Appendix 1

Moments in the History of the Science of Society

There is a cumulative robust science of society that is unfortunately a narrow band of research and theory in the history of sociology. That history has been one of a fragmented community that has not been able to build a community of consensus to anything like the levels achieved in physics, chemistry, and biology. I write about sociology in this book from within that narrow band that has built the foundations of a community of consensus. In this appendix I draw attention to some of the pillars of that foundation. I do this selectively and with respect to specific issues that people have with sociology as a science and with social science in general. There is a cumulative robust science of society that is unfortunately a narrow band of research and theory in the history of sociology. That history has been one of a fragmented community that has not been able to build a community of consensus (objectivity community) to anything like the levels achieved in physics, chemistry, and biology. I write about sociology in this book from within that narrow band that has built, if not a community of consensus, the foundations for one. In this appen- dix I want to draw attention to some of the pillars of that foundation. I do this selectively and with respect to specific issues that people have

© The Author(s) 2017 323 S. Restivo, Sociology, Science, and the End of Philosophy, DOI 10.1057/978-1-349-95160-4 324 Appendix 1 with sociology as a science and with social science in general. I can’t say how many sociologists will agree with my reading of sociology as a science. I defend my reading based on an understanding of the nature and history of the sciences seen through the eyes of an interdisciplinary sociologist of science. 1. Emile Durkheim, The Elementary Forms of Religious Life (1912). Like any great contribution to science, this one can be picked at for flaws. It is, nonetheless, the crystallization of a major discovery in the history of humanity. It should be read as a milestone that draws on prior theory and experience and provides significant resources for firming up the crystallization of an answer to the God question. God is a symbolic creation that arose in the crucible of human culture. The human condition gives us everything we need to explain God without recourse to transcen- dental, supernatural, and a priori ideas, concepts, and assumptions. 2. Social Science Experiments The fact that sociology and social science in general have experimental options has long been established in the hybrid field of social psychology and in psychology. For many years, along with other social scientists, I taught students about what seemed to be a milestone in this history of experimenting with human subjects. The Milgram experiment had all the appearance of a classic scientific experiment; it produced significant results with implications for understanding the human condition; and it raised serious issues about the ethics of research on human subjects. For the details of the study, see S. Milgram, Obedience to Authority: An Experimental View (New York: Harper Perennial Modern Classics; Reprint edition, 2009; orig. publ. 1974). Summaries of the experiment can be found online and in the references that follow. In the wake of Gina Perry’s Behind the Shock Machine: The Untold Story of the Notorious Milgram Experiments, the experiments have come under renewed scrutiny. The book was originally published in Australia by Scribe, Brunswick in 2012. A revised edition was published in the United States by New Press of New York and London in 2013. There are reasons to question the extent to which Perry’s book breaks the back of the original experiment. See, for example, the World Street Journal review, http://online.wsj.com/ news/articles/SB10001424127887323324904579040672110673420. For a more positive view of Perry’s claims, see the review that appeared in Appendix 1 325 the Los Angeles Review of Books, https://lareviewofbooks.org/essay/psych- lies-and-audiotape-the-tarnished-legacy-of-the-milgram-shock-experi ments. There have been efforts to replicate Milgram’sworkandtheresults tend to support the most general interpretation of Milgram’s original study: most people do what they are told by people with what they perceive as legitimate power and authority. For a review of the replica- tions, written before the appearance of Perry’sbook,seehttp://www.rit. org/authority/futureobedience.php. The fact of the Milgram experiment deserves our continued critical reflection. You can find brief summaries of the most significant experiments in social psychology here (including the Milgram and Zimbardo studies which are presented without attending to the controversies that surround these studies in particular): http://www.spring.org.uk/2007/11/10-pier cing-insights-into-human-nature.php. For more on classical experiments in psychology and social psychology, see Great Experiments in Psychology, by H.E. Garrett (New York: Irvington Publishers, 1981); and for a general overview of significant studies in psychology, see Forty Studies that Changed Psychology: Explorations into the History of Psychological Research, by R.R. Hock (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 2004). All of this research falls under the general rubric of social and behavioral science and is rarely psychological in a strictly individualistic sense. Many of the results of these studies have entered the public imagina- tion. Many, if not all, of you will have learned about the Milgram experiments or encountered them in mass media documentaries and fictional scenarios. These studies of “obedience to authority” involved subjects shocking a confederate of the experimenter in what they were told was a study of teaching and learning. The shock generator never delivered any actual shocks. Milgram designed various configurations in which the learner (confederate) and subject were brought into closer and closer physical proximity. Milgram found a straight-line relationship between proximity and the willingness of subjects to shock the learner; the greater the proximity, the lower the tendency to administer shocks. This makes sense even in the wake of the criticisms of the experiment. Other studies reported in the above links gave us insights into (to mention just a few of the studies reported in those links) the “halo effect” (the educational psychologist Edward Thorndike coined the term 326 Appendix 1 and carried out the first empirical studies that demonstrated this form of cognitive bias in the second decade of the twentieth century), cognitive dissonance (associated with the studies carried out by Leon Festinger and his colleagues in the 1950s), Muzafer Sharif’s Robbers Cave experiment (reported in 1961), Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison experiment (reported in 1971), false consensus bias (based on studies conducted by Lee Ross and his colleagues in the 1970s), and the bystander effect (reported by Darley and Latane in 1968; their study was prompted by the murder of Kitty Genovese in 1964, perhaps the most publicized example of bystander apathy in American history). Social science does not have a good record of commitment to cumu- lative research. One of the first efforts to assess where we stand in the science of human behavior was B. Berelson and G. Steiner’s Human Behavior: An Inventory of Scientific Findings, published in 1964 (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World). The authors begin by reviewing the basic methods of inquiry in the behavioral sciences and then present research findings in the areas of behavioral development, perceiving, learning and thinking, motivation, the family, small groups, organiza- tions, institutions, social stratification, ethnic relations, mass commu- nication, opinions-attitudes-beliefs, society, and culture. For each section, the authors provide a set of definitions followed by a list of findings in sub-areas of the particular category. The findings are stated in the form of causal propositions. For example, under the category of social stratification, you will find propositions (linked to confirming evidence) such as (a) people in small communities are more likely to agree on who ranks where than are city people; and (b) the rate of generational mobility is currently about the same in all highly indus- trialized societies (a generalization that contributed to undermining the concept of American exceptionalism). In 1973, when Randall Collins published the most comprehensive introduction to causal sociology at that time and to today, he did not reference the Berelson and Steiner volume. His Conflict Sociology: Toward an Explanatory Science (New York: Academic Press) was an extraordinary effort to consolidate a generalized sociology. He develops an extraordinary systematic theore- tical crystallization of what sociologists know about the world in terms of stratification, microsociology, deference and demeanor, sex and age, Appendix 1 327 organizations, state-economy-ideology, wealth and social mobility, and the organization of the intellectual world. Collins’ approach is to begin with a set of postulates and then to develop his propositions. In the case of his analysis of occupational class cultures, his postulates include (1) each individual constructs [his/her] own subjective reality; and (2) individual cognition is constructed from social communications. There are six other postulates. The first proposition is: experiences of giving and taking orders are the main determinants of individual outlooks and behaviors; the second is: the more one gives orders, the more [s/he] is proud, self-assured, formal, and identifies with the organizational ideals in whose name [s/he] justifies the orders. As you read through efforts like those undertaken by Berelson and Steiner and by Collins, it is important to keep in mind that for science to get a foothold on reality and to begin its cumulative climb, early on it may be important to state things that may seem obvious but must nonetheless be empirically grounded and theoretically informed. As research traditions grow, such statements will become more formal and be absorbed by axioms and postulates. Science only works as a process, not as a set of facts. Randall Collins has, in my view, done more to establish foundations for a cumulative explanatory sociological science than anyone else. In addition to the propositional compendium, Conflict Sociology, he has also given us The Sociology of Philosophies (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press). Key findings from this study are reported in Table 2.1, and see his Interaction Ritual Chains (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005). Collins has produced some of the most important con- tributions to sociological science in twentieth-century sociology. The fact that we do not yet see other sociologists following in the steps of Collins’ explanatory science of sociological realism doesn’t change the fact that Collins has given us every reason to begin that trek. There is plenty to criticize in Collins’ work, but that is the nature of science. The fact that critics found fodder in the works of Newton and Einstein doesn’t change the significance of their contributions. Collins has led the way in demonstrating the explanatory power of sociology at the introductory level, notably in his Sociological Insight: An Introduction to Non-Obvious Sociology, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), and most impressively in his article on “The 328 Appendix 1

Future Decline of the Russian Empire.” The article was published in Collins’ collection of his essays in Weberian Sociological Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986). What impresses about this article is that the basic work and write-up were completed many years earlier. Theoretical power is predictive power, and for theory to be predictive it must be constructed on a solid empirical foundation. The power of Collins’ theories rests on his enormous command of the sociocultural landscape. This should be where people turn when they want to experience the robustness of sociology as a science. POINT: “Sociology is among the hardest sciences of all – harder than the proverbial rocket science,” Dalton Conley stated upon becoming the first sociologist to be awarded the National Science Foundation’s Alan Waterman Award. In 2005, the NSF recognized Conley as one of the nation’s top young sociologists. “Imagine a science where you can’tdo controlled experiments – the ...staple of most bench science,” he said, perhaps implicitly explaining why this is only the second Waterman Award recognition of a social scientist. Commiserating with zoologists and paleontologists, who he said “share the difficulty of having to piece together observational data without ...experiments,” Conley explained that sociologists are forced to “impute causal processes, not just describe or classify the world,” all while accommodating the multiple levels of analysis that constantly and integrally interact. An additional thorn in sociologists’ professional lives is “the compli- cation that ...reality changes as you study it, and by virtue of the fact that you study it,” analogous to Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle in quantum mechanics, said Conley. “Our basic units of analysis, like the family, and our conceptual frameworks, like race and class, are ever- shifting as we study them.” To top off sociology’s formidable list of investigational obstacles, Conley noted that “many of the topics we study (e.g., gender and sexuality, race and class, family life) are, by design, the most politically charged and most personally sensitive topics one could address. That doesn’t make research easy. When you’ve got all those together then you’ve got the challenges of sociology ....” Conley is Professor of Sociology and Public Policy at New York University and Director of NYU’s Center for Advanced Social Science Research. He is also Adjunct Professor of Community Medicine at Mount Sinai School Appendix 1 329 of Medicine and a Research Associate at the National Bureau of Economic Research. COUNTER-POINT I: F. Stuart Chapin (1917), “The Experimental Method and Sociology,” The Scientific Monthly, Vol 4, Issue 3, pp. 238– 247. Chapin began this paper by noting the notable achievements physical scientists had reached through the use of the experimental method. He raised the question of whether this method could be used in sociol- ogy. Sociologists had already observed natural experiments such as the isolation of Inuit populations and the operation of Malthus’ law in China. Chapin wondered about whether sociologists had even undertaken to construct a true experiment. Social reformers in his time as in our own era are faced with objections to their plans that stem from moral and ideological objections and superstitions; it is difficult to assess such plans in terms of their intrinsic potential for positive change. Chapin was already witness to the resistance to animal experimentation in spite of clear evidence that they had contributed to human welfare. Chapin concluded that society was theonlylegitimateandofficial social experimenter. Utopian communities (e.g., New Harmony, Brook Farm, and the North American Phalanx) can be viewed as small-scale social experiments. They did not lead to conclusive results because they failed to meet the scientific criterion of isolation. State socialism in Germany and England in his time were cited as good examples of sociological experiments (I would call them social experiments). The problems with small-scale or societal experiments is that they are not systematic enough to identify and control all the relevant conditions and variables. Chapin understood the experimental method as a two-stage process. In physics or in sociology, there has to be a trial and error stage followed by more systematic experimental designs. Physics has passed thought the trial and error stage, he said, but sociology was still at that stage. In general, social and cultural adaptions unfold in a trial and error context, and the adaptations are subject to a process analogous to natural selection. Social selection proceeds by individual exclusion or extermina- tion; societal selection involves constraint and control. Both social and societal selection are forms of collective experimentation by the trial-and- error method. Legislative actions occur in the context of the inconclusive trial-and-error method. Chapin predicted that we would eventually in principle identify all the conditions and variables relevant to social problems 330 Appendix 1 using the trial-and-error method. That would set the stage for introducing thetrueexperimentalmethodintosociology. In his time as today complex- ity and variations in society and culture seemed to set a limit on the use of the true experimental method. What to do?Thestatisticalmethod,Chapin claimed, can be used to analyze complexity and variability, and it bears to the scientific method in sociology the analogous place of the experimental method in the physical sciences. COUNTER-POINT II: Experiments are usually set up so that the scientist controls the introduction of possible independent variables. The experimental method is used more by psychologists than sociolo- gists (e.g., see Milgram and Zimbardo). Notice, however, that such experiments (the Milgram experiment is exemplary) are sociologically relevant because they often involve manipulating social variables. We are used to the use of laboratories in the natural and physical sciences, but the social and behavioral sciences have a long history of laboratory studies. For reviews of the basic considerations in contemporary sociol- ogy regarding experiments, surrogate experiments such as the compara- tive method and field studies, see http://revisionworld.com/a2-level- level-revision/sociology/research-methods/primary-data-collection/ experimental-method#sthash.5jKDKUCw.dpuf. This site offers guide- lines and reviews for British students studying for their A-levels (exams). COUNTER-POINT III: Although the Milgram, Zimbardo, and other experiments were carried out by psychologists, the studies were in fact experiments in social psychology and thus in essence sociological experiments (as a review of the dependent variables and independent variables used readily reveals). See http://listbattle.com/187-top-7- social-experiments, summarized below:

Ten Major Social Science Experiments 10. Robbers Cave Experiment (http://www.age-of-the-sage.org/psychol ogy/social/sherif_robbers_cave_experiment.html). 9. Milgram Experiment (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milgram_ experiment). 8. Carlsberg Social Experiment (https://prezi.com/1ikerxucrifp/carls berg-social-experiment/). Appendix 1 331

7. The Monster Study (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monster_Study). 6. Conformity Elevator Experiment (http://www.brainpickings.org/ 2012/01/13/asch-elevator-experiment/). 5. Little Albert Experiment (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_ Albert_experiment). 4.Stanford Prison Experiment (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Stanford_prison_experiment) 3. The Asch Experiment https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asch_confor mity_experiments 2. Bobo Doll Experiment https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobo_doll_ experiment 1. “Seating Arrangement and Leadership Emergence,” Howells, L.T.; Becker, S.W. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, Vol 64(2), Feb 1962, 148–150. Abstract: Based on the proposition that seating position effects the flow of communication which, in turn, affects leadership emergence, twenty groups of five subjects performed a problem-solving task and then rated the group mem- bers on exhibited leadership. The seats were arranged so that two Ss were opposite three Ss. A greater number of leaders than would be expected by chance emerged from the two-seat side of the table, thus, lending support to the hypothesis.

Major figures in the history of experimental social science: Solomon Asch, Stanley Milgram, Philip Zimbardo, Leon Festinger, Muzafer Sharif, and Albert Bandura. For an overview, see Opening Skinner’s Box: Great Psychological Experiments of the Twentieth Century (New York: W.W. Norton, 2005) by Lauren Slater; Laboratory Experiments in the Social Sciences, 2nd ed. (London: Elsevier, 2014), edited by Murray Webster and Jane Sell; and see Robert Freed Bales, Interaction Process Analysis: A Method for the Study of Small Groups (Oxford: Addison-Wesley, 1950). Also see William R. Shadish, Thomas D. Cook, and Donald T. Campbell, Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs for Generalized Causal Inference (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2002). A quasi-experimental design has the “look” of an experiment but does not rely on random assignment. See http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/quasiexp.php,authoredby William M.K. Trochim who studied under Donald T. Campbell. 332 Appendix 1

NOTE: There are methodological and ethical issues associated with all of these studies and, in particular, the Milgram obedience experiment and the Zimbardo prison experiment. They nonetheless demonstrate the viability of the experimental method in social science, demonstrate important facts about human behavior, and offer insights into the nature and limits of the scientific imagination. Appendix 2

Modeling the Social Brain: Updated Version of the Restivo-Weiss Model of the Social Brain

In this appendix I present the latest iteration of a model of “the extended brain” designed to represent Clifford Geertz’s concept of “culture/mind/ brain-brain/mind/culture.” It also models a solution to perennial pro- blems and paradoxes in brain and mind studies. This model updates the original model developed by Sal Restivo and Sabrina Weiss and pub- lished in Sal Restivo, Sabrina Weiss and Alexander Stingl, Worlds of ScienceCraft (Routledge, 2016: 69). This amended version includes a delta function for each element describing its temporal dynamics and a dialectical sign indicating the extent to which the element contains the seeds of its own internal change, not shown in the graphics. The rationale for the model and the basic principles guiding its construction are discussed in Chapter 4. The next stage is to formally construct the information model adumbrated here. Recent research demonstrating that the immune system can influence social behavior is an implicit prediction in this model (http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/ v535/n7612/full/nature18626.html). The model also may help explain how people can live with large parts of their brains missing – since behaviors we tend to assume are fully localized in the brain are in fact functions of the entire system (http://www.bbc.com/ future/story/20141216-can-you-live-with-half-a-brain).

© The Author(s) 2017 333 S. Restivo, Sociology, Science, and the End of Philosophy, DOI 10.1057/978-1-349-95160-4 334 Appendix 2

Neural Neurons nets Brain

Phenotype Central Information Body Flows Biogenetic Nervous system System Gut Biome Epigenetics Organs Interaction Circulation of Information

Interaction The Midst of ircs Genotype Mind emerges in Ritual Environment Unit Of Socialization Chains

Artifacts

Macrosystem Society/Culture Mentifacts Socifacts Circulation of Information Exosystem

Mesosystem

Microsystem Co-making Person Eco-evolutionary Context

Nature as Human-made Repository of For human-incorporated Resources/affordances technologies Flora Fauna Nature & Cosmos Writ Large

Perception Receptor Umwelt organ Counter structure Perception - mark - carrier Inner World Object Counter structure Effect Subject organ Effect-mark-carrier Effector Effect world Index

A and evolution, relationship Abelard, Peter, 303 between, 169–170 Abrams, M. H., 1–2 human social skills as, 65 Abstraction An Aesthesia of Networks vs. concrete idea, 232 (Munster), 140 dependence of community of Affect, separation from cognition as scholars over mistake, 106 generations, 295, 303–306 Affective computing, research as grounded in specialization and on, 120 professionalization, 256 Affordances, stream of, as co- and ideologies of purity, 303 terminus with stream of and naïve realism, 295, 297–298 consciousness, 105, 138 process of in After Philosophy (Baynes et al.), 97 metamathematics, 295–299 Agent, efforts to resurrect, 13–14 See also Mathematics, as pure, Age of Hybrids, 42 transcendental Age of the Body, late 20th century phenomenon; Purity, as, 106, 115 ideologies of Age of the Social Abu Bakr, 223 current era as, 17, 60, 106, 122 Adaptation definition of, 66–67

© The Author(s) 2017 335 S. Restivo, Sociology, Science, and the End of Philosophy, DOI 10.1057/978-1-349-95160-4 336 Index

Age of the Social (cont.) Searle’s Chinese Room thought and development of new experiment and, 108–109 episteme, 111 sociological perspective growing awareness of, 42 and, 41–42, 104–105, 183 resistance to in US, 67 and SOCIO thought Aginsky, B. W., 48 experiment, 185, 186–187, Alexander the Great, 43 188 Alzheimer’s disease, 86 See also Robots America, and belief in Atheism, as no-longer necessary, 214 individualism, 16 Autism, and mind-blindness, 59, 98 American exceptionalism, 221 Available Light (Geerz), 91 Ancient thinkers Averroes, 240 importance of critical approach to, 1–2 B modern irrelevance of, 2–5, Bacon, Francis, 44 205–206 Bayes, Thomas, 260 ongoing influence of, 231 Behavior sciences’ discrediting of, 2–3 deep structures and, 203–204 Angels and Demons (Brown), 219 gaps in understanding of, 125 Anthropocene period, 49 interdisciplinary paradigm of, ANTs (actor-network theorists), 302 obstacles to, 16–17 Apophatic fallacy, 283, 285 phenotypes, neurotransmitter A priori categories, Durkheim’s genes and, 86 rejection of, 104 problems with individualism as Aries, Phillipe, 121 model of, 111–112 Aristotle traditional views on brain categories of, 261 and, 144–145 and origin of logic, 4, 284–285, See also Genes, as explanation of 302–303 behavior on physicists vs. theologians, 61 Benedict, Ruth, 55 and proto-sociology, 32 Berger, Peter, 22–23, 198 Armstrong, Karen, 48–49, 230, 233, Berntson, Gary, 96 235 Bible Artificial intelligence research multiple versions of, 222–223, and IMEGO thought 238, 241 experiment, 187–188 as not literal, 240–241 inadequate views of personhood reality of stories in, as issue, 222 in, 183 Bin Ka’b, Ubayy, 224 Index 337

Bin Thabit, Zaid, 223 social programming of, 137 Bioinformatics thinking as function of, 137–138 era of, and body as boundary Bodies, robot, and bodies as object, 117 social, 176 and visual arts, 117–118 Bodin, Jean, 34 Biological evolution, and cultural Bogen, J. E., 92 evolution, as conjointly Bohm, David, 267, 314 causal, 124 The Book of Beliefs and Opinions Biology (Sa’id ibn Yusuf), 259 and rediscovery of the social, 67, Books, as structures of knowledge, v 71, 113–114 Boole, George, 260, 261, 274, robust professional identity 291–295 in, 206 Boulding, Kenneth, 48 Bloor, David, 12–13, 290–291, 302 Bourbaki, N., 268 Boas, Franz, 55 Bradley, Raymond, 217 Bodies, human Brain as bodies of information, 122, 123 as aggregated system of social and as boundary objects, 116, 117 biological subsystems, 91 vs. brain, and humans as and behavior integrated informatic gaps in understanding of, 125 entity, 122 traditional views on, 144–145 commodification of, 117 vs. body, and humans as late 20th century as Age of, 106, integrated informatic 115 entity, 122 materialization of, 116 as body subsystem, 131, 137 mind as body at work, 110, 112, complexity of, and complexity of 114 social interaction, 66 mind-body dualism as cultural object, 136, 144 increasing criticism of, 145 evolution rejection of, 110 co-evolution with culture, 102, new, construction of, 118–119, 138, 143–144, 148 123 mosaic character of, 143–144 as plural entity, 118 prevailing model of, 143 and pure science’s rejection of the as explanation of behavior (brain- flesh, 136–137 centrism) as social construction, 114, 118, as common assumption in 137, 176 research, 88, 89–90 338 Index

Brain (cont.) Brain research cultural commitment to, 40 and brain as assumed basis of as obstacle to correct society, 134 understanding, 14, 16, 67, “brain in a vat” approach to, 6, 90, 135 92, 108, 134, 136–137, humans as creatures 184–185 with, 114–115 and dysfunctional and mind professionalization, brain-centric approach to, 103, bureaucratization and 112, 129–130, 205 ideology, 87–88 importance of distinguishing individualism as pervasive view between, 128 in, 87, 89, 90, 93, 130, 131, relation between, 98, 102, 133–134 103–104, 111–112, 113 interdisciplinary approach nature of, current liminal context to, 88–89, 92, 142 and, 311–312 naïvety of assumptions in, 134 plasticity, research on, 90, 146 popularization of, 129 size, relation to social rapid advances in, 20 complexity, 123 and rejection of the as social, 114–115 flesh, 136–137 as social-biological hybrid, 126 science and technology studies as social construction, 8–9, and, 90, 92 19–20, 205 skepticism about claims of, 89 social ecology of, 92–93 social and political pressures structure, and on, 87 intelligence, 131–132 and sociological See also Restivo-Weiss model of perspective, 90–92 brain/mind/body/culture sociology and, 42, 126, 133, 134, system; Sociology of brain 135–136, 141–142, Brain imaging 145–148, 205 and brain-centric understanding Brain Science Institute (Japan), 88 of mind, 129–130, 134 Brains in Dialogue project, 88–89 potential flaws in process, 134 Breazeal, Cynthia, 172, 173 as view of body participating in Bring Me the Brain of Nikola Tesla public structures, 131 (Restivo), 7 as view of brain-culture Brooks, David, 66, 67–68 interaction, 130–131 Brooks, Rodney, 173 Index 339

Brothers, Leslie, 90, 114–115, 123, Chomsky fallacy, 203–204 128, 147, 205 Christianity Brown, Dan, 119, 214, 219 changes in society and, 236 Brown, Harrison, 168 origin in pagan cultures, 236 Burt, Cyril, 85 See also Bible; Jesus Butler, Judith, 118–119 Chronological causality, fallacy of, 47 Churchland, Patricia, 129 C Cicero, 104 Cacioppo, John, 96 Cicourel, Aaron, 142 – Campbell, Donald T., 13 Clark, Andy, 91, 119, 126 127 Cantor, Georg, 259, 269, 274 Clarke, Arthur, 121 Capitalism Classist agendas, individualism and commodification, 117 and, 111 destructiveness of, 21 Climate change, necessity of and individualism, 93 addressing, 24 reification in, 21 Clinton, Hillary, 38 science as social practice Cognition, as embodied action in embedded in, 300 social context, 42 social blindness in, 21 Cognitive psychology, theories of Cardano, Gerolamo, 269 mind in, 109 Carlyle, Thomas, 44, 223 Cohen, Simon-Baron, 98 – Carr, Caleb, 119 Collins, Harry, 12 13 Carr-Saunders, A. M., 117 Collins, Randall fl Category errors, 211 and con ict theory of Catholic Church, sexism of, 136 mathematical – Center for the Study of Existential dynamics, 269 270 Risk (CSER), 165 on consciousness as social Centers vs. transcenters, in social construction, 318 fl networks, 51–52 in uence on author, 8, 63, 95 Cerulo, Karen, 142 and IRCs, 148 Chance, M.R.A., 123 and irrelevance of philosophy and Chapin, F. Stuart, 329–330 psychology, 2 Charter for Compassion, 48–49 and materialist worldview, 179 Chemistry, robust professional on mind as social identity in, 206 construction, 103 Children, postmodern pluralization on principles of intellectual of classifications and, 121 innovation, 62, 62t 340 Index

Collins, Randall (cont.) stream of, as co-terminus with on religion, 214 stream of affordances, 105, and robustness of sociology, 17 138 and social science See also Mind research, 326–328 Conservative sociologists, on social and SOCIO AI thought inequality, 33 experiment, 185, 186–187, Constructionism, vs. 188 constructivism, 318–319 and sociological revolution, 41, 62 See also Social constructionism and sociology as discovering The Construction of Social Reality science, 318 (Searle), 69 on thinking as social act, 100–101 Contextual recurrence, and Colonialism, see Imperialism/ generalization, 106 colonialism Cooley, Charles, 99 Command and control, equine Cooperation, limits of, as metaphors of, 116 concern, 72 Common sense Co-presence, digital age and, 54 social robots and, 176 Crane, Mary Thomas, 103, 124, as untrustworthy, 19 131–132 Compassion Creationism, 230 as centripetal force, 66, 233, 235 Creation myth, new, information limits of, as concern, 72 and, 141 and origins of religion, 66 Creativity Problem in AI, 186–187 religion as representation of, 200 Crelle, August, 263 Comte, Auguste, 34–35 Crichton, Michael, 119 The Concept of Mind (Ryle), 211 Critical Art Ensemble, 121 Concrete vs. abstract ideas, 232 Critical realism, 13 Confucius, 32–33 Critical science, 50 Conley, Dalton, 17, 328–329 Crowel, S. L., 171 Consciousness CSER (Center for the Study of as brain process, arguments Existential Risk), 165 against, 128–129 Cult of Information, 118 dependence on social Cultural blinders, 14 network, 100–101 See also Social blindness individuals as locus of expression (dissocism) of, 101 Culture as social construction, 204, 286, 318 coevolution with biology, 124 Index 341

co-evolution with brain, 102, 138, Dewey, John, 99, 103 143–144, 148 Diet, and brain evolution, 143 co-evolution with genes, 65 Digibodies, 117 as foundation of all action, Digital age sociological revolution and co-presence, 54 and, 59–60 and potential for new freedom or individuals as born into, 239 new level of control, 54 mind as constituted by, 130–131, third-cultures/lateralizations 136, 138 and, 53–54 See also Restivo-Weiss model of Digression on the Ancients and the brain/mind/body/culture Moderns (Fontenelle), 167 system; Society(ies) Disciplines Cyborgs, 175, 205, 314 decolonizing of, 72–73 increasing irrelevance of, 20, 58 Discovering God (Stark), 216, D 233–234 Dalai Lama, 49, 230, 233, 235 Discovery, scientific Damasio, Antonio, 91 as complex social process, 55 Dante, 44 sociology and, 55, 60–61 Darwin, Charles, 231 Dissocism see Social blindness The Da Vinci Code (Brown), 214, 219 Donald, Merlin, 101–102 Dawkins, Richard, 198–199, 230 Dostoevsky, Fyodor, 257 Dawn (Nietzsche), 6 Double writing, 240–241 Decade of the Brain, 88, 90, 129 Douglas, Mary, 2, 63, 206, 302, 311, Decolonizing of disciplines, 72–73 318 Deep Blue v. Kasparov chess Doyle, Richard, 121–122 match, 120 DuBois, W.E.B., 55 Deep structures, and human Dumit, Joe, 142 behavior, 203–204 Dunbar, Robin, 142, 143 Deforestation, agriculture and, 170 Durkheim, Emile Degrees of freedom, and free and brain theory, 126–127 will, 208–209 on consciousness as social DeLillo, Don, 119 construction, 318 Dennett, Daniel, 198, 199–200, 230 and discrediting of ancient Developmental model of brain thinkers, 2 evolution, 143 on fallacy of chronological DeVore, B. I., 124, 128 causality, 47 342 Index

Durkheim, Emile (cont.) Ecological model of brain on God, 66, 105, 207, 225, 239, evolution, 143 324 Ecumene(s), 45–49 and high tradition of sociology, 55 definition of, 45–46 on individual as fiction, 125 ecumenization process, 46–47 on knowledge as social as framework for understanding construction, 319 global cooperation, 45 modern critical Biblical studies global and, 227 and convergence of ethnic and origin of sociology, 319 sciences, 181 on origins of religion, 66 development of, 46, 122–123 and philosophy, end of, 206 sociological concepts to and a priori categories, rejection describe, 47–48 of, 104 subsystems of, 46 and reality, understanding of, 231 Information, 54 rejection of transcendental Education thinking by, 9, 105, 179, ability to detect bullshit as goal 319 of, 10 on religion as social arguments for denying to construction, 227, 319 masses, 23–24 on religious sentiment, 182, 212, imposition of viewpoints in, 226 217 social stratification in, 277–278 on social facts as real, 128 See also Universities on social nature of logical Einstein, Albert concepts, 56 brain of, 16, 103–104, 111–112, on society as sui generis, 66 131 and sociological theory of clock synchronization thought mind, 99 experiment of, 187 and sociology of religion, 199 The Elementary Forms of Religious Life on thinking as social activity, 262 (Durkheim), 9, 207, 324 Elvis, cult of, 237 Emotions dependence on external E stimuli, 105 Eagleton Terry, 24 separation from cognition as Ecological habitats mistake, 106 co-evolution of species with, 127 Enculturation theory of mind, 107 and degrees of freedom, 127 The End of Science (Horgan), 97 Index 343

ENINET (Network of European biological and cultural, as Neuroscience Institutes), 88 conjointly causal, 124 Enlightenment, and decline of of brain religion, 227 coevolution with culture, 102, Enriched environment theorem, 139 138, 143–144 Environment mosaic character of, 143–144 damage to, as issue, 72 prevailing model of, 143 vs. nurture, in behavior studies, co-evolution with ecological 84–85 habitats, 127 and social programming of and human as social bodies, 137 species, 63–65 and thinking as automatic, 138 social brain and, 143–144 See also Restivo-Weiss model of social cooperation and, 15 brain/mind/body/culture Experience, as inadequate tool for system perceiving reality, 207–208 Epigenetics, 82 Epiphenomenal model of brain evolution, 143 F Epistemology, death of, 38–39, 97, Facticity, establishment of, 289 105, 312–313 Faith, religious Eternal relevance fallacy, 2, 205–206 and belongingness, 239 Ethnomethodology, 289–291, 302 ineffectiveness of social science Euclid, 3, 5 arguments against, 218 Eugenics as opposite of scientific and concept of inquiry, 215, 222 profession, 116–117 persistence of despite and early research on heredity, 85 evidence, 216 Euler, Leonhard, 260, 272 as product of societies’ moral European Association for the Study principles, 202 of Science and scientists’ reluctance to Technology, 135–136 attack, 216, 226, 232, 235 European Neuroscience and Society The Faith Instinct (Wade), 67, 68–69 Network, 88–89 Fallacies, sociology of religion Eusocial animals, humans as, 64–65, and, 201–211 71 Al-Farabi, 240 Evolution Fat City (Lambro), 174 and adaptation, relationship Feelings, as inadequate tool for between, 169–170 perceiving reality, 207 344 Index

Feminism, sociological paradigm General set theory, development and, 231–232 of, 295 Feyerabend, Paul, 9, 138 Generational continuity Financial community, as modern and increased abstraction, 295, robber barons, 43 303–307 First Amendment, and religious in logic, 286 tolerance, 228–229 in mathematics, 262, 273, 286 Firth, Raymond, 18–19 Genes Flanagan, Owen, 243 and disease, complexity of factors Flatland (Abbott), 210 in, 82, 86–87 Fleck, Ludwik, 262, 302 forensic use of, twins and, 84 Fodor, Jerry, 109 gene-culture co-evolution, 65 Foerst, Anne, 179–184, 242, 244 neurotransmitter, and behavioral Fontenelle, Bernard Le Bovier phenotypes, 86 de, 167 as pleiotropic, 87 Foucault, Michel, 119, 132, 287 Genes, as explanation of behavior Free will (gene-centrism) complexity of socialization complexity of gene action and, 82 and, 125–126 cultural commitment to, 40 efforts to resurrect, 13–14 early flawed research on, 85 as illusion, 207–210 epigenetics and, 82 individualism and, 93 and genetic determinism, 86 ongoing debate on, 130 Human Genome Project and, 90 Frege, Gottlob, 303 and humans as integrated informatic entity, 122 media and, 81–82 G as obstacle to correct Garding, Lars, 273 understanding, 14, 16, 134 Gauss, Carl F., 263–264, 267, 272 ongoing belief in, 85 Gazzaniga, Michael, 95–96, public policy implications of, 86 123–124 vs. social/environmental factors Geertz, Clifford, 35, 91, 100, 124, (nature vs. nurture), 82–87 128, 254, 333 Genes, research on The Genealogy of Mind and dysfunctional (Nietzsche), 132 professionalization, Gene expression, social environment bureaucratization and and, 82 ideology, 87–88 Index 345

need for sociological perspective and religion, as separable in, 42, 90 concepts, 200 social and political pressures as second-level referent, 239–240 on, 87 as social construction, 8–9, 19–20 Al-Ghazali, 240 sociological view of, difficulty of Gibbon, Edward, 223 publicizing, 226 Gilman, Charlotte Perkins, 55 transcendental, inaccessibility Globalization, 42–49 of, 285 critics of, 42–49 of West, unique features and ecumene, expansion of, 200–201 of, 122–123 Gödel, Kurt, 289–290, 298 and loss of local structures, 43 God’s Gravediggers (Bradley), 217 and need for frameworks of Goffman, Erving, 148, 204, 318 cooperation, 45 Goldstein, Rebecca, 231, 232 and struggle between forces of Gordon, Lewis, 72 order and disorder, 48–49 Gould, S. J., 207 uncertain future of, 45 Government Accountability Office, See also Ecumene(s); World unity US, 174 Glocal, as term, 43 Great Man theory of history Gnower, 313 (Napoleon fallacy), 44, God(s) 207–208, 209 ancient connection to Greek philosophers, condensation of mathematics, 258 millennia of knowledge cultural variations in by, 5 concept, 200–201 Gregory, D. F., 273 Durkheim on, 66, 105, 207, 225, Gumplowicz, Ludwig, 262 239, 324 Kaufman’s social constructionist version of, 244 H nature of, current liminal context Habits, social function of, 126 and, 311–312 Hacking, Ian, 20, 66, 72, 300 origin of belief in, 198 Haldane, J.B.S., 166–167 of past, as reflection on reality of Halmos, Paul, 267–268 Christian God, 237, Halo effect in research, 87, 325–326 238–239 Hand and brain, separation of Plato on, 5–6 as danger to community of proofs for and against existence specialists, 305 of, 6, 206–207 logic as product of, 304 346 Index

Hansen, Mark, 118, 119 as basic truth, 14–16 Hardenberg, Friedrich von evolution and, 15, 63–65 (Norvalis), 259 and mind, nature of, 99–100 Hardy, G. H., 268 and necessity of addressing the Hardy, Thomas, 226–227 social, 122 Harrington, Michael, 182, 218, traps preventing understanding 234–235 of, 14 Harris, Sam, 198, 230 Human science, and neo-natural Haugeland, John, 109 philosophy, 313 Hawking, Stephen, 165 Humphrey, N. K., 123 Hawking Incorporated (Mialet), 118 Huntington’s chorea, 86 Hayles, N. Katherine, 115, 119 Hebb, D. O., 105 Hewes, Gordon, 45 I History Ibn Khaldun, 33–34 Great Man theory of (Napoleon Ibn Salam, Abdullah, 224 fallacy), 44, 207–208, 209 Ibn Sina, 240 as unfolding of cycles of Ibn Warraq, 219 cumulative evidences, 116 Ibn Yusuf, Sa’id, 259 Hitchens, Christopher, 198, 230 IMEGO AI thought Hobbes, Thomas, 34, 227 experiment, 187–188 Hooker, Clifford, 320 Immanentist thinking, see Hooker, Richard, 34 Transcendental thinking/ Horgan, John, 97 immanence/psychologism Hormonal control, subsumption- Immanent structures, and human based, 205 behavior, 203–204 Human Genome Project, 90, 121 Imperialism/colonialism Humanism, high tradition of and decolonizing of sociology and, 58 disciplines, 72–73 Humans and reductionist genetics, 121 as eusocial animals, 64–65, 71 rhetoric of pure science and, 265 as integrated informatic and world unity concept, 43–44, entity, 122 47 post-human (H+), 166 “In College and Hiding from Scary Humans as social/cultural animals Ideas” (Shulevitz), 22 as always already true, 31, 34, 225, Individualism 317 and capitalism, 93 Index 347

cultural commitment to, 40 language of, and explosion of impact on brain research, 87, 89, replication, 121 90, 93, 130, 131, 133–134 and new creation myth, 141, 178 impact on genetic research, 87 rejection of transcendence increasing evidence against, 93 and, 106 key concepts of, 93 Information technologies, social media reporting on genetics criticism of, 121 and, 81 Information theory, and embodied as model of human behavior, materiality of problems with, 111–112 information, 115–120 as obstacle to correct Intellectual’s fallacy, 206 understanding, 14, 15–16, Intelligence, brain structure 22, 68, 70–71, 316–320 and, 131–132 ongoing influence of, 315–317 Intelligent design, 65 as pervasive view in brain Interaction ritual chains sciences, 130, 131 (IRCs), 125–126, 137, 139, and public policy, 111 148, 185–188 and racist, sexist, classist Interaction rituals (IR), 125–126, agendas, 111 137, 139, 148, 185–188 replacement of with society- Interdisciplinary, as term, 72 centered Interdisciplinary approaches awareness, 213–214 to behavior, obstacles to, 16–17 and resistance to sociological to brain research, 88–89, 92, 142 perspective, 67 and idea of the social, 60 and social/ethical measures of as scientific imperative, 311 progress, 169 in sociology, 9 and social life and interaction in study of mind, 102 rituals, 125–126 Internal life fallacy, 204–205 and theories of mind, 107 International Science Shop in US, 67, 81, 93 network, 37 Industrialization Introduction to Metamathematics challenges to scientific progress (Kleene), 295–299 in, 50 Introspective transparency, fallacy cultural impact of, 43 of, 19, 89, 107 Informatic emotions, 117 Intuition, as untrustworthy, 19 Information Invitation to Sociology (Berger), as boundary object, 116 21–22 embodied materiality of, 115–117 Iraneus, 223 348 Index

IRCs, see Interaction ritual chains Kismet (robot), 172, 173, 188 (IRCs) Kitcher, Philip, 35–36 IRobot, Inc., 172–173 Kleene, S. C., 274, 295–299 IRs, see Interaction rituals (IR) Klein, Felix, 273 Islam Kline, Morris, 258 as creation of Umayyad Knorr-Cetina, Karin, 9, 12–13, 63 caliphate, 224 Knowledge critique of, 222–225 all forms of, as social and dar-al-Islam, 44 construction, 55, 319 threats against critics of, 219 dependence on perspective, See also Koran process and context, 61 diverse ways of, 7 Koran J critique of, 222–224, 224–225 Jeans, James, 259 mentions of Muhammad in, 225 Jefferson, Thomas, 228–229 Kroeber, Alfred, 55 Jesus Kronecker, Leopold, 269 similarity to other savior figures, 237, 238–239 as solar messiah, 222 L status of, as issue, 222, 223, 236, Lagrange, Joseph-Louis, 271–272 237, 241 Lakoff, S. A., 47 Johnson, Samuel, 262 Lambro, Donald, 174 Jolly, A., 123 Language learning, as social Journalists, and rediscovery of the process, 68–69 social, 66–69 Lasswell, Harold, 33 Lateralizations, 48 digital age and, 53–54 K science as, 48, 49–55 Kac, Eduardo, 115, 117, 121 Latour, Bruno, 12–13, 120, Kafka, Franz, 39 140–141, 232, 314 Kallman, Franz, 85 Laws of Thought (Boole), 291–295 Kant, Immanuel, 261, 311 Learning, as context- Kasparov vs. Deep Blue chess dependent, 106–107 match, 120 Leehhardt, Maurice, 225 Kaufman, Gordon, 244 Leibniz, Gottfried W., 260, 269 Kepler, Johannes, 258 Lenin, Vladimir, 16, 134 King, Barbara, 216 Lenoir, Timothy, 115 Index 349

Levi-Strauss, Claude, 118 as experimental science, 289 Liberal sociologists, on social freestanding nature of, as inequality, 33 fallacy, 204 Life, as informatic, 122 genesis of as relevant to truth Life forms vs. machines, as artificial of, 306 distinction, 118, 119–120 as moral system, 287–289 Life sciences new, construction of, 18–19 rediscovery of the social in, 63–66 professionalization of, 294 turn toward social thinking in, 91 proposed origins of, 4, 284–285, Liminality of current period, 10, 302–303 17–18, 231, 232 and rejection of the flesh, 136 countercultures and, 312, 314–15 relevance of sociology to, 42 dualisms/trichotomies rendered as result of separation of work of problematic in, 313 hand and brain, 304 monstrous entities created by, 314 as social construction, 8–9, and necessity of revising cultural 19–20, 39, 56, 105, 285, rationalities, 311–314 286, 300 postmodernism and, 314 as strategy of control, 294 and reworking of systems of transcendent classification, 314–315 as goal of logician, 306–307 Livingston, Eric, 289–291 as inaccessible, 283, 284, 285, Logic(s) 302 archaeology of, 287–289 as mistake in reference, 285 Aristotelian vs. classical, 217 theological overtones Aristotle and, 284–285 of, 293–294 authority of See also Sociology of logic as illusion, 283–284 Logical argument, against as product of extreme purity/ religion, 217, 218–219 abstraction, 288 Logician, as person in a sociocultural social origins of, 286, 291, 292, context, 306 303 Logician’s fallacy, 203–204 convergence with pure Logic of flows, reification and, 123 mathematics, 284, 295 Love, and cooperative principle in as cultural institution, 287 evolution, 15 current liminal context Luhmann, Niklas, 317 and, 311–312 Luxenberg, Christoph, 219 as dense network of discourse, 287 Lyotard, Jean-François, 12 350 Index

M Mathematicians Machiavelli, Niccolò, 34 psychology of, 258 Machines as socially constructed, 255 emotions and consciousness as workers, 254, 280 in, 120, 122 Mathematics vs. life forms, as artificial back-to-basics movement in, 278 distinction, 118, 119–120 certainty of, social origins of, 286 MacLane, Saunders, 273 closure to outside input, 270–271, Mahavira, 258 276–277 Maimonides, 240 conflict theory of dynamics Making the Social World (Searle), 70 in, 269–270 Martin, Emily, 118 freestanding nature of as Martineau, Harriet, 55 fallacy, 204 Marx, Karl generational continuity and, 262, on consciousness as social 273, 286 construction, 318 and mathematical objects as on culture as product of human material labor, 213–214 resources, 274–275, 296 and high tradition of sociology, 55 and math worlds, creation on human science, 313 of, 275–276, 297–298 influence on author, 211–212 mobilization for ideological ongoing relevance of, 206 purposes, 257–258 and reality, understanding of, 231 and naïve realism, 257, 274, rejection of transcendental 297–298 thinking, 104, 105 nature of, current liminal context on religion, 211–213 and, 311–312 and religious sentiment, 212, 217 and number facts as resources in on scientists as social debates, 257–258 creatures, 318 for the people, possibility of, 278, on social nature of thinking, 225 279–280 and sociological theory of and Platonism, support for, 285 mind, 99 as production of mathematical Marxist sociologists, on social objects, 254, 270, 296 inequality, 33 as product of math worlds, 35 Mathegrammatical illusions, 203, as professional game, 253 211 and proofs as machines, 265–267, Mathematical symbols, and thinking 289 as social act, 262–263 purism in, 271 Index 351

relevance of sociology to, 42 sociology’s rejection of, 144, as social construction, 8–9, 285–286 19–20, 35–39, 105–106, technicism and, 265–266, 289 144, 254, 255, 257, 261, as traditional view, 253, 255 270, 285–286 uses of, 268 as social problem, 279–280 Mathematics, separation of pure and social structure of, 256–257 applied forms of sociological perspective on, 278 as conflict of values, 268 and systems of objects, methods of historical process of, 263–264, introducing, 275 272–273 and thinking as social Math worlds act, 262–263 creation of, 274–276, 297–298 tinkering in, 267–268 maths as product of, 35 as tool of ruling elites, 37, 277, and sociology of mathematics, 254 278 Ma Tuan-Lin, 34 traditional ties to Maturana, Humberto, 146 theology, 258–260, 264, Maupertuis, Pierre, 260 268 McGinn, Colin, 97 transitions in organization of, 269 McGowan, Kathleen, 219 ways of introducing systems of Mead, A. P., 123 objects into, 296 Mead, George Herbert See also Metamathematics; and brain theory, 127 Sociology of mathematics on consciousness, 69, 318 Mathematics, as pure, transcendental on Generalized Other, 187 phenomenon, 260–276 and high tradition of sociology, 55 characteristics of, 261–262 influence on author, 63 convergence with logic, 284, 295 on mind as social emergence of critique of, 255 construction, 103 imperialism and, 265 and sociological theory of inaccessibility of, 285 mind, 99 and loss of socially responsible and sociology as discovering awareness, 270, 279 science, 318 as product of specialization, Meaning, three persons required for bureaucratization, and establishment of, 187–188 institutionalization, 255, Media 256, 261, 263–265, and brain-centric understanding 270–271, 272–273, 305 of mind, 129–130, 133–134 as sociological hard case, 261 on brain science, 39, 89, 147 352 Index

Media (cont.) history of discourse on, 109–110 debates on religion in, 214, 216, lack of material existence, 98–99, 226 99–100 on genetic science, 39 lack of transcendent and public perception of component, 114 genetics, 81–82 location inside head, vs. Mencken, H. L., 227 sociological perspective, 110 Merton, Robert K., 13 mind-body dualism Metamathematics increasing criticism of, 145 abstraction process in, 295–299 rejection of, 110 and naïve realism, 295, nature of, humans as social beings 297–298 and, 99–100 and creation of math preservation of by downloading worlds, 275–276 into computer, 112 iteration in, 273–274 rejection of transcendence and object worlds, creation and, 104–106 of, 297–298 as social construction, 98–112, as product of professional 101–102, 130–131, 136, culture, 261 138, 144, 173 self-consciousness in, 274 See also Consciousness; Restivo- Mialet, Hélène, 118 Weiss model of brain/mind/ Milbank, John, 243–244 body/culture system; Milgram experiment, 324–325 Sociology of mind; Thinking Mills, C. Wright, 8, 63, 103, 179, 318 Mind, study of Mind as increasingly as body at work, 110, 112, 114 interdisciplinary, 102 and brain public interest in, 110–111 importance of distinguishing and sociological between, 128 perspective, 102–103, 104, relation between, 98, 102, 107–109, 111 103–104, 111–112, 113 Mind, theories of brain-centric approach to, as in cognitive psychology, 109 misguided, 103, 112, four basic paradigms in, 107–108 129–130, 205 individualism and, 107 brain imaging technology invisibility of sociological theories and, 129–130 of, 110 cultural variations in, 101 in philosophy and as embedded and extended, 126 psychology, 102 Index 353

sociological, 99 Napoleon I, 277 Mind-blindness, 59, 98 Nature, multiplicity of natures, 121 Miracles Negri, Antonio, 54 naturalistic explanations Nelson, Edward, 259 of, 215–216, 219–220 Neque demonstra neque redargue as symbols, 241 fallacy, 206–207 Mirror neurons, 90–91, 103, 138, 146 Nest, in evolution of eusocial Misplaced concreteness, fallacy species, 64–65 of, 210–211 Network of European Neuroscience Misplaced privilege, fallacy of, 202 Institutes (ENINET), 88 Mitchell, Robert, 115, 117 Networks, thinking in, 139–140 Modularity theory of mind, 107 See also Social network(s) Money, as complex social Neuroculture system, 127–128 development of, 129 Moral order of society as unaware of earlier thought on need for material reconfiguration free will and moral of, 232, 234 responsibility, 130 religion as institutionalization Neuroism, 90, 147, 152, 160, of, 198, 200, 201–202, 224, 205 225, 232, 234 Neurons Mormonism, critique of, 220–222 mirror, 90–91, 103, 138, 146 Muhammad (prophet), 222, 223, research on regeneration of, 146 224–225 social, 138 Muller, Herman J., 168 Neurophilosophy (Churchland), 129 Multiculturalism, 17 Neurosciences two revolutions in, 11–12 on brain evolution, 143 Multinational corporations, and criticisms of inward focus of, 147 ecumenization process, 47 and rediscovery of the social, 67, Multiplicity-in-use, and decolonizing 91, 96, 113–114 of disciplines, 72 and the social, poor use of, 128, Munster, Anna, 140 145–148 Murphy, Nancey, 242–243, 244 social blindness in, 95–96 My Real Baby (robot toy), 172–173 and social neurons, 138 technological successes of, 125 N turn toward social thinking in, 61, Nachman, M. W., 171 91, 92, 145–147 Napoleon fallacy (Great Man theory of See also Social neuroscience history), 44, 207–208, 209 Neurosociology, 92 354 Index

Neurotechnologies, problematic Nurture, vs. environment, in aspects of, 148 behavior studies, 84–85 Neurotransmitter genotypes, and Nye, Andrea, 302–303, 306 behavioral phenotypes, 86 Nye, Bill, 38 New Atheists, 198–199, 212, 215–217, 234 Newton, Isaac, 258–260, 269, 271 O Nicolas of Cusa, 259 Objectivity, as social fact, 257 Nietzsche, Friedrich Object worlds, creation of in on body as only human metamathematics, 297–298 existence, 115 Ockham, William of, 303 on consciousness, 286, 318 Office of Technology Assessment, on God, 227 US, 174 on individual as fiction, 23, 125 One world concept, see World unity influence on author, 6 Ontological reductionism, 199 on mind as social Operations, and math worlds, 298 construction, 103, 109 Oppression, high tradition of and new bodies, construction sociology and, 58 of, 118 Orwell, George, 257 ongoing relevance of, 206 Other on pain as culturally contemporary reworking of conditioned, 132 classifications and, 314 on religious faith, 201, 215 postmodern engagement and sociological theory of with, 11–12, 14 mind, 99 on thinking, 225 on value of multiple P perspectives, 62 Pain, experience of as culturally Noë, Alva, 91, 96, 119, 126–127 conditioned, 132–133 NOMA (non-overlapping Pantheisticon (Toland), 23 magisteria) fallacy, 207 Parmenides, 136–137, 303 Non-obvious sociology, 8 Parmenides (Plato), 5, 284 Norvalis (Friedrich von Peacocke, Arthur, 242 Hardenberg), 259 Peano, Giuseppe, 268 Number facts, as resources in Performance-enhancing technologies debates, 257–258 (PETs), 166 Number-worlds, Spengler Pesher, 240 on, 268–269 Phaedrus (Plato), 166 Index 355

Philosophical Investigations Physics (Wittgenstein), 132 irrelevance of ancient thinkers Philosophy to, 2 claims of jurisdiction over robust professional identity methods of other in, 206 disciplines, 320 Spenglerism and, 312 as discipline, end of, 96–97, 105, Pinker fallacy, 203–204 206, 232, 313 Pinxten, Rik, 200–201 distortions of sociology Pius II (pope), 34 by, 317–318 Plato failure to address society as fact sui on brain-psyche and body- generis, 70 psyche, 4–5 Greek, condensation of millennia challenges in addressing, 4 of knowledge by, 5 and freeing of humans from hostility to sociology, 96 body, 115, 140 ignoring of sociology, 69–70 on God, existence of, 5–6 modern irrelevance of, 2–3 lingering influence on Western neo-natural, emergence of, 313 culture, 1, 3–4, 6, 38, 231 possibility of reconciliation with and origin of logic, 4, 302–303 sociology, 320 and proto-sociology, 32 and rediscovery of the on souls, 5 social, 66–67, 69–72, 91 on transcendent Forms, 284 sciences’ discrediting of, 3 Platonism and the social, poor use of, 128 modern irrelevance of, 4–5, 6 social blindness in, 70 support for in mathematics, sociological revolution and, 38–39 285 theories of mind in, 102 The Politics at God’s Funeral See also Aristotle; Logic(s); Plato; (Harrington), 218, 235 other specific philosophers Positivism, vs. sociological Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature materialism, 181 (Rorty), 96–97 Postman, Neil, 10 Philosophy of science, turn toward Postmodernism social thinking in, 91 and agent, resurrection of, 13–14 Philosophy of society, critique and changing arbiters of theory of, 70–71, 316–320 and cultural Physical sciences, reductionism critique, 115–116 in, 199–200 critics of, 169 356 Index

Postmodernism (cont.) as troubled concept in modern current liminal context era, 167, 169, 175 and, 311–312 views on technology’s relationship effect on understanding of with, 169 science, 299–300 Proofs and End of the Social, 112 as machines, 265–267, 289 and engagement with as social constructions, 207 Other, 11–12, 14 Propositions, and mathematical and liminality of current reality, 295 period, 314 Protagoras, 227 and pluralization of Prothero, Stephen, 198–199 classifications, 118, 121 Psychologistic explanations of and rational inquiry, 12–14, behavior, see Transcendental 17–19, 20, 58, 59–60 thinking/immanence/ and truth-telling, as still psychologism possible, 229 Psychologistic fallacy, 205 Pre-Socratic philosophers, Pure reason 32 modern irrelevance of, 231–232 Price, Richard, 260 withering of concept, 61 Principia Mathematica (Russell and Purity, ideologies of Whitehead), 273, 298 abstraction process and, 303–304 Private worlds fallacy, 204 closure to outside influences Production, informational model and, 305–306 of, 117 as imperative of social Profession, concept of, eugenics conflict, 304 and, 116–117 protection of by specialists, 306 Progress and scientists’ dependence on meaningful definition of, 169 power elites, 304–305 scientific advances as mark and technicism, 265–266, 289 of, 167, 168, 175 and theory as special possession of social/ethical measures ruling elite, 304–305 of, 168–169 and thinking class as tool of theory of established order, 303–304 as discredited, 34 See also Mathematics, as pure, ecumenization and, 47 transcendental phenomenon teleological theories of world Pyenson, Lewis, 263 unity and, 45, 47 Pythagoras, 104, 258 Index 357

Q as social construction, 36 Quantum mechanics, many worlds Reductionism interpretation in, 203 as critique of sociology, 40, 199 in physical sciences, 199–200 of social constructionism, R Rosental on, 299 Racist agendas, individualism of theory of everything, 199, 203 and, 111 Rees, Martin, 165 Radical caucuses, scientific, 50 Reference, mistakes in, 212, 285 Radical Science Movement, 50 Reification Radical sociologists, on social pure mathematics and, 256 inequality, 33 See also Misplaced concreteness, Rational inquiry fallacy of increasing complexity of data Relational thinking, and escape from and, 20 dualism, 119 postmodernism and, 11–13, Relativism, vs. sociological 17–19, 20, 58, 59–60 materialism, 181 religious liberty as inconsistent Religion with, 182 absurdity of respectful approach science as basis of, 10–11 to, 7–8, 179–180, 181–182, Reality 226, 232 as constraint on belief, 7, 21 appearance in all difficulty of negotiating boundary societies, 197–198, 225 of, 114 author’s call for abandonment levels of, 19 of, 212 social constructions and, 41 author’s experiences with, 211, 238 Reason bridging gap between science author’s devotion to, 6–7 and, 233 current liminal context changes in response to changes in and, 311–315 society, 236 new, potential emergence contemporary decline of, 18–19, 312–313 of, 226–228 ongoing struggle for, 17–18 cultural variations in concept, 200 pure danger to critics of, 219 modern irrelevance debate on, sociologists and, 216 of, 231–232 evidence against reality of, 233 withering of concept, 61 and gods, as separable science as basic tool of, 10–11, 312 concepts, 200 358 Index

Religion (cont.) See also Faith, religious; God(s); ineffectiveness of social science Sociology of religion arguments against, 218 Religious freedom as institutionalization of societies’ First Amendment and, 228–229 moral principles, 198, 200, as inconsistent with rational 201–202, 224, 225, 232, inquiry, 182 233, 234, 236 shielding of religion from scrutiny limited public awareness of by, 211, 232 sociological view of, 230 Religious sentiment logical arguments against, 217, Armstrong and, 233 218–219 Durkheim on, 182, 212, 217 Marx on, 211–213 Marx and, 212, 217 modern decline of, 229–230 and mathematics, 259 modern irrelevance of, 8 necessity of for proper Mormonism, critique of, 220–222 analysis, 234 naturalistic explanations Religious texts, as not of, 215–216 literal, 240–241 Nietzsche on, 202, 215 Religious tolerance and NOMA (non-overlapping and First Amendment, 228–229 magisteria) fallacy, 207 shielding of religion from scrutiny origins of, 66, 198 by, 211, 226, 232 protections from critical in universities, 228–229 scrutiny, 211, 226, 232 Renan, Ernest, 224–225 religious beliefs of sociologists The Republic (Plato), 4, 5 and, 233–235 Restivo-Weiss model of brain/mind/ replacement of with society- body/culture centered system, 333–334 awareness, 213–214 and brain/mind dichotomy, 100 as representation of social and expandability, 129 compassion, 200 influences on, 124 as social construction, 201–202, informaticizing of, 116 212, 225–226 inputs/outputs of as information as subject of sociological flows, 137 study, 198, 199 inside-outside distinction as unnecessary after amelioration and, 125 of social and necessity of rethinking conditions, 212–213, 218 socialization, 141 Index 359

network of multiples and, 127 unintended consequences, and neurosocial model of self, 205 importance of operating principles of, 137–138 exploring, 173–174, 175 Rhythmicity See also Artificial intelligence of humans, and the social, 14–15, 65 research; Sociable robots; in robots, 171–172, 174, 188 Social robots Ritual Robots rights movement, 172 functions of, 198 Romanticism, scientific, 203 and socialization, 126 Rorty, Richard, 38, 96–97 and supernatural beliefs, Rose, Nikolas, 142 generation of, 198 Rose, Steven, 147 See also Interaction ritual chains Rosental, Claude, 299–302 (IRCs); Interaction rituals Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 227 (IR) Ruling elite Robosapiens, 120, 177, 314 mathematics as tool of, 37, 277, Robots 278 concerns about, 172 science as tool of, 37, 304 ethical issues in, 175 systems of knowledge as tool human-like vs. robot- of, 277 like, 177–178 theory as special possession issues in integrating into of, 304–305 society, 173 Rushdie, Salman, 22, 23, 219 and machine-like feelings and self- Russell, Bertrand, 166–167, 273, awareness, 204–205 298 and nature of humans, as Russell, Stuart J., 165 issue, 175, 178 Ryle, Gilbert, 99, 110, 211 need for sociological perspective in design of, 176, 177, 183, 184–185 S promise and threats presented Saint-Simon, Henri de, 34 by, 165–166 Salk Institute, 82–83 role in society, as issue, 175, The Satanic Verses (Rushdie), 219 178 Scarring ceremonies, 132–133 science fiction on, 172 Schaffer, Simon, 265–266 and sociologists, monitoring role Schleirmacher, Friedrich, 227 of, 177 Schumacher, John, 187 and theology, 179–184 Schutz, Alfred, 317 360 Index

Science and Platonic idealism, erasure as basic tool of reason, 10–11, 312 of, 300 Boole on laws of, 292 as process of resetting beliefs, 226 and caucuses, 53 as product of science worlds, 37 closure of to outside progress in input, 305–306, 312 as mark of social progress, 167, as collective process of inquiry, 11, 168, 175 13 mix of positive and negative concerns about unintended impacts inherent consequences of, 166–168 in, 170–171 and critical realism, 13 pure, rejection of the flesh current liminal context in, 136–137 and, 311–312, 313 radical sociological reconstruction current reinvention of, 120 of understanding of, decolonizing of, 72–73 possibility of, 38 discrediting of ancient thinkers as reasoning ability vs. social by, 2–3 institution, 300 dysfunctional professionalization, and religion, modern irrelevance bureaucratization and of, 8 ideology in separation from technology, impact on research ethical consequences of, 170 validity, 87–88 as social construction, 53, 105–106 responses to, 50, 53 sociology of, development establishment of facts in, 266–267 of, 56–57, 60 ethnic stamps in, 181 as third-culture/lateralization, 48, and experiments as 49–55 machines, 265–266 tinkering in, 267 importance of understanding, 54 as tool of ruling elites, 37, 304 and industrialization, challenges transnational culture of, 265 to progress from, 50 variation of concept over institutionalization of, 305–306 time, 52–53 interdisciplinary imperative See also Sociology of science in, 311 Science and technology studies one-size-fits-all concepts of, 9–10 (S&TS) ongoing worshipful orientation author’s expertise in, 10 toward, 38 and brain research, 90, 92, 142 for the people, possibility effect on understanding of of, 37–38, 50 science, 299–300 Index 361

history of, 255 Seeing, human and relativism, 12–13 cultural and linguistic preparation and revolution in scientific necessary for, 98 inquiry, 10 dependence on perspective, on science as social process and context, 61 product, 59–60 Self and social science revolution, 11 continuity in, recursive and sociology of science, 255 contextualization and, 106 Science for the People movement, 50 Western concept of as Science shop movement, 37–38, 50 outdated, 130 Science studies movement, 184 See also Individualism Science worlds, science as product Sexism of, 37 individualism and, 111 Scientific inquiry and pure science’s rejection of the religious faith as opposite of, 215, flesh, 136–137 222 Shakespeare’s Brain (Crane), 132 revolution in, 10 Shapin, Steven, 265–266 unpredictable consequences Shermer, Michael, 38 of, 120–121 Shulevitz, Judith, 22 Scientific objectivity Sieyès, Emmanuel Joseph, 35 as collective venture, 57–58, Simmel, Georg, 15, 317 61–62 Simulation theory of mind, 107 impossibility of, 57 Singer, Peter, 165 means of approaching, 57 Skepticism, postmodernism and, 12, Scientific romanticism, 203 18, 20 Scientists Skeptics Society, 38 high percentage of atheists Smith, Barbara H., 319 among, 215 Smith, Dorothy, 318 as socially constructed, 257 Smith, Joseph, Jr., 220–222 tension between dependence on Sociable robots power elites and nominal definition of, 172 independence, 304–305 individualist bias in, 107 Sclove, Dick, 174 need for sociological perspective in Seagrams & Sons centennial design of, 180–181 celebration, 168 research on, 120 Searle, John, 66, 67, 69–71, 91, The social, contemporary rediscovery 108–109, 129 of, 63–72 Second Great Awakening, 220 The Social Animal (Brooks), 67–68 362 Index

Social blindness (dissocism), 95–96 brains as, 8–9, 19–20, 205 in capitalism, 21 as concept, 41 contemporary debate on religion consciousness as, 204, 286, 318 and, 216 logics as, 8–9, 19–20, 39, 56, 105, in critics of sociology, 199–200 285, 286, 300 debate on religion and, 198–199 mathematics as, 8–9, 19–20, degrees of, 59 35–39, 105–106, 144, 254, in philosophers’ accounts of the 255, 257, 261, 270, social, 70 285–286 in popular accounts of the mind as, 98–112, 130–131, 136, social, 68–69 138, 144, 173 Social brain proofs as, 207 and evolution, 143–144 and reality, 41 and health care, 139 reason as, 36 history of concept, 123–124, 136 religion as, 201–202, 212, inside-outside distinction 225–226 and, 148 science as, 53, 105–106 network model of, 124 thinking as, 101, 130–131, 286 nexus version of, 124 truth as, 286 paradigm, establishment of, 124 Social contract theory, 34, 71 The Social Brain (Gazzaniga), 95–96, Social ecologies, remaking of 123–124 sociocultural theory in terms Social cognition, 58–59 of, 127 Social complexity, relation to brain Social facts, Durkheim on reality size, 123 of, 128 The Social Conquest of Earth Social group (Wilson), 63–64 as center of human universe, as Social constructionism sociological discovery, 56 vs. constructivism, 318–319 vs. social network, 51, 52 critiques of, 318, 319–320 Social inequality definition of, 319 conservative vs. liberal/Marxist/ as fundamental theorem of radical views on, 33 sociology, 299, 318 reinforcement by systems of and relativism, 299 knowledge, 277–278 Rosental on reductionism of, 299 See also Ruling elite Social constructions Social intelligence hypothesis, 123 all knowledge as, 55, 319 Socialization bodies as, 114, 118, 137, 176 author’s model of, 65–66 Index 363

cultural complexity and, 125–126 role of, as issue, 178 as life-long process, 125 as social constructions, 175 necessity of rethinking, 141 and social locations, 178 as outside-in process, 125 sociological perspective and, 107 Social knowledge, social cognition sociological thought experiments and, 59 for design of, 186–188 Social life, interaction rituals (IR) and undesirable human traits, and interaction ritual chains exclusion of, 173 (IRCs) in, 125–126 unintended consequences, The Social Mind (Valsiner and Van importance of Der Leer), 95 exploring, 173–174, 175, Social model of brain evolution, 143 178, 186 Social network(s) Social science experiments, 324–332 in describing third- methodological issues cultures, 51–52 in, 325–326, 328–330 vs. social group, 51, 52 Social skills, human, as adaptive thinking in, 137, 139–140 mechanism, 65 Social neuroscience Social structures, dialectical emergence of, 92 complexity of, 39 and invisibility of sociology, 96 Social systems, cycles of closure and “social” as concept in, 96 opening in, 276–277, 305 vs. sociology of mind, 134 Social worlds, and degrees of Social programming of bodies, 137 freedom, 127 Social robots, 107, 173–177 Society(ies) and common sense, 176 basic functions performed definition of, 171–172, 174 by, 197–198 humans as measure of, 178 changes in scale through impact of time spent with, 186 history, 43 interaction rituals and interaction complex systems in, 127–128 ritual chains in design development of complexity of, 185–188 in, 198 need for sociological perspective in existence of, as issue, 315–316 design of, 176, 177, inadequate caring about people 180–181, 183, 184–185 in, 167–168 and new social order, 178 Marxist, creation of as goal, 313 and research ethics, 172, 183–184 minimal accord necessary research on, 120 for, 287–288 364 Index

Society(ies) (cont.) and end of transcendental necessity of sociological thinking, 231 perspective for influence of, 59–60 understanding, 316–320 invisibility of to many, 59–60, 62, possibility of radical 63, 64, 91–92, 96, 103, restructuring, 38 113–114 as prior to human existence, 317 Marx and, 213 ubiquity of religion in, 197–198 and mathematics as social See also Culture construction, 35–39 Society, as fact sui generis, 19, 66, 19th century thinkers important 71, 239 to, 62–63 failure to see ( see Social blindness) notable figures in, 63 importance of recognizing, 59, and recognition of cultural 181–182 foundation of all Marx and, 214 action, 59–60 philosophers’ failure to address, 70 transformation of society by, 56 in Wilson, 71 Sociological revolution, Newtonian Society-centered awareness, and Einsteinian, 41, 56 replacement of The Sociological Worldview individualism (Restivo), 23 with, 213–214 Sociologists Society for Social Studies of as ethnographers of Science, 135–136 science, 176–177 Society for the Study of Artificial and monitoring of robotics Intelligence and Simulation research, 177 of Behavior, 104–105 reluctance to attack religious SOCIO AI thought experiment, 185, faith, 226, 232, 235 186–187, 188 sensitivity to progressive or Sociocultural theory, remaking of in regressive aspects of terms of social ideas, 39 ecologies, 127 Sociology Sociological revolution, and artificial intelligence Copernican, 11, 35 research, 41–42 and changes in human bad reputation of, 60, 91 culture, 38–39 and brain research, 42, 126, 133, and changes in scientific 134, 135–136, 141–142, inquiry, 38–39 145–148, 205 Index 365 contemporary rediscovery of turn toward, and development of principles of, 63–72 new episteme, 111 coopting of ideas by others, 63–69 as white European male as damaged field, 96 paradigm, 231–232 as discovering science, 55, 60–61, as worldview, 58 91–92, 145, 233, 318 Sociology, robustness of distortions of by as greater than commonly philosophers, 317–318 believed, 2, 17, 55, 59, 60, early proto-sociologists, 31–35 135–136, 141–142, 318 and free will as illusion, 210 need to strengthen, 3, 9, 40–41 high tradition of, 55, 58, 60–61 ongoing efforts to humanistic impulse in, 58 demonstrate, 206 interdisciplinary, 9 and rejection of ancient low tradition of, 56 thinkers, 2 Milbank’s critique of, 243–244 research and, 323–324 and mind, study of, 102–103, widespread doubts about, 40 104, 107–109, 111 Sociology of brain philosophers’ ignoring of, 69–70 author’s research on, 95 possibility of reconciling with contributions to, 142 philosophy, 320 foundations for, 128–135 public perception of, as impact on practical medicine, 135 oversimplified, 58 impact on view of brain, 135 reductionism of, as critique, 40, limited number of sociologists 199 addressing, 134 and rejection of transcendental and medical care, 139, 146 thinking/immanence, 10, necessity for, 135–136, 141–142 23, 61, 104, 179, 181–182, provocation for, 128 184, 201 rationale for, 113 reputation as soft science, 56 vs. social neuroscience, 134 social constructionism as tenets of, 137–138 fundamental theorem as threat to traditional of, 299, 318 science, 140–141 stress on methodological over Sociology of logic substantive concerns, 56 and Boole, 291–295 as term, introduction of, 34–35 ethnomethodological approach and theology, as to, 289–291 incompatible, 179–184 feminism and, 303 366 Index

Sociology of logic (cont.) effect on understanding of and Kleene, 295–299 science, 299–300 Livingston on, 289–291 methodological individualism Nye and, 302–303 and, 316 Rosental on, 299–302 problems addressed by, 256 Sociology of mathematics Sociology of society, and basic assumptions in, 256–257 development of definition of, 255 religion, 197–198 Geertz and, 254 Sociology of the hard case, 8, 19, 113 history of, 255 Socrates, 4 and mathematics as social Souls problem, 279–280 lingering belief in, 130 math worlds and, 254 Plato on, 5 problems addressed by, 255–256 See also Transcendental thinking/ and study of mathematics as social immanence/psychologism practice, 254 Spare brain capacity hypothesis, 144 on technical talk, obscuring of Spencer, Herbert, 44 social dimensions Spengler, Oswald by, 253–254 on Faustian nature of man, 167 Sociology of mind on mathematics and culture, 56 contributions to, 142 and mathematics as theology, 259 provocation for, 128 on Mathematik vs. vs. social neuroscience, 134 mathematics, 121, 288 Sociology of objectivity, 62 on number-worlds, 268–269 See also Scientific objectivity and physics as discipline, 312 Sociology of religion and rejection of transcendental common fallacies and, 201–211 thinking, 104, 105 critique of as reductionist, 199 on worshipful attitude toward Durkheim and, 199 science, 38 limited public awareness of, 230 Spiegelhalter, David, 165 personal religious beliefs of Spinoza, Baruch, 24 sociologists and, 233–235 Star, Susan Leigh, 142 and religion as social Stark, Rodney, 216, 233–234 construction, 212 Statistics, importance in evaluating and religious faith as opposite of research, 87 scientific inquiry, 215 Stein, Gertrude, 231 Sociology of science STEM programs, 280–281 basic problems in, 255 The Story of the Novel (Wolfe), 219 development of, 56–57, 60 Structures of knowledge, books as, v Index 367

Struik, Dirk, 104 Technology Study, Eduard, 264 emergent Subconscious, sociological concerns about threats posed perspective on, 110 by, 165–166, 186 Subscendental fallacy, 204 ethical issues in, 166 Sugimoto, Kenji, 111 importance of precautionary Superculture monitoring of, 171, 175 digital age and, 53–54 mix of positive and negative science as, 48 impacts inherent Survival of human species in, 170–171 concerns about, 165 as mutations, 171 religious thinking as threat notable examples of, 166 to, 218, 229, 230, 231 and progress, relationship transcendental thinking as threat between, 169 to, 218, 229, 230, 231 separation from science, ethical Sylvester, J. J., 273 consequences of, 170 Sylvius, Aeneas, 34 Technomyophoria, 169 Symbols Tegmark, Max, 165 human development of capacity Thales, 32 for, 101–102 Theologian’s fallacy, 202–203 importance to human life, 239 See also Transcendental thinking/ levels of reference in, 239 immanence/psychologism Systems of knowledge The Theological Imagination development of in response to (Kaufman), 244 interests of most powerful Theology social groups, 37 apophatic, 283, 285 and reinforcement of social arguments for ongoing relevance stratification, 277–278 of, 242–244 as tool of ruling elites, 277 cataphatic, 283 as discipline, end of, 243 T lack of credibility, 182–183 Talinn, Jaan, 165 robots and, 179–184 Tartaglia, Niccolò F., 269 and sociology, as Teaching as a Subversive Activity incompatable, 179–184, (Postman and 243–244 Weingartner), 10 traditional ties to Technicism, purism and, 265–266, mathematics, 258–260, 289 264, 268 368 Index

Theology and Social Theory Thought, Boole on laws of, 292 (Milbank), 243–244 Thought collective, 262 Theoretical reductionism, 199 Thurtle, Phillip, 115 Theory Timaeus (Plato), 4 as Generalized Other, 187 Tinkering, in scientific practice, 267 as special possession of ruling Tiryakian, Edward, 312 elite, 304–305 Toland, John, 23 vs. speculation, 305 Tolerance, limits of, 181, 233 Theory-formation theory of Tolstoy, Leo, 44, 207–210 mind, 107 Tolstoy fallacy, 207 Theory of everything Transcendental fallacy, 202–203 Plato and, 5 Transcendental thinking/ reductionism of, 199, 203 immanence/psychologism Theory-theory of mind, 107 evidence for rejecting, 202–203 Thinking (cognition) explaining source of, as goal of as automatic, 138 sociology, 286 as context-dependent, 106–107 modern irrelevance of, 4–5 dependence on externally modern survival of, 231 generated stimuli, 105 necessity of sociology’s rejection as function of body, 137 of, 104 as internal conversation, 186, 187 rejection of as material process, 105 as basic tenet of sociology, 10, separation from affect, as 23, 61, 104, 179, 181–182, mistake, 106 184, 201 as social act, 100–101, 262–263 and concept of mind, 104–106 as social construction, 101, by Durkheim, 104, 179 130–131, 286 high tradition of sociology social network as originating locus and, 61 of, 137 and recognition of social basis in social networks, 137, 139–140 of brains, gods, maths and thoughts as social structures, 101 logics, 8–9 See also Mind second phase of, 184 Third-cultures, 47–48 as shared view of and development of world intellectuals, 203 order, 53 as threat to human survival, 218, digital age and, 53–54 229, 230, 231 science as, 48, 49–55 Transcenters, vs. centers, in social sociological vocabulary for, 50–53 networks, 51–52 Thorndike, Edward, 325–326 Transgenic artists, 121 Index 369

Transhumanists, 166 Varela, Francisco, 146 Transparency of experience, as Varignon, Pierre, 271–272 fallacy, 208 Veblen, Thorstein, 168 Trotsky, Leon, 44 Virtual informatic surgeons, 117 Truth Volterra, Vito, 268 absolute, withering of concept, 61 Von Braun, Wernher, 168 as social construction, 286 Von Economo neurons, 138 as social/cultural, 20 Vygotsky, Lev, 183 stability of, 20–21 telling of as still possible, 229 Turing, Alan, 137 Tutu, Desmond, 49 W Twins Wade, Nicholas, 66, 67, 68–69, forensic use of DNA and, 84 225 prenatal influences and, 85 War, global, as concern, 141 studies of, and nature vs. Weaving Self Evidence (Rosental), nurture, 83–87 299–302 Weber, Max, 23, 54 Weil, Gustav, 224 U Weingartner, Charles, 10 Unconscious, sociological perspective Weir, John, 168 on, 110 Weiss, Sabrina, 92, 100, 169 Universities Wen Hsien Thung Khao (Ma), 34 and commodification of Western culture inquiry, 21 number-world of, 269 and preconceptions, challenging Plato’s lingering influence on, 1, of, 22 3–4, 6, 38, 231 religious tolerance in, 228–229 Weyl, Herman, 259 and safe places, 22 Whitehead, Alfred North, 1, 210, Ur-mind, 101 273, 298 Useem, John and Ruth, 47–48 Will, George, 56 Williams syndrome, 82–83 Wilson, E. O., 63–66, 71, 72 V Winner, Langdon, 169 Valsiner, J., 95 Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 105, 132, Van Bendegem, Jean Paul, 71 204, 206 Van Der Leer, R., 95 Wolfe, Thomas, 219 370 Index

Workers, as ignorant of their See also Ecumene(s); Globalization history, 306 Writing, and economies of World orders, new, globalization conviction, 299 and, 123 World unity Y digital age and, 54 Yinger, Milton, 312 history of concept, 43–44 Young, Brigham, 221 imperialism and, 43–44, 47 teleological theories of, 45, 47 third-cultures and, 53 Z 20th-century approach Zeno of Citium, 44 toward, 44–45 Zerabuvel, Eviatar, 142 Western and masculine bias in, 45 Zoroaster, 237