DOCSLIB.ORG

Online Islamic Da'wah Narratives in the UK: the Case of Iera

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Online Islamic Da'wah Narratives in the UK: the Case of Iera Online Islamic Da'wah Narratives in the UK: The Case of iERA by MIRA A. BAZ A thesis submitted to the University of Birmingham for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Religion and Theology College of Arts and Law University of Birmingham September 2016 University of Birmingham Research Archive e-theses repository This unpublished thesis/dissertation is copyright of the author and/or third parties. The intellectual property rights of the author or third parties in respect of this work are as defined by The Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 or as modified by any successor legislation. Any use made of information contained in this thesis/dissertation must be in accordance with that legislation and must be properly acknowledged. Further distribution or reproduction in any format is prohibited without the permission of the copyright holder. ABSTRACT This thesis is an in-depth study into two of the UK charity iERA's da'wah narratives: the Qura'nic embryology 'miracle' and the Kalam Cosmological Argument. While the embryo verses have received scholarly attention, there is little to no research in the da'wah context for both narratives. Berger and Luckmann's social constructionism was applied to both, which were problematic. It was found that iERA constructed its exegesis of the embryo verses by expanding on classical meanings to show harmony with modern science. Additionally, it developed the Cosmological Argument by adapting it to Salafi Islamic beliefs. The construction processes were found to be influenced by an online dialectic between iERA and its Muslim and atheist detractors, causing it to abandon the scientific miracles and modify the Cosmological Argument. Signs point to a weakening of faith among young people, including Muslims, as they have unprecedented access to unfiltered online information on religion and science. By employing the narratives, iERA aims to legitimate the fundamentals of Islam to Muslims and to attract converts by presenting it as a rational and modern faith. While iERA's da'wah template is practical, its errors are relevant to the wider discussions on Qur'anic exegesis and modern challenges to the religion. DEDICATION To my mother and father TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES, FIGURES, AND SCREENSHOTS ................................................................................................................ I A NOTE ON TRANSLITERATION AND STYLE .................................................................................................................... II GLOSSARY ............................................................................................................................................................................ III CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................................................. 1 THEORY AND APPLICATION ....................................................................................................................... 1 A da'wah dialogue in Birmingham City Centre ................................................................................................ 1 1.1 EXPLORING POTENTIAL SALAFI PARTICIPATION AND CHANGE OF FOCUS ........................................................ 3 1.1.1 Green Lane Mosque ............................................................................................................................................ 4 1.1.2 Salafi Bookstore ................................................................................................................................................... 7 1.1.3 Encountering iERA’s da'wah .......................................................................................................................... 8 1.2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS ............................................................................................................................................ 10 1.3 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK .................................................................................................................................. 11 1.3.1 Rationale: Why social constructionism? ................................................................................................ 11 1.3.2 On Social Constructionisms ......................................................................................................................... 13 1.3.3 Knowledge is socially constructed ............................................................................................................ 14 1.3.4 How reality is objectivated .......................................................................................................................... 15 1.3.5 Levels of legitimation ..................................................................................................................................... 18 1.3.6 Knowledge is culturally and historically contingent ........................................................................ 20 1.3.7 Critique of social constructionism ............................................................................................................ 21 1.3.8 Theological framework ................................................................................................................................. 25 1.3.9 Use of the term ‘Narrative’ ........................................................................................................................... 25 1.4 METHOD USED IN THIS STUDY ............................................................................................................................... 26 1.4.1 Data collection .................................................................................................................................................. 26 1.4.2 Data analysis ...................................................................................................................................................... 27 1.5 A SURVEY OF RESEARCH ON DA'WAH NARRATIVES ............................................................................................ 29 1.5.1 Da'wah .................................................................................................................................................................. 29 1.5.2 Scientific miracles in the Qur'an ................................................................................................................ 31 1.5.3 Kalam Cosmological Argument in Islamic da'wah ........................................................................... 39 1.6 NOTES ON SAHEEH INTERNATIONAL'S TRANSLATION OF THE QUR'AN ......................................................... 39 1.7 ON THE TERMINOLOGY 'CONVERT' VERSUS 'REVERT' AND FITRAH ................................................................ 40 1.8 STRUCTURE OF THE THESIS .................................................................................................................................... 41 1.9 FINDINGS .................................................................................................................................................................... 42 1.10 LIMITATIONS .......................................................................................................................................................... 43 1.11 CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................................................................... 43 CHAPTER TWO .............................................................................................................................................. 45 INTRODUCING iERA ..................................................................................................................................... 45 2.1 WHO IS IERA? .......................................................................................................................................................... 45 2.1.1 Why research iERA? ........................................................................................................................................ 49 2.2 HOW GORAP WAS DEVELOPED ............................................................................................................................ 51 2.3 PROFILES .................................................................................................................................................................... 52 2.3.1 Abdurraheem (Anthony) Green ................................................................................................................. 53 2.3.2 Hamza (Andreas) Tzortzis ........................................................................................................................... 61 2.4 IS IERA SALAFI? ....................................................................................................................................................... 67 2.5 IERA’S INFLUENCE – DA'WAH AFFILIATIONS WORLDWIDE .............................................................................. 73 2.6 HOW IERA USES THE INTERNET ........................................................................................................................... 75 2.6.1 Accusations of plagiarism ............................................................................................................................ 80 2.7 IERA’S METHODOLOGY ..........................................................................................................................................
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Taking Social Constructionism Seriously
    Taking Social Constructionism Seriously Gergen, K. J. (1999). An Invitation to Social Construction. London: Sage (248 p.) Gergen, K.J. (2001). Social Construction in Context. London: Sage (223 p.) Reviewed by: Svend Brinkmann, cand. psych. email-adresse: [email protected] I Social constructionism (SC) has emerged as a significant paradigm in psychology and other social sciences during the last twenty years or so. Kenneth Gergen can be considered a found- ing father and currently one of the leading exponents of SC as theory and practice. Gergen wrote about the social construction of self-knowledge as early as 1977 (Gergen, 1977), and in 1985 SC was already a “movement” as witnessed in Gergen’s often cited “The social construc- tionist movement in modern psychology” (1985) published in American Psychologist. SC has developed from a heretic partisan theory to a widely recognised paradigm, and it must be con- sidered one of the most interesting frameworks in contemporary psychology. For example, the renowned journal Theory and Psychology devotes two whole issues to SC in 2001 and 2002, “Social Constructionism and Its Critics” (June 2001) and the forthcoming “Varieties of Social Constructionism” (October 2002). Kenneth Gergen is a prolific writer, who has published in many different areas within psychol- ogy and related fields. His major works are The Saturated Self (1991) and Realities and Rela- tionships (1994). His two new books An Invitation to Social Construction (ISC) and Social Construction in Context (SCC) continue the line of thought that was developed in earlier works, and while these new books contain few new perspectives, they seek to clarify the basic tenets of SC, while at the same time providing more concrete and practical illustrations of SC’s theoretical points.
    [Show full text]
  • An Introduction to the Salafi Da'wah
    www.ahlulhadeeth.wordpress.com Introduction The Salafi Da’wah is that of the Qur’an and the Sunnah. It is the Religion of Islam - pure and free from any additions, deletions or alterations. It is An Introduction to adhere to the Path of the Messenger (sallal- lahu ‘alaihi wa sallam) and of the True Believers (as- Salaf us-Salih). As-Salaf is a collective term referring to to the Salafi the Pious Pioneers in Islam and all those who follow in their footsteps in belief, actions and morals. Allah said, “Whoever con- tends with and contradicts the Messenger after guidance has been clearly conveyed to him, and follows a path other than that of the Faith- Da’wah ful Believers, We shall leave him in the Path he has chosen and land him in Hell, what an evil destination! [An Nisa 4:115]. Shaikh ul-lslam ibn Taymiyyah (rahimahullah) com- mented on this ayah: “All who contradict and oppose the Messenger (S), after the right path has been clearly shown to them, have followed other than the Path of the Believers. And all who follow other than the Path of the Believers have contradicted and opposed the Messenger (S). If one thinks that he is mistaken in following the Path of the Faithful Believers, he is in the same position as one who thinks that he is mistaken in following the Messenger (S).” Who are the “Salaf ?” As-Salaf us-Salih (or briefly: the Salaf) refers to the first and best three generations of Muslims. They are the Companions (Sahabah) of the Prophet (S), their immediate followers (Tabiun), and the followers of the Tabi’in.
    [Show full text]
  • Journal of Islamic Thought and Civilization
    Journal of Islamic Thought and Civilization (JITC) Volume 7, Issue 1, Spring 2017 ISSN: 2075-0943, eISSN: 2520-0313 Journal DOI: https://doi.org/10.32350/jitc Issue DOI: https://doi.org/10.32350/jitc.71 Homepage: https://www.umt.edu.pk/jitc/home.aspx Journal QR Code: Article: Current Trends of Muslim Academia in Indexing Partners Comparative Religions Author(s): Andleeb Gul Online Spring 2017 Published: Article DOI: https://doi.org/10.32350/jitc.71.04 Article QR Code: Gul, Andleeb. “Current trends of Muslim academia in To cite this comparative religions.” Journal of Islamic Thought article: and Civilization 7, no. 1 (2017): 53–70. Crossref This article is open access and is distributed under the Copyright terms of Creative Commons Attribution – Share Alike Information 4.0 International License A publication of the Department of Islamic Thought and Civilization School of Social Science and Humanities University of Management and Technology Lahore Current Trends of Muslim Academia in Comparative Religions Andleeb Gul Government College University, Lahore Abstract Throughout the history of the study of religion or religions, many scholars had emerged and contributed to this vocation. Many international scholars; be them from the east and west, Muslims or non-Muslims; recognize Muslim scholarship in Religionswissenschaft (Religious Studies). In sum, comparative study of religions is regarded as one of the great contributions of Muslim’s civilization to mankind’s intellectual progress. Nevertheless, when referring to the popular works of Muslim scholars in this discipline, most people will refer to only some treatises with negligence to the great bulk of Muslim Heritage in Religionswissenschaft.
    [Show full text]
  • In Their Own Words: Voices of Jihad
    THE ARTS This PDF document was made available from www.rand.org as CHILD POLICY a public service of the RAND Corporation. CIVIL JUSTICE EDUCATION Jump down to document ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT 6 HEALTH AND HEALTH CARE INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS The RAND Corporation is a nonprofit research NATIONAL SECURITY POPULATION AND AGING organization providing objective analysis and PUBLIC SAFETY effective solutions that address the challenges facing SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY the public and private sectors around the world. SUBSTANCE ABUSE TERRORISM AND HOMELAND SECURITY Support RAND TRANSPORTATION AND INFRASTRUCTURE Purchase this document WORKFORCE AND WORKPLACE Browse Books & Publications Make a charitable contribution For More Information Visit RAND at www.rand.org Learn more about the RAND Corporation View document details Limited Electronic Distribution Rights This document and trademark(s) contained herein are protected by law as indicated in a notice appearing later in this work. This electronic representation of RAND intellectual property is provided for non-commercial use only. Unauthorized posting of RAND PDFs to a non-RAND Web site is prohibited. RAND PDFs are protected under copyright law. Permission is required from RAND to reproduce, or reuse in another form, any of our research documents for commercial use. For information on reprint and linking permissions, please see RAND Permissions. This product is part of the RAND Corporation monograph series. RAND monographs present major research findings that address the challenges facing the public and private sectors. All RAND monographs undergo rigorous peer review to ensure high standards for research quality and objectivity. in their own words Voices of Jihad compilation and commentary David Aaron Approved for public release; distribution unlimited C O R P O R A T I O N This book results from the RAND Corporation's continuing program of self-initiated research.
    [Show full text]
  • Indonesia's Salafist Sufis
    Modern Asian Studies 44, 5 (2010) pp. 1029–1051. C Cambridge University Press 2009 doi:10.1017/S0026749X09990278 First published online 23 December 2009 Indonesia’s Salafist Sufis1 JULIA DAY HOWELL Griffith Asia Institute, Griffith University, Nathan, Queensland 4111, Australia Email: j.howell@griffith.edu.au Abstract Islam’s devotional and mystical tradition, Sufism (tasawwuf), is commonly cast as antithetical to Salafi Islam. Self-identified ‘Salafis’, with their ideological roots in anti-liberal strands of twentieth-century modernist Islam, do commonly view Sufis as heretics propagating practices wrongly introduced into Islam centuries after the time of the pious ancestors (the Salaf). Yet reformist zeal that fixes on the singular importance of the Salaf (particularly the Prophet Muhammad and his principal companions) as models for correct piety can also be found amongst Sufis. This paper calls attention to the Salafist colouration of Sufism in two areas of popular culture: television preaching and the popular religious ‘how-to’ books and DVDs that make the preachers’ messages available for purchase. It reprises the teachings of two of the best known Indonesian Muslim televangelists, ‘Hamka’ (b. 1908,d.1981) and M. Arifin Ilham (b. 1969), both of whom also happen to be champions of Sufism, and analyses the different rhetorical uses each has made of references to the ‘Salaf’ and the notion of ‘Salafist’ Islam. Introduction Islam’s devotional and mystical tradition, Sufism (tasawwuf), is commonly cast as antithetical to Salafi Islam. Self-identified ‘Salafis’, with their ideological roots in anti-liberal strands of twentieth- century modernist Islam, commonly view Sufis as heretics propagating practices wrongly introduced into Islam centuries after the time of the 1 The assistance of the Australian Research Council, which supported the research on which this paper is based with a Discovery grant, is acknowledged with appreciation.
    [Show full text]
  • Scholastic Theology (Kalam)
    Scholastic Theology (Kalam) Author : Ayatollah Murtadha Mutahhari Introduction Foreword Lesson one : Scholastic Theology Lesson two : Scholastic theology, a definition Lesson three : The Mu'tazilites (1) Lesson four : The Mu'tazilites (2) Lesson five : The Mu'tazilites (3) Lesson six : The Ash'arites Lesson seven : The Shia (1) Lesson eight : The Shia (2) Introduction The linked image cannot be displayed. The file may have been moved, renamed, or deleted. Verify that the link points to the correct file and location. For sometime now, we have been looking at giving the up and coming generation the attention that they deserve. Our aim is to make available to them the sort of things and literature that they identify with and like in different languages, amongst which is English. It is an undeniable fact that English has become the primary language of communication between Presented by http://www.alhassanain.com & http://www.islamicblessings.com our second generations living here in the West. Accordingly, the Alul Bayt (a.s.) Foundation for Reviving the Heritage, London, U.K. has recognised the need for setting up a publishing house whose duty it is to translate the gems of our religious and cultural heritage to the main living languages. After discussing the idea with Hujjatul Islam as‐Sayyid Jawad ash‐ Shahristani, the establishment of Dar Al‐Hadi in London, U.K. has become a reality. It is a known fact that many members of our younger generation aspire to become acquainted with and/or study the different disciplines taught in the conventional centres of religious learning and scholarship.
    [Show full text]
  • Medina in Birmingham, Najaf in Brent
    MEDINA IN BIRMINGHAM, NAJAF IN BRENT INNES BOWEN Medina in Birmingham, Najaf in Brent Inside British Islam HURST & COMPANY, LONDON First published in the United Kingdom in 2014 by C. Hurst & Co. (Publishers) Ltd., 41 Great Russell Street, London, WC1B 3PL © Innes Bowen, 2014 All rights reserved. Printed in the USA Distributed in the United States, Canada and Latin America by Oxford University Press, 198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America. The right of Innes Bowen to be identified as the author of this publication is asserted by her in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988. A Cataloguing-in-Publication data record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN: 978-1849043014 www.hurstpublishers.com This book is printed using paper from registered sustainable and managed sources. CONTENTS Acknowledgements vii Glossary ix Introduction 1 1. The Deobandis: The Market Leaders 11 2. The Tablighi Jamaat: Missionaries and a Mega Mosque 35 3. The Salafis: ‘Don’t call us Wahhabis!’ 57 4. The Jamaat-e-Islami: British Islam’s Political Class 83 5. The Muslim Brotherhood: The Arab Islamist Exiles 101 6. The Barelwis: Sufis and Traditionalists 115 7. The Shia ‘Twelvers’: Najaf in Brent 135 8. The Ismailis: The Dawoodi Bohras and the Followers of the Aga Khan 165 Notes 187 Index 211 v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This book could not have been completed were it not for the help of those whom it is about: the followers of Britain’s most important Islamic networks. I am grateful to the many individuals who made time to be interviewed and trusted me to tell their stories.
    [Show full text]
  • Bourdieu's Habitus, Critical Theory, and Social Philosophy Civitas - Revista De Ciências Sociais, Vol
    Civitas - Revista de Ciências Sociais ISSN: 1519-6089 [email protected] Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul Brasil de Oliveira, Nythamar The normative claims of Brazil's democratic ethos: Bourdieu's habitus, critical theory, and social philosophy Civitas - Revista de Ciências Sociais, vol. 12, núm. 1, 2012, pp. 70-87 Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul Porto Alegre, Brasil Available in: http://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=74223603005 How to cite Complete issue Scientific Information System More information about this article Network of Scientific Journals from Latin America, the Caribbean, Spain and Portugal Journal's homepage in redalyc.org Non-profit academic project, developed under the open access initiative The normative claims of Brazil’s democratic ethos: Bourdieu’s habitus, critical theory, and social philosophy As exigências normativas do ethos democrático brasileiro: O habitus em Bourdieu, teoria crítica e filosofia social Nythamar de Oliveira* Abstract: This paper argues for an interdisciplinary interlocution between social theory and social philosophy in order to recast the problem of normativity in social practices, especially within Brazil’s democratic ethos. By resorting to insights from critical theory and social epistemology, the essay proposes to reexamine Bourdieu’s conception of habitus so as to contribute to a moderate social constructionism that cannot be reduced to a postmodernist discourse or to a variant of relativism. Keywords: critical theory; democratic ethos; habitus; normativity; social philosophy Resumo: O artigo defende uma interlocução interdisciplinar entre teoria social e filosofia social, com o fito de reformular o problema da normatividade nas práticas sociais, especialmente no contexto de um ethos democrático brasileiro.
    [Show full text]
  • Ideological Background of Rationality in Islam
    31 Al-Hikmat Volume 28 (2008), pp. 31-56 THE IDEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND OF RATIONALITY IN ISLAM MALIK MUHAMMAD TARIQ* Abstract. Islam the religion of Muslims, founded on Qu’rānic revelations transmitted through the Prophet Muhammad (570-632 AD). The Arabic roots slm, convey the ideas of safety, obedience, submission, commitment, and dedication. The word Islam signifies the self-surrender to Allah that characterizes a Muslim’s relation- ship with God. Islamic tradition records that in 610 and 632 CE Prophet Muhammad began to receive revelations from God through the mediation of Angel Gabriel. The revelations were memorized and recorded word by word, and are today found in Arabic text of the Qur’ān in the precisely the manner God intended.1 The community, working on the basis of pieces of text written ‘on palm leaves or flat stones or in the heart of men’, compiled the text some thirty years after the death of Prophet Muhammad.2 All the Muslims assert unequivocally the divine authorship of the Qur’ān, Muhammad is but the messenger through which it was revealed. Theoretically, the Qur’ān is the primary source of guidance in the Islamic community (Ummah). The Qur’ān text does not, however, provide solutions for every specific problem that might arise. To determine norm of practice, Muslims turned to the lives of Prophet Muhammad and his early companions, preserved in Sunnah, the living tradition of the community. Originally the practicing of Sunnah varied from place to place, reflecting the pre-Islamic local customs of particular region. By the 9th century, however, the diversity evident in local traditions was branded as an innovation (bid’a).
    [Show full text]
  • Extreme Speakers and Events: in the 2017/18 Academic Year Includes the University Extreme Speakers League Table by EMMA FOX
    ExtrEmE SpEakErS and EvEntS: In thE 2017/18 acadEmIc YEar IncludES thE unIvErSItY ExtrEmE SpEakErS lEaguE tablE BY EMMA FOX DEMOCRACY | FREEDOM | HUMAN RIGHTS January 2019 Published in 2019 by The Henry Jackson Society The Henry Jackson Society Millbank Tower 21-24 Millbank London SW1P 4QP Registered charity no. 1140489 Tel: +44 (0)20 7340 4520 www.henryjacksonsociety.org © The Henry Jackson Society, 2019. All rights reserved. Title: “EXTREME SPEAkERS And EvEnTS: In THE 2017/18 AcAdEMIc YEAR” By Emma Fox cover Photo: credit InBLIvE, https://www.wxxinews.org/post/suny-join-study-abroad-initiative ExtrEmE SpEakErS and EvEntS: In thE 2017/18 acadEmIc YEar IncludES thE unIvErSItY ExtrEmE SpEakErS lEaguE tablE BY EMMA FOX DEMOCRACY | FREEDOM | HUMAN RIGHTS January 2019 EXTREME SPEAkERS And EvEnTS: In THE 2017/18 AcAdEMIc YEAR about the author Emma Fox is a Research Fellow at the Henry Jackson Sociey. She was previously the Director of Student Rights. Emma read for a BA in classical civilisation at the University of Leeds, undertaking several modules in Politics and Philosophy. Whilst at university, she was campaigns Officer for the Jewish Society, organising several interfaith and charity events. She was also involved in mental health awareness across campus and in local schools. Prior to joining the Henry Jackson Society, Emma worked as a magazine researcher at Time Inc; as a Public Affairs intern; and taught classics. She also volunteered at the calais refugee camp. 2 EXTREME SPEAkERS And EvEnTS: In THE 2017/18 AcAdEMIc YEAR Executive Summary l This report catalogues 204 events promoted to students in the academic year 2017/18 featuring speakers with a history of extreme or intolerant views, or representatives of extremist-linked organisations.
    [Show full text]
  • Mahdaviah Insight (A Publication of Mahdavia Islamic Center of Chicago )
    Mahdaviah Insight (A Publication of Mahdavia Islamic Center of Chicago ) February 2017 (Rabi us-Thani/Jamadi ul Awwal, 1438 H) | Issue 20 Editorial: Perfection of Religion In the name of Allah, the Most Beneficent, the Most Merciful. Inside this issue: Allah SWT sent His Caliph, Mahdi Al-Ma’ud AS, for the guidance of humankind for propagating the teach- ings of Vilayat of Prophet Muhammad SAS in this month. The Milad of Mahdi AS will occur on 14th of Jamadi ul Awwal that corresponds to February 11 this year. Let us pray our Lord, Almighty Allah to Editorial 1 guide us and keep us firm on our faith. Our faith is more comprehensive as we not only believe in Allah SWT, His angels, the day of judgement, His books, His prophets, but also His Caliph who came after 847 years from the beginning of Islamic calendar. Advent of Mahdi 2-4 (A.S.) - A Religious We know that Prophet Muhammad SAS did not say anything on his own but whatever he said, it is the Necessity Part-II revelation (Wahi) that was sent to him by Allah SWT.As Qur’an says: “He does not speak out of his own desires. It is a revelations which has been revealed to him.”(Al-Qur’an, 53:3-4) Therefore, even a single Qur’anic verse 2 Hadith is more than enough to believe in the advent of Mahdi. However, there are people who believe that after the revelation of Qur’an and after the advent of the last prophet, Muhammad SAS, there is no need of Hadith and Naql 3 any other person to come or to be sent by Allah.
    [Show full text]
  • Classical Islamic Discourse on the Origins of Language: Cultural Memory and the Defense of Orthodoxy
    View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by SOAS Research Online Numen 58 (2011) 314–343 brill.nl/nu Classical Islamic Discourse on the Origins of Language: Cultural Memory and the Defense of Orthodoxy Mustafa Shah School of Oriental and African Studies, London University Russell Square, London WC1H OXG England [email protected] Abstract Classical Islamic scholarship developed two principal theses on the subject of the ori- gin of language (asḷ al-lugha). The first of these theses, commonly referred to astawqīf , accentuated the pre-eminent role that divine agency played in the imposition of lan- guage; axiomatic within this perspective is the view that words (lafz ̣ pl. alfāz)̣ have been assigned their meanings (maʿnā pl. maʿānī) primordially by God. Presented as something of an antithesis to this position, the second doctrine, labeled isṭ ilāḥ ,̣ predi- cates that language was established and evolved via a process of common convention and agreement: words together with their meanings were assigned by human beings, although both the doctrines of tawqīf and isṭ ilāḥ ̣ posit that the actual relationship between words and their assigned meanings remains entirely arbitrary, rejecting any sort of natural link between the two. Although later Islamic scholarship accepted that both theses were plausible, within the course of the 9th/10th centuries opinions on the subject were ostensibly polarized between orthodox and arch-rationalist camps with the former endorsing tawqīf and the latter isṭ ilāḥ .̣ In the quest to achieve a conceptual defense of traditional arguments for tawqīf it was necessary for orthodox theologians to create a connective structure, as articulated through reference to remembrance, continuation, and identity, which enabled them to anchor the construct of tawqīf in a formalized way to the scriptural exegesis and emblems of orthodoxy associated with the pious ancestors.
    [Show full text]