States, which remained Catholic such as instigating accusation of witches and this was Spain and Italy, seemed relatively unaffected by the largely down to the change in beliefs on witches in Reformation and have some of the lowest rates of Europe as a result of the reform. Demonology being witch-accusations, Spain recording 3687 and Italy typical of Protestant works, in which the very real 2193+. Despite their large populations this was nature of demonic possession was stressed, and the small in comparison to that of Germany, England powerlessness of humanity to resist the will of the and Scotland.27 devil was rhapsodised, prompting the threat witches A series of religious wars, revolts, and reforms played being worshippers of the devil. However, followed the Reformation throughout Europe. this provocation did not stop there, the ascension Simultaneously, there was contentious and of James I and his heavy belief on the sinfulness aggressive incidents, intellectuals and literate people of witches further broadcasted the importance of were starting to propose ideas and theories about the casting them out. James I has played a crucial role natural world, in a movement later identified as the in the development of the legal process for witch- Scientific Revolution. Adding in the events relating trials, his acceptance of witch-hunts justified the to witches, which scholars will name the Witchcraft accusation of witches. His writings offered advice Craze, and it is undisputable that additional bizarre for how to find, try, and execute witches. His times occurred. 28 position, being King of Scotland and England, An important point to make regarding the meant his views influenced not only England but Reformation is that when the Catholic Church across continents, spreading the craze further and was removed, the whole ceremony and superstition fuelling hunts in Europe. It did not take long was removed along with it. In the Catholic before the craze of hunting down the witches was Church, there were lots of practices that were circulating nationwide. James had little trouble in largely superstitious like having to forgive your the persuasion of the evils of witchcraft as he was, sins, praying to saints, visiting pilgrimage tombs to a large extent, pushing on an open door. Once and the occurrence of miracles. These superstitions people were influenced by these beliefs, finding had been believed for hundreds of years. Once cause for accusation was not difficult due to the the reformation took place it removed all the many social and economic changes as well as ceremony, candles, incense and praying that had climatic occurrences and the heightened attitudes occurred in the Catholic Church leaving a reformed these effects created. The hunts descended into a church based only on the bible and the word of way for societies to blame people for unexplainable God. Thus, all the ceremonial superstition was casualties, attack things they did not agree with and removed but people’s beliefs did not just stop and carry out personal vendettas. Through the spreading it left people looking for somewhere to go for their growth of witch-hunts, passing of laws making cures. Therefore, after the Reformation, the church accusations with little evidence easy and existence

27 of witch-finders it became easy for people to point Anne Llewellyn Barstow, Witchcraze: a new history of the the blame and thousands of unsuspecting ‘witches’ witch hunts suffered consequently. 28 Witch-craft craze of Europe web.clark.edu/afisher/ HIST253/lecture_text/WitchcraftCrazeEurope.doc

28 QUORUM RELIGIOUS STUDIES “CONSCIENCE IS THE SUPEREGO.” DISCUSS

Meiyin Chen ccording to Freud, we have three parts of • Autonomous morality (10+), when a personal psychic apparatus: the id, the ego, and code of conduct develops based on social the super-ego. The id is the basic instinct, perceptions and punishments in proportion Aan entirely unconscious part of the mind present with actions. from birth. The ego is the rational self, capable of However, while Freud believes that conscience controlling the id; it mediates between the desires comes from the clash between id, ego, and super- and the demands of social interaction. The super- ego rather than God, William James has observed ego develops around the age of five; it stores all of and argued that religion is often the inspiration our internalised moral standards of right and wrong for outstanding well-balanced individuals whose acquired from parents and society, and stops us lives have made a positive mark on history like from breaking rules because of the fear of receiving Mother Teresa and Martin Luther King. For some punishment, criticism or feelings of guilt. It is the psychologists, Freud tended to construct theories clash between super-ego, ego and id that leads to the on relatively little empirical evidence; Karl Popper phenomenon of conscience. Good conscience is the argued that real science is always falsifiable. If we say effective operation of ego over id, where desires are that pure water always boils at 100 degrees, we can achieved whilst avoiding punishment from social see precisely what would falsify it – an instance of authorities. Conscience is essentially the process of pure water boiling at a different temperature. But it internalising parental prohibitions and demands, so is difficult to see what would falsify the claim that that they seem to come from within ourselves. the super-ego acts in the way that Freud suggests. If conscience is the super-ego it would explain If I say I do not feel an overwhelming sense of guilt why our morals are so different, since we are each and responsibility, then a Freudian might well claim uniquely affected by culture, society, and the that I was in denial – that I felt it really but blocked influence of our parents as we grow up. The idea it out. My very denial would be evidence for its of the ‘super-ego’ seems logical as it is clear that reality. parents and the environment affect our morals and Aquinas would argue against Freud. In his ethical ideas. It is also supported by Jean Piaget’s view, conscience is not the super-ego, it is based observations. He argues that children go through a on a principle of reason by using an action of series of mental stages, and as the brain develops so mind. Reason is placed in every person as a result does the ability to reason morally. These stages are: of being created by God. Conscience is therefore • Heteronomous morality (5-9), when a child God-given. In the case of conscience this is reason looks beyond self for moral authority. The of the practical sort, requiring careful judgements consequences of an action will show if it is of individual circumstances. He also divided his right or wrong, and actions will be punished or understanding of conscience into two essential parts: praised. synderesis and conscientia. Synderesis is the inner

29 QUORUM “Conscience is the super-ego.” | Meiyin Chen

Martin Luther King Mother Teresa

principle which God put into everyone, and which misused their reason under the influence of Hitler, directs a person towards good and away from evil. what kind of God-given easily tempted conscience Conscientia is the process of forming particular is this? In a way, this supports the idea of super-ego, moral judgements in different circumstances. When as he believes that authoritative figures influence our rational thought is used to inform synderesis, this conscience, the Nazis' views on what is right and results in a person acting upon his or her conscience wrong are clearly influenced by the authoritative to do the right thing. figure of Hitler. If everyone had the same views on For some Christians, Aquinas' theory may seem what is right and wrong and their conscience was more reasonableas it is supported by the Catholic not easily affected by others, then why does Aquinas Church; according to the catechisms, 'conscience feel the need to formulate other ethical theories like formulates its judgements according to reason'. Natural Law to restrict our actions? The story of The theory appeals to our sense of reason – we the Garden of Eden surely shows there is sensuality all see that we have reason within us and Aquinas within us which tempts us to do evil. Conscience provides a way in which we can use it morally. It is fallible, but it also explains Freud's id. When also explains why conscience can sometimes be Eve was tempted by the serpent and decided to incorrect because of the incorrect application of disobey God, it was an instance of the ego failing reason. However, are humans really that rational? to control the id. However, Aquinas might argue Things can go wrong with the conscientia, as it is that ignorance is the reason for any mistakes made possible for people to be blinded by desires, feel in the process of conscientia. He describes vincible pressures from outside, misjudge the facts or make ignorance and invincible ignorance. Vincible a decision too quickly. If conscientia is part of our ignorance is a lack of knowledge for which a person conscience, and conscience is God-given, why is can be held responsible; invincible ignorance is the conscience fallible? In the case of Nazi soldiers who lack of knowledge which a person is not responsible

30 QUORUM “Conscience is the super-ego” | Meiyin Chen

Sigmund Freud St Thomas Aquinas

for. Since God has given us free will, he wishes intuition’. Humans are influenced by self-love and us to make our own decisions, so he only gave us benevolence, conscience adjudicates between these synderesis, and of course the consequences of our two interests and behaves as a guide. Our natural actions cannot be foreseen, therefore we act in the response to the suffering of others, for example best of our knowledge, with reasonably informed when we see seriously ill people and sympathise information but nevertheless make a mistake. with them, indicates an innate human morality, an Augustine would disagree with Freud, and intrinsic part of human nature. argue that conscience is the voice of God. People are Personally, I believe conscience is the super- able to sense right and wrong because God reveals ego because moral standards are influenced by it to us personally. If Augustine was right, why do parents and schooling rather than born with us. In people have different understanding of what is right wealthy areas people are more ethically aware and and wrong? Why are there mentally ill people who tend to know what is right and wrong, whereas in have no idea of what is right and wrong? Did God very remote parts of the world where education is not give conscience to them? Also, in the case of limited, people are less ethically aware and tend not the Nazis, if they were following conscience and to know what is right and wrong. It was recently killed millions of Jews, what kind of God is this? reported that in a rural area in China a father Atheists might also argue that there is no need of murdered a young man for insulting his daughter. a supernatural element in their decision making. I would argue that he would not have done this if For Joseph Butler, humans share a human nature he received good education and knew that murder and morality is simply a matter of following human is wrong in any case. If conscience is reason, not nature. This view is supported by G.E.Moore, super-ego, why do people in different areas have who wrote that ‘good cannot be defined yet people different moral standards? It can only be due to their know what it means implying some innate sense or different upbringing.

31 QUORUM Classics

Classics is the study of the languages, culture, history and thought of the civilisations of ancient Greece and Rome. It is one of the most varied and interdisciplinary of all subjects and like all the subjects in the Humanities Faculty, it is a core subject at KS3 and an option at KS4 and KS5. What makes it even more exciting is that Classics encompasses two different subjects, Latin and Classical Civilisation, both of which can be studied at GCSE and A-level and we are intending to introduce ancient Greek as well. Several girls from Queenswood have continued to study Classics at university and we are a growing department.

Carol Tárrega Head of Classics

History

History has changed since I was sat at a desk. It is no longer about facts, dates and memory. Of course we must know the story of events, but there are few points in exams for descriptions. Today History is much more enquiry based and we teach girls how to analyse large amounts of information and use it to develop and support their own persuasive arguments. We build confident girls who think for themselves and who are able to judge news and events for themselves and are always asking questions of information and not simply accepting it. Hopefully we are helping to deliver the free thinkers of the future who don’t produce or fall for sound-bites, but instead help set agendas and provide ways forward in the world. History, you see, is actually about the future, not the past.

Stephen Daughton Head of History

32 QUORUM Religious Studies

I am absolutely passionate about my subject and so keen to inspire students to ask questions and to seek answers to those awkward and perennial questions linked to the meaning of life and existence. As a young girl I asked questions such as: ‘How do we measure goodness? ‘Why do different religions have similarities and differences?’ alongside, ‘Does God exist?’. This led me to study Theology at Manchester College, Oxford, and later on, Philosophy of Religion at both undergraduate and postgraduate levels at Kings’ College London. I enjoy the debates and exploration that naturally follow from teaching young enquiring minds.

Brenda Gillon Head of Religious Studies

Geography

Some people have said that Geography is ‘jack of all trades and master of none.’ Regardless of the extent to which you believe that is true, the fact remains that geographers enter higher education and the world of work well equipped. In what other subject do you develop and frequently use such a breadth of skills? Geographers are no strangers to published data, graphs or academic literature and what is more, they also have the ability to collect, analyse and draw conclusions from data themselves. Geography has experienced a national surge in popularity and that comes as no surprise to the Queenswood Geography department. Our students certainly demonstrate why it is such a valuable academic subject to study, as the articles in Quorum show.

Victoria Looker and Elaine Barnard Joint Heads of Geography

33 QUORUM “PUPILS’ ATTAINMENT IS OUTSTANDING” ISI Inspection, March 2017

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