EXECUTIVE SUMMARY A QUANTUM LEAP FORA QUANTUM GENDER LEAP EQUALITYFOR GENDER ForEQUALITY a Better Future of Work For All For a Better Future of Work For All

AT 12:00 GMT STRICT EMBARGO(13:00 CET) THURSDAY 7 MARCH 2019

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ISBN: 9789221329978 (print); 9789221329985 (web pdf) International Labour Office. FOR GENDER gender equality / women workers / future of work / equal employment opportunity / womens rights / equal pay / working conditions / social protection / care work / unpaid work / ILO Convention / application / role of ILO 04.02.3 EQUALITY

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In 2013, we embarked on the Women at Work Centenary Initiative, with the support and guidance of the ILO Director-General. This “culmination report” brings together the research and data undertaken and the learning and insights gained in the context of the Initiative. All the findings of the Initiative indicate that, while there are many paths to addressing gender equality in the world of work, they must ultimately all unite to reinforce each other. Reaching this significant point in the journey is both rewarding and humbling. It is rewarding since today we know much more about the gender gaps in the world of work and what fuels them. We wanted to better understand why progress for women in the world of work was so slow and what could be done to accelerate it, “THE WORLD OF THE and we have learned a considerable amount in this respect. We know more about what women want in the world of work, and why they are not getting it, through listening to their voices. With what we know now, the often heard excuse that women do not want to work or do not find work meaningful is no FUTURE IS IN OUR MAKING. longer credible, and no longer acceptable anywhere. Women want to work at paid jobs. But it is the unpaid part of their work that essentially holds them back. Looking at the various gender gaps and the range of obstacles, the road consistently comes back to care. Social norms reinforce TOMORROW IS NOW.” the roles of women as caregivers, men as breadwinners. Care needs must be addressed in an intentional and meaningful way – for both women and men – through laws, policies and services. The implications of the unequal distribution EleAnor Roosevelt of unpaid care work are far-reaching: women are more vulnerable to violence and harassment at work, to low and unequal pay, to lack of voice and representation. The current imbalance also means that men work long hours for pay and miss out on family life. A transformative and measurable agenda for gender equality and the future of work must take these factors into account. Whether women work in the fields, the boardroom or through digital platforms, whether they are own account workers or managers, the care and paid work conundrum needs to be addressed. Otherwise the future of work for women will simply replicate the past.

This stage of the Initiative is also humbling, since it is clear that mindsets still need to change and there is a long way to go in this regard. The journey is far from over. What comes into sharp focus, however, is that it is no longer possible for governments, workers and employers or international organizations to claim that they are advancing gender equality in the absence of a proactive and courageous agenda and unwavering political will. Transformation will not happen organically or by tentative and disjointed steps. Choices need to be made now, and they may not always be popular ones, to ensure a better future of work for all.

Manuela Tomei Shauna Olney Director Chief Conditions of Work Gender, Equality & Diversity & Equality Department & ILOAIDS Branch WHAT’S INSIDE

CHAPTER 2 PREFACE 5 PATHS TO GENDER EQUALITY WHAT’S INSIDE 6 IN THE WORLD OF WORK ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 10 INTRODUCTION 60

LIST OF ACRONYMS 11 1. THE PATH OF RIGHTS FOR A FUTURE WITH GENDER EQUALITY AT WORK 60 A future of work where women and men have equal opportunities 62 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 12 A future of work free from discrimination, violence and harassment 65 A future of work where work done by women is recognised and valued 69 A future of work with more women leading the way 72 A future of work with inclusive maternity, paternity and parental leave 74 A future of work with time to care 76 CHAPTER 1 2. THE PATH OF ACCESS TO INFRASTRUCTURE, SOCIAL PROTECTION AND PUBLIC CARE SERVICES TO TRANSFORM THE FUTURE OF WORK FOR WOMEN 77 Sustainable infrastructure for gender equality 77 MINDING THE GENDER GAPS Public care services for a future where everybody cares more 78 Universal social protection for women’s future at work 84 A sound macroeconomic framework to finance infrastructure, social protection and care services 86 INTRODUCTION 22 3. THE PATH OF ENGAGING AND SUPPORTING WOMEN WOMEN WANT TO WORK BUT ARE STILL NOT GETTING THE JOBS 22 THROUGH WORK TRANSITIONS 88 Differences across regions 24 Lifelong learning so that no one is left behind 88 An enabling environment for women entrepreneurs 89 THE QUALITY OF WORK LEAVES MUCH TO BE DESIRED 24 In most low- and middle-income countries, the majority of women work informally 26 4. THE PATH OF WOMEN’S VOICE AND REPRESENTATION 92 In high-income countries, women are concentrated in low-paying jobs 29 THERE ARE STILL FEW WOMEN AT THE TOP 29 CHAPTER 3 It takes less time for women to reach a managerial or leadership position 30 Why do women reach the top more quickly? 32 TOWARDS A TRANSFORMATIVE AND WHAT HINDERS WOMEN’S EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES? 32 Education matters, but is not the main reason 32 Caregiving plays the biggest role 34 MEASURABLE AGENDA FOR GENDER EQUALITY Motherhood penalties remain significant 34 The motherhood employment penalty 38 The motherhood wage penalty 39 INTRODUCTION 102 The motherhood leadership penalty 41 Lower and unequal pay 43 A QUANTUM LEAP FOR GENDER EQUALITY 104 A stubborn pay gap 43 Closing the gender data gap 106 Education is not the reason for the pay gap 46 Walking the paths towards a better future for women at work 106 Much of the pay gap remains unexplained 46 Tax systems 48 EMBRACING OUTSTANDING COMMITMENTS FOR A BRIGHTER Violence and harassment in the world of work 48 FUTURE OF WOMEN AT WORK 107 The many faces of technology 49 Technology could widen or narrow gender gaps at work 49 The role of the digital economy: friend or foe of gender equality? 51 Weak voice and representation 52 APPENDIX 112 REFERENCES 134 7 6 WHAT’S INSIDE 9 47 50 65 71 77 80 81 83 42 83 64 68 70 72 73 79 85 91 93 103 Countries where the law mandates for equal remuneration for work of work for equal remuneration mandates for the law Countries where 2018 equal value, ability to sector and sector’s sex, by of employment Global share latest year automate, employment women’s on least one restriction Countries with at 2018 opportunities, latest and trade union density, (mean factor-adjusted) gap Gender pay and income region by access to basic infrastructure without Population 2015–16 group, and of GDP, policies as a percentage on selected care Public expenditure responsibilities, with care ratio of women employment-to-population (0–5 children with young ratio of women Employment-to-population latest year rates in ECED programmes, enrolment and gross years) status quo and in 2015 and 2030, employment and related care Total SDGs the achieving The shift from protectionism to substantive equality in the to substantive protectionism The shift from history of the ILO in to making gender equality a reality Labour inspection is key The case of Costa Rica of work: the world pension also enhances women’s gap Reducing the gender pay in parliaments women More to relating as partstereotypes of the solution in changing Men and boys work unpaid care as work work Recognizing unpaid care Zealand in New a digital platform and support through Care tanners in Senegal Solidarity and technology women for decent work for voice A stronger unionize: leaf pickers Women Ranking of barriers to women’s leadership, 2015 leadership, to women’s Ranking of barriers Work Decent Care for The 5R Framework at work women of a better future Goals for Sustainable Development 1.27. Figure 1.28. Figure 2.1. Figure 2.2. Figure year 2.3. Figure year 2.4. Figure latest 2.5. Figure 2.6. Figure LIST OF BOXES Box 2.1. Box 2.2. Box 2.3. entitlements Box 2.4. Box 2.5. Box 2.6. Box 2.7. Box 2.8. Box 2.9. LIST OF TABLES 1.1. Table 2.7. Table 3.1. Table 23 23 25 26 27 28 28 30 31 31 33 33 34 35 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 43 44 44 45 47

Preference of women to work at paid jobs and employment-to-population ratio, at paid jobs and employment-to-population to work of women Preference 15 years Age group (a) 1991–2018: sex, ratios by Global employment-to-population 15–24 years Age group (b) and above; 1991–2018 and sex, region ratios by Employment-to-population including in total employment, employment of informal in the share Gender gap latest year agriculture, latest year ethnicity and sex, by of total employment as a share employment Informal latest year sex, by workers, Incidence of full-time low-paid 1991–2018 region, positions by in managerial of women Share 2010–2016 boards, on company sitting of women Share year latest women, Officers who are of Chief Executive Percentage latest year sex, by managers, Mean and median age of leaders or 2018 position, a director-level to reach of years number Average in managerial or degrees with advanced university and men of women Share latest year leadership positions, and 25 years group age education, of level sex and ratio by Employment-to-population latest year above, 2016 achievement, sex and educational by women, for Acceptability of work latest year sex, by workers, and full-time unpaid care workers Employed work of time spent in unpaid care in the share the gender gap Relationship between latest year ratio, employment-to-population and women’s sex and income by and total work, paid work work, in unpaid care Time spent daily latest year group, under without children and men with and women of ratios Employment-to-population 2005 and 2015 of age, 6 years latest year selected economies, for Motherhood and fatherhood gaps years under 6 number of children by sex and or profit, pay for hours worked Weekly latest year of age, latest year sex, by of age, under 6 years of managers with and without children Share the gender gap in managerial positions and of women share the Relationship between latest year work, on unpaid care of time spent in the share 2018 and male total employment), of female sex (percentage by status, Employment (a) latest year: selected countries, the wage distribution for across gaps Gender pay countries and low-income (b) Middle- High-income countries; 2018 and men, women members with digital skills that are of LinkedIn Share in and wage profile level at the enterprise of feminization degree wage by Hourly 2014 Europe,

latest year latest 1.2. Figure 1.3. Figure 1.4. Figure 1.5. Figure 1.6. Figure 1.7. Figure 1.8. Figure 1.9. Figure 1.10. Figure 1.11. Figure 1.12. Figure 1.13. Figure 1.14. Figure 1.15. Figure 1.16. Figure 1.17. Figure 1.18. Figure 1.19. Figure 1.20. Figure 1.21. Figure 1.22. Figure 1.23. Figure 1.24. Figure 1.25. Figure 1.26. Figure LIST OF FIGURES 1.1. Figure FIGURES, TABLES & BOXES & TABLES FIGURES, 8 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS & USEFUL ACRONYMS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS LIST OF ACRONYMS

This report is the result of extensive collaboration across the International Labour Organization (ILO) and CEACR – Committee of Experts on the Application of Conventions and Recommendations represents a major contribution to both the Women at Work and the Future of Work Centenary Initiatives. CEO – Chief Executive Officer It was prepared by the Gender, Equality and Diversity & ILOAIDS (GED/ILOAIDS) Branch of the Conditions of Work and Equality Department (WORKQUALITY) of the ILO. The main authors are Valentina Beghini, ECED – Early-Childhood Educational Development Umberto Cattaneo and Emanuela Pozzan, with Mari Dahl Schlanbusch providing invaluable research and EPIC – Equal Pay International Coalition drafting support. The work was guided, supported and supervised by Shauna Olney and Manuela Tomei. ETUC – The European Trade Union Confederation The report benefitted from substantive contributions from Laura Addati, Petter Anthun, Christina Behrendt, EU – European Union Adrienne Cruz, Rishabh Dhir, Eva Majurin, Stefan Kühn, Kusum Kali Pal, Valeria Esquivel, Mai Hattori and GDP – Gross Domestic Product Rosalia Vazquez-Alvarez. HIV – Human Immunodeficiency Virus Comments, contributions and ideas from the anonymous peer reviewers as well as colleagues from a range of ICLS – International Conference of Labour Statisticians Departments at ILO Headquarters are also gratefully acknowledged: Uma Rani Amara, Maria Helena André, Janine Berg, Anna Biondi, Florence Bonnet, Jae-Hee Chang, Alessandro Chiarabini, Mbuyi-Lusamba Charleine, ICSaW – International Classification of Status at Work Andrea Davila, Olga Gomez, Damian Grimshaw, Tchami Guy, Maria Teresa Gutierrez, Alicia Mathews, Anton ICT – Information and Communication Technology Moller, Aurelio Parisotto, Brigitte Zug-Castillo, Veronica Escudero, Christine Hofmann, Sukti Dasgupta, Simel ILO – International Labour Organization Esim, Steven Kapsos, Claire La Hovary, Sangheon Lee, Maria-Luz Vega, Claire Marchand-Campmas, Katerine Landuyt, Oliver Liang, Rafael Peels, Maria Prieto, Irini Proios Torras, Ilka Schoellmann and Esteban Tromel. IPU – Inter-Parliamentary Union ISCO – International Standard Classification of Occupations Significant feedback, input and support were also provided by Specialists in ILO field Offices, namely Maria Arteta, Mwila Chigaga, Phu Huynh, Frida Khan, Benedetta Magri, Aya Matsuura, Fatime Ndiaye, Hugo Ñopo, ITUC – International Trade Union Confederation Mariko Ouchi and Joni Simpson. LGBTI – Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender and Intersex NEET – Neither in Employment nor in Education or Training Special thanks are also due to LinkedIn for providing data, in particular to Kristin Lena Keveloh and Rachel Bowley, as well as to Chidi King (ITUC) for providing information and guidance. The report has also been NSDI – National Social Dialogue Institutions enriched by contributions from Christine Nathan, Andrea Fromm and Sidy Dia, who kindly shared their OECD – Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development stories and work in the field. PIAAC – Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies PSA – Public Service Association – Te Pukenga Here Tikanga Mahi RTI – Routine Task Intensity SDG – Sustainable Development Goal STEM – Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics UN – United Nations WIEGO – Women in Informal Employment: Globalizing and Organizing

11 10 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Women are also under-represented in managerial and leadership positions. Globally, only 27.1 per cent EXECUTIVE SUMMARY of managers and leaders are women, a figure that has “Since “having time” changed very little over the past 27 years. However, while few women make it to the top, those who do, is one of the essential get there faster than men. Across the world, women elements required to In 1919, the ILO adopted the first Conventions on women and work. managers and leaders are almost one year younger than men. This difference in age shrinks as the national enable the redistribution A century later, women are a force in the labour market, breaking income increases. Women managers are also more likely to have a higher level of education than men of care responsibilities, boundaries that at one time would have been considered impossible. managers. Globally, 44.3 per cent of women managers While significant advances have taken place for women at work over the have an advanced university degree compared with greater time sovereignty is past century, there is no room for complacency. 38.3 per cent of men managers. needed to allow workers AN ACCUMULATION OF FACTORS to exercise more choice Progress in closing gender gaps has stalled, and in there were still over 700 million fewer women in STILL HINDERS WOMEN’S EMPLOYMENT some cases is reversing. The gender gaps with respect employment than men. In other words, women were OPPORTUNITIES AND QUALITY OF THEIR and control over their to key labour market indicators have not narrowed in still 26.0 percentage points less likely to be employed JOBS: any meaningful way for over 20 years. This situation than men. Not surprisingly, gross enrolment ratios for working hours.” should give rise to concern. Unless the present secondary and tertiary education have increased for trajectory is changed, unless policy choices are made both women and men and gender gaps in enrolment Education matters, but it is not the that put gender equality at their core, the situation rates had almost closed in 2017. However, 21.2 per main reason is likely to deteriorate further as work becomes cent of youth are neither in employment nor in more fragmented and the future remains uncertain. education or training (NEET), and a high proportion The higher the level of women’s and men’s education, of those (69.1 per cent) are women. the higher their employment rates. But women do not get the same employment dividends as MINDING THE In 2018, women were more likely to men for their education. While 41.5 per cent be employed in occupations that are of adult women with a university degree are GENDER GAPS considered to be low-skilled and to either unemployed or outside the labour

face worse working conditions than force, the same is true for only 17.2 per WOMEN WANT TO WORK BUT ARE STILL men. In fact, women are more exposed cent of men in the same situation. Education NOT GETTING THE JOBS than men to informal employment in alone is unlikely to close gender gaps in the over 90 per cent of sub-Saharan African labour market and other factors also need to It can no longer credibly be claimed, in any region countries, 89 per cent of countries be addressed. or for any income group, that the employment gap in Southern Asia and almost 75 per cent of Latin between women and men is due to the fact that American countries. In addition, women are also often Caregiving plays the biggest role women do not want to work outside their home. found in occupations that are the most vulnerable Based on a representative global sample, about 70 to decent work deficits, such as in domestic, home- Traditionally, women have been portrayed as the per cent of the women interviewed said that they based or contributing family work. Migration status, “caregivers”, and society and labour markets continue would prefer to be in paid work, and 66.5 per cent ethnicity, disability and HIV status are some of to function largely on this assumption. Unpaid care of men agreed that they should be. However, in 2018 the characteristics which, when intersecting with work is the main reason why women are outside the only 45.3 per cent of women had a job, which equates gender, further exacerbate the likelihood of women labour force. Across the world, 647 million working- to a gap of almost 25 percentage points between the experiencing unfavourable working conditions and age women (or 21.7 per cent) perform unpaid desired and the actual employment rate for women. might increase informality rates. care work on a full-time basis, compared to 41 million men (or 1.5 per cent). Between 1997 Over the past 27 years, the gender employment gap and 2012, the time that women devoted to has shrunk by less than 2 percentage points. Both housework and caregiving diminished by women’s and men’s employment rates have declined only 15 minutes per day, while for men it globally, but men’s have declined at a faster rate. increased by just eight minutes per day. At In 2018, 1.3 billion women were in employment this pace, it is estimated that the gender compared to 2.0 billion men, which means that gap in time spent in unpaid care work would not be closed until 2228; in other words, closing the gap would take 209 years. 13 XX2 12 X EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 15 The many faces of technology The many Women’s employment opportunities and quality also of affected by their the current restaurants and accommodation jobs technological the in activities and of cent per are 73 digital example, revolution. For which employs are a susceptible large to proportion of women, sector, education automation. Conversely, and health and social work, which exhibit are highly the feminized sectors, lowest risk of automation due to the personal interaction component that is embedded in such care- related work. Increasing robotization of production economies and in partial reshoring high-income of production from middle- to high- income countries is also threatening women’s jobs in middle-income There countries. is a significant risk that, if these transitionsmanaged are not properly, the gender gaps in employment further in these countries. will widen even voice and representation Weak Women are under-represented in organizations. Furthermore, trade despite unions importantis to process bargaining collective the in evidence women of presence and women of suggesting under-representation employers’ women, that benefit that outcomes achieving the is a reality in national social dialogue institutions, and tripartitesocial such councils, commissions and labour advisory as boards. economic membership in national social that female 2018 show data for Available 20 to 35 per cent. ranged from dialogue institutions only IN GENDER EQUALITY TO PATHS THE WORLD OF WORK by be realized can only women for of work A better future redressing discrimination and disadvantage and overcoming entrenched stereotypes relating to women the value of their work and in their position in the labour society, Achieving this goal simultaneous requires action market. paths. reinforcing and mutually different on four Violence and harassment in the world in harassment Violence and of work Violence and harassment have a detrimental impact the and participation in employment women’s on quality It of impacts their women in work. the fields in every and countryin the and boardrooms, sector, public and formal private, and It informal. can affect as as well in the markets selling products women and From start-upone cyber-bullying side, founders. cyber-intimidation through technology exacerbate the risk of violence from and the harassment, other side, new apps and emerging to help secure victims report and address sexual social networks are harassment and assaults. The gender wage gap is of still 20 average per cent (18.8 per an cent) throughout the Gender pay gaps derive from world. a host of factors, including lower returns to women’s education. same in the working Women systematically are men as occupation paid even less, if their educational levels equal or exceed those of their male counterparts. Other factors, such as and example, occupational For the gap. segregation pay gender gender the influence significantly composition of the in workforce, some countries, working in an enterprise with a predominantly female workforce can give rise to a 14.7 per Research and cent data wage from penalty. a joint ILO and LinkedIn initiative have also shown which skills, digital have to likely less are women that for the most a in-demand requirement currently are and highest paying jobs in the science, technology, Overall, engineering and mathematics (STEM) fields. particularly unexplained, remains gap pay the of much done predominantly Work in high-income countries. by women is frequently been carried traditionally which has work mirrors undervalued because it out by women in the home without or pay, simply women. by performed because it is work Lower and unequal pay and unequal Lower motherhood motherhood employment motherhood employment motherhood employment motherhood employment penalty

In 2015, estimates for 51 countries showed that 45.8 45.8 that showed countries 51 for estimates 2015, In per cent aged of 0–5 mothers of (i.e. children young years) were in employment compared to 53.2 per cent of women without children of that of a the existence suggests This age. experience a to tend also Mothers experience a also children young of Mothers motherhood leadership penalty. They have participationand in managerial the rates lowest managers 25.1 per cent of (only positions leadership women) are age of years six under with children compared with their male counterparts (74.9 of per years six under with children managers of cent age are men). For women and men without young 31.4 per cent of managers without children children, are women and 68.6 per cent are equally more work unpaid care men share where men. However, with more women, women are found in managerial positions. Motherhood penalties remain remain penalties Motherhood significant to both compared worsened has penalty This penalty. women whose without employment young children, Between fathers. to and faster, much grown have rates the 2015, and 2005 has increased by 38.4 per cent. The “parenthood employment gap” has also points. points to 42.8 percentage percentage increased from 41.1 persist can penalty that wage across their working while life, of fatherhood the status wage with a is associated As premium. long as social to continues pressure the be to women compel main caregivers and men to as pay for hours longer work the main breadwinners, will women not be able to reduce their workload at home, or increase An their absence hours of of paid work. working-time autonomy for both women and men equality gender to obstacle considerable a remains and decent work. 14 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 17 responsibilities, responsibilities, greater time sovereignty is needed to allow workers to exercise more choice and control over their working This hours. be responsibilities. withwould particularly family workers beneficialfor personal and work between balance a achieve to technology Harnessing working-time. their over autonomy greater gain to workers help can family life and work balance workers help can remotely working instance, For responsibilities. However, such flexible working-time could reinforce gender arrangements particularlyroles, if only women make use of work. care to shoulder the majority of unpaid while continuing them, SOCIAL INFRASTRUCTURE, TO ACCESS OF THE PATH 2. TRANSFORM TO AND PUBLIC CARE SERVICES PROTECTION WOMEN FOR WORK THE FUTURE OF Infrastructure, social protection on impact a positive have financed, sufficiently and designed intelligently and provision The public time. women’s freeing and work care care unpaid redistributing services, when of infrastructure, such as clean secure water, safe transportation, cooking schools, health fuel, facilities, electricity, and information communication and technology, can also be a source when a better chance of being effective have All such initiatives of women. decent jobs for their planning design, and implementation is based on accurate gender consultations with the and data sex disaggregated by informed analysis and services.beneficiaries of the infrastructure Care services for a future where everybody cares cares everybody where services for a future Care more in factors essential are services and policies care long-term and Childcare rates employment the that confirms Evidence equality. gender achieving countries in higher be to tend families with years 18–54 aged women of a in higher of public share GDP on that expenditure invested pre- have long-term primarycare services and education, maternity, and benefits, sickness and disability, employment injury Employmentbenefits. in the care economy provides a significant source ageing rapidly and population expanding an of combination The of income, especially for women. societies is driving an increased demand although for care there work, further is investment there unless coverage in deficits significant will be in public care It services. is predicted that an increase in investment in care services to million achieve 149 and the economy care Sustainable the in jobs Development more Goals million 120 create (SDGs) would indirect jobs in non-care sectors by the This year confirms2030. that many across in job creation result would economy in the care investing proposed “5R by Work” the Framework for The Decent Care sectors. reward and work, care unpaid redistribute and reduce, recognize, – ILO and represent care workers – offers a successful recipe of legislative This will also and be policy essential measures to decent achieve work. A future of work with time to care of work with time A future “having Since time” is one of the essential elements care of enable the redistribution to required A future of work with inclusive A future leave paternity and parental maternity, paid providing legislation of system comprehensive A family and care leave for both women and men vital to is securing access women’s to and progress in the labour A market. growing number of countries have increased their maternity leave schemes and some have taken steps to cover women working in the informal Paternity economy. and parental leave policies are also an integral component in advancing women’s positions in the labour However, markets. very few fathers benefit from such entitlements and evidence shows that fathers’ uptake increases when individual mandatory a as conceived is entitlement the right that cannot to be the transferred other parent. Collective agreements policies. can leave family improving be instrumental in A future of work with more women more of work with A future leading the way The cumulative effect of the many forms and layers labour the entering after and before discrimination of market impact women’s career prospects. This the social norms dictating women’s true for especially is responsibility for unpaid care work. Over the motherhood mitigate to past measures proactive decades, been have work care unpaid redistribute and penalties the workplace and both the national at introduced level. These include quotas and voluntary mentoring targets, and training specifically All for these working-timeas well flexible arrangements. women, as pace the of acceleration an in resulted have measures participationleadership and in managerial of women’s positions. application remains very limited. Other measures that measures Other limited. very remains application pay gender reducing in outcomes positive to lead can and mechanisms setting wage minimum include gaps collective bargaining that pay attention to When equality. gender well-designed, minimum wages are effective in addressing inequalities at the low end of the wage distribution, as they serve as an effective wage floor.

Legal provisions mandating equal pay for work of equal of work for pay equal mandating provisions Legal Since countries. many in place in been long have value the gender pay gap stubbornly persists, measures, additional such as wage transparency, put in have place to been accelerate their action and compulsory, close are the measures such unless gap. However, A future of work where work done by where of work A future and valued women is recognized Discriminatory practices in the world of work Discriminatory of work practices in the world of employment to extend to all aspects continue and occupation, including advancement, and remuneration, social career security coverage. Unfair provisions three treatment, top which the and among is includes discrimination, and abuse, harassment challenges facing working women, especially young women between the ages of 15 A and world 29. of work free from violence and harassment is essential equality. gender with work of future a be to is there if Collective agreements and workplace measures can be important the vehicles improve to both for work, addressing of world violence the in harassment and scope and coverage of legislation when such exists, when legislation is non-existent. and to fill the gap from of work free A future discrimination, violence and harassment Laws Laws to establish that women and men have equal rights are the basis for substantive demanding equality and in achieving practice. Achieving if laws possible is work of world equality in the gender to girls prior and women against that discriminate entry into the labour market are repealed, as well as provisions preventing women from in progressing and entering or working underground, or night at a specific sector or Evidence occupation altogether. on effect positive a has barriers such lifting that shows Laws market. labour the in women of participation the that actively promote equality also a have significant progress. accelerate further to needed are and impact, A future of work where women and where of work A future equal opportunities men have 1. THE PATH OF RIGHTS FOR A FUTURE FUTURE A FOR RIGHTS OF THE PATH 1. WORK AT EQUALITY WITH GENDER 16 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 19 “Tripartism, which “Tripartism, is embedded in the is a of the ILO, structure to upscale dynamic force efforts gender and achieve equality in the world of work.” not a matter “fixing”of women but rather ensuring that the environment is receptive to voice women’s and that barriers are removed to allow women to participate in enterprise, national and international processes. social dialogue TOWARDS A TOWARDS AND TRANSFORMATIVE AGENDA MEASURABLE EQUALITY FOR GENDER EQUALITY LEAP FOR GENDER A QUANTUM In the current organization of women societies, and care unpaid of share greatest the still perform girls work, even though men and boys of first century the are increasinglyaware twenty- of the need to partshoulder to eager and of the this work share if accelerated be can mindsets in shift A responsibility. they that only not recognize societies and economies depend on care work to survivebut also and thrive, that work and care This are closely interconnected. mutual dependence is even more apparent digital a in transition towards context of the current the economy. and green Reconciling the worlds “work” of “care” and is one the key challenges to increasing migrant Decreasing fertility rates, equality. actively promoting gender movements and ageing populations, and the reality. rising today’s number of in are women employment bold policies equilibrium requires Accelerating a new and measures that end violence, with the underpinning women discrimination against harassment and across responsibilities care distribute better to aim genders. Reliable gender-disaggregated essential to designing such policies and monitoring data are outcomes to establish placing requires also what challenges these Meeting works for women. emphasis not only on individual but agency, also on building strategic collective action through solidarity, alliances and promoting social mobilization, in participation women of greater on which relies all of decision-making.

left behind Initiatives promoting Steps countries. many by prioritized are women’s development entrepreneurship to create a more favourable regard environment are increasingly in being including taken, in this the finance and public innovation, context of technology, Trends also procurement. indicate more integrated policies and their to entrepreneurship approaches implementation. In the should future, be greater paid to attention providing incentives to women support in transitioning to formalized including through cooperatives enterprises, and other social and units. solidarity economy 4. THE VOICE OF WOMEN’S PATH AND REPRESENTATION To be effective, all paths discussed so far need function in to tandem with the path of voice women’s and Proactive measures representation. have helped participationrepresentation and women’s to increase in the internal unions governance and structures employers’ of representation trade organizations. Collective and collective bargaining, that embrace gender social diversity are dialogue, better positioned to including navigate all the paths pursue swiftly to more and transitions future of work that lead to a better It future is for women at work. Lifelong learning so that no one is that no one learning so Lifelong The fast-changing pace at which the world of work that allows an approach requires is transforming workers to keep up with demands for to be instrumental in helping learning can Lifelong new skills. from women being prevent people, in left particular, behind during social and Proactive economic measures encouraging development. young women trajectories occupational to and studies STEM in engage are as increasing, are training programmes aimed at men and women for to work facilitating the return either following after a childbirth, period of parental or as a of result long-term due unemployment leave, to unpaid family care responsibilities. Closing digital gender divide must also be a the focus of gender- learning initiatives. lifelong responsive for women An enabling environment entrepreneurs

The global transformations currently under way – relating to technology, demographics and change climate – require greater transitions. during work support women efforts to engage and 3. THE PATH OF ENGAGING AND SUPPORTING AND SUPPORTING OF ENGAGING 3.THE PATH TRANSITIONS WORK THROUGH WOMEN Public investment in infrastructure, Public social in investment protection infrastructure, and care services are some of the key investments required to close gender gaps in the labour market. Current levels of public need sectors GDP) in the care to (proportionate and private investment that these goals to ensure to be doubled in order work decent of creation the with along achieved, are this fiscalend, To spacefor must paid care workers. be expanded in order to invest in services care provision, and infrastructure. Creating is fiscal feasible, even in space low-income countries. Effective that ensure to needed are policies macroeconomic national budgets respond to women’s priorities, as assessed by women themselves. Gender-responsive budgeting is an important tool for more effectively prioritizing gender equality in national policies. the overall set of A sound macroeconomic framework A sound macroeconomic social to finance infrastructure, services and public care protection The future of women at work will also depend on the access to effective degree to which have women the course throughout protection social adequate of their lives. Gender-responsive social protection systems, including floors, need to fair, be inclusive and provide sustainable, adequate protection to the entire population, and allow for a sufficiently large degree These of systems redistribution. should also usually way, equitable and sustainable a in financed be by a combination of taxes and contributions. Some recent policy innovations demonstrate the capacity to changing to adapt systems protection of social circumstances. Universal social protection for women’s women’s for social protection Universal at work future for attracting more workers, women and men, to the to men, and women workers, more attracting for sector. care 18 INTRODUCTIONMINDING THE GENDER GAPS 21

women & work Conventions on ILO adopted the first 1919 “As the nature and the nature “As organization of work continues to change, understanding the implications of this for environment evolving women and men, and ensuring appropriate is more policy responses, important than ever.” how how laws, policies and practices in some countries have addressed them. Chapter 3 of calls for legislative a and mix The of role unpaid is work care highlighted policy progress. measures to accelerate and analysed throughout the as report, this remains to paid access limiting women’s the main barrier in employment, terms of both the quantity and the Violence and harassment in the world quality of jobs. of work is also a andsignificant impacts barrier, on women being able to access and remain in pay jobs, and The representation. role of technology is also a cross-cutting theme. The report recognizes that analyses and group homogeneous a not are women the impact of ethnicity and migration status, which, along with often gender, result in the compounding inequalities. of labour market reflections and insights the on expanding and Drawing as analysis, data and surveys research, innovative from partnershipsand dialogues as in the context of well report this Centenary Initiative, Work at Women the and approach multifaceted a for the need reinforces can, that measures the regarding direction a provides centenary a provides The ILO’s be taken. and should, privileged opportunity to change the trajectory and accelerate efforts to ensure that the future delivers decent work for all in women and the men, spirit of the require will goal this Achieving Agenda. 2030 the supportcommitment, and involvement of all actors, way. the leading constituents ILO the with levels, all at

Chapter 2 further explores the further2 Chapter explores 3 to men, in terms of both the quantity and the quality to men, of what jobs; do women want in the world of work and why are they not getting it; what is the impact of violence and harassment in the world is of work; equal participationsupportingeducation of more will the and for digital pay women; help economy or harm women’s prospects; what lies behind gender the in analysis and research Evidence-based gaps? pay context of the Initiative has shattered some widely held assumptions that have stood in the way of real progress on gender What equality. is clear is women’s between gap an unacceptable remains there that aspirations and labour market realities. also There an is expanding body equality is an economic the principle that gender of evidence to businesses, communities, households, support for - imperative economies and societies. tangible a made have that practices and policies Laws, also have work of world the in women for difference and been highlighting a proven focus of the Initiative, changing in the context of a rapidly measures promising world of work. As the of nature work and continues organization to women for environment implications of this evolving change, understanding the and and ensuring men, appropriate policy responses, important than ever. is more highlights report culmination this of chapter first The for work decent to obstacles key and gaps gender women. The focus is on areas specific which Sustainable also Development reflect Goals (SDGs) in the 2030 Agenda. structural barriers that shape the nature and extent and nature the shape that barriers structural of women’s engagement in paid employment, and

2

The findings 1

Choices will shape the future of work. In particular, choices about laws choices of work. In particular, shape the future Choices will to gender equality. to gender equality. INTRODUCTION commitmentunwavering an and measures reinforcing of ecosystem an and policies are key to determining whether the future of work will of work future whether the key to determining are and policies further entrench or if it will gender equality, and ensure promote but only with women at work is possible, for better future A inequalities. While significant advances have women at work taken over the past there placecentury, is no for room for complacency. Progress in closing gender gaps has and stalled, in some The cases is reversing. indicators market labour key of in terms gaps gender have not narrowed in any meaningful way for over This 20 situation years. should give rise to concern. Unless the present trajectory at equality that put gender made policy choices are is further changed, deteriorate to unless likely is situation the core, their the future and fragmented more becomes work as remains This uncertain. is a clear message coming out of work the and extensive often groundbreaking Work at Women the ILO’s of in the context undertaken Centenary launched Initiative, in 2013. In 1919, the ILO adopted the force a first are women Conventions on centurylater, A work. and women one at that boundaries breaking market, labour the in Women impossible. considered been have would time are presidents, prime ministers, CEOs of Fortune 500 companies, trade union leaders, entrepreneurs. boardrooms and occupations Professions, that were for least at - attainable now are them to closed once and in some countries. some women This report is the culmination Work Centenary of Challenging Initiative. assumptions the Women at has been the How hallmark well are of the Initiative. compared doing in the labour market actually women The realization of the Agenda 2030 depends on the work. of world the in equality gender of achievement and recommendations of the Initiative resonate with of and resonate the recommendations Initiative which Development, Sustainable for Agenda 2030 the was adopted by Assembly the in UN 2015. General 1 ILO, 2013b. 2013b. 1 ILO, 2015. Assembly, 2 United Nations General growth, economic sustainable and inclusive sustained, promoting on 8 SDG girls; and women all empowering and equality gender achieving on 5 SDG 3 SDG 4 on ensuring and full employment and inclusive decent and equitable for work productive all; quality education and lifelong learning promoting inequalities within and among countries. SDG 10 on reducing opportunities all; for 20 MINDING THE GENDER GAPS 23 49.8 76.5 2 5 7 26.0 71.4 45.3 (a) 44. (b) 29. 79.8 countries 2018 2018

14. High-income 42.5 3 2 2 45.4 63.3 71.6 26.2 2015 2015 45. 30. 15. 66.7 countries Middle-income 2 4 8 61.7 45.5 26.4 71.9 2012 2012 47. 31. 15. 73.7 countries 76.1 Low-income gap 4 5 0 72.2 46.2 26.0 2009 2009 49. 33. 16. 47.0 Gender 74.3 Employment-to-population ratio, women Gender Gap 79.2 ) Europe and Europe Central Asia 2 8 7 73.2 47.1 26.2 35. 51. 16. 2006 2006 (15–24 43.6 62.8 Men Men Asia and 64.5 the Pacifi c the Pacifi 2 4 2 26.0 73.2 47.2 ) 36. 52. 2003 2003 16. 15.5 (15–24 52.5 2 6 5 63.2 47.9 26.4 74.4 38. Arab States 54. 16. 2000 2000 Women Women 49.6 70.9 2 6 4 75.0 48.0 27.0 40. 56. 1997 1997 16. 74.0 Americas 50.3 9 8 9 75.7 48.4 27.3 42. 58. 72.4 15. 1994 1994 Africa 79.0 3 7 4 Percentage of women who prefer to work at paid jobs of women who prefer Percentage women to work at paid jobs of men who prefer Percentage 45.3 45. 60. 27.9 76.7 48.8 15. 1991 1991

66.5 World 69.8

0 0 0 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

Percentages Percentages Percentages Note: The employment-to-population ratio is the ratio of the labour force currently employed to the working- employed currently ratio is the ratio of the labour force The employment-to-population Note: age population. 2018. November ILO modelled estimates, Source: Figure 1.1. Preference of women to work at paid jobs and employment-to- at paid jobs women to work of 1.1. Preference Figure year ratio, latest population 15 years age group 2018, from ratio are 2017 and data on employment-to-population from are Data on preferences Note: and above. 2018. November ILO modelled estimates, 2017 and ILO calculations based on ILO–Gallup, Source: 1.2. Global employment-to-populationFigure ratios by sex, 1991-2018: 15–24 years. Age group 15 years and above; (b) Age group (a) This was the case 5 held assumptions about women’s preferences and preferences women’s about assumptions held societal expectations Based were on actually wrong. a global about representative sample, 70 per cent of the women interviewed said that they would prefer and 66.5 per to cent be of in men paid agreed work, with such (figurepreference 1.1). even in those regions where low female participation female low where regions those in even States. Arab the in as such norm, the is employment in It can no longer credibly be claimed, in any region that the or employment gap income between group, do fact that women men is due to the and women outside the home. not want to work contrast stark in is situation the of reality the However, women’s regarding wishes men’s and women’s to employment. Only 45.3 per cent of women had points in of a almost gap 25 resulting percentage job, a employment the actual and the desired between rate for women (see figure 1.1).In 2018, 1.3 billion women were in billion employment which men, means that there compared were still over to 700 million 2.0 fewer women in employment than men. In other words, women were still 26.0 percentage points less likely to be employed than the men. past Over 27 years, the gender employment gap has shrunk by less than 2 percentage Both points. rates have declined but globally, for men it declined at a faster rate (see Thisfigure trend 1.2a). is explained rates in the employment in part the reduction by of both young women and young men, which may be a positive development as many of them might have decided to pursue further studies (see figure 1.2b). Not surprisingly, gross enrolment ratios for secondary and tertiary education increased for have in enrolment gaps gender men and and women both

2 3 They 1 which proved that widely 4

and equal opportunities, remains elusive. remains and equal opportunities, However, in 2019, decent work for women, including equal rights at work including equal rights decent work for women, in 2019, However, markets across the globe, and they continue to break new boundaries. they continue to break the globe, and markets across Over the past century, women have become a significant force in labour women have become a significant force Over the past century,

MINDING THE GENDER GAPS THE GENDER MINDING CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER earn, on average, only 80 per cent of what men make, make, men what of cent per 80 only average, on earn, harassment and violence including discrimination, and in the world of against work, women is pervasive. Women Women want to work at paid jobs, including when they have and children, men agree that they should have that opportunity. And to consider that they likely more are employment women who are in are “thriving” than women who are not employed. These are the findings set out in a joint ILO–Gallup report released in 2017 WOMEN WANT TO WORK BUT ARE STILL NOT NOT ARE STILL BUT WORK TO WANT WOMEN GETTING THE JOBS This chapter seeks to identify the structural barriers of work in the world progress that hinder women’s particular in looks It regions. within and regions across access hinder women’s practices that at beliefs and to paid work and that occupational the of top the reaching or fairly paid prevent them from being Closing these is gaps essential the to realizing ladder. Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda, particularly SDG 5 on achieving gender equality and empowering all women and girls and SDG 8 on promoting inclusive and sustainable economic employment growth, and all. for decent work Globally, women are estimated to have lower chances chances lower have to estimated are women Globally, to likely more are men and than being employed of be at the bottom of the professional ladder. Progress Progress in closing gender gaps has stalled, and some despite in cases the is many laws, even reversing, in adopted commitments international policies and the past decades. support of gender equality over 22 MINDING THE GENDER GAPS 25 49.6 69.3 19.8 43.5 74.6 31.1 49.5 69.9 20.4 31.1 44.0 75.1 49.5 70.0 20.6 44.4 75.6 31.2 49.4 20.4 69.8 30.3 45.8 76.1 49.8 22.3 72.2 29.9 47.3 77.2 22.9 71.0 48.1 29.4 47.0 62.1 48.4 77.9 15.1 Americas 72.4 47.8 24.6 Asia and the Pacific 29.4 50.0 79.4 14.9 46.2 61.1 73.1 26.0 47.1 29.7 50.7 14.9 45.8 60.6 80.4 73.4 27.2 46.2 81.1 29.8 51.3 15.1 45.4 60.5 1991 1994 1997 2000 2003 2006 2009 2012 2015 2018 1991 1994 1997 2000 2003 81.5 1991 1994 1997 2000 2003 2006 2009 2012 2015 2018 1991 1994 1997 2000 2003 2006 2009 2012 2015 73.5 44.8 28.7 51.6 29.9 16.3 44.9 61.2 Gender gap 0 0 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 16.4 43.9 60.3 Men 68.1 50.3 15.5 57.3 72.8 17.9 Europe and Central Asia 43.3 17.8 61.2 as men tend as 15.2 68.2 18.4 49.9 57.7 72.9 18.7 42.3 60.9 25 Women 68.9 57.4 19.3 49.6 14.7 72.1 19.4 43.4 62.8 1991 1994 1997 2000 2003 2006 2009 2012 2015 2018 1991 1994 1997 2000 2003 2006 2009 2012 2015 69.6 49.6 66.5 45.6 20.9 14.4 20.0 70.7 56.3

0

80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 20.4 Percentages 69.7 14.6 69.6 49.3 55.0 Africa 20.5 68.8 48.4 14.9 69.4 54.5 Arab States 20.6 69.1 48.5 15.5 55.4 70.8 21.2 69.6 14.9 71.4 48.4 56.5 48.3 15.0 21.6 57.0 72.0 70.0

In the absence of social infrastructure in rural infrastructure social of In the absence 27 1991 1994 1997 2000 2003 2006 2009 2012 2015 2018 1991 1994 1997 2000 2003 1991 1994 1997 2000 2003 2006 2009 2012 2015 2018 1991 1994 1997 2000 2003 2006 2009 2012 2015 48.3 22.5 70.8 72.5 57.6 14.8 26

0 0

80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

Percentages Percentages global picture conceals several subregional disparities. disparities. subregional several conceals picture global For instance, in Northern Africa, 38.2 per cent of women are employed in agriculture, a value which is 15.0 percentage points higher share of than men’s employment in While agriculture. in Southern Asia women are 20.8 percentage points more likely to be employed in agriculture than men, areas, women are more prone to accept low-paid jobs in the where agricultural it sector, is easier for them to juggle paid employment and work. unpaid care Figure 1.3. Employment-to-population1991–2018 and sex, Figure by region ratios to the working- employed currently ratio is the ratio of the labour force The employment-to-population Note: age population. 2018. November ILO modelled estimates, Source: to migrate to urban areas to look for better quality better for look to areas urban to migrate to jobs. Drivers 22 In contrast, In contrast, although the although 20 24 Another possible 19

Boosting employment employment Boosting 18 17 23 who are over-represented in agriculture, a in agriculture, who are over-represented 21 In 2030, a In significant2030, rise in the demand for 16 of high informality rates in the region range from range from rates in the region of high informality and frameworks macroeconomic inappropriate inefficient public institutions enterprises and smallholder and small family micro to presencethe of or subsistence farmers. long-term care is expected as further increases in life life in increases further as expected is care long-term expectancy are anticipated. sector which permits them to more easily combine easily which permits them to more sector paid work and unpaid care responsibilities. opportunities, opportunities, especially in the care sectors, will be critical for economic growth and public as finances, (see of pension systems the sustainability as for well further 2 for detail). Chapter reason reason is the limited expansion of the servicemore usually are there where and sectors, manufacturing employment opportunities for women. Historically, Historically, women have been narrower set of occupations crowded and sectors limited than more men, into have and paid lower are that a those often likely as almost are women Globally, prospects. career as in men agriculture, to be employed THE QUALITY OF WORK LEAVES MUCH TO BE TO MUCH LEAVES WORK OF THE QUALITY DESIRED in sub-Saharan Africa, women’s employment rates are the highest in the world (9.8 lowest the are rates employment in gaps gender (59.1 per cent) and but at the expense points), percentage of job quality. Indeed, in sub-Saharan Africa, informal employment is the main source of women, employment, especially for Similarly, in Africa the gender gap in the employment in Similarly, reaching 17.8 rate percentage has decreased slightly, points in the is Africa Northern 2018, persists. dynamics subregional but a subregion with the female lowest employment rates. north–south divide seem Women to paid leave work around the age of in which usually suggesting coincides with 25, marriage, are stereotypes and roles gender that ascribed deeply ingrained in the region. In Europe and Central Asia, In the Europe gender Asia, and employment Central gap has declined by 5.8 percentage points between 1991 and This 2018. reduction has been driven by rate of employment women’s in increase a slight just 1.4 percentage points and a more percentage pronounced 4.4 of rate employment men’s in decrease Higher points. female educational the achievements, expansion of the service sector and the increase in part-time employment opportunities have all played a role.

14 12 13 15 8

10 However, the 6 and reliance on natural on reliance and 9 the lack of care services 11 The over-representation The of over-representation women among

7

proportion of the youth population that is neither in that is neither population of the youth proportion employment nor in education or training (the NEET rate) is 21.2 per cent, of which 69.1 per women. cent are and infrastructure that enable women to combine to women enable that infrastructure and family and with domestic chores employment paid and responsibilities, the persistence of social norms women for appropriate what is considered regarding undertake. to suited better are they tasks what and Other regions, such as Asia and the Pacific, have seen have Pacific, the and Asia as such regions, Other than markedly fall more rates employment women’s despite women being men’s, better having educated, children and fewer being to more likely especially live in urban is This ago. decades three to compared areas of the economies the most dynamic for the case While such demographics as India region, and China. provide one explanatory factor, other causes also are at play: the rapid transition to from agricultural industrial sectors, These global employment trends conceal substantial have example, for States, Arab The variations. regional experienced a slight reduction of points 0.4 between percentage limited the to due 1991 essentially is This gap. employment and 2018 in quantity the and poor gender quality of traditional expectations the of women’s role in jobs society, generated, political instability recurrent Differences between regions Differences rates had almost closed in 2017. By contrast, By since contrast, the 2012, trend has reversed and employment rates for both women and men rates declining faster. with men’s have started to decline, The Americas is the region which, 27 over the years, past has witnessed modest, the decline largest, though in still the (9.0 percentage with points), America Latin gender and the employment gap Caribbean providing the driving force This wasby driven the growth behind trend (see figure 1.3). this in women’s employment rates between 1996 2008, and due to better education for women, greater lower of formal jobs availability in the service sector, fertility migration rates, from rural to urban areas arrangements. working part-time of promotion and the NEET, especially in emerging countries, is strongly strongly is countries, emerging in especially NEET, the older childcare, as such responsibilities, care to linked living those or persons disabled for care care, person gender stereotypes. and in some cases to with HIV, resource rents in some economies of the region. rents resource 24 MINDING THE GENDER GAPS 27 85.8 Men 90.0 India 86.9 “When intersects gender with other characteristics, such as ethnicity, status and migration this disability, in the widening results of both gender disparities and intra-women inequalities.” Women 93.6 Non-indigenous

34 46.8 Indigenous In 2013, the ILO In 2013, Men 33 61.1 Brazil 42.4 Women 60.9 Northern, Southern and Western Europe Europe Western and Southern Northern, Migration status is another characteristic is another status Migration

32 0

90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

100 Percentages global estimates show that, throughout the world, there are 11.5 million migrant domestic workers – of these, 73.4 per cent The are South-East women. Asia and the Pacificregion hosted the largest share cent), per (24.0 workers domestic migrant women of by followed (22.1 per cent) and Arab the States (19.0 per cent). than half of male migrant domestic more In contrast, States, Arab the in found are cent) per (50.8 workers Europe Western and Southern Northern, by followed Asia (10.9 per cent). (11.3 per cent) and South associated with a greater chance of working in the chance of working with a greater associated in Indeed, high-income informal economy. countries, the majority of who domestic are workers, typically migrants. are workers, undeclared Figure 1.5. Informal employment as a share of total employment by ethnicity by ethnicity of total employment as a share employment 1.5. Informal Figure latest year and sex, were whom of million 68 worldwide, workers migrant women. Note: See Appendix A2, Table A.2.1 for survey year. year. survey A.2.1 for Table A2, Appendix See Note: and household surveys. ILO calculations based on labour force Source: This makes 31 30 It is therefore not surprising that in It is therefore 29 it necessary to supplement universal policies who face in support with of women measures targeted compounded disadvantages due to their characteristics. personal million 164 were there 2017, in that estimates ILO The There There are certain social such groups, as indigenous which exhibit higher and than tribal average peoples, at are women groups, these Among rates. informality to their compared informally of working risk greater male counterparts and to non-indigenous women. When gender intersects with other characteristics, such migration as status ethnicity, this and disability, in the widening of both gender disparities and results intra-women inequalities (figure 1.5). most of these countries more women than men who men than women more countries these of most work in the informal economy live line. the poverty in below which are households American countries (figure 1.4). Not only are women women are only Not 1.4). (figure countries American men in emerging than informally to work likely more they are also economies, often found in occupations deficits, work decent to vulnerable most the are that such as in domestic, home-based family or work. contributing IE Women > Men: >10 pcpts (10 countries; 5.5%) Women IE > Men: 5 to 10 pcpts (31 countries; 17.0%) Women IE > Men: 2.5 to 5 pcpts (27 countries; 14.8%) Women IE > Men: 0 to 2.5 pcpts (33 countries; 18.1%) Women IE

IE Men > Women: >10 pcpts (6 countries; 3.3%) Women: IE Men > 5 to 10 pcpts (29 countries; 15.9%) Women: IE Men > 2.5 to 5 pcpts (19 countries; 10.4%) Women: IE Men > 0 to 2.5 pcpts (27 countries; 14.8%) Women: IE Men >

28

Figure 1.4. Gender gap in the share of informal employment in total employment, including of 1.4. Gender gap in the share Figure latest year agriculture, Globally, the share of women in informal employment employment informal in women of share the Globally, actually are men but there of share the than is lower more countries (55.4 per cent) where the share of the share exceeds employment in informal women informal to exposed more are women fact, In men. of employment than men in over 90 per cent of sub- Saharan African countries, 89 per cent of countries in Southern Asia and almost 75 per cent of Latin In most low- and middle-income countries, In most low- and middle-income the majority of women work informally Women are also more likely to be employed in in employed be to likely more also are Women occupations that are considered to be low-skilled, such as clerical support workers and sales service workers – and occupations in which one-quarter of women in employment are found. At regional the level, in Northern sub- America and Northern, the Europe, share Western Southern of and women in these employed occupations two jumps to almost part-time of availability the to due mainly cent, per 40 working arrangements and a well-developed service less also are women world, the Throughout economy. (see the managers as be employed men to than likely at the women still too few are “There section below top”). Note: IE is informal employment; pcpts is percentage points. pcpts is percentage employment; IE is informal Note: 2018n. ILO, Source: 26 MINDING THE GENDER GAPS 29 “Part-time work, when when work, “Part-time can be voluntary, allow and advantageous for a better work–family throughout balance. Yet, women more the world, that than men report underemployed they are – meaning that they are willing but unable to hours and more work induced to accept part-time working arrangements than and hence lower earnings.” desired

Low-paid employment employment Low-paid 38 37 And yet, globally only 27.1 per cent of 39 and workers who are in temporary who are and workers 35 In 63 Europe, per cent of women state that In 2018, the share of women in managerial 36 40 is a concern even per 23.8 countries, high-income In for women. especially full-time women jobs workers, low-paid in are workers women full-time of cent 1.6). to 14.7 per cent of men (figure compared managers and leaders are women – a figure that has changed very little over the past 1.7). 30 years (figure In high-income countries, women are women are countries, In high-income jobs in low-paying concentrated the of share considerable a countries, high-income In population is poor despite being Those employed. working for low pay are workers mainly women, migrant advantageous be can voluntary, when work, Part-time and allow report for men than women more a world, the throughout better work–family balance. Yet, are they that meaning – underemployed are they that hours and induced more willing but unable to work hence and arrangements working part-time accept to earnings. desired than lower THE TOP THERE ARE AT WOMEN TOO STILL FEW A growing body of evidence shows that companies in of women representation balanced with a more their decision-making bodies better achieve financial leadership diverse less with those to compared results structures. employment, which may or may not be on a voluntary a on be not may or may which employment, basis. they they engage in temporary jobs because temporary jobs in Women they could one. permanent a find not face wage penalties, in comparison to women with though similar personal characteristics and in similar, jobs. open-ended, and leadership positions ranges from 11.1 per cent in Arab the States to 39.0 per cent in Americas. the Americas experienced The the largest increase over the 27-year period followed (8.8 percentage points), by Asia and the Pacific (4.8 percentage points) and Europe and Central Asia (3.7 In percentage Africa, women’s points). share of representation in 20 per cent. positions is around top

Belgium

3.9

Americas Asia and Central Europe World c Asia and the Pacifi Africa Arab States 5.4 Italy

6.9

9.1 Finland

4.6

9.6 Denmark 6.5

11.5 France 6.7

12.4 Portugal 9.3

13.4 New Zealand New

10.5

14.2 Switzerland 6.6

15.8 Iceland 13.2

17.0 Chile 34.4 27.1 22.5 11.1 20.3 39.0 8.3

2018

17.7 Greece

14.3

17.8 Australia 13.5

10.7

19.6 38.3 33.9 21.2 26.3 19.0 2015 Spain

10.8

19.9 Canada 22.2

20.1 Netherlands 37.8 19.9 10.7 34.0 25.9 20.1

12.6 2012

20.3 Luxembourg Men 8.5

20.4 Hungary 18.1

8.9

37.1 21.1 33.3 20.3 26.5 22.7 Slovakia 2009

15.0

22.0 Japan 7.1

22.1 Women Slovenia 9.5 26.4 20.5 36.0 32.5 20.0

16.3 2006

22.5 Poland

20.7

22.6 High-income countries countries High-income

14.7 9.7

25.9 23.8 31.8 19.8 35.6 17.6 Lithuania 2003

18.1

24.1 Austria 10.9

24.4

9.9 Czech Republic Czech 29.7 25.1 19.2 33.8 19.0

16.2 2000

24.4 Ireland

20.0

25.9 United Kingdom United

14.9

9.4 30.3 25.3 19.8 33.0 25.9 18.8 Germany 1997

14.8

26.5 Latvia 22.5

28.6 United States United 9.0 18.4 19.3 25.1 30.4 31.7

20.9

1994 29.1 Estonia

12.9

29.6 Israel 17.9

8.5

30.2 24.8 30.4 30.7 19.5 17.7 Korea, Republic of Republic Korea, 1991 14.3 35.3

0

0

50 40 30 20 10

10 20 30 40 Percentages Percentages Figure 1.7. Share of women in managerial positions by region, 1991–2018 of women in managerial positions by region, 1.7. Share Figure Figure 1.6. Incidence of full-time by sex, low-paid workers, latest year workers, by sex, low-paid of full-time 1.6. Incidence Figure Source: ILO modelled estimates, November 2018. 2018. November ILO modelled estimates, Source: Source: OECD.Stat 2019. 2019. OECD.Stat Source: Note: The incidence of low-paid workers is defined as the share of full-time workers earning less than two-thirds of gross median of gross two-thirds earning less than workers of full-time is defined as the share workers incidence of low-paid The Note: 2014 in eight countries, in two 2015 counties, 2016 in five countries, is 2017 in seven Latest year earnings of all full-time workers. 86.2 per cent (32 countries) of the total employed. covering average population weighted employed High-income countries: countries. 28 MINDING THE GENDER GAPS 31

Median 47.1

44.9 Mean 46.8 countries 45.1 High-income

95.4 42.1 Median

40.4 States 4.6 United Mean Middle 42.1 -income

countries

40.8 Median 42.3 96.0 34.6

4 United Kingdom Mean 43.2 countries

37.1 Low-income 44.8 Median 99.6 44.5

Japan 0.4 Mean 45.5

Europe and 44.4 Central Asia Median Men 41.7 Men 40.0

97.1 Italy Mean 41.6 Asia and

2.9 the Pacific

40.5 Median Women 42.6 44.1 Women

100 Mean 42.6 0 Arab States 43.3

Germany Median 46.6

43.7 Mean 46.3 97.1 Americas 44.2

France 2.9 46.5 Median

39.5 Mean Africa 46.2 41.0 97.3

Canada 2.7 Median 43.1

41.8 43.1 Mean World 42.2 0

0 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

50 40 30 20 10

100 Age (years) Age Percentages Note: Reference year: first half of 2018 for France, Germany, Italy and the United Kingdom; 2016 for Canada, for Canada, 2016 and the United Kingdom; Italy Germany, for France, of 2018 first half year: Reference Note: and the United States. Japan based on Gender Equality 2018, Institute for European and the United Kingdom: Italy Germany, France, Source: 2016. Deloitte, United States and Japan: Canada, listed companies. largest publicly data from Figure 1.9. Percentage of Chief Executive Officers who are women, latest year women, who are Officers of Chief Executive 1.9. Percentage Figure Figure 1.10. Mean and median age of leaders or managers, by sex, latest year 1.10. Mean and median age of leaders or managers, Figure Source: ILO calculation based on labour force and household surveys. ILO calculation based on labour force Source: Note: Note: Age group: 15 and older. female Global, regional population and in income managerial group and estimates of leadership World: countries: 82 weighted positions. per by Percentage cent the of (82); Africa: 63 male employed per population and per cent cent and (19); Americas: Asia (3); 80 number and per the cent Pacific: 89 (11); Arab per States: cent 33 countries: (18); 65 Europe per cent and Central Asia: (14); Middle-income countries: 82 88 cent per (31); Low-income per (30). cent See (38); Appendix High-income countries: A.1, 69 table per A.1.1 cent for country-level data and Appendix A.2, table A.2.1 for survey year. 16.4 12.2

12.3 United States United 27.0 21.0

13.0 United Kingdom United

3.4 1.7 Japan “Women managers and leaders and managers “Women than younger one year almost are their male counterparts and the as the in age shrinks difference increases.” national income 0.9 2016

30.0 15.0 Italy 5.0 2013 27.0

Based on the on Based

21.0 43 Germany 13.0 2010 37.0

30.0 However, the percentage of However, France 42 12.0 19.4

12.7 Canada with Italy and France experiencing the experiencing France and Italy with 12.9 41

0

50 40 30 20 10 Percentages most recent worldwide women data, managers and their male than younger year one almost are leaders the as shrinks in age counterpartsdifference the and national income In increases. low-income countries, 6.1 years on women younger managers average, are, than 1.3 men, years in middle-income countries and This 1.7 years in high-income countries (figure 1.10). and unexpected finding. is an interesting largest increase, resulting from the introduction of two in the boards company on women for quotas countries (figure 1.8). women who chair company boards remains critically critically remains boards who chair company women ranging from 0 low, per cent in Germany to 4.6 per cent in the United States, showing 1.9). (figure to be broken ceiling still needs that the glass Source: OECD.Stat 2018, based on data from largest publicly listed companies. listed companies. largest publicly based on data from 2018, OECD.Stat Source: While few women make it to the top, those do, who get there faster than men. It takes less time for women to reach a for women to reach It takes less time position managerial or leadership Across Across G7 countries, the of share the in increase an saw also companies largest publicly listed 2010 between boards company sitting on women and 2016, Figure 1.8. Share of women sitting on company boards, 2010–2016 of women sitting on company boards, 1.8. Share Figure 30 MINDING THE GENDER GAPS 33 56.2 62.6 countries High-income 9.0 34.0 35.4 Middle- income 7.7 Germany countries 41.1 35.2 countries Low-income 9.4 India 8.2 64.3 70.8 Europe and Central Asia Men Men 30.4 9.9 24.0 Asia and the Pacific Norway 8.3 Women Women 47.0 48.2 Arab States 10.0 Italy 56.8 8.4 63.9 Americas 28.6 Africa 40.9 10.9 9.8 United States 38.3 World 44.3

8 6 4 2 0

80 60 40 20 0 12 10

Years Percentages Figure 1.12. Share of women and men with advanced university degrees in men with advanced university degrees of women and 1.12. Share Figure latest year managerial or leadership positions, Figure 1.11. Average number of years to reach a director-level a director-level to reach number of years Average 1.11. Figure 2018 position, Note: Age group: 15 and older. Global, regional and income group estimates weighted by the population in managerial in population the by weighted estimates group income and regional Global, older. and 15 group: Age Note: and leadership Percentage positions. of employed population 80 and per number World: cent of (83); countries: Asia and 8633 the perArab per Pacific: cent States: cent 81 (3); per Americas: cent (13); 63 per Africa: cent (20); countries: Middle-income (14); cent per 65 countries: Low-income (30); cent per 72 Asia: Central and Europe (17); and data country-level for A.1.2 table A.1, Appendix See (30). cent per 62 countries: High-income (39); cent per 86 year. survey A.2.1 for table A.2, Appendix and household surveys. ILO calculations based on labour force Source: Note: Number of women and men LinkedIn members who reached director-level positions: United States (women: (women: States United positions: director-level reached who members LinkedIn men and women of Number Note: 1,568,904; men: 2,880,750), Italy (women: 40,105; 149,068). men: men: 74,075), 46,013; Norway (women: Germany (women: 407,316), 17,938; men: men: 86,362; 30,814), (women: India microdata. Calculations based on LinkedIn Source: are on average, 44 Globally, 31.6 per cent of adult Globally, 46 or that women have higher levels of levels higher have women that or 45 women have women less have than primarycompared education, countries low-income in but men, of cent per 21.9 to genders. both for high as twice are percentages these educational achievement compared to men. Globally, Globally, to educational compared men. achievement 44.3 per cent an of advanced managers women have university degree compared with 38.3 per cent of men managers, showing that women managers are more likely to have a higher level of education than of exception with the regions, Across managers. men likely more are managers women Pacific, the and Asia (figure men to compared degree advanced an have to 1.12). This situation begs the question: If women want to jobs? good the or jobs, paid get they don’t why work, WHAT HINDERS WHAT EMPLOYMENT WOMEN’S OPPORTUNITIES? Education matters, but is not the main reason gender the closing in progress impressive the Despite secondaryin rates tertiaryin enrolment and gaps education over the past substantial 40 gender years, inequalities in educational achievements for populations remain. adult The younger age of women managers is supported by by supported is managers women of age younger The LinkedIn data for a selection of indicating countries, members LinkedIn that women quickly? the top more reach Why do women Potential reasons for this younger finding women have might fewer family responsibilities (see be that the section on “The motherhood below) penalty” leadership slightly slightly faster than men in reaching a director-level This position is (Figure 1.11). true among members who became leaders five, ten many consistent trend. suggesting this is a or years ago,

education than men managers.” more likely to have a higher level of a higher level likely to have more showing that women managers are that women managers showing 38.3 per cent of men managers, 38.3 per cent of men managers, university degree compared with compared degree university managers have an advanced managers have “Globally, 44.3 per cent of women 44.3 per “Globally, 32

MINDING THE GENDER GAPS 35 Men

1.1 66.0 65.0 Women countries 9.2

59.0 49.8 High-income

13.2 85.1 Men University

1.5 74.0 72.5

Women Middle -income

countries 68.1 25.7 42.5 Men

0.2 79.2 76.9 76.7 18.0

Men Secondary Women

countries 74.4 12.7 61.7

Low-income Men 0.7 62.8 62.1

Dont know/Refused Women 72.0 23.8 58.3 47.0 11.3

Europe and

Central Asia Primary Men

1.6 76.2 74.6 Women

Asia and Disagree

70.4 27.0 43.4 the Pacific 8.0 Men 88.7 0.5 73.2 72.8

University Women 75.4 59.9 15.1 Arab States

Agree Men 1.5 70.8 69.3

85.5 11.9 Women Women

Americas 66.0 16.5 49.6

Secondary Men Full-time unpaid care workers

1.1

69.1 68.1 GRAPH PLACEHOLDER Women Africa 66.0 50.3 15.7

77.5 18.3 Men Primary 1.5 72.9 71.4

Employed Women World 67.0 21.7 45.3 0

75 50 25 0

75 50 25

100 Percentages Percentages Figure 1.15. Employed workers and full-time unpaid care workers, by sex, care 1.15. Employed workers and full-time unpaid Figure latest year Figure 1.14. Acceptability of work for women, by sex and educational educational by sex and of work for women, Acceptability 1.14. Figure 2016 achievement, Note: Age group: 15 and older. Global, regional and income group estimates weighted by the working-age population. population. working-age the by weighted estimates group income and regional Global, older. and 15 group: Age Note: Asia: Central and Europe Percentage of (15); cent per working-age 85 population Pacific: the and and 80 Asia number World: per of 61 Africa: cent countries: (3); cent per (84); per 43 cent States: (21); Arab (12); cent per 87 Americas: 75 per 54 Low-income cent per countries: (33); 84 Middle-income cent per countries: (12); High-incomecent (40); 73 per cent (32). countries: 2018a. ILO calculations based on ILO, Source: Note: Question asked to men and women: Do you agree or disagree with the following statement? It is perfectly perfectly statement? It is with the following or disagree agree Do you to men and women: asked Question Note: outside the home if she wants one. a paid job to have family in your woman any acceptable for microdata. Poll World ILO calculations based on the Gallup Source:

49 ener p

Men University 85.8

ciic 47.1 Secondary 86.8

Women 33.9 Primary 89.8

34.6 primary 78.3 than Less

33.1

si n te

University University 79.1 89.1

69.6 47.7

Secondary Secondary 87.5

69.5

51.7 20.2

Primary Primary 55.0 86.5

29.7 15.6 primary primary

r ttes r Less than Less Less than Less 33.0 76.6 12.5 16.8 iincome countries Caregiving plays the biggest role plays Caregiving Looking after spouses, partners, children or other the care for members can be rewarding family provider and beneficial for those who receive the care. Care is also being indispensable and the development of capabilities. people’s to human well- While education is key to bringing more women women more bringing to key is While education into employment and play also structures Economic keeping own. its on insufficient them there, it a In is role. low-income where countries, employment is concentrated in agriculture, higher achievements for women educational may have a limited effect in securing them a job that is commensurate with their knowledge and that meets both individual and as national income Conversely, societal expectations. levels high to mid with jobs for demand the increases, of skills also rises.

University 47 University 84.1 80.6

52.5

70.3

Secondary Secondary 85.5 75.5

38.7

53.3

Primary Primary 82.8 67.0

33.6

primary 36.9 primary merics

Less than Less Less than Less 76.4 53.8 32.4 27.4

Mieincome countries

University University 84.5 81.9

70.0

67.1

Secondary Secondary 84.2 81.1

66.1

56.9

Primary Primary 87.9 81.4 ric

68.6

primary 55.1 primary

Less than Less Less than Less 84.1 78.3 69.6 54.5

oincome countries

University 48 University 76.9 82.8

69.7

58.5

Secondary Secondary 81.0 70.5

54.4

44.2

Primary Primary 76.2

or 48.4

25.0

primary 35.1 primary W

Less than Less 66.0 than Less 26.2 12.8 3.12

Europe n entr si

0 0 90 6 45 23 90 6 45 23 ercentes ercentes Note: Age group: adults (25 years and above). Global, regional and income group estimates weighted by the adult population. Percentage Percentage population. adult the by weighted estimates group income and regional Global, above). and years States: (25 Arab adults (24); group: cent per Age 98 Americas: Note: (31); cent per 64 Africa: (132); cent per 69 World: countries: of number and population adult of 71 per cent Low-income countries: 93 per cent (44); Asia: and Europe Central 57 perAsia centand (27); the Pacific: 72 per cent (6); 2018 for country-level data 62 96 Middle-income per High-income countries: per cent See countries: (20); cent (65); ILOSTAT, (47). year. and survey 2018. ILO calculations based on ILOSTAT, Source: Figure 1.13. Employment-to-population 25 Figure ratio by sex and level of education, age group years and above, latest year Data show that a higher level education corresponds corresponds education level higher a that show Data gaps Gender 1.13). (figure rates employment higher to further also participation reduced are employment in by higher educational achievements. For participation for in employment gap the gender instance, percentage 41.1 primaryat stands holders education while points, it decreases to 24.3 percentage points for university degree holders. This findingconsistent is with the also ILO–Gallup survey, mentioned which earlier, revealed that women and men with higher education are more outside the home working in the family women likely to approve of Nevertheless, Nevertheless, over 41.5 per cent of adult with women a university degree are either unemployed or while only 17.2 outside per the cent labour of force, men are in a and Women similar men situation. are not getting comparable employment dividends for their education. (figure 1.14). 1.14). (figure 34

MINDING THE GENDER GAPS 37 Men

04:09 06:24 02:15 Women countries

4:17 High-income 02:34 06:51 Men

01:06 06:52 05:46 Women

Middle -income

countries 07:40 03:12 04:27 Men

06:18 01:29 04:50 Women

countries 03:13 07:35 04:22

Low-income Men 05:58 02:12 03:47

“It is estimated that the is estimated “It gender gap in time spent work in unpaid care would not be closed until 2228; in other words, closing the gap would take 209 years” Women Paid work

06:39 04:32 02:06

Europe and Central Asia Men

5:53

06:57 01:04 Yet, Yet, Women 54 Asia and 03:21 07:43 04:22 the Pacific

countries

Men 55

04:52 01:10 03:42 Women Unpaid care work 0:36 06:06 05:29 Arab States

Men

53 04:28 02:35 07:03 Women

07:22 04:28 02:55 Americas Men

04:31 05:50 01:18 Women Africa This has negative consequences

02:34 06:57 04:23

52 Men

06:44 05:22 01:23 Women

World 07:28 03:03 04:25 51

08:00 07:00 06:00 05:00 04:00 03:00 02:00 01:00 00:00 Hours per day per Hours Figure 1.17. Time spent daily in unpaid care work, paid work and total work, by and total work, paid work work, care daily in unpaid Time spent 1.17. Figure latest year income group, sex and for for the health and in well-being of the women, form of sleep deprivation and anxiety. while women and men recognize the challenges, men challenges, the recognize men and women while work, unpaid of share fair their on taking not still are in many systems protection social and continue to be designed based on the assumption on based be designed to continue on this double role. will take that women while that of men increased by just eight minutes per minutes eight just by increased men of that while in gap gender the that estimated is it pace, this At day. closed be not would work care in unpaid time spent take would gap the closing words, other in 2228; until 209 years. Because of the disproportionate share of time spent of share disproportionate the of Because in unpaid care women work, who work for pay are and work at one shift”– “second a work to said often another at home. Women and men agree that unpaid care care unpaid that men agree and Women responsibilities, including balancing work and family infrastructure, and services care to access of lack and constitute a substantial challenge for women. Source: ILO calculations based on ILO modelled estimates, November 2018, and Charmes, 2018. and Charmes, 2018, November estimates, ILO calculations based on ILO modelled Source: 20 =0.36 2 R older persons, persons with disabilities and household and disabilities with persons persons, older chores) falls on women’s shoulders, they 1.16). (figure or profit pay for are to work likely less unpaid spent in paid and of hours When the number work are combined, women’s working days (seven hours and 28 minutes) are longer than hours men’s (six and 44 minutes). Globally, women perform more than three-quarters of the total time spent in unpaid care work (76.2 per cent) and dedicate, on four average, hours and 25 minutes daily to unpaid care work, in comparison to men’s average of one hour and 23 minutes (figure Over 1.17). the course a this total represents of 201 working days of a year, and women for day) working eight-hour an on (based and middle-income In low- men. for days 63 working of unpaid care in the share the gender gap countries, work is larger than in high-income countries (figure 1.17). household the within work of division imbalanced The resilient is one of the most women men and between 2012, and 1997 Between inequality. gender of features housework to devoted women time the estimated is it day, per minutes 15 only by diminished caregiving and 15 10 Gender gap in unpaid care work (percentages) work Gender gap in unpaid care 5

0 (or 1.5 per cent) (figure 1.15). Across regions, regions, Across (or 1.5 per cent) (figure 1.15).

20 40 60 80

50 100

Employment-to-population ratio, women (percentages) women ratio, Employment-to-population The distribution of unpaid care work between men and women in the household influences and types of engagement levels in the labour market. women’s children, (for the bulk of caregiving where Indeed, the Arab States cent), per (59.9 have workers care unpaid full-time women the highest percentage of Asia followed by and the Pacific (27.0 per the cent), Americas Africa (16.5 (15.7 per per cent), cent) and 2.6 box See cent). per (11.3 Asia Central and Europe as work”. work “Recognizing unpaid care Traditionally, women Traditionally, have been portrayed continue as markets labour and societies and caregivers the to function largely on this assumption. Unpaid care the outside are women why main reason the is work working- million 647 world, the Across force. labour age women (or 21.7 per cent) perform unpaid care work on a full-time basis, compared to 41 men million However, However, depending on who provides it how and many for hours a or the reduce chances prevent of people with family day, unpaid care responsibilities work engaging, remaining and can progressing in paid employment. Figure 1.16. Relationship between the gender gap in the share of time spent in unpaid care care in unpaid of time spent share gender gap in the between the 1.16. Relationship Figure employment-to-population year ratio, latest women’s work and Source: ILO calculations based on ILO modelled estimates, November 2018, and Charmes, 2018. and Charmes, 2018, November estimates, ILO calculations based on ILO modelled Source: 36 MINDING THE GENDER GAPS 39 29.6 30 23 14.7 14.6 15 12.9 12.6 10.5 10.4 8.4 7.7 7.3 7.1 8 6.1 5.8 5.0 4.8 4.3 3.1 2.4 2.4 2.0 1.9 1.6 1.2 1.1 An ILO study An ILO study 0.2 0.1 58 0 Motherhood pay gap -0.3 ercentages -1.0 P -2.0 -2.8 -3.4 -3.4 -3.6 -4.5 -5.9 -8 -6.7 -7.0 -7.3 -8.3 -10.9 -11.2 Fatherhood pay gap -13.1 -15 -16.4 -17.2 -18.8 -23

60 -26.0 As for there parents of children with disabilities, 59 -30 eru P Chile Egypt urkey Brazil China Africa

T Mexico Canada Ukraine iet Nam Uruguay Armenia Australia Mongolia hilippines V epublic of epublic of Argentina P Madagascar Switzerland South United States orea, R ussian Federation K R anzania, United R T Figure 1.19. Motherhood and fatherhood wage gaps for selected economies, 1.19. Motherhood and fatherhood wage gaps Figure latest year found that, in Liberia, Namibia and Zambia, women living in a household household a in living women Zambia, and Namibia Liberia, in that, found with a family member with HIV saw their chances of being employed reduced. significantly with older persons, persons with disabilities or members This living is HIV. particularly with true in countries with a high HIV-prevalence and either care services.or a poor lack of, coverage of, PENALTY WAGE THE MOTHERHOOD employment penalties when in to pay exposed in general are Women and below) “Lower unequal but pay” mothers (see tend the section on as is known gap and this pay without children, to earn less than women It 1 ranges per from cent or less in Canada, gap”. “motherhood pay the to Mongolia as Africa, and (figure much South as 30 per Turkey cent in is evidence that the likelihood of not being fathers. mothers than for employed is greater for Source: ILO, 2018g. ILO, Source:

86.9 80.6 (<6) (<6) 76.9 65.4 No Children No Children 2015 2015 88.2 94.2 54.5 79.9 (<6) (<6) Children Children Americas 86.9 83.9 (<6) (<6) Low-income countries 78.7 65.8 No Children No Children 2005 2005 95.5 90.4 (<6) (<6) 82.4 53.5 Children Children Parenthood employment gap Parenthood 79.9 81.3 74.6 (<6) (<6) (<6) 72.7 72.9 57.1 No Children No Children No Children 2015 2015 2015 87.7 88.7 84.4 62.6 62.1 54.9 (<6) (<6) (<6) Children Children Children children, whose employment rates have grown much much grown rates have whose employment children, and faster, to fathers. Between 2005 and 2015, the by penalty has increased employment motherhood 38.4 per cent. The parenthood employment namely gap, the difference between to-population the employment- ratio of mothers also increased from 41.1 and percentage points to employment 42.8 the fathers, time, same the At has points. percentage without young women and men between gap children has remained almost although 1.18), variations by region and income unchanged are, (figure significant. nonetheless, The challenge facing of women combining paid work with care duties can be even greater in households Africa 86.9 74.6 86.9 (<6) (<6) (<6) High-income countries Europe and Central Asia and Central Europe 76.2 54.1 76.5 No Children No Children No Children 2005 2005 2005 Non-parents employment gap employment Non-parents 85.4 91.2 91.8 of young young of (<6) (<6) 56 53.1 63.9 63.1 Children Children 78.9 79.5 79.6 (<6) (<6) (<6) 48.0 53.2 46.7 Men No Children No Children No Children 2015 2015 2015 88.4 88.6 89.2 45.8 40.2 (<6) (<6) (<6) 41.1 Children Children Children World 73.9 76.4 73.2 Women (<6) (<6) (<6) Asia and the Pacifi c Asia and the Pacifi Middle-income countries Middle-income 42.7 40.8 49.6 No Children No Children No Children 2005 2005 2005 were in employment compared to 53.2 83.8 83.4 85.4

57 (<6) (<6) (<6) 38.9 38.0 44.3 Children Children Children

0 0 0

80 60 40 20 80 60 40 20 80 60 40 20 100 100 100

Percentages Percentages Percentages Note: The Note: age group for high-income countries is 25–54 years, and for regional and middle- income and group estimates low-income weighted by countries the working-age 18–54 Percentage population. of years. working-age Global, population and number 67 31 Asia 81 Africa: per Americas: per Arab and per No cent World: cent States: the cent data; (51); (6); Pacific: (10); of countries: 79 per cent (6); Europe and Central Asia: 49 per cent (29); Low-income countries: 22 per cent per (2); Middle-income cent countries: 73 (19); High-income countries: 62 per cent (30). See Appendix A.1, table A.1.3 table A.2.1 for for country survey level 2005 year. data is and Appendix the A.2, average year in the earliest surveys and 2015 is the average year in the latest surveys. Source: ILO calculations based on ILO, 2018a. ILO calculations based on ILO, Source: per cent of women without children under six years six years under without children women per cent of This old. suggests the existence of a “motherhood employment penalty” This(figure 1.18). penalty has without young to both women compared worsened children THE MOTHERHOOD EMPLOYMENT PENALTY EMPLOYMENT THE MOTHERHOOD Against this backdrop, chances of being it women’s reduces motherhood is not surprising employed. In that 2015, estimates showed that 45.8 for per cent of 51 mothers countries significant Motherhood penalties remain Motherhood penalties remain Figure 1.18. Employment-to-populationFigure with and and men ratios of women 2005 and 2015 6 years of age, under children without 38

MINDING THE GENDER GAPS 41 No Children (<6) Children No 61.1

38.9 Children (<6) Children 68.9 countries

31.1

High-income No Children (<6) Children No 71.1

28.9 Children (<6) Children

76.9 income Middle-

23.1 countries No Children (<6) Children No 71.8

28.2 Children (<6) Children 78.0 countries 22.0

Low-income 61.1 (<6) Children No

38.9 Children (<6) Children 71.5

28.5

Europe and Europe Central Asia No Children (<6) Children No 72.5

27.5 Children (<6) Children 77.9 Asia and the Pacifi c the Pacifi 22.1

Non-parents gap Non-parents 70.0 (<6) Children No

30.0 Children (<6) Children 82.2

17.8 Arab States No Children (<6) Children No 59.1

40.9 Children (<6) Children 64.7

Parenthood gap Parenthood Americas

35.3 No Children (<6) Children No 76.6

23.4 Children (<6) Children Africa Men 85.0

15.0 No Children (<6) Children No 68.6

31.4 Children (<6) Children World 74.9 Women 25.1

0 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 Percentages Note: The age group for high-income countries and is for Note: 25–54 middle- and years, low-income countries 18–54 and regional income estimates group by weighted the total population Global, in managerial and leadership years. positions. Percentage of employed and number 76 of World: and Central Europe per countries: 80 per cent (12); cent Africa: Asia and the Pacific: 61 (72); per 33 per cent (3); cent Arab States: (18); 76 per cent (10); Americas: 80 High- per 56 Middle-income cent per countries: 75 (31); Low-income cent per countries: (11); cent Asia: (29); A.1.4 income table 69 for A.1, countries: countryper table Appendix cent A.2, See level data Appendix (30). and year. survey A.2.1 for and household surveys. ILO calculations based on labour force Source: Figure 1.21. Share of managers with and without children under 6 years of age, with and without children of managers 1.21. Share Figure by sex, latest year unpaid, remain unpaid, highly constrained by social pressures and the absence of publicly provided An services. absence of working-time autonomy gender obstacle to a considerable men remains and women both for decent work. equality and PENALTY LEADERSHIP THE MOTHERHOOD Globally, mothers of children aged cent per (25.1 positions leadership 0–5 and managerial in rates participation years old have the compared women) are age of lowest years six under with children managers of with both their male counterparts (74.9 per women and men with men) and are age of years six under cent children of managers with are children without managers of cent per (68.6 children young without may managers Women 1.21). (figure women) are cent per 31.4 and men

63 7 9 8 9 0 4 3+ 3+ 3+ 43. 33. 44. 36. 33. 42. 8 3 7 3 42.5 33. 2 2 2 45. 34. 43.6 37. 2 3 Americas 5 3 5 4 42. 34. 1 1 1 44. 35. 37. 43. Europe & Central Asia & Central Europe High-income countries “Choices” of working-time, paid and 64 0 4 1 8 9 3 42. 36. 0 0 0 44. 37. 37. 43. Men 4 5 2 6 6 1 3+ 3+ 3+ 42. 35. 40. 46. 40. 47. in households with no children under the age of the age under children with no in households six years worked on 42.3 average, hours per week compared with 46.1 hours worked by counterparts. This their represents male a gender gap in the number of hours worked for pay or profit of three hours In and the 48 presence of minutes. one young child, this gender gap reaches compel to continues pressure social as long As almost five hours. women to be the main caregivers and men to work longer hours as the women and main breadwinners, their workload reduce to able be will not mothers at home, or to increase their hours of paid work. At the same time, a culture of long working-hours may not only have detrimental effects on workers’ health but and may productivity, also lead to stigma against workers who time choose arrangements, flexible such teleworking. working- as reduced hours or 9 48.0 48. 0 2 9 4 2 2 2 36. 43. 44. 47. 8 8 Africa 5 47. 9 48. 7 4 46. 1 1 1 36. 43. 44. Asia and the Pacifi c Asia and the Pacifi Women Middle-income countries 3 7 6 8 7 3 48. 46. 38. 0 0 0 43. 44. 47. Number of children under 6 years of age Number of children 4 1 0 9 9 3+ 3+ 3+ 1 45. 38. 35. 42. 40. 32. 5 3 6 1 0 2 2 2 In other motherhood words, 46. 43. 41.5 41. 35. 33. 62 World 4 7 1 5 7 1 Arab States 1 1 1 46. 42. 42. 41. 35. 34. Low-income countries

1 4 5 3 9 0 On the other hand, fathers are more likely to likely more are fathers hand, other the On 0 0 0 46. 42. 42. 42. 37. 36. 61

50 45 40 35 30 50 45 40 35 30 50 45 40 35 30 Hours per week per Hours receive receive better pay than men without This children. gap”. pay “fatherhood as the is known gap pay host a to related be may mothers for wages Lower of factors, including career unpaid maternity breaks reduction leave, in hours for of work paid and and gender-biased hiring and promotion decisions at the enterprise level – all of careers which of penalize mothers. the Source: ILO, 2018a. ILO, Source: 1.19). brings about a wage penalty that can persist across a across persist can that penalty wage a about brings while the status working life, of fatherhood woman’s a wage premium. is associated with As mentioned men earlier, work longer hours, on for average, pay or profit thanwomen everywhere, but the difference in the number of hours devoted to paid work starts to widen the with first child the (figure arrival 1.20). Globally, of women living Figure 1.20. Weekly hours worked for pay or profit, by sex and number of children under number of children by sex and worked for pay or profit, hours Weekly 1.20. Figure six years of age, latest year 40 MINDING THE GENDER GAPS 43 Q IR 20 N TU D B IN =0.40 A R 2 AL R PAK DZ MA ARM R TU PSE N IR I PRT ML “The faster growth in the “The faster growth incidence of wage in total employment female employment has not been matched, a substantive by however, decline in the gap and men’s between wages.” average women’s S 15 MU PER A IT ECU V SL N Z BEN G JP C URY KG TZA PAN H MD GR KHM ET ARG L OMN A G IR R SRB GH MN KO U D R

L CHN LTU HUN R A RO MK AUS 10 PO CM ESP A F KAZ LV BG N Gender gap in unpaid care work (percentages) work Gender gap in unpaid care ZA MD TW D AUT A NL SVN TH L R NZ DEU GB USA T EST A QA CAN FR BEL N FI 5 DNK R E NO SW

0 50 40 30 20 10 Share of women in managerial positions (percentages) positions managerial in women of Share Figure 1.22. Relationship between the share of women in managerial positions positions women in managerial of share between the 1.22. Relationship Figure latest year work, on unpaid care of time spent the share gender gap in and the Lower and unequal pay A stubborn gender pay gap the quality for a proxy as often taken are Wages usually is work salaried and wage as work of associated with better working conditions. In 2018, there were 673.9 million women (or 52.5 per cent and women) 1.05 billion employed men (or 51.7 per earners wage as men) who worked cent employed throughout the world (figure 1.23 – see next page). the proportion of wage women workers Since 1991, has increased by compared 10 to percentage points, men. for 6.8 per cent growth The faster growth not has employment female in total employment in the been by a matched, however, substantive incidence decline in of the gap between and wages. average men’s women’s wage Different organizations have tried to estimate the the at this gap close to needed years of number vary depending figures actual the While pace. current that in all saying converge on the methodology used, it Gender gaps would far pay diminish take too long. very slowly over time, as workers’ characteristics Source: ILO calculations based on ILO modelled estimates, November 2018, and Charmes, 2018. 2018. and Charmes, 2018, November estimates, ILO calculations based on ILO modelled Source:

69 of unpaid care of unpaid care 70 stereotypes about women in high-level roles. in high-level about women stereotypes work? work? However, where However, men share the burden share greater a of women, with equally unpaid more work care of women are found in This managerial is positions. the case in Denmark, Norway Sweden, and Finland, parity in close to gender are men and women where terms of time spent on unpaid while care the work, opposite case is found in Morocco and where India, and domestic on the bulk of family taken women 1.22). duties (figure How can women enjoy treatment equal at work with opportunities men, if they and continue, and shift second a work to expected, are One 66 is often 67 influencing 68 65

1. Women have more family responsibilities than men family responsibilities have more Women 1. assigned by society to men and women 2. Roles 3. Masculine corporate culture experience with insufficient general or line management Women 4. models for women 5. Few role 6. Men not encouraged to take leave for family responsibilities 7. Lack of company equality policy and programmes against women 8. Stereotypes 9. Lack of leadership training for women 10. Lack of flexible work solutions of skilled women 11. Lack of strategy for retention same as) (ranked the and promotion gender bias in recruitment 12. Inherent job 12. Management generally viewed as a man’s 13. Gender equality policies in place but not implemented 14. Inadequate labour and non-discrimination laws barriers to women’s leadership 2015 barriers to women’s

such stereotypical belief is that women who display who display belief is that women such stereotypical male of attitudes and characteristics traditional the managers stand a The better belief chance “think of manager–think man” succeeding. ILO, 2015b. ILO, Table 1.1. Ranking of barriers to women’s leadership, 2015 1.1. Ranking of barriers to women’s Table This explanation for leadership and managerial accessing women on the motherhood supportedalso is positions ILO company an by penalty survey conducted across regions to barrier top the be to found in were responsibilities 2015. Family followed by gender stereotypes leadership, women’s and masculine corporate culture (table 1.1). struggle struggle to balance professional and personal lives, especially when care services are not Research suggests that the available. most successful efficient or or be married to likely less are women best paid and children. to have internalized within corporate culture, 42 MINDING THE GENDER GAPS 45 6.9 31.4 10.7 23.2 9.7 16.9 12.6 15.1 23.0 77.0 India 21.1 10.3 Norway 8.7 Madagascar 22.2 6.7 28.5 23.8 76.2 5.5 Germany 30.3 5.0 24.8 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9 Men

5 0 5 0

35 30 25 20 15 10 35 30 25 20 15 10

Percentages Percentages (a) (b) 29.2 70.8 Norway -4.1 13.0 7.8 Women -2.1 4.7 3.8 32.7 67.3 3.6 14.7 United States 4.6 24.7 Belgium Indonesia 5.6 28.8 63.6 36.4 Italy 6.1 35.7 2018 5.8 41.6 77 3.0 45.4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9

0 8 6 4 2 0 0

75 50 25 14 12 10 50 40 30 20 10

-10 Percentages 100

Percentages Percentages Figure 1.25. Share of LinkedIn members with digital skills that are women with digital skills that are of LinkedIn members 1.25. Share Figure and men, Figure 1.24. Gender pay gaps across the wage distribution for selected countries, for selected countries, distribution the wage across pay gaps 1.24. Gender Figure countries income (b) Middle- and-low countries; (a) High-income latest year: Note: Number of United Norway LinkedIn Note: members States with Italy (619,177); (9,375,058); technological skills: India (2,595,173). (583,266); Germany (109,258); microdata. Calculations based on LinkedIn Source: Source: ILO, 2018g. 2018g. ILO, Source: In this case, In this case,

74 Men

0.5 4.3 85.2 10.0 Women countries

6.7 2.0 1.5 89.7

High-income Men

3.8 6.5

47.3 42.4 Women Middle -income 1.7 countries 19.1 47.8 31.4

Figure 1.25 shows that Italy has the Men

75 Contributing family workers

2.3 16.8 24.5 56.4 Women 0.8

countries 42.8 11.9 44.5

Low-income Men 1.5 4.5 79.7 14.2

the formalization of wage employment and minimum minimum and employment wage of formalization the wages women’s raising policies for useful are wages half of in the lower gap pay the gender reducing and distribution. the pay The most in-demand and highest found paying jobs in are the science, technology, engineering mathematics and (STEM) fields currently lagging behind, as where they lack the women required digital skills. are highest share of LinkedIn members with digital skills of LinkedIn highest share in informal wage employment face a double penalty: male their than wages lower average, on receive, they in workers than wages lower as counterpartswell as 1.24b). (see figure the economy formal Women 1.9 9.2 3.4

85.5

Europe and Central Asia Men 3.3 7.0 44.3 45.4

Own account workers Women

Asia and

1.4 22.1 45.8 the Pacific 30.7 Men is still 18.8 3.8 2.2 72 80.4 13.6

Dedicated and Women 73

1.4 7.6 5.2 85.9

Employers Arab States Men

1.8 4.7 72.7 20.8 Women

2.3 3.9 Americas 76.7 17.1 Men

4.3

35.8 13.1 46.8 Women Africa

1.7 19.2 32.5 46.6 Men 3.8 6.4 51.7 38.2 Wage and salaried workers

Currently, the gender pay gap Currently,

Women World 71 1.7 52.5 18.1 27.8

0

25 50 75 100 Percentages per cent throughout the world, ranging from 12.6 per cent in low-income countries to 20.9 per cent in upper middle-income countries. and pay discrimination towards women rarely change change rarely women discrimination towards and pay quickly. Source: ILO modelled estimates, November 2018. 2018. November ILO modelled estimates, Source: Figure 1.23. Employment status, by sex (percentage of female and male total employment), male total of female and by sex (percentage status, 1.23. Employment Figure 2018 ILO data show that the size of the gender pay gap gap pay the gender of the size that show ILO data varies depending on how countries, high-income In distribution. women wage the along are distributed at the top of women is wider for gap the gender pay low- In 1.24a). figure (see scale earnings and skills the who women often are and middle-income countries, concerted efforts are therefore needed to accelerate needed concerted therefore efforts are the closing of the gender pay but, gap, to this end, is essential. understanding what lies behind this gap 44 MINDING THE GENDER GAPS 47 100 No data 95 90 85 80 75 70 65 Wages by profiles 60 55 No law mandates equal remuneration for work of equal value (83 countries) 50 45 40 77 Degree of feminization 35 30 25 20 Wages by feminization 15

10 Law mandates for equal remuneration for work of equal value (86 countries) 5

9

14 13 12 11 10 per hour per Figure 1.26. Hourly wage by degree of feminization at the enterprise level and the enterprise feminization at of degree wage by 1.26. Hourly Figure 2014 in Europe, wage profile for work the law mandates for equal remuneration 1.27. Countries where Figure of equal value, 2018 Source: ILO, 2018g. ILO, Source: 2018. Bank, World 2018 and ILO calculations based on ILO legal data,

81 85 83

80

82

87 The implementation implementation The 86 84 A recent study of top Kingdom universities suggests in that the academics United from to in comparison gap pay minority experienced a an ethnic their white peers. While men also “ethnicity experience pay this gap”, becomes an wider for women pay gender the to factor additional since it is an Data compared show with gap. that, Caucasian men, Caucasian women on average earned 15 per Asian women earned 22 per cent less and black cent less, earned 39 per cent less. women The full set pay), (equal value application equal of work for remuneration of Remuneration Equal ILO the the in ago years 50 over out principle of 1951 Convention, equal 100) (No. is essential to address biases in the and unconscious the conscious determination of the value of work performed The right to by that relative women performed by men. to receive equal pay is not similar but work, also confinedextends to work that to may be equal or but is of equal value. nature, different of an entirely While 173 countries have ratified ILO give Convention that laws passed have countries 86 only 100, No. for remuneration equal principle of the to full effect 1.27). (figure value equal of work Biases may also arise in the way in which wages in way in the arise also may Biases are structured and jobs are classified, with women levels. being classified at lower typically The established practice of asking how much a job applicant earned in their previous job may also have gender perpetuating of consequence the unintended bias in the valuation of the work done by women. collective bargaining coverage are more limited. more are coverage bargaining collective in practice of this concept is challenging even today and the scope of understanding lack of a to due value”. equal of “work of concept the of application There There are also increasing indications of a between pay gap lesbian, gay, intersex bisexual, (LGBTI) transgender and non-LGBTI workers. and LGBTI workers who have same-sex partners rarely enjoy the same benefits as marriedresulting couples, in a lower level of looked remuneration than have that their studies few non-LGBTI the Among counterparts. bias inherent an suggest several gap, pay LGBTI the at and discrimination against LGBTI this is difficult workers However, gap. main for the reason pay as the to quantify as sexual gender orientation, identity or gender expression are, for “invisible” now, factors challenging to map. and therefore This

Another reason for women’s women’s for Another reason 79 Indeed, Indeed, returns to women’s 78

76

Other factors, such as occupational gender segregation segregation gender occupational as such factors, Other in of the workforce composition the gender and enterprises with, otherwise, stand characteristics, out similar as more significant causes. productivity In Europe, for example, working in with an enterprise a predominantly female workforce rise to can a 14.7 give per cent wage penalty compared enterprise but with in productive a similarly to working a predominantly male workforce (figure 1.26). education are consistently lower than those of than those lower consistently are education men. Women working in are systematically paid the less than male their men, same of even those exceed if or equal their levels occupation educational management in women earlier, seen As counterparts. positions tend to have higher levels of educational attainment than their male counterparts. lower average wages is because they tend to work in work to tend they because is wages average lower unionization and where parts of the labour market A significant proportion of the gender pay gap across across gap pay gender the of proportion significant A regions remains unexplained, particularly in income countries. high- undervalued frequently is women by performed Work traditionally which has work it mirrors either because without pay in the home women out by been carried or simply because it is work performed by women. Numerous studies using panel data for long periods of time show that certain sectors and occupations, such as nursing or teaching in which primary had gradually been education, infiltratedby women and exhibited have eventually became female-dominated, a steady decline wages. in average national average earnings relative to Much of the pay gap remains unexplained Much of the pay gap remains Recent ILO research has revealed that, on average, education is not a significant explanatory cause of the gender pay gap, although its importance varies between countries. Education is not the reason for the pay gap the reason Education is not 77 that are women; followed only where 23 per cent and Germany India, by Norway, the United States, of LinkedIn members with digital skills are women. Research is also showing that some are they them as using not actually are digital skills women with of the a male- industry due to the prevalence leaving supportof lack the and culture workplace oriented women. for finding suggests the existence of discrimination. 46 MINDING THE GENDER GAPS 49 “Findings for 28 OECD for 28 OECD “Findings as countries,as well and Singapore, Cyprus a that women have show 13 per cent higher chance than men of being in occupations and sectors more that involve tasks.” routine

106 110 The extent to which 107 Those who will lose their lose will who Those 109

111

108 The routine task intensity (RTI) index, a new index of index new a index, (RTI) intensity task routine The job routines based on data from the Programme for Competencies Adult of Assessment International the higher with one, to zero from ranges survey, (PIAAC) values indicating that a worker routine activities. Findings engages for 28 more OECD in countries, as well as Cyprus and show Singapore, that women a have 13 per cent higher chance than men of being routine more involve that sectors and occupations in This tasks. finding enabled an estimate that 11 per at are countries in these women cent of employed compared automation by replaced being of risk high to 9 per cent of men. The link between domestic violence or and intimate workplace partner perpetrator a or victim a be can Anyone violence recognition. is also gaining of domestic violence; however, the men against by committed vast are cases reported of majority Although women. domestic violence may originate in the home, it can can occurs, spill it where of regardless over violence, Domestic into the workplace. to get to ability victim’s the on impact negative a have at work. well and perform at work stay work, Gender equality cannot advance, and decent work harassment. and violence of climate a in exist, cannot of technology The many faces WIDEN OR NARROW COULD TECHNOLOGY GENDER WORK GAPS AT Will the fourth industrial gender inequalities in the labour deepen the current revolution reverse or look women for work of Will the future market? to these questions the past? Part of the answers like will certainly depend on whether families and public balance the unpaid care to policies can manage work–paid work equation. Technological Technological advances automation – and robotics – will artificial create new jobs in certain sectors and and jobs destroy occupations, in intelligence, Workers others. who perform more routine tasks robots by at risk of potential replacement more are artificialand intelligence. jobs in this transition may be those who are job opportunities.equipped to seize the new least technology will be used to reduce labour input and/ or to increase workers’ productivity will also play a role.

103 Again, 98 105

Technology also 99 104

100 102 Not all of these countries take into 101 A study in the United States found that 97 provides provides new avenues for violence and harassment, with cyber-bullying and facilitated in particular social media. by cyber-intimidation being more more than 27 per cent of American experienced workers had “abusive conduct” at work. Violence and harassment are addressed in a range of in a range addressed are harassment Violence and non- and opportunities equal on those including laws, and health occupational codes, labour discrimination, safety regulations, tort and criminal laws. However, not all types of An may 80-country be workers, covered. violence ILO study, and harassment, or and subregions all all which regions, aimed to represent income groups, and based on available information, vaguely only or define not do cent per 27 that found define violence andand 6 harassment, per cent only cover physical conduct, thus forms excluding of psychological pervasive violence and harassment. account the different aspects of sexual harassment, but also quo harassment quid pro including not only environments. hostile work Some countries also exclude employment as relationship, well as those specific groups, outside the such as domestic workers. Violence and harassment affect certain groups more one by dominated are which Workplaces others. than people to hostile more be might ethnicity or gender norms gender established to conform not do who or to individuals coming Where from groups. grounds of under-represented discrimination intersect, the risk of violence and harassment of in work the is exacerbated. world For example, violence and is workers women transgender against harassment prevalent everywhere, and they often disabilities ethnicity, on based discrimination multiple experience and indigenous background. there there is evidence that care workers are particularly violence.at risk of psychological and violence against movements global active Recent the of awareness raising in succeeded have harassment sexual particular, in of, pervasiveness and seriousness harassment in the world of work, the and adoption promoting of strengthened legislation. However, according to available laws prohibiting currently have sexual harassment data, in only 130 employment. countries Bullying and harassment (forms of psychological psychological of (forms harassment and Bullying violence) are the of most adverse widely social behaviour reported Europe. in forms the workplace in

95 96 94 Physical Physical

93 92 When married 89 This “marriage tax “marriage This 90 91

For example, a higher tax burden on workers workers on burden tax higher a example, For 88

violence and harassment is frequently reported in occupations where workers deal with including the in education, health public, care and social work, which are care-related and female dominated. with lower earnings may have a negative effect on disproportionate female employment as outcomes, men. than less earn typically women or penalty”, combined with the high cost of childcare, childcare, of cost high the with combined penalty”, or is a disincentive for women, and with especially children, to those participate in the labour This is market. especially the case in countries and contexts where childcare services are of scarce, poor quality dual-earner for systems tax Individual expensive. and households are more gender responsive, earnings of sharing equal more a both encourage as they equal and members household different across participation. labour market couples are taxed jointly on their earned incomes, earner within the income be that the lower it may couple – usually the woman – is taxed at a system. individual an in than rate higher world of work work of world the in harassment and violence While can affect all workers, it has dimension. It has a a detrimental impact significanton women’s gender of the quality on and participation in employment Violence work. and harassment impact women the in fields and in the in boardrooms, every country It formal public and and informal. private, and sector, as in the markets selling products women can affect who often are harassed by as well start-up founders, sponsors or investors. capitalists, venture Violence and harassment in the Violence and harassment Empirical studies show that income taxation affects affects income taxation that show studies Empirical than more participation in employment women’s men’s. Tax systems Tax Violence is ubiquitous in the domestic work sector. work domestic the in ubiquitous is Violence Physical violence committed by patients and students and patients by committed violence Physical is often considered to be “part simply of the job”. Data on the prevalence of violence and harassment in harassment and violence of prevalence the on Data striking. nonetheless but patchy, is work of world the Sexual harassment is the most frequently reported form of sexual violence and harassment. 48 MINDING THE GENDER GAPS 51 The

116 120 In some and the and 118 115 It is clear that, unless that, clear is It such as the “Digital such as the 122 119 A A US study found a gender 121 to 5 per cent in Europe. 117 Will the digital economy bring equal work work equal bring economy digital Will the soon too is It men? and opportunitieswomen to to be certain, but be to going not is online economy the that suggest the ILO’s research seems friendlier to to women than the One offline economy. differences gender are there that found has study in the propensity to engage women representing in only crowdwork, one with out of every In crowdworkers. developing three countries, the gender balance is particularlywith only skewed, one out of fivecrowdworkers being a woman. combine women Many crowdwork with care one responsibilities; children young have crowdworkers female five of out (0–5 years They old). nonetheless spend 20 hours per week on the platform, just than the sample fiveas a hours whole; many work during fewer the evenings and at night. there is a better sharing of care provision and access and provision care of sharing better a is there to publicly provided childcare services, crowdwork risks becoming just another trap, offering low-paid, to women. intermittent work incidence of digital employment in total employment employment in total employment digital incidence of is estimated to range United from States 0.5 per cent in the pay gap pay at the bottom of not the at distribution, the top, after controlling for individual characteristics, and tend to select less demanding women because less well-paid gigs, to allow them to combine chores. household paid with work occupations in which women are concentrated are are concentrated are in which women occupations those which can be There is most easily automated. a high if risk these that, transitions are not managed the gender gaps properly, in employment will widen further in these countries. even compared compared to 14.1 per cent of men, FRIEND ECONOMY: THE DIGITAL OF THE ROLE EQUALITY? OR FOE OF GENDER Advances in technology (ICT) information have given rise and mediated to through employment digital communication labour platforms. Malaysia” Malaysia” programme, which targeted the bottom 40th percentile of income Naijacloud”. – Creation Job for “Microwork earners and Nigeria’s countries, countries, where digital platforms are incipient stage, they are still seen as a at promising means an to create job opportunities,

“Increasing robotization “Increasing inof production high-income economies of and partial reshoring from production middle- to high-income countries is also threatening jobs.” women’s Ability to automate (percentages) automate to Ability 0 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

27 3.3 Education

7.7

36 activities work

1.8 Health and social social and Health

6.6 social seurity social

39 4.7 compulsory defence, and Public administration administration Public

3.2 activities activities

40 4.3 administrative and In middle-income manufacturing countries, business estate Real 4.1

114

43 activities 1.4 Financial Financial 1.7 absorbs almost 18 per cent of employed women, The risk of job-replacement country’s also income depends level. ILO on evidence a robotization in shows middle-income countries resulted in that significant job losses and a drop employment in of about 14 per cent between 2005 and Massive 2014. robotization of production in high-income countries and partial reshoring of production from middle- to high-income countries contributed to this state of affairs.

44

1.0 Utilities 0.4

47 10.8 Construction

1.4 repairs

49

retail trade and and trade retail

13.8 Wholesale and and Wholesale 17.5

49

3.7 113 services Other

Ability to automate

7.5

51 quarrying 1.0 Mining and and Mining

0.3 communication

57 8.7 storage and and storage Transport, Transport, Men 2.2

58 28.9 Agriculture 27.7 On the other education hand, and

60 13.9 Manufacturing 112

14.7

73 restaurants and Women 2.8 Accomodation Accomodation

4.9

5 0

35 30 25 20 15 10 Share of employed (percentages) employed of Share Note: Data on share of employed by sector are from 2018 and data on ability to automate are from 2017. 2017. from 2018 and data on ability to automate are from sector are by of employed share Data on Note: 2017. Global Institute, 2018 and McKinsey November estimates, ILO calculations based on ILO modelled Sources: Figure 1.28. Global share of employment by sex, sector and sector’s ability to automate, ability by sex, sector and sector’s of employment 1.28. Global share Figure latest year The risk of automation varies The accommodation substantially and restaurants sectors. sector, across which employs 4.9 per cent of women and 2.8 per cent of has men the globally, highest such with risk, almost 73 per cent of all activities being susceptible to automation. health and social work, which are highly feminized sectors, exhibit the lowest risk of automation due is that component interaction personal the to 1.28). (figure work in care embedded 50 MINDING THE GENDER GAPS 53 “Women are are “Women in underrepresented unions, employers trade andorganizations dialoguenational social institutions.” and, in and, 133 Within these

137 131

136 130, Despite this, even in sectors sectors in even this, Despite 139 135 In women particular, in non- 132 Nonetheless, for women, rates of 134 under-representation of women in 138 Paraguay, workers are prohibited from Paraguay, joining more part- one than more have they if even union one than time contract. with high rates of female employment and union employment with high rates of female of majority the occupy to continue men membership, trade union leadership positions. organizations, women face women similar structural barriers organizations, in progress wish to who women confronting those to of work. in the world their career In addition, despite evidence is process bargaining in the women of presence suggesting that the important to achieving women, outcomes that benefit standard standard forms of work might be prevented joining from trade unions or unions of their with contracts of workers choice. less For Viet Nam, in instance, unions join cannot duration months’ six than trade union membership are on the rise. In particular, particular, In rise. the on are membership union trade higher rates of unionization can be observed in the in tend to be employed women public sector where concentrations. higher Likewise, Likewise, women employers’ organizations. Despite are the scarcity data, it can confidently of be under-represented said that the majority of employers’ organizations in have a board of directors with than fewer 10 per and cent only 8 women, per cent have a gender-balanced board. The low membership of women in trade unions is due, in part, to the fact that women are frequently employed in sectors of the economy, occupations union of rates with lower arrangements or in work participate to in less likely also are membership and the labour market. looking at union the leaders, representation average rate of women in the highest union decision-making bodies within confederations 39 ITUC the affiliates of 11 is only affiliates 28 ETUC cent,within per while leader. as the key a woman have national social dialogue institutions such (NSDIs), as tripartite commissions economic and social councils, and labour advisory NSDIs boards, in membership is female that show observed. Available 2018 for data still only ranged from 20 to 35 There per are, cent. or parity of examples encouraging some nonetheless, Saint Kitts and in Nevis, Norway, near-parity France, Samoa and Switzerland. “There is a risk that crowdwork is a risk that crowdwork “There and the gender roles reinforces should expectation that women only undertake within paid work the confines of their homes.” 125 However, 129 The participation 127 For women to fully fully to women For Furthermore, the 126 128 Further, evidence shows that algorithms

124

123 of women in these processes is importantis to processes in these women of the represent diversity of the and workforce ensure their democratic function. used in job matching may perpetuate gender biases. the anonymity enjoy, that apparent workers Despite, than less earned women that found study ILO an men for selling the same Buyers were product. able supplied information the by sellers’ gender detect to the women less willing to pay were and in postings men. pay would that they same amount of money Sound industrial relations and effective social dialogue social effective and relations industrial Sound contribute to good governance in the decent workplace, work, inclusive democracy for women and men. economic growth and Weak voice and representation Weak At the same time, there is reason to women’s believe lower that take-up rate of gigs offewer the fact thatis also a reflection value-added with greater women pursue STEM studies. In Ukraine, another study covering gigs with a greater greater a with gigs covering study another Ukraine, In technological content revealed that men earn times more 2.2 than a women, gap that is gap This considerably economy. offline Ukrainian the in than higher strong of presence the by explained be largely can occupational gender As segregation. different tasks (some markets different for also performed are mainly for the local others market, for international occupational gender segregation translates markets), wage a in resulting served, market by segregation into gap. reap the opportunities offered by the online platform online platform the by opportunities the offered reap economy, gender-responsive measures are needed within broader policy efforts aimed crowdworkers. for labour protections at improving There There is a risk that crowdwork reinforces gender should only expectation that women and the roles undertake paid work within the confineshomes. of their According According to available data, movement in the men example, For trade positions. leadership in and membership union outnumber women within Union the Trade Confederation International both Confederation Union Trade European the and in (ITUC) (ETUC), women’s membership rates average at 42 respectively. cent, per 43.5 and cent per presence presence of women in decision-making the for important be an to precondition considered bodies is of work. in the world interests pursuit of women’s 52 What hinders women’s MINDING THE employment opportunities?

GENDER GAPS 21 of women perform unpaid care work on a fulltime 41.5% 17.2% basis compared to 1 of men 41 of women with a uniersity degree are Women want either unemployed or outside the labour force 69.8% 66.5% while only 12 of men are in a similar situation 21.7% 1.5% to work and of women prefer of men prefer women to be in paid work to be in paid work men agree 4h 25m WOMEN 209 years 1h 23m MEN 209 years needed to close the Women spend on aerage 4 hours and 2 gender gap in time spent in unpaid minutes per day doing unpaid care work while care work at the current pace 45.3% 71.4% men only 1 hour and 2 minutes per day 4 of women are employed compared to 14 of men 2015 38.4% 45.8% 53.2% Women climb up the he motherhood 27.1% employment penalty has 4 of mothers of young children are employed compared managerial ladder increased by 4 to 2 of women without children of that age Only 21 of managers 2005 between 200 and 201 and leaders are women a year faster than men

25.1% 74.9% 31.4% 68.6% 44.3% 38.3% 14 of people in managerial positions Mothers of young children hae the lowest chance without young children (aged 0 years) 44 of women managers hae an adanced uniersity of being a manager while fathers of young children are women and are men degree compared with of men managers the highest 21 of people in managerial positions with young children (aged 0 years) are women Only 130 countries and 49 are men have laws prohibiting sexual harassment in 20% employment gender pay gap MINDING THE GENDER GAPS 57

ear 2000, ​

​ the market capitalization. capitalization. the market 2. See Chapter 2000. Altman, and Simpson 2005; and Park, Krishnan 2009; and Fiksenbaum, Burke The years. startedsample (57 per cent) Half of the the past ten position within their first leadership after the y leadership position cent) began their first of members (87 per vast majority leaders. developed of recently representative suggesting the data is 2018a. ILO, Ibid. is representative was conducted in 142 countries and territories, which The poll, 2017. ILO–Gallup, global population. of 98 per cent of the 2018. ILOSTAT, 1999. Sen, age who and men of working women are workers full-time unpaid care or Full-time unpaid carers responsibilities. duties/family work due to unpaid care outside the labour force are 2018a. ILO, 2012. Hochschild and Machung, forthcoming. Chandola et al., 2017. ILO–Gallup report, 2017c. ILO, in women and men who live adult defined as employed are Mothers and fathers in employment child. households with at least one young aged 0–5 years. Children 2018a. ILO, forthcoming. Licata and Monterfiori, Cattaneo, 2018. See McCall and Starr, United States National Health Interview Survey. 2018g. ILO, Ibid. 2014. Goldin, 2007. McCann and Messenger, Lee, 2016c; ILO, 2009. and Fiksenbaum, Burke 2017; Dustmann and Stevens, Adda, 2015b. ILO, 2007. Schein, 2005; Cortis and Cassar, 2015b. ILO, 2007. Schein, 2012. Hochschild and Machung, 2017b. OECD, and complementary alternative This new wages. using hourly gap gender pay Mean factor weighted some of the major composition removes gap estimates of the gender pay generating method for 2018d. to ILO, please refer an in-depth explanation, For the existence of clusters. caused by effects 2018g. ILO, 2018g. ILO, and 2019. 2018 LinkedIn, Economic World 2016; et al., Seron 2017; Klein and Onovakpuri, Scott, 2011; and Singh, Fouad 2017. Forum, development; software C++; JavaScript; Windows; Java; HTML; SQL; Digital skills (LinkedIn): SQL Microsoft troubleshooting; cascading style sheets (css); integration; language); C (programming business intelligence; MySQL; analysis; requirements networking; SAP products; Linux; server; PHP; development; web C#; testing databases; agile methodologies; language); Python (programming XML. cloud computing security; cycle (SDLC); life development software 2018g. ILO, 2016. and Oesch, Murphy 2017; Miller, 2016; Brynin and Perales, 2018. Rubery Koukiadaki, and 2010; Dickens, 2018. Miller, 2018; Bailey, 2013. Tomei, and Olney Oelz, 2012a. ILO, As of 21 December 2018. 2016. Rubery and Koukiadaki, 2018. Croxford, 2017a. OECD, 2009; Drydakis, Meghir and Phillips, 2008; Vuuren, Van De Mooij and Evers, 2008; and Preston, Pistaferri Blundell, 2009. 2005. Pissarides et al., 2003; Jaumotte, 2015.; et al., Gonzales 2013.; et al., Elborgh-Woytek 2017. First Round Capital, States, data are from the largest companies included in the MSCI index, which covers 85 per cent of of cent per 85 covers which index, MSCI the in included companies largest the from are data States, 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90

Turégano, 2018. Turégano,

As in indicator 5.5.2 of the Sustainable Development Goals, managers are defined as those within category 1 of ISCO- managers are Goals, As in indicator 5.5.2 of the Sustainable Development are sub-groups following the category Classification of Occupations 2008 (ISCO-08) In the International Standard 1, 08. 13 Production Managers; and Commercial Administrative 12 Senior Officials and Legislators; 11 Chief Executives, included: Retail and Other Services Managers. 14 Hospitality, and Specialized Services Managers; the largest 50 companies included in from data are Union, In the European in Germany, DAX 40 in France, blue-chip index (CAC the country’s while in Canada and in the United FTSE 100 in the United Kingdom), and, FTSE-MIB in Italy ILO, 2018m. ILO, Ibid. 2016c ILO, Poll. World to the Gallup added were the world and men around women for questions new Five 2017. ILO–Gallup, primary ratio for gross school enrolment the world (UIS) (2018): Statistics UNESCO Institute for to the According secondary for ratio gross enrolment school the world per cent in 2017; men it is 103.7 while for is 104.5 per cent, women tertiary education enrolment gross the world and level it is 76.9 per cent in 2017; men while for is 76.2 per cent, women per cent in 2017. men it is 35.7 while for is 40.2 per cent, women ratio for 2018. November ILO modelled estimates, and Martínez Fernández Ibid.; 2008. Metcalfe, 2017; ILO–Gallup, 2008. Ross, 2012b; ILO, 1987; Beblawi, points since 1991 and by 24.4 percentage decreased in agriculture women employed of the share Pacific, Asia and the In points, 22.6 percentage by has also decreased in agriculture of men employed The share 32.4 per cent in 2018. reached 32.6 per cent in 2018. reaching 2016. Verick, Dasgupta and 2015. Gasparini and Marchionni, 2014. Bentancor and Robano, 2015. Gasparini and Marchionni, 2013. Thevenon, 2018a. ILO, 2018. Turégano, and Martínez Fernández Ibid.; 2015. Verme, 2018. November ILO modelled estimates, 2018n. ILO, 2018a. ILO, 2017i. ILO, with 28.9 per cent of men (ILO modelled esti compared in agriculture employed are 27.7 per cent of women In 2018, 2018). November mates, Ibid. 2018. Pattnaik et al., 2018a. ILO, 2018. November ILO modelled estimates, 2016a. ILO, 2018n; ILO, 2018a; ILO, contributing who are of women is the proportion employment and men in informal women between A major difference to compared employment in informal times higher among women than three is more This proportion workers. family employment women in informal 28.1 per cent of represents as particularly which is classified vulnerable, This status, men. middle lower and in low- employment in informal than 30 per cent of women More cent of men. to 8.7 per compared 2018n). (ILO, workers family contributing income countries are 2015a. ILO, 2018q. ILO, 2018a. ILO, 2015c. ILO, 2015. Branyiczki, 2016a. ILO, 2017. Aleksynska, Ibid. 2015 and 2016. Global Institute, McKinsey 2017; Gender Equality, Institute for European

40 41 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 END NOTES END 56 MINDING THE GENDER GAPS 59 . .

ILO, 2018a. ILO, 2018. Weber, Ernst and Carbonero, 2018. November ILO modelled estimates, 2018h. ILO, 2017. Greig, and Farrell 2017. Parliament, European 2018h. ILO, 2017. Hjorth and Lehdonvirta, Graham, 2018b. ILO, 2017. Adams and Berg, 2018. and Natalia, Batsrakova Aleksynska, 2018b. ILO, Ibid. 2018. and Natalia, Batsrakova Aleksynska, forthcoming. Muller, 2015. Blaschke, 2018. Haddad Gausi, Vizentin, Castro 2018; Gausi, the top spots, and general secretary share the president where a joint leadership, have confederations as three However, women. held by are of which 11 (26.2 per cent) 42 leadership positions, are there 2018. ETUC, forthcoming. Muller, 2017c; OECD, 2015. and Mitchell, Mahy Landau, forthcoming. Muller, 2016a; ILO, published 2016; C.87, observation, – CEACR, See Paraguay 2017c. OECD, 2012. Douglas and Ledwith, Britwum, 2017k. ILO, 2015. Blaschke, forthcoming. Muller, ILO, 2016c. ILO, 2017. State of Startups, 2018c. ILO, 2018a. ILO, 2018. Lippel, 2018a. ILO, 2015. Eurofound, 2014. Institute, Bullying Workplace 2018c. ILO, 2017. Pillinger, 2018. Bank, World 2018c. ILO, 2012a; ILO, 2018c. ILO, Ibid. 2018. Lippel, Ibid. 2018. Rubery, and Howcroft 2015. and Brittain, Pritchard Ibid.; 2015. Graetz and Michaels, 2017; Acemoglu and Restrepo, 2019a. ILO, 2016. De La Rica and Gortazar, 2018; et al., Brussevich 2013; Autor and Dorn, States​ in the United of automation based on workplaces 2017 calculates the degree Global Institute, McKinsey

113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 91 58 PATHS TO GENDER EQUALITY IN THE WORLD OF 61 “Equality and non- “Equality are discrimination principles fundamental and human rights to which all persons are entitled, and they are essential for the enjoyment of all other rights.” 3 The Convention also requires that 4 5 equality of opportunity and treatment are essential are opportunity equality of treatment and and to success decent on work, this front resonates well beyond the workplace. For this reason, these principles have been a distinct feature of standard-setting the ILO mandate. Some Conventions and such Recommendations, as the Equal Remuneration Convention, 1951 (No. 100), (Employment the and 2000 Discrimination Convention, Protection Occupation) Maternity the 111), Convention, (No. 1958 with Workers 183), the (No. Family Responsibilities Convention, 1981 particularly are 189), (No. (No. 2011 156) Convention, Workers and the Domestic significant in promoting discrimination equality against and eliminating women, of work. world in the gender gaps thereby reducing that equality of notion a embrace laws Transformative achieve To women for treatment same the for aiming beyond goes equality. substantive for strives and men, and a better future for women at legislation work, must promote and discrimination address to be enacted manner: integrated and multidimensional a in equality “Substantive equality should simultaneously redress disadvantage (the redistributive dimension); address stigma, stereotyping, prejudice and recognition violence dimension); facilitate (the participation and voice (the participative and dimension); bring about dimension)”. structural change (the transformative equality. gender substantive support instruments ILO 111 Convention requires the No. elimination of not only direct discrimination, which is less favourable or one on based implicitly or explicitly treatment more prohibited but grounds, also more subtle and treatment where – discrimination of forms visible less appears neutral, but has a disproportionate impact on persons with specificdiscrimination). characteristics (indirect the underlying causes of inequalities which result inequalities which result of causes underlying the from deeply entrenched social discrimination, patterns, institutional structures, complex policies and legal constructs, be addressed, the including through implementation of proactive the aim measures, of with achieving substantive This equality. only can be realized through the effective participation and involvement of women from all backgrounds. spheres and

2 Combating discrimination and ensuring

1. THE PATH OF RIGHTS FOR OF RIGHTS THE PATH 1. WITH GENDER A FUTURE WORK EQUALITY AT In the last laws century, and justice played a crucial role in advancing gender equality in work. the They world of have been and in increasing and pay in employment gender gaps instrumental in reducing in managerial and leadership of women the share The ILO has shed a guiding positions. light along this The path. Declaration of Philadelphia (1944) states creed “all of irrespective or human race, that beings, well- material their both pursue to right the have sex, of conditions in development spiritual their and being of economic security freedom and and dignity, equal opportunity” and “the attainment of the conditions the constitute must possible this shall be in which central aim of national and international policy”. Equality and non-discrimination are which all persons to rights human principles and are fundamental entitled, and they are essential for the of enjoyment all other rights. For employment workers freely, to to choose develop their their they the economic rewards the full and to reap potential to deserve, equality and non-discrimination must respected. be

1

IN THE WORLD OF WORK WORLD OF IN THE PATHS TO GENDER EQUALITY EQUALITY GENDER TO PATHS CHAPTER 2 CHAPTER work shaped by men for men. work shaped by men for rely on women continuing to have to adapt themselves to a world of to have to adapt on women continuing rely this of effects and causes the root Addressing imbalance requires society to and redistribute as unpaid acknowledged care work, recognize, reduce in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Achieving this Development. goal calls for simultaneous action on four different and mutually and social public protection (2) infrastructure, rights; reinforcing paths: (1) care services; (3) policies to engage women through work and transitions; (4) and voice and support the paths converge, When these four representation. work of world the in equality gender of achievement becomes attainable. their position in the labour market. A better future of work cannot better future A market. their position in the labour Untangling the many factors on gender that equality denominator common a stall can begins, analysis the progress wherever seem daunting. However, Unpaid care work unpaid is care the work. emerges: in analysed gender gaps all the to common factor pay and Chapter employment-to-population ratio, 1: leadership and in management women of the share positions. All of these gaps unequal are gender impacted division of by labour the and by value the attributed low to care With work. women’s daily time spent in unpaid care work decreasing by just one minute per year over the past 15 it years, can needs to accelerate. be said that progress safely stereotypes relating to women in society, the value of their work and work their of value the society, to women in relating stereotypes discrimination and disadvantage and overcoming entrenched entrenched overcoming and disadvantage discrimination and A better future of work for women can only be realized by redressing redressing by realized only be can women for of work better future A 60 PATHS TO GENDER EQUALITY IN THE WORLD OF 63 Likewise, Likewise, 15,16 Lifting such societal barriers barriers societal Liftingsuch 14 17 that limited women’s right to work,

–

18 access to banking and financial services, andright their to own and inherit labour force participation assets, increased by women’s 15 per formal cent within a decade. in the 1990s, when Peru reformed laws its – primarily customary practiced by indigenous and rural communities Laws that prohibit women from working at night at working from women prohibit that Laws or underground, or from entering and progressing in a specific sector or occupation altogether (such the as transportation, construction, judiciarymining, and the police deviate force), from the principle of equal treatment and non-discrimination (see 2.1). Over time, such box restrictions have contributed in the labour participationto the low women rate of thus force, widening the gender gap in employment. Removing legal restrictions to women’s access in particularor or occupations paid work sectors to participation in night shifts could accelerate women’s employment and in higher paying For jobs. instance, women on restrictions of repeal Chile’s of a result as now represent women in working the mining sector, 8 per cent of the country’s force. mining sector labour is a necessary opportunities market. in the labour precondition to providing equal For instance, in Government Ethiopia, repealed the in the minimum raised the home and outside working spousal 2000, objection when to legal the age of marriage for girls from 15 to 18 years, the home participation outside in paid work women’s increased by 15 to 24 per cent in yearsfive in those implemented. was law the where regions seek seek paid work outside the home, to access, own and control resources property, and assets, and to agreements. into enter “Achieving gender equality gender equality “Achieving of work in the world difficult will be more – – if not impossible unless gender-based prior to discrimination entry into the labour is also addressed.” market

8 . An additional factor is the is factor additional An Moving beyond the “single- 10 12 13 11 However, sex discrimination refers not only only not refers discrimination sex However,

9 stereotyping stereotyping of women as sexual which beings, may lead to violence and harassment in both public and private spheres. axis framework” axis of framework” discrimination a provides unique opportunity to leave no one behind. More recently, countries in some legislation is being adopted the binary beyond the need to go which recognizes gender equality concept in order to better reflect the multiplicity through of discrimination that, layers can in result unequal increased and their interaction, unfair practices. to distinctions based on “biological characteristics”, socially arising from treatment but also to unequal constructed roles, stereotypes and responsibilities assigned to a particular sex, including the idea that on primary responsibility take should women only for unpaid care work. Convention Convention No. 111 also recognizes that achieving will be more of work gender equality in the world difficult – if not impossible entrydiscrimination prior to – market into the labour gender-based unless marital or civil on based Distinctions addressed. also is contrary to therefore are situation family and status the Convention when they affect ability women’s to When Conventions No. 100 due to and they adopted, However, covered all workers. No. 111 were established, were they which in context historical the equality as equality gender to binarya approach between women and men prevailed anti-discrimination and laws dealt national with each ground of discrimination separately, not yet the reality of acknowledging an individual’s intersecting identities. Yet women are often subjected to based on discrimination more than The one compounding ground. of discrimination based on intersectional different discrimination, can grounds, have or a significant in paid progress and impact on the ability to access As work. long as recourse to justice is proving limited discrimination based to on distinct categories, it will be difficult forcover those who “fit”are unable themselves into to anti-discrimination laws to the “fixed”categories. the return to work following maternity leave, use of temporary the discriminate against to contracts mandatory and testing women pregnancy pregnant More recently, concerns More have been recently, raised regarding the use of including non-standard in forms the platform of economy, to employment, the circumvent requirement to provisions and maternity respect protection legislation for non-discriminatory women.

Both instruments highlight instruments Both 6 7

the importance of with consultation and cooperation of requirements tripartism, setting the ensure to out organizations, employers’ and workers’ clear implementation of rights. effective Convention No. 111 work of world the of discrimination in the context addresses on all the colour, basis namely race, of specific grounds, forms sex, of religion, political opinion, national and extraction social origin, with the possibility of of to tackle discrimination on the basis protection extending other criteria. Additional grounds that have or of countries include real a number by added been perceived HIV sexual status, orientation and gender identity, family responsibilities, disability, age nationality. and Distinctions in employment and occupation based and occupation Distinctions in employment on pregnancy and maternity are discriminatory, as they can by only, definition, affect women. For this reason, the Maternity Protection 2000 Convention, (No. 183), has explicitly recognized that maternity equality gender for precondition a is protection and for non-discrimination occupation. in Discriminatory employment practices pregnancy and or maternity related continue to exist and have to denial of and dismissal to been particularly linked Laws Laws to establish for the basis are of work in the world equal rights that women and demanding and men achieving equality have in of one were men and women between differentials practice. Pay manifestations measurable and the most tangible the world entered when women discrimination of of work in large numbers during the World Second Women proved that War. they could undertake all types of equal jobs pay and be as as men; productive should necessarily The follow. Equal Remuneration principle the recognized 100), (No. 1951 Convention, for women men and for of equal remuneration work of equal value. It also paved the way for be could not the equality in pay that acknowledgement achieved without the elimination of discrimination in all areas of A employment. few years Occupation) and Discrimination (Employment later, the Convention (No. 111) and Recommendation adopted as the were first comprehensive (No. 1958, 111), instruments dealing specifically withnon-discrimination equality and in and respect occupation. of employment A future of work where women and women of work where A future equal opportunities men have 62 PATHS TO GENDER EQUALITY IN THE WORLD OF 65 No data “Unfair treatment, treatment, “Unfair which includes abuse, and harassment discrimination, is among challenges the top three women, facing working women especially young the ages of 15 between and 29.” No restrictions (78 countries) 28 31, 32 31, Unfair treatment at treatment Unfair 30 At least one restriction (93 countries) Notwithstanding this fact, unfair 29

Figure 2.1. Countries with at least one restriction on women’s employment employment on women’s least one restriction with at 2.1. Countries Figure 2018 opportunities, work is the most frequently mentioned concern in concern mentioned frequently the most is work some to explained be can This economies. developing more are countries developed that fact the by extent likely to have legislative frameworks in with women equal access provide place to labour markets that at work. discrimination from and protection treatment, treatment, which includes abuse, harassment discrimination, is and among the top three facing challenges working women, especially 29. and 15 of ages the between young women Almost 80 per cent of the 189 countries reviewed discrimination gender Bank prohibit World the by in employment. Sources: ILO calculations based on ILO legal data, 2018 and World Bank, 2018. 2018. Bank, World 2018 and ILO calculations based on ILO legal data, Sources: from of work free A future discrimination, violence and harassment are Discriminatory of work practices in the world the labour to access and recruitment limited to not market. Convention No. 111 covers all aspects of employment and occupation, including vocational access training to tenure, and job advancement, career as such terms employment, and conditions of equal remuneration for work of equal as value, well facilities and welfare and social security measures as in connection with employment. benefits provided

22 23 27 For a instance, in Tanzania, 26 Irrespective of the terminology used, 24 Employment equity plans, setting goals 25 Even Even though there is evidence of a steady easing of legal restrictions that women prevent from entering at working certainfrom and sectors and occupations a large night, number of countries continue to place restrictions on women’s employment (figure 2.1). legal amendment to the Public Procurement Act in to the Public Procurement legal amendment 2016 allocates 30 per cent of Government tenders older youth, to enterprises led or women, by owned persons or persons with disabilities. proactive measures proactive aim to redress disadvantage and participationof the pace accelerate of members of groups under-represented in gaining access to jobs, education, training and promotion, things. among other and timetables for increasing the representation of representation the increasing for timetables and needed policies the indicating and beneficiary groups of types these examples of are their realization for Quota measures. systems allocating a proportion of certaingroups designated of members for positions fall under the label of affirmative action used been increasingly also has measures. Public procurement at the national level to complement furthering legislation social goals. in Over time, it has become of simple elimination the than more equality requires clear that in stated clearly substantive As practices. discriminatory offending be to needs equality substantive 111, No. Convention to correct programmes and measures by accompanied or compensate for past or present discrimination, or to prevent the discrimination future. from recurring in Where Where these inequalities in labour legislation exist, their implications for women, and for society as a whole, remain significantand discriminatory: result they in gender-based occupational gaps, pay gender segregation associated the in and market labour the the of some in also are jobs restricted the of most as level, national the Beyond industries. paid highly more women’s opportunities to find employmentabroad have been curtailed by restrictions gender-based on structural address to measures Such migration. labour abuse against women migrants, while perhaps well- run counter to the principles of equality intentioned, preventing on effect their and non-discrimination, and risks has been limited. migration-related 21

20

Concern for women’s health and and health women’s for Concern 19

safety, safety, specifically their reproductive health, their role as caregivers and their was morals, these restrictions. the rationale behind Despite the fact that compelling arguments that fact the Despite for substantive equality were to Labour Congress already Women’s the by being offered the for time some took it 1919, in ILC first the to approach protectionist a from move to ILO shift A justice. gender of one to rights women’s and women equality for thinking around in the came standards labour in international men in the 1950s, with the adoption of the Equal Remuneration 100) Convention (No. in 1951 and Discrimination (Employment the and 1958. 111) in (No. Occupation) Convention Box 2.1. The shift from protectionism to protectionism from shift The 2.1. Box the the history of equality in substantive ILO Even at the international level, immediately following its creation, certain which aimed to protect standards the ILO categories adopted of workers, such as women, excluding youth and them from certainnight or on or occupations sectors working in shifts. The protective measures aimed at of opposition the despite adopted were women certain factions of the women’s movements, discriminatorywhich deemed these measures of protection general more a called for and workers’ health, irrespective of their sex. In 1919, the demanding firstin Women’scountries 19 from Labouractivists united Congress equal remuneration for work of equal value, the representation and maternity protection labour standards when the new of women were negotiated. Although the of Congress International this from on passed resolutions Women were not Working officially debated by the first International Labour Conference (ILC), it is highly and the direction affected likely Labour Congress that the Women’s vision of the early ILO by introducing a focus and men. women on social justice between 64 PATHS TO GENDER EQUALITY IN THE WORLD OF 67 2019 Convention on the Elimination Convention the Elimination on convention Adopted 169 convention Adopted 159 convention 103 Adopted 1979 of All Forms of Discrimination against against of All Forms of Discrimination Women (CEDAW) Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention Peoples Tribal Indigenous and (No. 169) 1989 1983 and Employment Rehabilitation Vocational Convention (No. 159) (Disabled Persons) Maternity Protection Convention Maternity Protection (No. 103) (Revised) 1952 convention Adopted 175 Women Workers in a Changing World at Work Women Workers in a Changing World at Part-time Work Convention (No. 175) Work Part-time 1994 World Conference on Women (Beijing) th ILO Report “Women Workers in a Changing Workers “Women Report ILO called for non-discrimination, Work” at World work of unpaid care pay equity and redistribution 1964 4 Millennium Development Goals Millennium Development convention 98 Adopted, 97 revised convention 98 Adopted, 1995 ILO Action Plan Action Mainstreaming for Gender Equality on Gender ILO 2000 Convention (No. 183) Maternity Protection Right to Organise and Collective Bargaining Convention (No. 98) (No. 97) Migration for Employment Convention (Revised) 1949 Declaration on Social Justice on Declaration Declaration of Philadelphia Declaration convention 111 Adopted 2008 for a Fair Globalization for a Fair 1945 1958 Discrimination (Employment and Occupation) Convention (No. 111) Launch of the Women at Work Initiative Work Initiative Launch of the Women at ICLS Resolution I: unpaid care work is recognized as work care work is recognized as ICLS Resolution I: unpaid th 19 2013 100 years of history towards a brighter future for all for all future a brighter towards of history 100 years

2019 Treaty of Versailles Treaty ILCS Resolution I: unpaid care work is recognized as a status at work at a status is recognized care work as Resolution I: unpaid ILCS th 20 1919 Constitution of the ILO 3) Convention (No. Protection Maternity Sustainable Development Goals Goals Development Sustainable 2018 2015 Transition from the Informal to the Formal Economy Recommendation (No. 204) Recommendation the Informal to the Formal Economy from Transition

convention 189 Adopted 2011 Convention (No. 189) Workers Domestic convention 100 Adopted Equal Remuneration Convention (No. 100) Equal Remuneration 1951 convention 102 Adopted Social Security (Minimum Convention (No. 102) Standards) 1956 HIV and AIDS Recommendation Universal Declaration of Human Rights Declaration Universal convention Adopted 177 World Conference Convention on the Rights of World Conference 2010 nd 1948 Freedom of Association and Protection of the Right and Protection Freedom of Association 87) Organise Convention (No. to Home Work Convention (No. 177) Work Home 1996 World Conference 1993 on Human Rights (Vienna) 2 rd 2006 Persons with Disabilities 3 Declaration on Fundamental on Fundamental Declaration on Women (Copenhagen) 1980 convention Adopted 171

on Women (Nairobi) 1985

convention Adopted 156 1998 Principles and Rights at Work Principles and Rights at

Night Work Convention (No. 171) Convention Work Night 1990

World Conference on Women (Mexico City) st 1

1981 with Family Responsibilities Workers Convention (No. 156)

1975

Declaration of Equality of Opportunity and Treatment of Equality of Opportunity and Treatment Declaration for Women Workers of women at the ILO the at of women Celebrating a century century a Celebrating 66 PATHS TO GENDER EQUALITY IN THE WORLD OF 69 “A world of work which is of work world “A violence and from free is essential harassment is to be a future if there with gender of work equality.”

42 45 Equal pay for work of equal of work for Equal pay 44 43 Legal provisions mandating equal countries. many pay in place in for been long have value work equal of some In countries recent years, broadened have the of equal work for of legislation on equal pay scope value to go beyond the binary concept In of the United gender. States in the 2016, state of Maryland Technology Technology can also play a role in ending violence and harassment in the world of Against work. the the #MeToo of backdrop movement, new apps and secure social networks are emerging to help victims sexual harassment and assaults. report and address by work done where of work A future and valued women is recognized The entrenched stereotype work care unpaid on primary for that responsibility take women should at home has had a contribution to the labour attributed to women’s spillover effect on the are Women seen as secondary market. value and earners, which dominated are since in professions, work care women’s of extension natural a as seen is women, by unpaid care work, it Unless is work significantly done by achieved. undervalued. be women cannot equality is substantive remunerated, fairly valued and men for While the principle of equal remuneration and women for work of equal value, often referred has “equal been to what pay”, widely as it endorsed, in practice has it is applied how entails and actually grasp. to difficult proved However, technology has new avenues also provided However, for violence and harassment, addressed. which need to be value encompasses, but goes the same beyond, or comparing similar work, and includes comparing jobs of an nevertheless of When equal entirely women value. and men different nature perform work that which is different in content, involving are distinct responsibilities, requiring specific different under performed skills is which and qualifications, or but conditions, is of equal value they should overall, receive equal remuneration. For instance, jobs certainin highly feminized sectors, such as humanities and are care undervaluedwork, in comparison with male- more in men by performed value equal of work engineering construction, as such sectors, dominated and The science. concept of “work of equal value” sex occupational this tackling to fundamental is country. which exists in almost every segregation, 39 This legislative Furthermore, a Furthermore, 38 40

41 34 Box 2.2. Labour inspection is key to is key to Labour inspection Box 2.2. in the a reality gender equality making Costa Rica The case of work: world of Labour of Ministry Rican Costa the 2016, Since and Social Security has partnered with the National Institute Women to for implement on legislation domestic and international gender equality. Among labour improving other on focused has issues, collaboration this inspectorate equipping the and inspection skills necessary and with the tools to ensure equality gender of in practice application the including legislation, safe working conditions. labour help to approved been has guide new A unequal track and prevent identify, inspectors in men workers and of women treatment areas such as wages and equal remuneration, hiring, training, promotion and occupational safety and health, including sexual or other types of harassment. In inspectors of infractions helps catalogue addition, a new to identify gender-related legal more effectively during violations their Training visits. materials for labour inspectors have developed been with the financial andspport of the ILO. technical progress progress is a significantotherwise stepaddressed, be to need forwardalso implementation but gaps in treated are harassment and violence where culture a with impunity will persist. requires adequate Addressing financing and this effective means of issue enforcement of laws to report prevent, and punish of work. violence and harassment in the world or facilitating their return to work. Collective Collective agreements and workplace measures can be important vehicles for addressing violence harassment and in the world of both work, to improve the scope and coverage of exist, legislation and when to such fill the gap existent. when Numerous legislation collective agreements is non- around the world have established policies and to tackle violence measures and harassment. growing number of enterprises have included policies included have enterprises of number growing bullying, and harassment sexual for zero-tolerance on including when based on sexual gender orientation, identity or gender expression.

33 Interventions 36 An inclusive, integrated 35

37

and gender-responsive approach is needed for the elimination of violence and harassment. All of forms harassment need to be prohibited, and effective prevention strategies put in place. Recognizing that there can be a relationship between between relationship a be can there that Recognizing the world of work and the countries have private also introduced family sphere, and some domestic violence leave provisions with a victims of view violence to receive the helping support they need need to take into consideration the variety of reasons reasons of variety the consideration into take to need more of workers categories some that might expose example, For harassment. and violence to others than with a high that in sectors it has been recorded women are more likely prevalence of piece-rate pay, and harassment sexual about concerns experience to verbal abuse compared to who women workers are the hour. paid by The need to address violence into sharp been brought has work of and the world harassment in focus by recent The global “normalization” outcries and and behaviours, and pervasiveness campaigns. their devastating of effects, has been such A world of given heightened work which visibility. is there if essential is harassment and violence from free many In equality. gender with work of future a be to is laws do countries, however, not cover the range of behaviours that constitute violence and harassment in the world of work. In addition, those workers who are most disadvantaged disadvantaged and vulnerable have failed to benefitfrom to adequate protection, as discrimination the effectiveness in practice of for laws that equality provide and dependent on non-discrimination litigation.Such workers is tend not a of because redress gain to to law the of use normally make exclusion or retaliation, of fear or information of lack many for case the is as altogether, law labour the from informal workers or migrant domestic workers. Cost, location and distrust of the legal system are also also are system legal the of distrust and location Cost, frequent barriers to meaningful access to ensure To redress. compliance and implementation, a range of issues need to be addressed, including the cost and speed of enforcement mechanisms, the burden against protection aid, legal of availability the proof, of This entails the retaliation and sufficiencyof redress. such bodies, non-State and State both of involvement as labour inspectorates, trade unions, organizations employers’ and civil when labour inspectors well-equipped are particular, society play they organizations. issues, equality gender handle to In trained and the in practice of the application in ensuring role key a principle of equal treatment and non-discrimination 2.2). (box 68 PATHS TO GENDER EQUALITY IN THE WORLD OF 71 80 E SW

65 FIN

62 =0.23 60 2 R In high-income In R BEL 64 T NO ML P CY 40 A IT Collective agreements can focus X 63 Y LU N UR CA SVN Trade union density (percentages) Trade R GB CHL D T 20 NL An ILO study suggests that the introduction in the introduction that An ILO suggests study PR S 61 CHE 60 AU ESP L A LV PO A SVK US CZE U HUN FRA LT EST and Indonesia. 59 0

5

25 20 15 10 Gender pay gap (mean-factor-adjusted, percentages) (mean-factor-adjusted, gap pay Gender Figure 2.2. Gender pay gap (mean factor-adjusted) and trade union density, and trade union density, 2.2. Gender pay gap (mean factor-adjusted) Figure latest year countries a greater trade union density rate is associated with lower with lower density rate is associated trade union countries a greater that shows States United the from Evidence 2.2). (figure gaps pay gender or women members have those by of union covered unions, contracts, with no coverage. half the size of those that are gaps gender pay States Collective Collective bargaining can also help to reduce within and across sectors and firms. wage disparities both Source: ILO, 2018g and ILOSTAT, 2019. 2018g and ILOSTAT, ILO, Source: In some particularly is cases, direction minimum this in wage trend including legislation positive domestic as workers, A called covers upon by the Workers informal 189). Domestic workers, (No. 2011 Convention, evident in Latin America, where a number of countries over the To past workers. informal to wages minimum national extended have decade necessaryit is gaps pay gender on wages minimum of effect maximize the directly discriminate, themselves not do wages minimum that ensure to in levels wage lower setting by example, (for women against indirectly, or sectors or occupations or where women even excluding predominate, coverage). sectors or occupations from female-dominated 2012 of a minimum wage in the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia Macedonia of Republic Yugoslav Former the in wage minimum a of 2012 at working those among gap pay gender the reducing to contributed has levels. wage the lowest on increased transparency of company pay differentials; higher pay rises higher pay differentials; pay of company transparency on increased job to evaluations and gender-neutral job female-dominated for classes; systems. pay and classification job in biases gender avoid

48 or guaranteed or 54 50 53 There is, significant however, 49 The most effective way to achieve 52 Many private pension schemes are still private pension schemes are Many 51 Interrupted employment careers can reduce reduce can careers employment Interrupted pension entitlements, lower retirement ages for and to compared men women in some countries, can prevent women from accumulating sufficient The non-contributory contributions. elements of pension systems, such as tax-financed pensions, do not depend on that benefit of levels modest only offer frequently previous employment, but age. old in poverty prevent to insufficient often are The contributory elements of pension systems, both public and private, tend benefits to offer and higher employment are more histories, contribution schemes, which are closely often particularly designed linked around defined- a to male breadwinner the highest model, levels providing of protection for those an with uninterrupted and full-time formal economy. career in the greater gender equality in pension schemes is to schemes equality in pension gender greater tax- including pensions, public adequate guarantee financed basic pensions andwell-designed social insurance pensions. diversity diversity within these schemes. Unlike many social insurance pensions, pension schemes private such as include the more elements, redistributive recognition and valuing of care periods (e.g. Canada, in France and Germany) Box 2.3. Reducing the gender pay gap also gap pay the gender Reducing 2.3. Box entitlements pension women’s enhances The design of pension systems determines the in the labour market which inequalities extent to are perpetuated into old age, and whether and how they result in a gender gap in pensions. The Recommendation, 2012 (No. 202) sets ILO out that states should guarantee at least a minimum level Social of social protection to all, in security income basic and including Protection care health essential access to ensure progressively should and life, of stage every Floors comprehensive through protection of levels higher principles the on based systems, protection social of gender to special needs. responsiveness equality, non-discrimination and minimum pensions for insured persons with low with low persons insured for pensions minimum earnings. based on sex-differentiated mortalitylevels pension tables lower and in result to tend that annuities for women.

47

46 58 In addition, in the United States 57 In Switzerland, employers with 50 56

Australia adopted the Workplace Gender Workplace the Australia adopted

55 However, as However, the gender pay gap remains stubbornly additional persistent, measures are clearly needed to This is particularly accelerate action and close the gap. in as the relevant thecontext of an ageing population, gender pensionlarger to a also leads gap gender pay gap for women. Ensuring equal pay throughout the working life of women will a have positive cumulative 2.3). (box gap pension gender the reducing on impact Recent voluntary measures to address pay equity, such as equality labels, company-based action plans and codes of conduct, common. while However, have it also is encouraging become to see more a revived interest in ensuring equal indications pay, are that, unless measures very limited. remains application are compulsory, their Other measures that can lead to positive outcomes wage include minimum gaps pay gender in reducing pay that bargaining collective and mechanisms setting attention to inequalities gender addressing in When equality. effective are well-designed, wages minimum serve they as distribution, wage the of part low the at minimum between link This floor. wage effective an as been has gaps pay gender reduced and wages documented in countries as diverse as the United Depending on the national context and existing and context national the on Depending governance structure, different wage transparency measures have been emerging in average an with institutions and companies recent Iceland, years. In of 25 or more employees are required by law to obtain certification on an annual basis confirming to tackle unequal the requirements meet that they pay. amended amended its Act Equal to Pay Work cover for Equal both gender and The gender California identity. Fair and race- cover to expanded been has 2015 of Act Pay ethnicity-based pay In differences. 2013, South Africa amended broadening the the Act, Employment Equity orientation. to include sexual grounds some states have enacted recent new legislation inquiring about from employers to prohibit compensation history potential employees from prior to making a job offer. Equality Act 2012, which obliges private companies gender on report to than 100 employees with more equality indicators, including equal pay for work of equal value. or more employees are required to carry out a required are employees more or pay audit and remove the discriminatory part of to participate wish if they in difference pay any public tenders. 70 PATHS TO GENDER EQUALITY IN THE WORLD OF 73 In 82

83 78

80 The Croatian 77 For instance, in the 79 At the national level, the BoardAgender BoardAgender the level, national the At 76 In Nepal, a programme targeting parents, children and children community members targeting a parents, programme In Nepal, 81 agreed that boys can do household chores increased from 49 per cent to 85 per cent. per After challenged 85 the gender the to programme, stereotypes. percentage cent of children per who 49 from increased chores household do can boys that agreed Box 2.5. Men and boys as part of the solution in changing stereotypes relating to relating the solution Box 2.5. Men and boys as part of in changing stereotypes work unpaid care Intervening at an early stage Movement of Equity life to positively Gender transform the existing the gender roles in India, in example, For change. beneficial to lead can society making to contributed seven, and six grades in students targeting programme, Schools in positive differences in attitudes and Students behaviours. increased their support for a higher age at active marriage for engagement for men’s in girls, as unpaid care work, the use of discrimination and to both gender opposition increased as expressing well violence. addition, training and educational campaigns that specifically target fathers can empower empower can fathers target specifically that campaigns educational and training addition, men to feel capable of and Turkey, responsible for participating In in unpaid care work. roles their of awareness improved and skills parenting basic gained fathers of thousands used shouted less, fathers spent time more with their children, As a result, in childcare. and housework. in parenting involved less harsh discipline and became more United States, the Executive Leadership Program in Academic Medicine in Leadership Program the Executive United States, climate in care and culture the masculine organizational to change aims career the for counselling career and mentoring offering by occupations segregation. to counter vertical advancement of women Employers’ Association has collaborated with the Gender Equality collaborated has Association Employers’ who are of women maintain a database and to build Ombudsperson positions. board and management for experienced and qualified suitably flexibilitywork at but it has also emphasized the on-demand economic which model, threatens to intensify Behind working lives. the need for flexibility is the reality of demanding commitments care more men are starting women and,to still share tend the to care, do more even if work. unpaid care Interesting initiatives supporting the agenda of women in management that are companies and networks include also and leadership positions establishing databases of profiles of qualified women whoare ready to take on responsibilities at With board the level. aim of the increasing men, the by dominated environment an in candidates women of visibility database a maintains example, for initiative, Women Ready Board Global women. qualified 8,000 over of Mentoring and training promoting practices for good often highlighted as are candidates programmes specifically targeting women’s women ascension into leadership positions. Voluntary initiatives and campaigns in promoting can a more challenging therefore, traditional stereotypes and, play an important 2.5). and men (box women partnership role between equal power in forum in Singapore identifies board-ready women leadersforum in identifies andSingapore board-ready provides networking opportunities for women professionals.

73 74 75 6. Box 2.4. More women in parliaments Box 2.4. More Recent years have seen a of growing women number elected Evidence in suggests national that assemblies. successful in quota improving the gender balance in policies are national parliaments. According to the Inter- Parliamentary Union (IPU), in 2017, women 30 won over per cent of seats in 24 chambers in were quotas 21 countries) where (across to compared only 15.4 per cent place, of seats in 19 chambers (across 16 countries) where no form of electoral gender Quotas are implemented differently quota according existed. to the national which context, a measure is as introduced, and well as the the pace enforcement mechanisms in at place, contribute to the effectiveness of the affirmative action policy. Beyond Beyond the introduction in gap gender the addressing of is increasingly sector quotas, the private in managerial and leadership of women the share positions through non-binding, voluntary targets or other means, such as providing forms in all their different time arrangements flexible working- work compressed hours, condensed (telecommuting, weeks, flexible working locations,technology of certainly has facilitated a culture etc.). Modern Over Over the pace the accelerate to measures proactive past introduced decades, many of participation countries of members have of under-represented groups in training gaining and promotion, among access other and in managerial women for penalty motherhood things. The to jobs, by addressed been often has positions leadership education, the introduction of proactive measures, voluntary including targets and quotas, working-time as arrangements. Quotas well first as emerged flexible as temporary in politics in many inequalities in representation measures to countries (see overcome box 2.4 for an example of the effect gender assemblies). national in representation on quotas of In more recent years, In quotas also more have recent been years, used in in women of share the increase to sector private the the instance, For positions. leadership and managerial resulted has France and in Italy quotas of introduction the in respectively, increase, cent per 208 and 500 a in 2010 between boards company on women of share and 201

67 71 As a result of As a result 68

72 In France, representative workers’ 70

The availability of formal grievance processes processes grievance formal of availability The

69 66

organizations and associations are legally entitled to legally are and associations organizations actions in cases of discrimination. bring group and representation to help tackle wage complaints is complaints wage help tackle to representation and women. of advantage the to contribute to likely also The cumulative effect of the many forms and layers when in entering and of discrimination before the labour market, has persistent implications gender for gap another – the managerial share and of leadership positions. women Social care unpaid for responsibility in women’s regarding norms continue to impact on women’s career prospects. Career disadvantage is often seen as a consequence future (or assumed interruptions career of women’s childcare, and maternity to due interruptions) career of men who experience similar periods although penalized to necessarily not are interruption career the same extent. A future of work with more women women of work with more A future leading the way

The level of collective bargaining can also affect the The gender more pay centralized gap. the collective gender the of size the smaller the process, bargaining gap. pay In Belgium, a 2012 law made it mandatory for the gender pay gap to be specifically taken into account their wage negotiate employers when unions and Labour Federal the requires also law The agreements. Service to check and sign off job classifications on the basis of their gender neutrality. Effective justice, Effective including justice, through labour inspection systems, is crucial to ensuring that is discrimination prevented and addressed in practice. A Mexico, and growing Salvador El as such countries, of number have strengthened their labour inspection systems to detect inequalities in including can Legal class also action, action, be taken wages more effectively. to tackle the Across issue the a of world, equal pay. work for on equal pay of class actions number growing in 2013, In court. to brought been have value equal of for settlement pay equal successful the Zealand New workers, 60,000 in resulted workers support and care wage, minimum the earning mostly and women mostly case The cent. per 50 to up of increases pay receiving has paved the way for women working economy, care the in as such in occupations, dominated female- gender of the basis on rates pay their to challenge discrimination. these measures, there has been a significant decrease decrease significant a been has there measures, these was the law in Belgium since gap pay in the gender enacted. 72 PATHS TO GENDER EQUALITY IN THE WORLD OF 75

103 In 97 99 in the For instance, in 100 98 102 96 In the absence of legislative 105 every every month of leave taken by men Bonuses in cash or time if both parents take take parents both time if or in cash Bonuses In some instances, men are stigmatized for 101 104 first year of the child’s life, woman’sthe long-term salary was 6.7 per cent higher. leave is another measure to boost fathers’ uptake. In is to another boost measure fathers’ uptake. leave on bonus cash a receive parents example, for Sweden, top of the daily allowance if parental is leave equally the parents. divided between addition, mandatory paternity leave can also generate also can leave paternity mandatory addition, found study Swedish A wages. women’s in increase an that, for taking their leave entitlements and considered less worthy of promotion. Despite these countries recognized introducing legal benefits, entitlements, very fathers few and globally benefit from such leave provision. many acknowledged that any change in the traditional role role traditional in the change that any acknowledged change a by accompanied be to needed women of in the traditional role of men, requiring participationhousehold and life of men in family increased duties. In the context of the Convention, paternity and parental leave are closely examined as integral to supportof a national policy components workers responsibilities. with family Research suggests a positive spent time their and correlation leave paternity of take-up men’s between in caring for their children after even the end of the entitlement, and also positive effects in their daily increasing share of household chores every day. Despite the scarcity of data parental on leave, there is take-up clear rates evidence that of fathers’ uptake increases when the entitlement is conceived as a mandatory individual transferred to the right other parent. that cannot be Some countries have begun moving towards leave that can be transferred, at least in part, to fathers. In the Czech Republic, mothers are entitled to 28 weeks of It maternity is leave. obligatory to take 14 weeks, including at least six weeks after the from the birth. However, start of the seventh week after childbirth, either the mother or father may use the Bulgaria, in found be also can provisions Similar leave. Spain and the United Kingdom. Poland, Croatia, Moreover, the Moreover, provision of gender-neutral parental does leave not automatically lead to gender equality in its Even take-up. where policies allow sharing of mothers still take the parental leave, majority of this time. Germany, uptake rose from 3.3 Germany, per cent in 2006 to two- a of introduction the after 2012 in cent per 29.3 shows research Similarly, entitlement. individual month mandated leave of amount exact the take fathers that law. by “Even though maternity though “Even to is central protection the rights, advancing health and economic security of women and their families, only a small proportion of women benefit from worldwide maternity and cash leave benefits.”

88 In 93

91 Some positive trends are evident, evident, are trends positive Some 90 95 In Greece, centralized collective 94 per cent of all collective bargaining

92 89 Even Even though maternity protection advancing the rights, is health and economic central security to only a small of proportion and women their families, of women worldwide benefitfrom maternity leave benefits. cash and the United States, the unionized United in employees States, California were more than three-and-a-half to times have access as to leave likely benefits thatthe were above legal requirements than counterparts. their non-unionized Collective Collective agreements can also be instrumental Australia, in in For instance, maternity improving rights. women’s improved has coverage bargaining collective access to paid maternity leave and, in 2010 (just as Australia was first introducing statutory maternity leave), 14 agreements included maternity leave provisions. The ILO Workers Convention, 1981 with (No. 156) and its corresponding Family 1981 165) Recommendation, Responsibilities (No. opened the door In 1975, entitlements. to paternity and leave parental when consideration was being given to adopting a standard like Convention No. 156, it was already expanded progressively expanded by progressively the Maternity Protection Convention (Revised), 1952 (No. 103), and by the Maternity Protection 2000 Convention, 183). (No. Some steps have also been taken to extend maternity extend to taken been also have steps Some such economy, informal the in workers to protection as in The Mongolia. the country notably, has covering, aimed – protection maternity to universal achieve in nomads and rural workers herders, self-employed, the informal – economy the through combination of contributorya welfare a and scheme insurance social scheme. The instruments aim to preserve the health of both the mother and to newborn, provide economic and including job protection from security, dismissal and maintenance of discrimination, earnings and benefits during maternity, and the right after to giving birth, and resume therefore work to promote equal for occupation and opportunities in employment women. however, as however, a growing number of increased countries their maternity have leave schemes, such as El 56 to 26 (from India weeks), 16 to 12 (from Salvador Lao Democratic weeks), People’s Republic (from 13 to Paraguay (from 15 12 weeks), to Peru 18 weeks), weeks) 12 to 6 (from Rwanda weeks), 14 to 13 (from 14 to 16 weeks). (from and Seychelles bargaining increased the length of maternity leave for for leave maternity of length the increased bargaining covered. workers structural 84 Achieving this 87 for both women and men is and both women for Combining full labour market Combining full labour market 85 86

engagement with caregiving obligations is challenging. challenging. is obligations caregiving with engagement sovereignty, time greater requires work of future The and choice increased to exercise workers allowing control over their working hours. A comprehensive system of legislation providing paid providing legislation of system comprehensive A family and care leave change is needed to address these two interrelated interrelated two these address to is needed change areas. Change of this nature can enter the paid fact that women of the not only requires acceptance take can men that also but terms, equal on workforce dimension on caring this roles in as the well home, as in the labour below, analysed as and Similarly, market. public of provision the to attention closer requires also care services, social protection and infrastructure, function social a as recognized is caring that ensuring families and the between and that it is redistributed Recommendations, and Conventions ILO Some State. such as the Maternity Protection 2000 Convention, with Workers 183), the (No. Family Responsibilities Convention, 1981 (No. 156), the (Minimum Standards) Social Convention, 1952 Security (No. 102), the 2012 Social Protection Floors Recommendation, (No. 202), the Home Work 1996 Convention, (No. 177) and the 2011 Workers Domestic Convention, and context this in relevant particularly are 189), (No. guidance. clear provide Since balancing work and family has been identified as the number one challenge in both developed and of world in the women for economies emerging and children for care affordable of lack the and work, challenge bigger a as in need members family other in emerging and developing economies, A future of work with inclusive of work with A future and parental paternity maternity, leave needed to facilitate women’s access to and progress progress and to access facilitate women’s to needed in the labour market, as well as to the time in relation of of the notion reconsideration a comprehensive “Having time” is one world of of work. the essential of enable the redistribution to elements required care responsibilities. the ILO since its inception. One of the first international first the been a primary has Maternity protection concern of of One inception. its since ILO the labour standards adopted by the the Maternity ILO, the recognized 3), 1919 (No. Convention, Protection scope The childbirth. to relation in leave paid to right and entitlements of maternity protection have been goal would be particularly beneficial for workers with workers for beneficial particularly be would goal responsibilities. family 74 PATHS TO GENDER EQUALITY IN THE WORLD OF 77 0.6 0.0 0.8 countries High-income 9.9 9.2 34.1 countries Middle-income 44.3 61.4 countries 71.3 Low-income 1.9 0.0 Asia Europe Europe 3.9 and Central

8.5 7.9 Asia and 35.9 the Pacifi c the Pacifi 10.0 5.0 11.9 Arab States 2.8 1.4 9.3 Americas 37.0 48.6 Africa 62.4 120 11.8 Results from a Eurofound–ILO report also showed that national, national, that showed also report Eurofound–ILO a from Results 12.9 World 119 Population without access to improved sanitation facilities without access to improved Population without access to electricity Population water source without access to improved Population 32.4

0

80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 Percentages Figure 2.3. Population without access to basic infrastructure by region and by region access to basic infrastructure without 2.3. Population Figure 2015–16 income group, Note: Data for access to electricity are for 2016 and for access to improved sanitation facilities and access to improved 2016 and for for access to electricity are Data for Note: 2015. for are water source 2019. Bank, World Source: by by the European Trade Union Confederation (ETUC) per showed cent of that unions had concluded 49 agreements for improved work–family balance. TO OF 2. THE ACCESS PATH SOCIAL INFRASTRUCTURE, PUBLIC CARE AND PROTECTION THE TRANSFORM TO SERVICES FUTURE OF WORK FOR WOMEN Complementary to proactive legal measures that positively can impact substantially and gender equality, access services to and social protection are essential elements for enabling societies infrastructure, public care to advance gender equality. These depending on the In national when all context. services intelligently cases, designed unpaid can redistributing on impact a positive have take they financed, sufficiently different and forms, care in unpaid women the time spent by and thus reducing work care withoutjobs paid in time more spend to able are women result, a As work. time poverty. suffering equality for gender Sustainable infrastructure In low-income health countries, basic schools, infrastructure transportation, and secure and electricity services, such fuel, cooking as safe clean water, facilities and ICT a have tremendous impact time on to women’s dedicate sectoral or company-level social dialogue has played a significant role in the in role significant a played has dialogue social company-level or sectoral regulation of teleworking in the Belgium, Finland, Italy, Netherlands, Spain and Sweden.

112 114 This is 117 Workers Workers need 115

113 With the growing use of the Internet and With the growing with growing numbers of employees feeling that feeling of employees numbers with growing 116 118 greater greater autonomy over their working-time, meeting while the needs of their employers. Harnessing technology to expand choice and achieve a balance can help to realize and personal life work between this attention goal. However, is needed to address with the blurring might come that the pressure of boundaries between working-time and time. private Social dialogue serves as an important tool for shaping shaping for tool important an as serves dialogue Social innovative working-time arrangements tailored to both workers’ and family- employers’ in promoting to be key bargaining has proved needs. Collective friendly working arrangements. Results from a survey In addition, flexible have become working-time common as a arrangements cost-effective solution to achieving work–family balance. technological progress, balance help workers to measure another represent also working is there However, remotely responsibilities. family and work can arrangements working-time flexible such that risk the women only if particularly roles, gender reinforce will make use of while them, continuing to shoulder the how considering When work. care unpaid of majority to achieve balanced the working-time issue of arrangements, constant availability for ICT work connectivity must due also be considered. to of necessity or constrained women choice, are also present in non-standard forms of employment. Reduced full-time hours have in been some implemented countries at workplace the level. national, In sectoral companies and New experimented, with respectively, a Zealand four- and day working week Sweden, at full pay and six-hour days on Both these experiments proved an eight-hour salary. employers and employees benefiting successful, be to alike, able they were to manage their balance work–family reported. productivity and increased successfully These working arrangements often penalize women in terms of earnings and career This development. of the the predominance emphasizes also situation full-time and linear male-breadwinner career model. those for option an be should part-timeWhile work who want to a take it, reduction in normal working men workers and women both for full pay at hours would be particularly effective in involved more be to within needs everybody where work a world of This approach could care. directly address the issue of women’s time poverty in countries. developing both developed and an emerging issue which only a thus address to few undertaken initiatives, in have a countries, of handful far.

Often out 107 111 106 In 2014, only 89 out of

108 109 The future of work will need 110 such as social insurance, universal –

186 countries provided leave to for adult care family leave 186 countries provided members’ health needs. to pay more attention to this area of legislation and of area this attention to more pay to policy. To cope with “marginal or part-time in work women of proportion all the care men. to compared jobs work” part-time demands, a higher Substantial gaps also exist in both the concern Deficits leave schemes children. disabled or to ill for care universally accessible leave (in many cases countries do not have any legislation covering this issue) and primary the funding State’s is (where role such leave it available, is often unpaid or paid at a low In rate). general, there has been less progress regarding the forwork those caring and flexible right to paid leave those to people compared disabled or older for caring for children. A future of work with time to care A future It is a reality today workers that often, Very with an increased need living for care. longer also comes not only have to their parents while too, look also working at after a paid job. their Hence, children labour market but institutions need needs of this to the care their policies to respond to adapt to care for possible it making generation”, “sandwich also but children young their for just not provided be for their ageing relatives.

benefits or social assistance schemes. in However, most the remains liability employer’s countries, many policies, leave family for mechanism funding common putting a disproportionate burden on the employer. maternity Currently, leave is funded through social security contributions in 58 per cent of where countries it is available, by employers in 26 and per cent through a mix of contributions in government the remaining Employers countries. and employer are responsible for funding leave in most countries in the Middle East These Asia. and are also regions North where the Africa majority of and weeks 14 of standard ILO the meet not do countries South of paid maternity leave and where women’s labour participation is particularly rate low. force In order to should be be provided effective, through family mechanisms collectively financed leave policies provisions, some collective agreements have provided provided have agreements collective some provisions, for paternity though leave, examples remain limited. where Of particular is the interest case of Denmark, agreements collective by covered employees male all paternity leave. during full pay receive 76 PATHS TO GENDER EQUALITY IN THE WORLD OF 79

133 137 and can also include services that are not 134 135 pure market transactions, recognizing unpaid care work work care unpaid recognizing transactions, market pure 136 provided provided in the context the In of 20th 2018, market ICLS transactions. went one step further in its Resolution I by providing which a Work at (ICSaW-18), covers all new jobs International and Classificationwork activities ofin all Status forms of work, of services. provision including own-use Box 2.6. Recognizing unpaid care work as work unpaid care Recognizing Box 2.6. In 2013, the 19th International Conference of Resolution Labour Statisticians I, (ICLS) adopted which services for defines household and unpaid family members as caregiving “own-use provision of services services”. and unpaid domestic time spent in is own-use unpaid mainly provision of care i.e. work, Currently, services, only 35 measured per through cent time-use However, of surveys. countries To produce years. ten or five every only administered are surveys these and data survey time-use the improve frequency of as data well collection, as the accuracy and comparability of alternative test to methodologies different on work initiated has ILO the estimates, the ad- through work care unpaid in spent time and participation measuring for approaches and-diary recall- on based surveys household and force labour to attached modules hoc large- performing in involved challenges and costs associated the Given methods. based scale time-use the surveys, use of such survey modules can represent a cost-effective alternative to increase the frequency of data collection and thus facilitate the regular monitoring of policies. gender for but also labour statistics for not only changing is game All this progress visible and measurable the amount as of it unpaid makes of work, equality in the world The 19th and 20th expand ICLS resolutions and men. women by performed work care beyond work of boundaries the is progress economic and social where future a to door opening the and work as (GDP). domestic product gross than just a country’s more by measured Resolution 1 it makes clear that work can be performed in any kind of economic unit, including households and communities,

130 132 which aimed to create create to which aimed 131 This contributed to both 129 e. All such being initiatives effective have when a analysis gender accurate on based is implementation their design, better planning chance consultations and data sex disaggregated by informed and of with the beneficiaries ofservices. the infrastructure and where services for a future Public care more everybody cares Another significantparticipation in the labour market is determinantthe availability, affordability and quality women’s of Childcare of and long-term care public policies and services care are services. particularly important. No substantial progress will work be care unpaid until made work, of world the towards in especially achieving gender equality, is recognized reduced (box and 2.6), redistributed – families between and men, and women between both and the Stat The provision of infrastructure should also be viewed viewed be also should infrastructure of provision The as a source of decent jobs that can benefitwomen. For example, when public works and employment- intensive programmes include proactive measures to address the barriers that prevent women from participating, these are more likely to succeed and help bring about positive change in social Programme, In norms. Works Public Expanded the Africa, South launched in 2003, also invested in early childhood and community-based care services, including households. HIV-affected for increasing women’s employment in the care sector in the care employment women’s increasing and alleviating the burden of unpaid care work, of which they performed the overwhelming share. In Lebanon and Jordan, the Employment Intensive Programmes, Infrastructure employment employment opportunities cent per for 10 of Syrian average refugees an and employed communities, host achievement significant but small This 2018. in women was due to proactive measures used to in these engage to women encourage and norms challenge The non-traditional measures jobs. included training contractors in gender-responsive recruitment and mandatorythe incorporating as well as management, recruitment of women in the provision contract, of skills training for women who had never engaged in ensure to system payment task-based a and work paid fairness in The wages. programmes also introduced adjusted working hours, safe women. toilets for separate worksite transportation and

123 128 ICT-enabled services, ICT-enabled such 127 When women access have to 126 125 122 Many low-income countries have little or noor little have countries low-income Many

121 Transportation is of great importance to 124

affordable and safe transportation, their likelihood of their likelihood transportation, and safe affordable being in the labour market is greater and their level of negotiating power over their mobility within the household increases. women as they rely on public transportation on a to rely they as women women greater are extent also than However, men. harassment and violence to men than exposed more on public transport. Of equal importanceespecially is ICT infrastructure, in rural areas where Internet access is very limited. that those as such approaches, development Modern facilitate the electrification of off-grid communities, can increase the connectivity of villagers and their access to markets, particular services for women. and know-how, in Infrastructure Infrastructure and services related to transport can have a significant and positive impactsupportingof terms in work, paid in engage to ability on women’s travelling in time saving workplace, the to access safe from one place to more is another, work paid where places to access better as well as providing available, such as markets and other workplaces. to work while also being a source of decent jobs for women. For For example, in Cambodia, rural produce road farm investments women’s in increase an supported have sales. as mobile technology, can also information help and in advice on providing agricultural are crops commercially that sustainable, thereby contributing incomes and productivity. improving towards Initiatives Initiatives concerning the production and provision using consumption household fuel for of water and help only not approaches sustainable and renewable but can of climate change the effects to mitigate opportunitieseconomic generate also women for and improve their health. For example, solar panel rural in production biogas clean or installations employment and training create can communities households to energy clean provide and opportunities with benefitsfor their health and the environment. the account into takes that way in a designed If practical daily tasks within households – of women perform which the overwhelming majority – such initiatives can free up time for women to engage in economic activities. access to such basic infrastructure and women in rural women and such basic infrastructure access to 2.3). particularly (figure affected are areas 78 PATHS TO GENDER EQUALITY IN THE WORLD OF 81 K DN 60 D R X T NL LU NO ML BEL 2 R

FRA C GR 145 When such T A PR E TH 144 SW ISL S AU 40 CHE U Y SVN DE ESP UR L IR A Likewise, in Mexico, a programme programme a Mexico, in Likewise, US FIN 142 A A IT BRA LV EST U LT T V JPN Gross enrollment rate in early-childhood programmes (Percentages) rate in early-childhoodprogrammes enrollment Gross 20 S HR AU P RU CY VEN M L VN SRB CO R L NAM BG PO Some enterprises opt to offer both childcare and GHA R By providing facilities or subsidizing childcare for 147 GB SVK G CZE HUN 146 X KHM AR U ZAF ME RO M O NGA PER A LA GT BW MDG YEM

0 143

80 60 40 20

100

of children aged 0 to 5 years (Percentages) years 5 to 0 aged children of Employment-to-population ratio of mothers of ratio Employment-to-population

Figure 2.5. Employment-to-population Figure young children of women with ratio latest year programmes, rates in ECED enrolment and gross (0–5 years) Sources: ILO calculations based on ILO, 2018a and UNESCO, 2018. 2018. 2018a and UNESCO, ILO calculations based on ILO, Sources: The private sector can also play a role in helping workers with family responsibilities. in employment. In low-income countries, subsidized day care has proven proven has care day subsidized countries, low-income In employment. in trial control randomized a of Results policy. public cost-effective a be to that study showed day-care who women carried out received in Kenya vouchers for their children were 8.5 percentage points more likely to not. did who those than working be employees, employees, enterprises enjoy positive outcomes in terms of reduced costs as reduced as well rates, and higher retention turnover employee and increased including productivity, lower rates of sickness absence and absenteeism. measures measures are combined with family leave increases. participation in the economy women’s policies, increasing the likelihood of Specific measures – when included in national social policies – can directly directly can – policies social national in included when – measures Specific measures such of Examples employment. in participation women’s impact are entitlements, including tax-free childcare, childcare safety nets in disadvantaged communities, childcare allowances for the unemployed or informal workers, and universal childcare subsidies. covering covering up to 90 per cent of childcare costs by subsidizing both low- income parents and the suppliers of childcare market access has for women and improved created labour 45,000 formal jobs, mainly for them. care for older, disabled or sick family members of employees as part of a of part as employees of members family sick or disabled older, for care

with care responsibilities (percentages) responsibilities care with Employment-to-population ratio of women women of ratio Employment-to-population

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Indonesia

India

Turkey

141 Mexico

South Africa South

Ghana

Chile

China

Republic of Korea of Republic

Canada

United States United

Brazil

Slovakia

Estonia

Australia Hungary

Social protection policies play an contribute to thus and childcare in the context of important role equal opportunities and treatment securing women’s increase in women’s participation in employment participation in employment in women’s increase Such(figure2.5). policiesmust be inclusive and take of groups of different the needs into consideration as those with disabilities. such children, increase an is there that see to encouraging is it Overall, among investment and strategies childcare national in middle- and high-income countries and that this has led to positive outcomes for participationwomen’s in relatively employment. However, few developing countries Asia in Africa and have inclusive childcare services and policies and, in the municipal or absence state-provided childcare, parents of must such rely on informal arrangements to help them juggle family and paid work responsibilities. Many families for daughters sibling older or grandmothers on rely childcare These provision. coping strategies can be disadvantageous to young girls and their education, thus perpetuating occupational segregation. women’s time poverty and

Portugal

Italy

Latvia

138 140

Japan

Poland

Russian Federation Russian

Ireland

Slovenia

United Kingdom United

Czech Republic Czech

Spain

Germany

Austria

France

Switzerland

Colombia New Zealand New

Luxemburg

139 Iceland

Belgium

Finland

Norway

Netherlands

Denmark

Sweden education services Pre-primary ts sickness and employment injury benefi disability, Maternity, ts services and benefi Long-term care Employment-to-population responsibilities ratio of women with care

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

10 Expenditure as percentage as GDP as percentage as Expenditure Figure 2.4. Public expenditure on selected care policies as a percentage of GDP, and of GDP, policies as a percentage on selected care 2.4. Public expenditure Figure latest year employment-to-population responsibilities, of women with care ratio Source: ILO, 2018a. 2018a. ILO, Source: Further evidence confirms correlation stronga between the employment-to-population and positive the and children with young women of ratios number of their children enrolled in early-childhood educational development (ECED) programmes. Care Care services – encompassing the direct provision of services for older children, persons, people with disabilities and people living with care-related social protection HIV, transfers as and benefits well as given to with workers family or care responsibilities, unpaid carers or people who need transformative care role – in advancing play gender a equality. Evidence derived from 41 countries for which data are available confirms that the employmenttend rates to be higher and for in families, countries that a have higher share of women aged 18–54, with GDP invested in public expenditure on pre-primary long-term education, care services and and benefits, sickness and disability, employment maternity, injury 2.4) benefits (figure increasing at aimed policies that suggests finding This the coverage of such enrolment could trigger an 80 PATHS TO GENDER EQUALITY IN THE WORLD OF 83 75 251 475 149 Additional indirect jobs through education through jobs indirect Additional and health and social work spending 2030 achieving the SDGs +117 59 189 358 110 Ensure women’s full and effective participation and equal full women’s Ensure opportunities for leadership at all levels of decision-making in political, economic and public life workers of association for care freedom Promote and employers the right to collective social dialogue and strengthen Promote sectors bargaining in care the building of alliances between trade unions Promote civil society organizations workers and care representing and unpaid carers recipients care representing Measure all forms of care work and take unpaid care work care work and take unpaid all forms of care Measure into account in decision-making policies and care-relevant services, care Invest in quality care infrastructure market policies that support the active labour Promote into the of unpaid carers and progress attachment, reintegration labour force for Enact and implement family-friendly working arrangements all workers gender-equal and education for more information Promote households, workplaces and societies services Guarantee the right to universal access to quality care social protection and gender-responsive care-friendly Ensure oors systems, including fl and publicly funded leave policies Implement gender-responsive for all women and men and implement decent terms and conditions of Regulate employment and achieve equal pay for work of equal value for all workers care for work environment a safe, attractive and stimulating Ensure workers both women and men care migrant to protect Enact laws and implement measures workers care 2030 status quo • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Policy measures Policy Non-care workers in education and health and social work +152 work for care for care Reward: workers More and More Recognize, reduce and reduce unpaid care unpaid care redistribute 55 206 151 decent work care workers care and collective bargaining for 2015 social dialogue Representation, Policy recommendations Policy Social 0 policies Labour policies policies policies 50 Care workers in education and health and workers in education Care social work Migration 500 450 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 protection

Care policies Care Jobs (millions) Jobs Macroeconomic Main policy areas Main policy areas Figure 2.6. Total care and related employment in 2015 and 2030, status quo 2030, status in 2015 and employment and related care Total 2.6. Figure the SDGs and achieving Source: ILO, 2018a. ILO, Source: Table 2.7. The 5R Framework for Decent Care Work 5R Framework for Decent Care The 2.7. Table Source: ILO, 2018a. ILO, Source:

157 158 Quotas, targets and Quotas, specific incentives to encourage childcare such as into occupations men to go more and long-term care as well as education could help of representation balanced more a promote to men and women in various occupations and reduce occupational segregation. to However, ensure that the care sector is attractive to men, both it women is and imperative implementing and regulating requires This to conditions. provide decent working and employment decent terms and conditions of achieving equal pay for work of equal value for all care workers. To achieve this both for and environment work stimulating and attractive ensure a safe, women and men care further workers, progress is and implementing measures needed in enacting laws to protect migrant care workers, whose numbers have grown significantly over the past decades. promoting addition, freedom In of association for care social dialogue and the right and employers, workers to collective bargaining is of paramount importance. The “5R ILO’s Framework for Decent Work” Care represents a successful recipe policy of measures legislative to achieve and care decent work economy in (table the include 2.7). Recognizing, Its Reducing key and unpaid components Redistributing care work; and Rewarding ensuring paid Representation, social care collective dialogue bargaining for and work; care workers. Each group a set of is matched by of policy recommendations and on ILO labour standards based policy measures the SDGs. intended to achieve includes care workers in care sectors (education and (education sectors care in workers care includes health, and social work), those workers employed in the care economy with supporting administrative workers. domestic also and functions, managerial and Employment in the significantsource care of income, especially women, for economy around provides the a world. In comprised 2015, an the estimated 206 care combination The million workforce persons men). million 55 and women million (151 societies ageing rapidly and population expanding of is driving an increase in the demand for care work, although there will be significant deficits incoverage unless there is further investment in care services. It is predicted that an increase in investment in care services to achieve the Goals Sustainable (SDGs) would Development create 120 million more jobs in the and care economy 149 million indirect jobs in non-care sectors by the year 2030 This (figure 2.6). confirms that investing in the care economywould sectors. many across in job creation result

153

156 149 A number 151 Also common 155 154 Montenegro has increased the number number the increased has Montenegro 152 can also increase women’s opportunities women’s increase can also

148 150

across North America are cooperatives that focus on focus that cooperatives are America North across needs. with developmental services youth for of countries are considering implementing this of countries are coverage; for example, considerable demographic challenges, is China, considering which the is introduction facing of insurance. compulsory long-term care to reach managerial and leadership positions. and leadership managerial to reach In sub-Saharan Africa, cooperatives, such as those in Rwanda and Zimbabwe, are helping to meet the long-term care needs of persons Cooperatives living for Asia, older person with across care, which prevalent provide HIV. are care, home-based or housing Western Korea; of Republic the and Japan in including such Europe, as in France and the United Kingdom; Canada and the United States; and parts Social and cooperatives of such as in Uruguay. America, South health and social, provide such as in Italy, enterprises, educational services for children and older persons at community and centres, health-care facilities and older persons. for home-based care Only Only 5.6 per cent of the global population lives in countries that provide coverage long-term through national universal legislation. care Another way to support workers with family with family to support workers Another way responsibilities is through solutions for long-term care, such as care for older family members, those with disabilities and those living with Over 48 HIV. per cent of population the lives world’s in countries that do not provide any long-term social protection and services disproportionately affected by to this lack of provision older since they live longer than have fewer financial men, persons. Women resources are in old provide to age, expected often are and including men, to compared through pensions, until late in their members to their family such care lives. life-cycle approach in human resources management. management. in human life-cycle resources approach responsibilities with family By supporting workers throughout their life cycle, model” the “caring company In Australia, Brazil, Quebec (Canada) Brazil, and the Australia, United In Kingdom, better governance and legislation recent of object the been serviceshas of long-term care measures. accompanying Good quality care is – unpaid or paid whether providers, and recipients that benefits allthe of conditions the working dependent on highly involved – “faces and who hands” are the of paid care workers, care service The provision. global care workforce of older person day centres and supported housing. supported and centres day person older of 82 PATHS TO GENDER EQUALITY IN THE WORLD OF 85 - 165

172

166 To ensure To a fair and sustainable health and the disability relevant sector, parties also discuss how to attract and train keep workers, them safe from violence and harass ment and enable them to have a collective voice. These issues are particularly pertinentparticularly are issues These voice. collective a have to them enable and ment when engaging with For choiceplatforms. platform andflexibility, users, control over the of attractions key the are supporta servicewhom provided is by and where when, of terms protection and con- job supportsecurity, workers’ However, business model. safety and a continuous collective training, voice must also become ditions, an integral this. part to achieve positioned of this service well – and unions are model Box 2.7. Care and support through a digital platform in New Zealand a digital platform and support through Care Box 2.7. is (PSA) Mahi Tikanga Here Pūkenga Te – Association Service Public the Zealand, New In support for in tri- and bipartite security and protection discussions to ensure involved With support. receiving those for control and choice flexibility, support to and workers or employees as workers covers work PSA’s sector, care the in platforms of advent the per 74 members, 70,000 with Zealand, New in union largest the is PSA The contractors. 25,000 Over services. community and public the in working women, are whom of cent PSA members including are in employed the the provision health and disability sector, services.of community-based The PSA has played a vital role in starting to build tū E a and PSA the by campaign union A “decent new for care and everyone. benefit will that supporteconomy services decent decent lives” work, for both and workers pay, service users helped to achieve minimum wage payments for sleepover shifts and reimbursement for travel time and home support, disability, costs client between visits as equity as well for aged pay care, vocational mental disability, health and addiction support Both workers. agreements legislation. in relevant enshrined were circumstances. For circumstances. example, a number of countries have started to introduce adapted mechanisms to ensure social protection for self-employed workers. These include: i) simplifiedcollection tax and mechanisms; contribution ii) misclassification measures and to curb prevent (designed disguised to avoid employment social insurance workers all of contributions), protection the ensuring to view a with adaptation the iii) enterprises; for competition fair and of registration, contribution collection and benefit and mechanisms to the circumstances payment needs of specific categories of iv)workers; tailored solutions for workers and with v) measures to multiple take into account employers; the situation specific of workers on digital which in job platforms, regular a with many work that combine whom of they may enjoy some social protection coverage. Ensuring social protection coverage for workers in curbing the for is essential employment of all forms gender promoting for in inequality and trend growing all. for of work equality and a better future

171

168 Such forms of employment are 167

Every contributory of form social protection 170 169 (including private arrangements) requires a regular and adequate income stream, which and careers employment with interrupted women implies that low earnings would be negatively affected by a shift from a defined benefit model. to a defined contribution The future of women at work will also depend on the on depend also will work at women of future The access effective have men and women which to degree course the throughout social protection adequate to of their gender lives. promoting Gender-responsive to key social are protection floors, including systems, equality and women’s empowerment in the future. New forms of work emerged, and employment have traditional the more which exist alongside of some of protection, level a low offering of work categories often in non-standard forms of employment or the informal economy. Universal social protection for social protection Universal at work future women’s often not associated with adequate social protection, protection, social adequate with associated not often especially for protection social their women. adapt to started At have countries the same time, systems many to the changing in circumstances, order to category of this growing to the needs better respond of close workers, coverage gaps and improve their including floors. systems, social protection Some recent policy innovations, in both developing and developed countries, demonstrate the capacity to changing to adapt systems protection of social In this context, a discussion has emerged regarding social and employment the potential decoupling of protection, which has important women. implications While for the strengthening social of tax-financed protection mechanism for can closing coverage gaps provide contributory of social of forms for weakening the women, an protection, important particularly be social detrimental to insurance, public Weakening provision may lead women’s to a stronger may economic role security. for private arrangements, with potential for their risk pooling and limited redistribution – thus potentially exacerbating including inequality, gender gaps. Gender-responsive Gender-responsive social including floors, protection need sustainable, provide systems, to adequate fair, be protection entire inclusive population and to allow and for the a sufficiently large degree These of systems redistribution. should also usually way, equitable and sustainable a in financed be by a combination of taxes and contributions.

163 164 161 In Pakistan, campaigns led by

160 in accordance with national legislation.

162 In Argentina, a sectoral collective agreement agreement collective sectoral a Argentina, In 159

in 2016 granted home-based and vocational training and education leave, financed paid carers annual by their employers. Furthermore, tripartiteFurthermore, and bipartite social dialogue way a as emerging also are agreements collective and employed workers care for work decent ensure to in instance, For 2.7). box (see platforms digital through bargaining collective a signed union trade a Denmark agreement in 2018 establishing a that digital features platform job opportunities, The homes. such collective as agreement guarantees cleaning a set rights of In recent years, many countries have enacted legislation enacted have countries many years, recent In For workers. care for conditions working improve to obliged 2018 in enacted legislation Jordan, in example, this electronically; salaries transfer to schools private against employee the and employer the both protects not paid are salary that women and ensures fraud introduced Gambia The wage. minimum the than less in allowance” “hardship 2006 to attract and a special retain teachers This in allowance remote is schools. up such to take teachers to be encouraging reported posts. Technological change and Technological automation of production processes can also contribute to safer care jobs. In robots help Japan, to mitigate the physical workload of care workers in lifting older persons, potentially occupational injuries. related reducing the All Pakistan Lady Health Association Workers’ have led to a gradual increase in the remuneration mainly (who are health workers community of women), the granting of employment benefits and, the eventually, Supreme Court ordered setting the remuneration “lady of health workers” at no lower wage.than the minimum 84 PATHS TO GENDER EQUALITY IN THE WORLD OF 87

185 Similarly, in Similarly, 186 184

183

187 India, India, enrolments in primary schools was budgeting gender-responsive increased where States those in introduced. Macroeconomic Macroeconomic policies have sufficiently on not employment creation yet existing or enhancing livelihoods, resulting focused in limited progress in addressing gender gaps in labour markets. growth, Jobless downsizing of privatization of the public services public have impacts had negative sector on and to needs to be engineered Economic growth women’s employment overcome inequalities, outcomes. break decrease down segregation, gender pay gaps and promote occupational formal working arrangements. Whether economic growth or benefits women not dependsand how States on if carry out their redistributive role, able are which women the mechanisms through and to take advantage of growth beyond opportunities. employment Gender-responsive Gender-responsive budgeting is an important tool for more effectively in prioritizing the overall set gender of national policies. equality It uses gender promote to administration policy and fiscal equality, and girls’ without overlooking the needs of boys and and men. women’s development The effective implementation of gender-responsive to infrastructure and resources requires budgeting collect and analyse the gendered impacts of macro- transparency strong requires also It policy. economic that to ensure accountability mechanisms and institutions tasked with delivering macroeconomic policies do so in Gender-responsive the budgeting best has interests levels of of led investment in girls’ in education, women. particular to higher for marginalized children groups, in rural areas and Timor interventionsSuch in disability. a with children of scholarships numbers in increasing Leste resulted for girls in secondary and tertiary education, a rise in the number expanded of training female teachers, for teachers in inclusive education and a review of the “gender friendliness” of curricula. Macroeconomic policies that are effective for a better a for effective are that policies Macroeconomic that national to ensure need at work of women future budgets respond to women’s needs to needs what and assessing in voice a priorities. have must Women of supportcould what and done be future better a those including women, for space the Providing work. to in be the in involved informal designing economy, macro-economic policies that work for them is key work. on decent to delivering Although 182 In the United the In

181 180 Asia in and the Pacific, 178 These contractual arrangements 179 While, in sub-Saharan Africa, trade in While, Africa, openness sub-Saharan 177 has benefitted men workingthan women, as in agriculture a more result of underlying land agricultural and assets ownership, As with trade been policies, monetary assumed policies on to have employment. However, it have was the developing countries, ratio of to gender-neutral women’s men’s found that, effects in of periods decline during to tends employment reduction. inflationary contractionary place the burden of quickly adjusting to changes in global demand for their products on the Asia and the Pacific workers. genderin pay As a consequence, gaps in export-oriented manufacturing remain high also due to the weak collective bargaining position relocate to firms of ability the and workers female of to other countries. their production States there is evidence of a consistent increase in the implementation following unemployment female of contractionary monetary policy. monetary and trade policies have the potential to stimulate aggregate demand, which is required opportunitieswomen both for employment increase to and men, these policies should conjunction be engineered with in public fair promote to policies in order social protection care, infrastructure and in the and marginalized groups women for treatment labour market. employment opportunities for women in the opportunities women for employment manufacturing sector have increased more than for In men. the there has region, been a feminization of employment in export-led manufacturing industries, often are women where production, garment as such low-skill occupations with limited stuck in low-wage, opportunities for skills Facing development. intense firmsglobal searchforcompetition, low-costfemale adopting sewing, and stitching as such areas in labour flexible and oftensuch informal as temporary contracts work and dependent own- arrangements, account work. For instance, trade liberalization is often linked to the to linked often is liberalization trade instance, For wage gender higher and labour global of feminization gaps. Instead, Instead, 173 However, such However, policies

176 174 Public borrowing and debt restructuring restructuring debt and Public borrowing 175

these periods should be viewed as crucial moments for investments aimed at empowering and building gender that ensure to in order capabilities human on inequalities not are further exacerbated and positive not reversed. are trends Public social in investment protection infrastructure, and care services to address care deficits are some of the key investments required to gaps in the close labour Achieving this market. gender closure is imperative not only from a rights-based perspective but also from an Investments economic perspective. in inclusive social protection systems, public services care and sustainable infrastructure under-funded. They are are often also the during implemented are measures when austerity first to be cut recessions and reducing investments economic in education, health, childcare crises. less economies renders care older person and Paradoxically, resilient in the and long exposes term, more people to poverty that cycles across generations. A sound macroeconomic framework framework macroeconomic A sound social infrastructure, to finance services public care and protection Fiscal policies, as exchange well rate determine policies, both the levels of as trade, GDP monetary growth and the and patterns of growth, including which shed and dynamic more are which sectors determinant of decent a key therefore are They jobs. employment for women. are are two further ways in which care-related policies can be financed. are are often assumed to be “neutral” in the way that they impact women and men, when in reality they not. are Current Current levels of public need sectors GDP) in the care to (proportionate and private investment that these goals to ensure to be doubled in order are along achieved, with decent work for paid care This workers. requires fiscal space to be expanded in order to invest in even in feasible, is space fiscal Creating care infrastructure. provision, services and Bangladesh, that estimated is It countries. low-income Cambodia, Ghana, the United Republic of Tanzania and Uganda could generate an additional 4 per cent of GDP in tax within revenue a Fiscal decade. space can also be achieved, for the efficiency instance, of by tax improving collectioncountries Many constraints. capacity and institutional and addressing by revenues public generated have Africa sub-Saharan in way. this in 86 PATHS TO GENDER EQUALITY IN THE WORLD OF 89 “Lifelong learning can be “Lifelong instrumental to in helping people, women in prevent being left from particular, behind during social and economic development.”

204 are exposed to or exposed are 200

Similarly, when occupations occupations when Similarly, 202 201 Other examples are vocational training, 203 job counselling and childcare up aged with children to women offered which are services in France, to 3 years initiatives In old. include Germany, those focused on migrant women with who children, face labour the re-entering or accessing in barriers higher market. In Australia, Canada, India and the United States, initiatives focus on women with disabilities, culturally veterans. and women and linguistically widows diverse women, older and women, indigenous An enabling environment for women for women An enabling environment entrepreneurs Numerous national plans include budgets provisions for and This entrepreneurship women. is due to a development growing consensus on its for relevance in promoting sustainable development, A significant and positive trend decades over the has few last been government lifetime, a and across place takes learning that recognition policy-makers’ supports and settings informal and formal includes the development of vocational skills and capacity. personal Understanding the employment-life cycle learning to lifelong access to ensuring equal is key skills. This means ensuring that of levels literacy and numeracy, girls attain basic encouraged to consider a wide range of potential of range wide a consider to encouraged and occupations, that expectations for their life and opportunities are not cultural constrained by family, expectations. social and are are segregated by sex, and often also by and ethnicity social origin, vocational and this into consideration to take needs education post-compulsory and ensure that the furtherthan rather equality exacerbating substantive outcome aims at achieving discriminatory patterns. Understanding the employment life cycle also requires requires also cycle life employment the Understanding of implications of gender stereotyping that the lifelong and responsibilities duties in unpaid household roles, a years, recent In account. into taken be work care and with supportto emerged workers has trend positive family responsibilities to engage in lifelong learning. men and women help to designed are initiatives Such who are returning to work either after childbirth, following a period of parental or leave as a result of long-term unemployment due to unpaid family care These initiatives varyresponsibilities. from reskilling, promoting to skills, digital basic of provision including lifelong learning and distance programmes, such as those in Argentina, India, Mexico and Kingdom. the United This is 197 198 In addition, In addition, 192 and by encouraging and by 195 Investments in preparing 196 This is particularly important 194 Other disincentives to participation that that participation to disincentives Other It is therefore crucial to ensure that ensure to crucial therefore is It Unless policies related to lifelong learning 191 199 193 in the context of engineering science, technology, and mathematics (STEM) and digital skills, and girls fall in which women high demand and an area which are in behind. For instance, proactive measures have been used toreduce gender-based occupational access increase jobs to women’s segregation through better-paying and the diversification of skills options young for women education and training technical and vocational through in non-traditional occupations young young women to engage in STEM studies and STEMoccupational trajectories. especially especially true for women in low- and middle-income countries. women to meet the challenges associated with the associated with challenges to meet the women of internships the form can take of work changing world and career and fairs advice, women, for careers STEM on raising competitive awareness grant programmes, financial and in-kind supportfor STEM or programmes students summer camps to encourage female through to enrol in STEM secondary early very at begin can and learning STEM early to Exposure tertiary education. old. 3 and 5 years between children for stages, Closing the digital gender divide focus of must gender-responsive lifelong also learning initiatives. be the Despite increased attention in this gender field, divide the digital continues to regions, sectors and socio-economic span groups. across countries, offering learning through the workplace can reinforce can reinforce the workplace learning through offering patterns of occupational sex-segregation unless the training is specifically designed to challengesuch as these, training women specificallyfor management hours. or supervisory working during regular roles But even when women and men participate in lifelong learning at similar rates, significantin differences the types exist of learning they pursue and the benefits they gain. and family. and are are part of an overall ecosystem that places equality at the heart of development and progress, informed by gender analysis based on sex-disaggregated data, their implementation will not be beneficial and can further marginalize women. need to be identified and overcome, include requiring requiring include overcome, and identified be to need of the digital purchase training devices. barriers barriers which contribute to this gap – such as socio- lackand girls’ ICT cultural use, constraints on women’s including digitalof foundational literacy and digital skills, financial literacy – areremoved in order to achieve a sector. ICT the in women of representation equal more 189 190

188

Lifelong learning can be instrumental in helping to learning can Lifelong from women being prevent people, in left particular, behind during social and persistent However, structural economic barriers and development. gender that to ensure need to be addressed stereotypes and ablewomen specific are to groups participate in and benefit equally from such learning. Many might not be able to participateat the expected or engage pace if participation financially or implies in terms of timeaway from paidwork a cost – whether For For these and other reasons, lifelong learning is smartacquire to enabling people for policy option a skills, to reskill and to upskill. In work-related addition to skills, paid lifelong learning childhood early from learning informal and formal encompasses and basic education writing, such as reading, combines foundational skills, to adult problem solving, learning learning. how to learn, self-esteem, It and also skills social and skills, cognitive self-management, occupations or sectors. specific jobs, needed for left behind The fast-changing pace at which the world of work that allows an approach requires is transforming workers to keep up with demands for new the to work of in the organization shifts From new skills. technologies entering different as workplaces, farms, factories, offices and such homes, change is an inevitable element of the world of Leveraging work. create and doors open to transformations ongoing the opportunities that also benefit women requires learning. lifelong to all entitlement an have to workers Lifelong learning so that no one is Lifelong learning so that no TRANSITIONS WOMEN THROUGH WORK WORK WOMEN THROUGH Levelling the playing through field legislation, social protection, infrastructure for women provision and workers public care services supportedand engaged also fully are unless women is not enough transitions these of challenge The transitions. work in currently transformations global by is compounded demographic shifts under related to way technology, and climate Doing change. so will empower women and to societies lives their shape to working harness the demographic advantages in some societies in others. regions active lifelong create and AND SUPPORTING SUPPORTING AND 3. THE PATH OF ENGAGING ENGAGING OF PATH THE 3. 88 PATHS TO GENDER EQUALITY IN THE WORLD OF 91

216 For example, the 214 215 COPTAC COPTAC is a women-only cooperative Through with its outside has COPTAC work, Guédiawaye, Dakar. significantly 80 contributed members of all ages to empowering women tanners situated through skills the development promotion of literacy, in to tanners, younger including members, its opportunityto an provided has It voice. and better to access provided and dialogue social and forums decision-making in participate has solidarity of spirit This materials. of purchases collective through scale of economies programmes training health and safety conditions: working their improve to helped also have gloves, inspired including the equipment, women to protective use modify also They their worksite, which is now weather. cleaner the from and protection offers more enlarged have the transport routes and implemented better security to control entry to the worksite. technologyMost recently, has helped to COPTAC further improve productivity and, an information their partnered hence, Weebi, In and COPTAC with livelihoods. 2018, technology start-up company streamlining that of supported management COPTAC’s for allows that application fast and flexible a include tools New tasks. administration and retention. client augmented and margins over control more stock, of management better Box 2.8. Solidarity and technology for women tanners in Senegal Box 2.8. Solidarity and technology with line in 2017 in registered was COPTAC, cooperative, tanners’ leather women The economy. informal the in workers formalize to aims which Plan, Senegal Emergent the for for care services and the deficiency in such services, care cooperatives and other social growing are organizations and enterprises economy and solidarity in this sector where more jobs will be created for both women and The men. emergence standard of the platform to alternatives successful as cooperatives is economy model in the platform Internet business another development. These cooperatives, jointly owned and managed by members using a protocol, sale to facilitate the or mobile application website of goods and can services, help in the promotion of decent work practices devised by and for workers in the platform economy. Such cooperatives formed have alliances with development trade experts, unions, local cooperative governments, funders, legal practitioners, software developers and other and similar ethical standards share that businesses vision to create an ecosystem and spread which around the has world. grown cooperative cooperative “We Can Do It!” brings together members, almost 83 all of whom are migrant women, eco-friendly to women-owned, create a women-run, The housecleaning cooperative business. is designed to create living wage jobs supportsocial opportunitieseducational and its for as well as to provide members. -

210 Transition Transition to formality requires 211 As a result of the increasing demand the increasing of result a As In turn, social protection benefits, such as as such benefits, protection social turn, In 213 212 However, entrepreneurship should be a choice, not a not choice, a be should entrepreneurship However, The lack of access necessity. to safe and decent for opportunitiesdiscrimination in and mal employment employment are two of the drivers behind women taking the entrepreneurship As path. a result, - pro than men entrepreneurs women portionally more and economy in the informal in businesses found are in sectors with low It growth potential. is therefore im- by the issue of informality essential to tackle plementing provisions that go beyond financing and facilitate the to protection social include and training transition of informal workers into decent as work, 204) 2015 advocated by (No. ILO Recommendation, the to informal the from transition the concerning formal economy. evident evident when such programmes are combined with initiatives that raise promoting public things, other awareness among and increase by, acceptance cultural models. role as entrepreneurs female childcare allowances, childcare old-age allowances, pensions and disability asbenefits, well paternity as and maternity, parental will promote an leave, equal sharing of decent work and men. opportunities both women for In the future, greater to attention providing should be incentives transitioning to paid formalized to enterprises, including to economy support solidarity and social other and cooperatives women in enterprises and organizations. a Cooperatives democratic are membership-based that business allow for pooling model of resources and know-how, help mitigate risks and provide a range of services, including finance, and formal social protection Cooperatives systems. facilitatealso integration provide into improved livelihoods, creating economies of scale and negotiating power for their members, especially in rural, informal and Women-only crisis cooperatives economies. and women cooperatives have the advantage for of promoting women’s equality (box and gender economic empowerment Women are 2.8). able to take control of their own particularlyis this importantand activities, economic participatetheir ability to in where situations in cultural and social by is reduced of work the world constraints. - to formaliza obstacles policies aimed at decreasing tion, including investment in infrastructure, such as and electricity relaxing and of piped stringent water, This would ease - the avail regulations for businesses. and productivity increase turn, in and, credit of ability wages A for larger women. tax base would become available, stimulating the expansion of economy. the formal Preferential public public Preferential 208 207 Positive outcomes Positive are 209

205

Another positive development relates to the

206 Overall, Overall, national programmes and offer schemes support to that individuals and through entrepreneurship small have businesses increased. Services business business include plan training, development, mentoring and offering advice allowances, and and counselling, networking and dedicated professional agencies development for and women’s women entrepreneurs. start-ups Around Around the world, approximately one-quarter women to one-third own of incomes generating to addition In formal enterprises. sector and operate for their families, women entrepreneurs contribute create they since economies, national to substantially jobs and provide valuable across businesses operating products are women Although and services. multiple sectors and in international markets, majority the of these entrepreneurs in developing emerging and economies are concentrated markets in and local in to due economy the informal to restricted often low-growth activities. They are constraints such as gender stereotyping, legal regulatory and restrictions, including barriers to access assets, and resources productive over control and to such as land, capital and to education and training their access can restrict credit. Additionally, this opportunities. reducing reducing poverty, enhancing gender work. to formal transitioning equality and procurement policies specifically aimed at enterprises at aimed specifically policies procurement common, more also becoming are women by owned countries. including in developing increased increased financing for women’s entrepreneurship for advancement; example, Mexico has doubled the number of loans available to from women, 7,000 in 2016–2017 to 14,000 in 2018. To mitigate the barriers to women’s entrepreneurship, entrepreneurship, women’s to barriers the mitigate To many countries are endeavouring to create a more favourable environment. These efforts reflect policies entrepreneurship of nature multifaceted the education as such aims, with other linkages their and and skills development, technology and innovation, finance, publicand equality legislation. Trends also procurement, indicate more policies to entrepreneurship approaches integrated capacity-building and their implementation, as well as their financing and training opportunities. For example, with combined training is being women’s entrepreneurship lifelong learning programmes, while also increasing women’s access to markets and their control over productive resources, especially credit, ICT. land and 90 PATHS TO GENDER EQUALITY IN THE WORLD OF 93 228 229 As the world of world the As Box 2.9. Women leaf pickers unionize: A stronger voice for decent work voice for decent A stronger unionize: leaf pickers Women Box 2.9. In the Indian State of approximately 1.5 Odisha, million tribal women and their families make a living by grading collating, collecting, plucking, and supplying kendu leaves in the For forest. many the years, workers endured miserable conditions and were exploited by After the raise organizing leaf to rallies buyers. and workers demonstrations for forest theover tribal seven years, informal the empowered Union Workers Pata Kendu Odisha in victoryoccurred initial The industry. the of share rightful their demand and voices their Forest the of management joint the under trade the brought Government the when 1973 working and wages workers’ the Unfortunately, Corporation. Forest the and Department conditions remained This unchanged. resulted in the union filing an Negotiation industrial continued dispute. until 2004 when the union made a in The call which Government block), finally 500,000–600,000 women for participated. workers a rasta roko (road agreed to set up Board a for wage Trust commission as well as Welfare an Independent with the union kendu leaf and on representation pickers, Generalthe the union’s board, around 95 Secretary per in cent the of position the of Today, pickers a founder trustee. decent achieved have and off better are workers The unionized. are workers seasonal and conditions. in their wages and working improvements through work Increasingly, Increasingly, measures have participation in leadership women’s escalate to been put in For positions. instance, as a result of the place Count Us In! campaign run by the International Trade Union Confederation (ITUC), the average representation rate of women in the highest union decision-making bodies is now 28 per cent, with 7 per cent of leadership top posts held by women. Five years ago, However, simply However, having more women as members in organizations is not enough. It is of importance paramount to ensure leadership and opportunitiesequal access to reach that these women positions. As have the these world have too so roles, of gender traditional embedded work has historically organizations long reflected the traditionalconstruct of including societies, in social their governance Constraints systems. on time women’s due to their them for difficult it make responsibilities care assigned to devote time to the networking activities needed to build support for their leadership. In discouraged addition, a often has culture male-dominated strong women from participating more actively and taking are often Women expected to fulfil up leading roles. identified be to likely less are and roles administrative as leaders or given the training and necessary opportunities to develop these skills. work has changed and more women have entered measures proactive and the intensive labour market, campaigns helped have to change perceptions of the in these organizations. value of women added

227 224 Organizing migrant migrant Organizing 226 225 workers, including through workers, bilateral has agreements, voice. a workers care migrant giving of means a been Innovative Innovative organizing techniques – including the use of digital technology – can offer to a organizing new labour approach and attracting more Workers across women. diverse workplaces and countries in engage and digital means through be organized can action. collective of forms new First and foremost, it is important together. come collectively to to space the have women ensure that raising has played awareness countries, In developing understand in the helping benefits women role a key demonstrate to made been have Efforts unionizing. of the credibility of unions in the area of profileto equality, women members with a view to promoting solidarity among women workers, and services providing to to devoted organizations as present unions have unions Benin, in instance, For members. their to their in women working for services laundry provided neighbourhood to alleviate their heavy workload at work and in the home to and, concurrently, create neighbourhood. the in women other for employment They have also provided the childcare main market for children of facilities women vendors to near facilitate allowing breastfeeding, women to continue participateto time their up free to also and working, activities. in collective Efforts have also been made cooperatives in to unions, particularly women, workers, organize informal or in associations, order to increase their collective and representative voice. Making work decent and more remunerative, overcoming discrimination and redefining social norms to seek workers informal of organizations that goals are among common the 2.9). (box achieve also has a positive governance, impact identity on and an influence organization’s women’s public perceptions about image. of It these the values organizations can join. it Importantly, and can advance gender incentivize equality by them in social aspirations and needs prioritizing women’s to bargaining. dialogue and collective

223 217 221 219 despite the the despite 222 Societies cannot 220

218

afford afford to leave women and representation of women’s issues Addressing out of these participation processes. in tripartite as bodies, well as in trade unions and employers’ and representation. voice collective promoting organizations, is key to fact that workers’ and employers’ organizations employers’ and workers’ that fact that improve gender diversity internally are better positioned to serve the needs of their members. However, women continue to be under-represented However, institutions dialogue social in national AND VOICE REPRESENTATION the Finally, different paths discussed so far – rights, infrastructure, social protection and and engagement and support work through services, public care transitions – need to function Collective in representation. tandem and voice with women’s of path the through employers and workers of representation that lies at the heartis a public good social dialogue and be encouraged and that should of democracy pursued through public policies. 4. THE PATH OF WOMEN’S WOMEN’S OF THE PATH 4. Overall, the future of women’s entrepreneurship will entrepreneurship of women’s the future Overall, business attention to women’s increased require incubators and innovation in as the digital economy, well as better access to finance and such credit, as technology. blockchain and banking mobile through Having Having more women in decision-making structures Such technology allows digital information distributed but not which copied, to can translate into be Viet in For example, autonomy. benefitsfor women’s Nam, women entrepreneurs are using blockchain technology to prove their ownership assets, of verify business production values digital and identity. Blockchain establish has benefit a women in rural the areas,where their chances potential in limited are account financial individual an having of to comparison to men, as well as during humanitarian crises. Furthermore, Furthermore, the future of women entrepreneurship should embrace for all women, including older women who have life experience, and are self-confidence willing to try new Recognizing things. these abilities would help to boost economies, including in rural areas. In fact, women entrepreneurs aged 55 to 64, who in most countries outnumber entrepreneurs businesses men of women-owned the of same cent age, are per more 70 likely with to succeed, cent per 28 to compared years five than more lasting entrepreneurs. young by of those owned 92 PATHS TO GENDER EQUALITY IN THE WORLD OF 95

242 244 while the Lebanese League for Women Women while for the Lebanese League 243 in Business launched its “Women on Boards 2025” on working been then since has and 2016, in initiative multiple fronts to achieve the objective of having 30 2025. of companies by on boards per cent women To To address the expand and processes democratic promote male-dominated cultures pool of and candidates, a common mechanism to can organizations of the employers’ all members is that put forward nominations for creating board opportunities membership, for diverse nominations. In addition, other mechanisms, such measures, including as voluntary targets proactive and timelines, have also been introduced. For instance, in France, the Mouvement des in management Entreprises women for quota a introduced de France, has positions, All these promising stories indicate that it is not a All these promising the that ensuring rather but women “fixing” of matter environment is voice receptive to and women’s that to to allow women participate removed barriers are in national social that embrace and social dialogue representation dialogue processes. Collective gender diversity are better positioned to pursue swiftly more to and transitions work of navigate future women for all the paths that lead to a better future at work. 238 For instance, the national For instance, 240

239 241 Employers’ Employers’ organizations diversity in gender various improve countries to steps have important taken also internally. First, they have increasingly work–life supported balance as equality a in way leadership to and management. implemented include achieve flexible Measures working arrangements, greater child-friendly policies and mentoring and training for staff on gender diversity. Beyond quotas, women’s committees have also offered offered also have committees women’s quotas, Beyond significant opportunities advanceto the agenda working in improvements voicing by of work at women conditions and building a working environment free from gender discrimination and For unfair example, in the treatment. Dominican Republic, the trade union BANELINO (Asociación Bananos Ecológicos de la formed Línea by Noroeste), Caribbean banana in Committee Pro-Women its established producers, women participated For actively the first time, 2014. in the hierarchical union’s contributing structure, to their empowerment. employers’ employers’ organization in South Africa Unity (Business South Africa) conducts training for at while board level, the Honduran women Private Business professionals women for mentoring Council offers through its Vital Voices programme Small and under the Micro, as through as well Achievement Junior Medium Development Centres. The Montenegrin the Business founded Federation Employers’ supportto the Montenegro of Association Women development of women in management. entrepreneurship and urban and rural academics, workers, young trade women women the of help the with workers LGBTI and and with academia build bridges to capacity members’ partnership in with social organizations. to work 230 In Brazil, the Unified 237 In Brazil, Central Única 234 In Spain, the General Workers Workers General the Spain, In 235 232 Furthermore, in Argentina, many 233 236 Quota systems have also been adopted to adopted been also have systems Quota

231

de Trabajadores de Trabajadores sets a lower limit of 30 per and an cent upper limit of 70 per cent of positions. either leadership sex in unions have adopted quotas of 30 per cent women in union elected including positions, the negotiation membership women’s if bargaining collective for team was below 30 per cent. Confederation adopted a quota system to establish to establish system a quota adopted Confederation each sex in decision- limit of 40 per cent for a lower making bodies. Quota policies have also been extended to ensure gender diversity. For example, the Kenya National Alliance of Street Vendors (KENASVIT) and Informal invested Traders on gender mainstreaming, youth participation institutionalization and the of participation of persons with KENASVIT disabilities. appointed and structures its leadership that requires two- than more no by represented be should positions thirds of the same KENASVIT Additionally, gender. promotes the active participation of persons as well as with processes decision-making its in disabilities in entrepreneurial activities. For For instance, in Latin quota a gender Americas has America, of the Confederation the Trade Union Council and of 40 on per the cent Executive women the Secretariat and 50 per cent for the delegations to congresses. At the national participation and women’s helped to increase level, proactive measures representation in the have internal governance structure of trade unions. For instance, the in representation women’s increased has quotas of implementation union decision-making processes, effecting a for more specifically organizing strategy, gender-responsive women. women women occupied less than 15 per cent of the two top positions in their The organizations. campaign membership women’s increased considerably also in trade unions, with a number of unions reporting increases ranging from 2.5 per cent to 23 per cent. membership Women’s rates average 42 per cent in the of cent per 40 occupy women and affiliates ITUC of Global Unions. top leadership positions Workers’ Workers’ Central invests in empowering black and rural women and also promotes greater integrating diversity, women from poorer neighbourhoods, achieve achieve a more equal representation of women and men among negotiators during collective bargaining. has negotiations collective in quotas of adoption The positively influenced women’s representation and organizational outcomes, which has contributed to union revitalization. 94 PATHS TO GENDER EQUALITY IN THE WORLD OF 97

Nepal and Pakistan (ILO, 2012a). In Latin America, all countries except for Guatemala and Venezuela Venezuela and Guatemala all countries except for America, In Latin 2012a). Nepal and Pakistan (ILO, Rwanda has long African continent, On the elections. gender quotas to national legislative apply making up 61 per with women been a champion of gender equality in political representation, in common with Rwanda, house and 38.5 per cent in its Senate. in its lower the cent of representatives South Sudan, Somalia, the Niger, Morocco, Kenya, Eswatini, Eritrea, Djibouti, Burundi, Algeria, in its women seats for has reserved and Zimbabwe, Uganda Tanzania, the United Republic of Sudan, 2018b). national parliament (IPU, 103 of 2011 in France. No. and Law 120 of 2011 in Italy No. See Law 2018a. IPU, 2017k. ILO, Legislative Decree No. 80 of 2015, INPS Circular No. 65 of 2016. of 2016. 65 No. INPS Circular of 2015, 80 No. Decree Legislative 2018. Oxfam, than 160 more in 2017 (ETUC), Union Confederation Trade the European by As reported of forms the multiple addressing countries, European in place in ten were agreements collective the In the Philippines, 2017). (ETUC, of work in the world harassment prevalent violence and negotiated support with the Global Union, of the IndustriALL Labour Unions, Associated in the mining, provisions with anti-sexual harassment agreements bargaining eight collective the Ministry than 70 unions and more of Labour Argentina, In energy sectors. and manufacturing and harassment and deal with violence to prevent agreement collective signed a groundbreaking and harassment in of violence all forms condemns This agreement in 2012. of work in the world and as a means of establishing policies bargaining collective and promotes of work the world currently unions are many With this in mind, at work. to end such mistreatment measures 2017). workplace (Pillinger, deal with violence in the establishing offices to 2018. Stonewall, 2018. Paul, 2018. Lippel, 2013. Tomei, and Olney Oelz, 2018g. ILO, 2014. Africa, of South Government 2015; and Levine, Greenfield 2018. and Behrendt, Addati 2017j. ILO, 2015. Bettio and Betti, Tinios, 2016; et al., Samek Lodovici 2016a. ILO, 2009; Fultz, 2017j. ILO, 2015. Woodall, and Behrendt pension coverage in effective is no gender gap 85 per cent of the countries in which there Over 2018). ITUC, 2017j; or pension tested (ILO, either universal non-contributory pensions; have 2017b. ILO, 2018. of Iceland, Government 2016. Australia, of Government in December 2018, time of writing this report, At the 2018. SECC-S, of Switzerland, Government companies with at In the future, Act. an amendment to the Gender Equality Swiss Parliament voted cent of the Swiss (constituting about 1 per cent of companies and 46 per least 100 employees conduct of the analysis The correct analyses. equal pay to conduct regular will have workforce) social organization, equality non-governmental gender partyby a third (audit body, be verified concerned. to the management of the company within one year which sends a report partner), 2018. Watson, Towers Willis 1996. Fortin and Lemieux, DiNardo, 2015. Waxman, and Rijkers Hallward-Driemeier, 2015. and Mojsoska Blazevski, Petreski 2016. Rubery and Koukiadaki, 2018g. ILO, Ibid. 2018. Chalaby, 2011. Sissoko, 2018. Chalaby, 2014. Pillinger, 2018g. ILO, Workers Ltd v Service Homes & Care and Food Terranova 2014. Zealand, Appeal of New Court of CA63/2013 [2014] NZCA 516. Inc, Tota Union Nga Ringa 2016. of France, Government 2015. and Rubery, Grimshaw Japan, India, El Salvador, Cuba, Cambodia, Bulgaria, Belize, The list of countries includes Belgium, 74 75 76 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 the must 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73

ILO, 2019b ILO, 1944. ILO, 2018. Campbell et al., 2012a. ILO, 2015.” Women, UN 2016; Fredman, 2018; Campbell et al., to the the Informal from Transition the 122), 1964 (No. Convention, Policy such as the Employment Other ILO standards, 102), (No. 1952 Convention, Standards) the Social Security (Minimum 204), 2015 (No. Recommendation, Economy Formal 1975 Convention, Development 202) and the Human Resources 2012 (No. Recommendation, Floors the Social Protection focus on of instruments A further group specific provisions. of non-discrimination through the principle 142) address (No. Work the Part-Time 141), 1975 (No. Organisations Convention, Workers’ the Rural such as of workers, distinct categories Tribal the Indigenous and 193), 2002 (No. Recommendation, of Cooperatives the Promotion 175), 1994 (No. Convention, 1983 Convention, Persons) (Disabled and Rehabilitation Employment Vocational the 169), 1989 (No. Convention, Peoples 177). 1996 (No. Convention, Work 159) and the Home (No. 2012a. ILO, 2012a. ILO, 2019; Bates, could not access basic that they reported economy in the platform up to 70 per cent of workers Union, In the European 2017). Parliament, and housing benefits (European childcare pregnancy, such as schemes, 2012a. ILO, 2018. Campbell et al., 2008. Uccellari, the concept of attempted to address have Africa, and South Canada Bulgaria, such as Poland, countries, a few only So far, provided have and Romania, Italy Austria, such as Other countries, or intersectional discrimination in legislation. multiple 2011). into account when calculating compensation (Howard, discrimination to be taken multiple for 2012a. ILO, one-third by has dropped child marriage and Health Surveys, the Demographic data from to the latest available According 2018). sharpest decline (UNICEF, word’s the in the last decade, 2013. and Gajigo, Hallward-Driemeier 2015. Gonzales et al., 2018. USAID, 2018f. ILO, Ibid. 2018. and Zimmermann, Hoehtker Boris, 2018). Bank, Some 94 countries out of a total of 171 (World 2017. Napier-Moore, 2016d; ILO, 2018f. ILO, 2012a; ILO, 2012a. ILO, of suppliers as a way female use of policies to include greater procurement started to redefine have Governments Successful of equal value. work for public bids and ensuring equal pay participation through workforce women’s increasing Israel, India, Botswana, such as Chile, Some countries, jurisdictions. been enacted in several have reforms procurement Kenya, Namibia, South Africa, the United States and Zambia, have introduced preferential public procurement policies policies public procurement preferential introduced have the United States and Zambia, Africa, South Namibia, Kenya, 2018). Combaz, 2017; Rimmer, women (Harris by owned aimed at enterprises specifically 2016. Act, (Amendment) Public Procurement Tanzania, of the United Republic of Government 111). 1958 (No. and Occupation) Recommendation, See also ILO Discrimination (Employment 2018. Bank, World 2017. ILO–Gallup, Ibid. sex discrimination in legislation that prohibits Africa have 15 countries in sub-Saharan only 2015, to data from According 2015). Bank, (African Development recruitment 2017. Harkins and Åhlberg, 2017f. ILO, 2017e; ILO, 2017d; ILO, 2018c. ILO, 2018d. ILO, 2018. Borino, women In Italy, and Spain. Italy 2018), Ombudsman, Work Australia (Fair Argentina, in found examples are Interesting to be have they to be eligible, In order on full pay. period of leave to a three-month entitled victims of violence are enrolled in a safety and rehabilitation programme run by dedicated public services, see Art. 24, 24, Art. see dedicated public services, run by programme and rehabilitation in a safety enrolled

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96 PATHS TO GENDER EQUALITY IN THE WORLD OF 99

ILO, 2018f. ILO, 2018. Chopra, 2018a. ILO, 2018. Chopra, 2017. Bank, Asian Development 2018c. ILO, 2018. Irvin-Erickson and Kamiran, Malik, 2018a. Work, of the Future Global Commission on Ibid. 2018l. ILO, 2018a. ILO, irrigation and maintenance, construction of road operational in the areas are These programmes and soil conservation. reforestation infrastructure, 2018i. ILO, 2017. UN, 2013a; ILO, 2017. Nussbaum, Accounts production the 2008 System of National “services”(beyond of Own-use provision accounting and (i) household boundary boundary) production but within the general covers: household and/or serving (ii) preparing meals, and/or transporting goods; purchasing management, or dwelling own decorating and maintaining one’s (iii) cleaning, waste disposal and recycling; transporting and and instruction, (iv) childcare and gardening; other goods, durables and premises, The etc. members and domestic animals or pets, dependent or other household older, caring for by the final use for intended destination of the output is mainly means that the own-use” “for term by household members or family final consumption or formation, of capital in the form producer 2019b). ILO, members living in other households (ILO 2018j; 2016. Department of Statistics, ILO. 63.5 per cent of the representing 53 countries data from to ILO estimates based on According cent of amounts to 9.0 per work in unpaid care the time spent population, global working-age equivalent of 11 trillion US and is the of GDP, contributing 6.6 per cent with women global GDP, ILO, See also 2018a). USD) (ILO, for year parity (2011 as the reference power dollars purchasing 2009. Sen and Fitoussi, Stiglitz, 2019; 2018a. ILO, to less than 1 cent of GDP in Denmark and Sweden 8 per over ranges from investment Public Ibid. to more Countries tend to invest India and Indonesia. Turkey, Mexico, Africa, per cent in South sickness and population in case of maternity, contingencies of the working-age offset the care injury as disability (in that case spanning all ages) (2 per cent of GDP on employment as well on pre- (0.47 per cent of GDP on average the very needs of young the care and less for average), care on long-term primary education) and older persons (0.98 per cent of GDP on average people). concerns older which mainly expenditure, Ibid. 2018a. ILO, 2018; Hill, 2017. the Study of International Development, Institute for 2017. Ameratunga, 2017j. ILO, 2018a. ILO, 2017. International Finance Corporation, 2019. Fuller and Raman, Ibid. 2018a. ILO, 2017j. ILO, Ibid. 2018a. ILO, 2017. CEACR, 2018a. ILO, 2017h. ILO, 2018a. ILO, be needed US$12.8 trillion would an additional economy the SDGs in the care achieve To (Ibid). of investment levels with 2015 compared Ibid. 2016b. ILO, 2017g. ILO, 2018. et al., Barria protection benefits in case of sickness, unemployment of payment wage, minimum hourly E.g. 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162

mentoring of women. This means that, even when participating in formalized mentorship programmes, women are not are women when participating mentorship programmes, in formalized even that, This means of women. mentoring within the occurring Mentoring is still the same opportunities careers. to advance in their as their male peers given do not tend to fundamentally Mentorship programmes and women. about men a system built on assumptions context of not may that barriers overcome to designed be must programmes Such functions. organization in which an way the change and assumptions about women. critical of the stereotypes be visible and to be more 2009. Richman and Magrane, 2011. Women, on Research International Center for 2013. et al., Lundgren 2017. (AÇEV), Vakfı Anne Çocuk Egitim 2017. ILO–Gallup, situation and includes family to deal with a in order work from away of time allowed is meant as a period leave Family leave. paternity and parental maternity, 2016. Zbyszewska, 2019a. ILO, 191 in 2000. No. 95 in 1952 and No. Recommendations, the corresponding with Together ILO Social instance, For of maternity protection. furtherand level enriched the scope have Other ILO Conventions resident benefits to be granted at least to all maternity 202) calls for 2012 (No. Floors Recommendation, Protection extend maternity protection The call to progressively protection. universal of achieving with the objective workers, Economy to the Formal the Informal from Transition is further highlighted in the economy in the informal to all workers 204). (No. 2015 Recommendation, 2014b. ILO, 2018a. ILO, Ibid. 2014b. ILO, Ibid. 2017j. ILO, 1993. ILO, 2018. Tamm, 2013; Huerta et al., 2010. Johansson, 2018. Network, International Leave 2012. Rutten, 2009; O’Brien, 2001; Brandth and Kvande, with years and then decreased a period of 20 over quota was first increased leave the mandatory father’s In Norway, the time that men in the mandatory reduced The decrease quota dramatically the option of taking voluntary paid leave. the father/co-parent for of a mandatory reserved quota of 15 weeks leading to the reintroduction leave, spent on parental 2017). in 2018 (NAV, 2016. van Belle, 2018a. ILO, 2011. Haas and Rostgaard, 2013. Rudman and Mescher, entitled to a month of unpaid are but public sector workers is no statutory there leave, paternity Austria, in instance, For 2018a). the birth for of a child (ILO, on full pay of leave days a few provide agreements Other collective leave. 2014b. ILO, 2014. Yeandle, Kröger and 2018a. ILO, 2017. ISSA, 2016a). week (see ILO, than 15 hours per fewer for working is defined as “Marginal part-time work” 2016a. ILO, 2018p. ILO, has pay five-day while still earning their regular a week days just four the option to work 2018, November Starting from 2018). Zealand (Foster, in New to all workers become a normal option available 2018p. ILO, 2019a. ILO, 2017. and ILO, Eurofound taken and have non-working-time employees’ protecting of ICT by effects attempt to limit the negative These initiatives collective different In the majority of cases, in France and Germany. most prominently level, place at the workplace as during weekends as well hours, email servers after normal working of company limited the functioning have agreements of revision recent France enacted a specific article right to be disconnected in a on the In addition, periods. and holiday to negotiate employees with 50 or more company every includes an obligation for which in 2016, labour code, the French lives family and their personal and periods of workers and holiday the rest for respect to ensure the use of ICT in order 2018p). (ILO, 2014. Pillinger, Ibid. 2017. and Martinovic, Bodiraga-Vukobrat and over- of under-sponsoring to suggest the presence seems research However, 2010. Carter and Silva, Ibarra,

80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 78 79 77 98 PATHS TO GENDER EQUALITY IN THE WORLD OF 101 and the region representing their interests. In Asia, the Federation of Asian Domestic of the Federation Asia, In their interests. representing and the region Special in Hong Kong unions of domestic workers Unions unites six nationality-based Ibid. 2018. Isele, 2019a. ILO, 2011. Muller, Briskin and forthcoming. Muller, 2017a. ILO, 2009. and Kawar, Ameratunga 2002.; et al., Ameratunga Ibid.; 2002. Ameratunga et al., 2019. King-Dejardin, Lebanon assisted Unions in Trade and Employee Worker of the National Federation In 2015, in which became the first union Union, Workers Domestic the to found migrant domestic workers Lebanon Workers domestic between was reached a bi-national agreement In 2014, China. Region, Administrative to promote Argentina and in Paraguay organizations and trade union confederations workers’ same year, In the Argentina. in employed migrant domestic workers Paraguayan for decent work Allied Domestic and the Zimbabwe Unions, Trade African of South of the Congress representatives of Federation the Union, Workers Allied ServiceAfrican Domestic and the South Union, Workers Trade of Congress the Zimbabwe and Union Congress Trade the Lesotho Africa, Unions of South for decent work joint action plan to promote declaration and Unions signed a tri-national workers’ 2019). (King-Dejardin, and Lesotho Corridor Zimbabwe Africa, along the South migrant domestic workers 2018. Nathan, 2017a. ILO, Ameratunga et al.,2002; 2018. Gausi, 2014. Kirsch and Blaschke, 2014. Eurofound, 2017. Anigstein, 2012. Gobble, Ibid. Ibid. 2016. Dias and Sansom, 2018. Castro, http://www.fao.org/world-banana-forum/projects/good-practices/women-committee/en/ See: 2017a. ILO, 2018. ACT/EMP, IOE-ILO 2017a. ILO, 2018. ACT/EMP IOE-ILO 2016. in Business, Women Lebanese League for 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240 241 242 243 244

can also be introduced on financial transactions and most of the resulting revenue used to fund social policies and used to fund social policies and revenue resulting transactions and most of the on financial can also be introduced 2018a). 1997 to 2008 (ILO, from as was the case in Brazil and social protection, to health care such as access services, 2013. Kabeer and Natali, 1995; Elson, 1989. Standing, 2000; Elson and Cagatay, 2009. Bussolo and De Hoyos, 2016. Sinha and Mehrotra, 2006. Wallerstein and Bowles, Barhan, 2005. Braunstein and Heintz, 2012. Seguino and Heintz, 2017. Esquivel, 2017. Women, UN 2016. Stotsky, 2018; Chopra, 2014. Women, Bank and UN Asian Development 2016. Stotsky, 2019a. ILO, Ibid. 2018k. ILO, 2010. Pitt and Bovill, Waller, 2015. Huber and Huemer, 2011. Boeren, 2019a. ILO, 2018o). and the United Kingdom (ILO, Russian Federation of Korea, Republic Japan, Countries include India, 2018o). and the United States (ILO, Federation Russian the Netherlands, Canada, Australia, Argentina, Countries include Ibid. using the of women the proportion access to ICT and their lack of resources, on women’s restrictions Due to the greater 2017). (ITU, worldwide of men using the Internet than the proportion Internet is 12 per cent lower 2016. ITU, becoming pregnant school for being excluded from currently African countries are of girls in a number example, For 2018). Watch, (Human Rights 2018. and Grönlund, Boye 2011. Thomas, Malcolm and Jackson, 2018o. ILO, Ibid. 2018e. ILO, 2017. Ameratunga, 2018o. ILO, 2012a. ILO, 2018o. ILO, Ibid. 2018n. ILO, 2009. Oviedo, 2014a. ILO, 2018. Esim and Katajamäki, See https://www.wecandoit.coop/about. 2017. and Khai, N’Diaye Seck, Blockchain is a technology based on distributed ledger databases that facilitates peer-to-peer to Blockchain is resistant the databases. partytransactions without using a third which controls in the databases and millions of is stored information data tampering as all the transaction-related 2018). Young, (Hammond and ledger in a decentralized way on the shared users agree dismissal and rules on the cancellation of shifts, the right to holidays and working-time protection. and working-time to holidays the right of shifts, rules on the cancellation dismissal and 2018. De Stefano, 2011. METI, of Japan, Government PSA. Fromm, Andrea with correspondence from is taken in this box The information 2018. Ross, and Davies Martin, 2016a. 2018b. Work, of the Future Global Commission on 2018; and Nguyen, Behrendt 2016a. ILO, 2018b; Work, of the Future Global Commission on 2018. Ortiz et al., 2017j; ILO, 2017j. ILO, 2018b. Work, of the Future Global Commission on 2018; and Nguyen, Behrendt 2017. UNHLP, 2017. Women, UN taxes New 2005. 1998 and between was recorded in tax revenue increase a 60 per cent where Rwanda, instance, For

176 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 against 100 women’s women’s equality &equality empowerment. Achieve genderAchieve TOWARDS A TRANSFORMATIVE AND MEASURABLE AGENDA FOR GENDER EQUALI- TY 103 10.4 Adopt policies, especially fiscal, wage and social protection policies, and achieve progressively gender greater equality. 10.2 Empower and the social, promote economic and political inclusion of of all, irrespective age, sex, disability, origin, race, ethnicity, or economic religion or other status. equal 10.3 Ensure opportunity and inequalities of reduce outcomes, including by eliminating discriminatory laws, policies and practices, and promoting legislation, appropriate policies and action in this regard. Progressively 10.1 Progressively achieve and sustain of the income growth bottom 40 per cent aof the population at rate higher than the national average. IMAGE PLACEHOLDER All girls and 4.1 boys complete equitable and free, quality primary and secondary education leading to effective learning outcomes. Ensure all girls and 4.2 Ensure boys have access to quality early childhood development, care and pre-primary education. equal 4.3 Ensure access for all women and men to affordable and quality technical, vocational and tertiary education. the 4.4 Increase number of youth and adults who skills, have relevant including technical and vocational skills, for employment, decent jobs and entrepreneurship. 4.5 Eliminate gender disparities in education equal and ensure access to all levels of education and vocational training for the vulnerable, including persons with disabilities, indigenous in peoples and children vulnerable situations. 4.C Substantially supply of the increase qualified teachers. 8.5 Achieve full and productive employment and decent work for all women and men. 8.5 Achieve equal pay for work of equal value. labour 8.8 Protect safe rights and promote working and secure for all environments workers, including migrant workers, in particular women migrants, and those in precarious employment. the 8.10 Strengthen capacity of domestic to institutions financial encourage and expand access to banking, insurance and financial services for all. 5.1 End all forms of discrimination against women. 5.2 Eliminate all forms of violence against women and girls in the public and private spheres. the 5.4 Recognize value of unpaid care and domestic work public services, through and social infrastructure policies. protection women’s 5.5 Ensure full and effective participation and equal opportunities for leadership. 5.B Enhance the use of enabling technology the to promote empowerment of women.

5.C Adopt and sound strengthen policies and legislation enforceable of for the promotion gender equality.

Source: Authors’ elaboration based on United Nations General Assembly, 2015. Assembly, General Authors’ elaboration based on United Nations Source: Table 3.1. Sustainable Development Goals for a better future of women at work work at women of future better a for Goals Development Sustainable 3.1. Table 6 also to achieving education, peace and safety, as also well to peace achieving and education, safety, as food nutrition security, and health outcomes for children and all members of the household. It boosting also resources, natural preserving to contributes inclusive economic growth, generating decent jobs and production of means facilitating sustainable and consumption. Some of the 2030 Agenda relevant SDGs to achieving are a better future particularly for women at work: > SDG 5 on achieving and girls. all women empowering gender equality and > SDG 8 on promoting sustained, inclusive sustainable and economic growth, full and all. for and decent work employment productive > SDG 4 on ensuring learning lifelong promoting and quality education inclusive and equitable opportunities all. for among inequalities within and > SDG 10 on reducing countries. relate that SDGs the of details the highlights 3.1 Table specifically to future in gender equality andwomen’s of work. the world

Mutually Mutually 3 2 Gender Together, Together, 5 4 1

for women simply replicating the past. for women simply replicating gender gaps. A quantum leap is needed to prevent the future of work the future to prevent needed is A quantum leap gender gaps. intact, as evidenced by the lack of any meaningful progress in closing meaningful progress of any the lack by evidenced intact, as Barriers to women’s participation in the world firmly of work remain Barriers to women’s DA FOR GENDER EQUALITY EQUALITY FOR GENDER DA - AGEN MEASURABLE TIVE AND - A TRANSFORMA TOWARDS CHAPTER 3 CHAPTER equality is the nexus of all the interconnected and all the interconnected equality is the nexus of women all for work decent as SDGs, interdependent contributes not only to making poverty history but With a gender gap in of 20 an gap average a gender pay points, percentage employment rates of 26.0 per cent (18.8) and only 27.1 per cent of managerial obvious is it women, by filled positions leadership and world the in equality gender rate, present the at that, of work will not be achieved for many A lifetimes. transformative and measurable agenda for gender equality is urgently as needed, called for by Work. the ILO of Future the on Commission Global

Women’s Women’s labour market ignored aspirations for too long, and policies have have focused on been “fixing”women so they adjust to aworld ofwork men. and by designed for reinforcing reinforcing paths need to converge to provide the key elements for a gender equality agenda. Such an opportunities is crucial to widening people’s agenda and improving their well-being at a time when new of work. the world transforming are forces The 2030 in a goal equality is not only that gender recognizes Sustainable itself, but a Development prerequisite for progress across all 17 Agenda Sustainable Development Goals collective (SDGs). a for blueprint comprehensive a out set they journey towards a more inclusive and future sustainable in which nobody is left behind. 102 TOWARDS A TRANSFORMATIVE AND MEASURABLE AGENDA FOR GENDER EQUALI- TY 105 women measure No progress is Paths that run that Paths an elusive goal representation of representation caregiver in equal feasible without a stronger voice and stronger voice now called upon to parallel and never and parallel Women and men are be both worker and meet will continue to meet will continue make gender equality make gender equality 9 Experience shows that compulsory measures are compulsory that are shows Experience measures gender traditional challenge meaningfully needed to essential an is poverty time women’s Addressing roles. of responsibilities. element to enable a redistribution Achieving this goal accommodates and embraces that approach requires a contemporary new workers’ needs, aspirations, regulatory choices the in investment increasing addition, In interests. and conditions working decent ensure to economy care is including another for migrants, care area workers, jobs care More must urgent where action is needed. be created to address the impending care crisis and the – need for more jobs in general in the future. Decent care jobs have the likelihood to be one of the biggest areas Therefore, of employment growth. society and the men, potential dividends for women, the economy could be significant.Work This of Future in the Global Commission on the is echoed which advocates for public report, in investment the care economy to advance true gender equality and ageing population. the needs of a rapidly address Despite different economic and social realities, the will necessarily care and of work reconciliation imply a range of providing include These interventions that equality. work substantive realizing towards infrastructure, policies social implementing and designing protection as well as and services, public care work through and supportthat engage women None of this transitions. is progress feasible without a stronger voice and of representation women at all These levels paths of the decision-making processes. will also need to be conceived as mutually complementary, supportive and Paths reinforcing. that run gender make to continue will meet never and parallel goal. equality an elusive 7 For accelerating this a reason, 8 new equilibrium requires bold policies and measures policies and measures bold equilibrium requires new that end discrimination against violence and women, harassment in including the world of and work, equality promote that actively will the reconcile two “care”. and “work” of worlds essential 2 are paths detailed in Chapter While all four work, of world the in equality gender accelerating for startingthe countryeach point for on will depend its particular of level and development the structure basic and infrastructure instance, For of its economy. public particularly services, in may be rural an areas, essential starting point in changing the trajectory of in some work time spent in unpaid care women’s economies, advanced more In economies. developing policies servicescare as as leave and family well care be the initial entrymore a point in promoting may between responsibilities of care equitable sharing women and men and between the family and State. Provisions establishing that women and men to and equal access of work equal rights in the world have represent a social basic protection however, should, practice in equality achieving and demanding for floor in all countries. makes model societal current the as long as However, men for feasible acceptable and economically it socially to but choice no have women care, to not choose to take on the burden. This mutual dependence is even more apparent in the in apparent more even is dependence mutual This digital and a towards transition current the of context Decreasing fertility green increasing economy. rates, migrant movements and ageing populations and today’s are employment in of women rising number a Care and work must be therefore integral to reality. the reality of both women and men, who are equal in caregiver now and worker both be to upon called measure. In other words, it is necessary to ensure and both a social function as that caring is recognized a in social the good, and same “work” is, it way that able be should and could everyone that clear be must to contribute to both.

GENDER EQUALITY In the current organization of women societies, and care unpaid of share greatest the still perform girls work, even though men and boys of first century the are increasinglyaware twenty- of the need to partshoulder to eager and the of burden this share A shift in mindsets can be accelerated responsibility. that not only if economies and societies recognize but they depend on to work care survive and thrive, also that work and care are closely interconnected. A QUANTUM LEAP FORA QUANTUM When structural barriers for women in the world of in the world women for When structural barriers comprehensive and systematic a in addressed are work way, through a reduced. be can gaps gender practices, and legislation combination of sound Investing in policies, transformative policies is achieving essential gender Such equality. to measures, especially when mandatory, have the potential persistent to gender stereotypes and challenge prejudices about Redistributing society. in men and women of roles the division equal more a promoting by work care unpaid and between women between and families men, and is care when Only objective. prime a be must society will policies economic and social of the centre put at a better future of work for women – and for men – be possible. Eliminating direct discrimination is essential for a for is essential discrimination direct Eliminating better future of women at work, but it is its not, on own, sufficient to ensureand to close substantive the persisting gender equality Eradicating gaps. gender-specific constraints, wellas as forms other of discrimination with requires which they intersect, of forms indirect concerteda effort address to discrimination and the structural barriers that have the effect, if not always the intention, of producing unequal outcomes. Achieving substantive calls equality for overcoming longstanding stereotypes and contract. egalitarian gender a more shaping thereby 104 TOWARDS A TRANSFORMATIVE AND MEASURABLE AGENDA FOR GENDER EQUALI- TY 107 “Gender equality is a “Gender goal common universal that and an aspiration can only be reached solidarity through countries, people between and institutions, as emphasized in the 2030 Development Sustainable Agenda.” 15 Accelerating Accelerating action to develop transformative and and implement measurable a agenda for concerteda response gender requires work at equality that will engage the multiple dimensions of infrastructure, rights, social through supportcan policies that and women protection, care work services, Voice transitions. and harnessing representation does as play paths, an these of all in role important who technologylift women equality to gender for lag including behind, those in the informal economy. and redistributing unpaid reducing, care Recognizing, paid care representing and and rewarding work Framework, 5R ILO’s the in encapsulated as workers, not only cuts across all these areas, it 3.1). ahead (see illustration is road of the foundation the very EMBRACING COMMITMENTS EMBRACING A BRIGHTER FUTURE OF FOR WORK WOMEN AT The future of work has the immense potential opportunities to to provide improve the the quality working lives of of women and expand men, their choices and achieve social justice for To all. move from potential to reality, a human-centred agenda offers the best way to achieve the era. changes needed in this new transformative contribution important an made always have Women contributions Those societies. to and economy the to need to be acknowledged and and valued, solutions opportunities equal enjoy fully to them allow will that need to be consciously at work and treatment accelerated. For this to happen, bold commitments must translate into concrete transformative policies laws, and practices value that women’s and remove men’s work equally stereotypes, with equal table the at sit and to women to door the open Generous and smart are needed investments power. to support such commitments, as well as rigorous monitoring and accountability. Gender equality is a universal through be reached an aspiration that can only common goal and people and institutions, countries, solidarity between as emphasized in the 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda. Tripartism, which is structure of the is ILO, a embedded dynamic force to upscale in efforts and the achieve gender equality in obligation, an the have world constituents its of and ILO The work. that no to one ensure is left placed, uniquely and are of work. behind in the future Such an Such

13 11 It requires placing requires It 12 Everyone has a role to 14 approach approach ensures the representation of all relevant and different voices, and specificallypays attention to intersectionality, the provision of proper space to contested positions, and a whose platform voices for are those often not dialogue through come must challenges these to heard. The response and participation, and mechanisms need to be put who those of the accountability ensure in place to represent these interests. play play in advocating for change and raising awareness to accelerate this momentous achievement. Walking the paths towards a better towards the paths Walking for women at work future given reach, within is women for equality Substantive policies working social and the right mix of economic in tandem and in a way that is inclusive of different social groups. A key element about “nothing for of the concept equality is embedding tangible gender us without us” into the workstreams of all policy- and decision-makers so that it This means promoting becomes and for all facilitating women. a reality and participationdemocratic in the making of laws enforcement. their in and policies emphasis not only on individual but agency, also on building strategic collective action through solidarity, requiring and mobilization social promoting alliances, decision-making. in participation committed exploit emerging data sources and methods; strong the national at commitment and backing political level to support gender statistics; and gender equality. on based decision-making evidenced- 10

The crucial gender statistics and mainstream statistical capacity elements necessary within statistical systems are: a to sustainable funding mechanism at both the national and international improve to programme development skills innovative an level; Other areas where more and better gender data gender better and more where Other areas in early ratios enrolment the gross are needed are childhood education and development, which the between association monitoring the crucial to are employment and institutions of childcare presence rates for mothers of young more needs children. to In be known addition, about the take-up rates of paternity and parental leave for National fathers. statistical officesshould disaggregate databy gender, age, race, ethnicity, migratory status, disability and location. geographic Good gender-disaggregated data are vital to designing designing to vital are data gender-disaggregated Good establish to outcomes monitoring and policies what works for In women. this a respect, system of of statistics production collection and data frequent is labour statistical resolutions in line with the latest and sound of implementation the particular, In needed. measuring to key are which surveys, time-use regular an is market, labour the in equality gender in progress addition, In needed. is acceleration urgent where area enterprise level as surveys, well as labour force and household should surveys, be updated with the aim of distinguishing between the value of a job and the earnings that the individual The employee receives. inclusion such of as information on marital variables, of number children, of number status, parenthood or older presence persons, of persons with disabilities data. essential provide will HIV, with living persons or Information on these variables is as data on important education, part- or as full-time status and the unpacking of a proper for to allow industrial sectors, partsboth the explained and the unexplained of the gap. gender pay Closing the gender data gap the gender Closing 106 Illustration 3.1. A transformative and measurable agenda for gender equality in the world of work RESPECT & AFFORD EQUAL RIGHTS

– Ratify and implement the ILO fundamental Conventions and other ILO Conventions on gender equality – Prevent and protect against violence and harassment in the Data collection, analysis & world of work – Ensure full application of the principle of equal pay for work dissemination Monitoring & of equal value in laws and practices (i.e. wage transparency at company level; low-cost and user-friendly tools to trace and ACCOUNTABILITY measure unequal pay) – Remove discriminatory legal provisions restricting women’s access to certain sectors and occupations Establish frequent data collection and – Make maternity protection, paternity production of statistics on paid work, and parental leave a reality for all unpaid care work, earnings, take-up rates – Facilitate time sovereignty for all for paternity and paternal leave for fathers, – Promote an enabling environment for gross enrolment ratios in early childhood women’s career progression education and development, in line with the latest statistical standards.

Infrastructure, social Substantive CARE WORK protection & PUBLIC care Advocacy & services equality in awareness-raising – Provide infrastructure, including ICT Recognize – Implement universal social protection campaigns – Supply quality and affordable childcare the world and long-term care services and facilities Reduce – Invest in the care economy – Promote the 5R Framework for decent of work care work for all, including, domestic Redistribute workers and home-based workers – Develop sound, gender-responsive Enhancing Reward macroeconomic policies women’s voice Represent & representation (5R FRAMEWORK) Engage & support women through work transitions

– Harness technology for gender equality – Promote lifelong learning (including STEM and digital skills for women and girls) – Create an enabling environment for women entrepreneurs – Help workers to move from the informal to the formal economy TOWARDS A TRANSFORMATIVE AND MEASURABLE AGENDA FOR GENDER EQUALI- 111 TY

of high-quality, timely and reliable data disaggregated by income, gender, age, race, ethnicity, migratory status, disability and migratory status, ethnicity, race, age, gender, income, by data disaggregated and reliable timely of high-quality, location”. geographic Campbell et al., 2018. Campbell et al., 2014. Hepple, 2019a. ILO, Fudge, 2012. Fudge, 2019a. ILO, availability the significantly “increase should offices statistical national that states 17.18) (target Agenda 2030 the of 17 SDG 2014. Furst-Nichols and Koolwal, Buvinic, 2014. Hepple, ILO, 2019a. ILO, 2015a. Assembly, United Nations General 2018. Women, UN Ibid. 2006. Giele, ILO, 2018m; ILO, 2019a. ILO, 2018m; ILO, the independent Prime Minister Stefan Löfven, and Swedish Ramaphosa Cyril President African South by Co-chaired think tanks, trade unions, business, from global figures included leading Work of on the Future 27-member Commission in 2017 as the International Labour Organization It was established by organizations. and non-governmental government Centenary Initiative. Work of Future part of the ILO’s

END NOTES END 11 14 15 9 10 12 13 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 110 MINDING THE GENDER GAPS

APPENDIX 113 50.0 47.0 43.0 44.0 46.0 45.0 46.0 45.0 34.0 42.0 39.0 39.0 41.0 42.0 47.0 43.0 47.0 47.0 40.0 44.0 44.0 42.0 43.0 42.0 48.0 46.0 45.0 46.0 43.0 43.0 46.0 44.0 48.0 46.0 44.0 44.0 43.0 41.0 35.0 46.0 48.0 Median Men 50.0 47.0 43.4 45.0 44.4 45.7 46.3 45.2 39.7 42.9 39.5 40.9 41.4 43.4 46.7 45.3 46.2 46.8 40.8 47.3 44.4 44.5 43.4 44.3 48.0 45.1 44.9 47.7 43.6 44.4 47.3 45.5 47.4 45.8 43.2 44.6 43.4 42.4 40.8 45.7 47.2 Mean 47.0 45.0 37.0 49.0 40.0 47.0 42.0 43.0 31.0 39.0 39.0 36.0 38.0 32.0 45.0 39.0 32.0 47.0 36.0 44.0 45.0 42.0 41.0 44.0 41.0 34.0 47.0 32.0 40.0 41.0 45.0 44.0 46.0 43.0 35.0 30.0 29.0 38.0 31.0 45.0 45.0 Median Women 47.1 44.1 38.3 48.2 42.2 46.5 44.0 42.3 33.3 40.4 39.9 37.5 39.4 36.5 43.9 41.1 38.5 46.7 37.6 49.5 45.6 42.8 42.1 43.8 43.0 39.0 45.7 37.0 40.9 42.0 46.1 43.9 46.1 43.3 37.6 36.0 32.4 38.1 32.7 44.8 45.3 Mean Italy Jordan Country Lao People’s Dem. Rep. Lao People’s Latvia Liberia Lithuania Luxembourg Madagascar Malawi Mexico Mongolia Myanmar Namibia Nepal Netherlands Nicaragua Nigeria Norway Pakistan Peru Philippines Poland Romania Russian Federation Samoa Senegal Serbia Sierra Leone Slovakia South Africa Spain Sri Lanka Sweden Switzerland Tanzania, United Republic of United Republic Tanzania, The Gambia Timor-Leste Turkey Uganda United Kingdom United States 37.0 43.0 50.0 44.0 48.0 40.0 46.0 43.0 43.0 43.0 44.0 46.0 50.0 44.0 23.0 51.0 45.0 52.0 44.0 50.0 46.0 44.0 49.0 42.0 35.0 48.0 46.0 47.0 43.0 48.0 40.0 44.0 40.0 43.0 41.0 46.0 Median Men 40.0 41.9 50.2 44.4 46.3 40.6 46.4 44.5 44.4 43.7 45.0 47.0 48.8 43.2 27.2 50.0 46.0 50.2 45.7 49.1 46.0 45.4 47.9 43.0 37.0 48.3 46.1 46.2 44.0 47.8 40.0 45.5 40.2 43.1 40.7 46.2 Mean 30.0 45.0 48.0 41.0 46.0 35.0 42.0 39.0 40.0 40.0 41.0 46.0 42.0 39.0 18.0 39.0 43.0 51.0 46.0 48.0 40.0 42.0 50.0 45.0 30.0 47.0 46.0 46.0 41.0 45.0 36.0 50.0 38.0 41.0 44.0 43.0 Median Women 34.7 42.4 48.5 42.2 44.0 35.8 42.6 40.0 41.0 41.2 41.5 46.1 41.9 39.3 23.0 39.7 43.3 48.9 45.6 48.4 40.7 42.7 47.3 45.0 33.2 47.9 46.4 44.2 42.5 46.6 37.5 49.2 38.3 42.3 43.1 44.8 Mean

Afghanistan Country Albania Argentina Australia Austria Bangladesh Belgium Bolivia, Plurinational State of Botswana Brazil Brunei Darussalam Bulgaria Cambodia China Congo Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Democratic Republic Croatia Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Dominican Republic Ecuador Egypt Estonia Ethiopia Finland France Germany Ghana Greece Guatemala Hungary India Indonesia Iraq

Ireland APPENDIX Table A.1.1. Mean and median age of leaders or managers, by sex, latest year Mean and median age of leaders A.1.1. Table A.1. Country level data A.1. Country level 112 MINDING THE GENDER GAPS

APPENDIX 115 9.4 61.5 50.0 50.9 54.3 90.9 64.5 60.8 95.9 39.2 49.5 53.5 47.3 60.3 40.0 69.1 39.7 57.6 76.6 66.3 60.6 43.4 58.8 47.1 68.6 24.8 32.9 97.8 23.2 29.7 27.6 68.1 24.1 25.5 66.9 48.9 42.2 17.8 47.4 51.9 47.2 Men 7.8 9.2 5.6 73.2 66.6 72.1 63.8 89.3 82.9 65.7 53.6 92.2 53.6 61.4 70.8 76.6 83.6 32.7 77.7 83.0 88.8 67.2 47.1 75.9 73.0 79.9 12.8 14.8 10.7 86.7 28.8 41.0 69.7 13.1 12.3 77.8 67.0 43.3 36.7 24.5 100.0 Women Slovakia Serbia Sierra Leone Senegal Russian Federation Romania Poland Peru Panama Pakistan Nepal Norway Netherlands Nicaragua Nigeria Namibia Malawi Mongolia Myanmar Mexico Madagascar Latvia Luxembourg Lithuania Sri Lanka Liberia Cambodia Dem. Rep. Lao People’s Jordan Italy Iraq Ireland India Indonesia Hungary Honduras Croatia Guatemala The Gambia Greece Country Ghana 48.0 47.0 40.0 43.0 40.0 Median Men 56.5 73.0 76.6 25.7 52.7 55.6 14.7 67.4 47.8 54.0 48.7 79.8 44.6 14.0 39.2 71.1 39.8 44.1 50.0 60.5 55.1 61.9 70.2 62.0 12.8 35.8 36.1 50.4 Men 48.9 46.2 41.3 41.3 42.1 Mean 48.0 44.0 40.0 38.0 37.0 Median 7.4 63.7 75.3 88.2 17.8 71.2 61.9 33.9 80.4 73.1 59.2 55.2 82.9 31.6 33.4 54.9 27.0 39.5 58.7 56.8 70.4 53.4 80.2 57.7 12.7 50.6 39.7 78.4 Women Women 48.1 43.4 40.0 38.3 41.3 Mean

United Kingdom France Finland Ethiopia Estonia Spain Egypt Ecuador Dominican Republic Denmark Czech Republic Congo Cyprus Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Democratic Republic China Switzerland Botswana Brunei Darussalam Brazil Bolivia, Plurinational State of Bulgaria Bangladesh Belgium Austria Australia Argentina Albania Uruguay Country Country Afghanistan Viet Nam Yemen Zambia

Zimbabwe APPENDIX Table A.1.2. Share of women and men with advanced university degrees in managerial of women and men with advanced university degrees A.1.2. Share Table or leadership positions, latest year 81 countries. Note: and household surveys. ILO calculations based on labour force Source: 114 MINDING THE GENDER GAPS 117 86.7 75.7 84.8 77.4 70.9 83.3 83.2 82.4 75.0 76.9 75.9 80.9 88.2 87.9 81.8 85.4 84.4 81.4 80.7 77.2 68.7 79.7 80.2 86.4 82.4 60.4 73.9 84.8 80.5 87.2 85.5 83.5 90.5 78.7 88.5 Men 75.1 79.0 80.7 74.6 54.3 83.7 78.7 32.1 66.5 59.0 78.5 80.2 78.9 59.9 53.6 75.7 79.1 24.7 70.6 58.1 70.3 75.8 63.9 85.0 76.8 51.8 65.2 81.3 72.3 80.2 80.1 74.1 77.3 58.6 84.5 No children (<6) No children Women 94.6 86.8 90.1 88.9 86.3 90.3 88.8 92.6 82.7 89.0 89.0 84.9 92.3 95.3 91.2 94.1 92.1 91.7 91.4 85.3 74.0 89.1 83.2 90.0 92.4 53.7 83.2 91.5 80.5 93.4 93.5 89.6 94.6 85.9 95.8 Men 78.4 54.8 71.7 80.8 54.2 41.5 65.2 25.5 61.4 53.3 57.3 68.3 73.9 57.2 43.1 75.5 80.4 24.8 60.4 44.6 58.3 78.1 53.8 53.2 76.4 34.6 65.7 78.4 52.3 82.7 65.6 62.5 69.2 50.0 85.1 Children (<6) Children Women 2013 2016 2016 2013 2016 2016 2015 2012 2015 2015 2016 2016 2015 2014 2016 2016 2016 2014 2016 2013 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2015 2014 2016 2016 2016 2016 2014 year Latest 86.4 85.2 92.5 93.7 70.9 93.2 88.5 93.7 86.2 91.2 90.4 89.7 90.1 96.4 94.6 83.5 92.1 92.0 84.1 77.0 75.4 80.3 92.4 92.2 94.4 92.6 54.4 73.1 94.5 81.1 90.4 78.0 87.8 87.6 76.6 Men 82.4 74.6 92.6 84.7 69.9 72.7 86.4 89.3 38.4 68.4 66.8 88.5 91.6 70.1 47.0 51.0 67.9 85.5 22.4 62.2 54.0 78.0 80.7 75.8 92.7 88.5 39.3 59.9 92.2 69.5 86.6 76.8 78.0 72.0 55.5 No children (<6) No children Women 95.1 95.6 96.8 97.7 82.6 98.9 95.5 95.3 94.6 95.2 94.7 94.2 96.5 98.8 99.2 92.6 95.7 96.7 92.5 84.7 85.4 86.8 98.3 92.8 97.2 98.5 47.9 85.6 92.1 80.5 95.2 78.5 92.9 90.7 84.0 Men 84.1 78.3 61.1 72.5 76.5 63.2 94.6 79.1 30.6 58.0 58.7 67.2 71.9 61.5 37.9 39.0 57.7 81.8 20.5 56.2 44.3 66.9 82.1 55.5 82.5 93.6 27.7 59.7 74.3 41.2 90.4 54.2 63.0 59.3 46.8 Children (<6) Children Women 2005 2004 2004 2006 2008 2005 2004 2005 2004 2004 2005 2005 2004 2007 2005 2005 2004 2007 2001 2001 2005 2004 2007 2005 2005 2000 2004 2004 2007 2006 2005 2000 2004 2005 2007 year Earliest - - Note: 51 countries. 51 countries. Note: Ethiopia Finland France Ghana Greece Hungary Iceland India Ireland Italy Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malta Mexico Netherlands Norway Pakistan Peru Philippines Poland Portugal Romania Slovakia Slovenia South Africa Spain Sweden Switzerland Unit- Tanzania, of ed Republic United King dom United States Uruguay Bo Venezuela, of livarian Rep. Viet Nam

71.2 75.0 86.2 81.5 80.5 80.4 76.5 71.4 76.4 77.2 89.0 80.6 79.4 83.5 65.5 82.3 Men 73.5 59.8 80.1 34.2 74.1 60.8 60.6 68.4 59.4 72.4 85.2 78.5 51.2 63.3 22.1 85.7 No children (<6) No children Women 84.0 85.9 88.5 93.7 91.1 93.1 83.9 74.8 85.4 87.3 95.8 93.9 86.9 92.0 87.4 92.7 Men 74.2 47.9 47.0 38.0 74.2 52.6 49.7 53.6 51.1 66.7 43.2 77.9 46.1 54.4 18.4 54.3 Children (<6) Children Women 71.8 36.4 39.1 42.3 44.0 65.9 59.9 34.0 69.8 19.9 44.7 30.4 41.1 43.9 Men 2011 2016 2016 2013 2016 2015 2016 2016 2013 2016 2016 2016 2014 2016 2016 2016 year Latest 61.2 83.9 95.5 84.3 90.3 78.8 80.6 91.4 58.8 96.0 96.2 94.2 78.6 82.0 73.1 83.5 Men 55.6 62.7 82.1 29.8 77.1 64.0 59.3 91.9 42.5 76.6 93.8 90.1 46.1 55.2 22.2 88.1 No children (<6) No children 78.3 33.5 44.1 60.3 38.9 64.6 65.9 52.9 84.4 24.7 71.4 78.1 38.1 63.8 Women Women 72.0 90.8 98.0 92.8 94.3 92.6 86.8 93.1 71.1 98.1 97.8 97.9 88.2 90.1 92.7 88.3 Men 52.4 53.6 52.2 28.8 80.3 57.5 48.2 72.5 43.7 74.1 46.5 88.2 37.2 50.0 19.4 57.5 Children (<6) Children Women 2004 2003 2004 2006 2004 2005 2001 2007 2007 2005 2005 2004 2001 2003 2008 2004 year Earliest

Zimbabwe Zambia South Africa Yemen Samoa Viet Nam United States Uruguay Uganda Tanzania, United Republic of United Republic Tanzania, Turkey Tunisia Timor-Leste

Sweden Angola Country Argentina Austria Bangladesh Belgium Bolivia, Plurina- tional State of Brazil Bulgaria China Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Dominican Republic Ecuador Egypt

Estonia APPENDIX Note: 83 countries. 83 countries. Note: and household surveys. ILO calculations based on labour force Source: Table A.1.3. Employment-to-population ratios of women and men with and Table and latest year under 6 years of age, earliest without children 116 APPENDIXMINDING THE GENDER GAPS 119 79.0 58.0 72.5 91.8 62.0 59.3 61.4 84.5 82.1 67.9 70.8 65.9 45.2 65.3 68.8 65.5 62.3 43.7 67.4 54.7 66.2 54.1 47.2 61.6 93.0 54.1 43.6 65.7 61.0 63.1 68.8 73.2 56.2 73.3 57.6 38.1 51.0 No children (<6) No children Men 81.3 80.8 98.1 78.9 69.6 64.7 71.2 58.0 95.6 76.3 75.6 78.8 62.7 78.5 65.5 70.9 54.1 63.4 71.5 64.7 79.7 63.0 49.9 97.8 63.4 87.7 79.8 74.8 54.6 62.6 58.3 65.0 77.9 90.8 60.0 41.1 62.0 Children (<6) Children 8.2 7.0 21.0 42.0 27.5 38.0 40.7 38.6 15.5 17.9 32.1 29.2 34.1 54.8 34.7 31.2 34.5 37.7 56.3 32.6 45.3 33.8 45.9 52.8 38.4 45.9 56.4 34.3 39.0 36.9 31.2 26.8 43.8 26.7 42.4 61.9 49.0 No children (<6) No children Women 1.9 4.4 2.2 9.2 18.7 19.2 21.1 30.4 35.3 28.8 42.0 23.7 24.4 21.2 37.3 21.5 34.5 29.1 45.9 36.6 28.5 35.3 20.3 37.0 50.1 36.6 12.3 20.2 25.2 45.4 37.4 41.7 35.0 22.1 40.0 58.9 38.0 Children (<6) Children Note: 72 countries. 72 countries. Note: Zimbabwe Yemen Zambia Viet Nam Uruguay United States United Kingdom Uganda Tunisia The Gambia Tanzania, United Republic of United Republic Tanzania, Switzerland Sweden Sri Lanka Spain South Africa Slovakia Sierra Leone Serbia Russian Federation Romania Poland Pakistan Philippines Norway Nigeria Nicaragua Netherlands Namibia Mexico Madagascar Luxembourg Lithuania Liberia Latvia Lao People’s Dem. Rep. Lao People’s Jordan Country

66.3 66.9 74.3 83.7 60.5 62.6 69.9 58.7 69.2 64.3 64.5 71.9 65.3 61.3 89.9 53.9 68.1 67.3 80.3 61.6 66.5 53.1 61.4 58.0 55.1 57.8 56.4 55.9 57.0 60.3 88.0 65.5 60.8 62.7 78.0 No children (<6) No children Men 74.5 68.9 88.0 89.8 89.9 77.8 75.4 57.8 74.5 90.2 65.3 73.9 74.3 72.8 96.2 62.7 87.4 88.6 84.3 61.8 79.1 13.6 66.0 60.2 93.6 53.9 63.4 60.7 63.4 62.5 88.8 79.4 67.3 70.9 99.1 Children (<6) Children 33.7 33.1 25.7 16.3 39.5 37.4 30.1 41.3 30.8 35.7 35.5 28.1 34.7 38.7 10.1 46.1 31.9 32.7 19.7 38.4 33.5 46.9 38.6 42.0 44.9 42.2 43.6 44.1 43.0 39.7 12.0 34.5 39.2 37.3 22.0 No children (<6) No children Women

9.8 3.8 6.4 0.9 25.5 31.1 12.0 10.2 10.1 22.2 24.6 42.2 25.5 34.7 26.1 25.7 27.2 37.3 12.6 11.4 15.7 38.2 20.9 86.4 34.0 39.8 46.1 36.6 39.3 36.6 37.5 11.2 20.6 32.7 29.1

Children (<6) Children Source: ILO calculations based on labour force and household surveys. surveys. and household based on labour force ILO calculations Source:

APPENDIX

Italy Ireland Iraq India Hungary Guatemala Greece Germany Ghana France Finland Ethiopia Egypt Estonia Ecuador Dominican Republic Denmark Czech Republic Cyprus Croatia Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Democratic Republic Congo Cambodia China Bulgaria Brunei Darussalam Brazil Botswana Bolivia, Plurinational State of Belgium Bangladesh Austria Australia Afghanistan Argentina Country Table A.1.4. Managers with and without children under 6 years of age, by sex under 6 years of age, by Managers with and without children A.1.4. Table

118 MINDING THE GENDER GAPS

APPENDIX 121 2016 2016 2016 2016 2014 2016 2016 2016 2013 2016 2016 2012 2013 2016 2016 2014 2016 2015 2012 Latest year 2005 2005 2004 2001 2003 2008 2004 2005 2004 2004 2006 2008 2005 2004 2005 Earliest year - European Union Statistics European on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) Union Statistics European on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) Survey European Union Statistics European on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) European Union Statistics European on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) Labour Force Survey Labour Force Encuesta Nacional de Empleo, Desempleo y Subempleo Labour Force Survey Labour Force European Union Statistics European on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) National Labour Force National Labour Force Survey European Union Statistics European on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) European Union Statistics European on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) European Union Statistics European on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) Ghana Living Standards 6 (with Survey Round Module) Labour Force European Union Statistics Union European on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) Encuesta Nacional de Em (ENEI) pleo e Ingresos de Encuesta de Hogares Múltiples Propósitos Statistics Union European on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) European Union Statistics Union European on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) National Sample Survey (NSS) Croatia Cyprus Country Czech Republic Denmark Dominican Republic Ecuador Egypt Estonia Ethiopia Finland France Germany Ghana Greece Guatemala Honduras Hungary Iceland India 2013 2014 2014 2016 2011 2012 2016 2015 2016 2012 2009 2013 2016 2013 2016 2009 2015 Latest year 2001 2004 2007 2003 2007 2004 2006 2004 2005 Earliest year - Pesquisa Nacional por Pesquisa Amostra de Domicílios Contínua (PNAD) Inquérito de Indicadores Inquérito de Indicadores Básicos de Bem-Estar (QUIBB) Quarterly Labour Force Quarterly Labour Force Survey Living Conditions Survey Survey European Union Statistics Union European on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) Labour Force Survey Labour Force Encuesta Permanente de Encuesta Permanente (EPH) Hogares Chinese Household In- (CHIP) come Project Labour Force Survey Labour Force European Union Statistics European on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) tralia (HILDA) Household, Income and Aus Labour Dynamics in Enquête sur l’Emploi, le Secteur Informel et sur la Consommation des Ménages Enquête sur l’Emploi et le Secteur Informel Labour Force and Child Labour Force Labour Survey European Union Statistics European on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) Encuesta de Hogares Encuesta de Hogares Botswana Welfare Core Indicators Survey

Source: ILO calculations based on labour force and household surveys. surveys. and household based on labour force ILO calculations Source: *

Angola Albania Afghanistan Country Bulgaria Brunei Darussalam Argentina China Cambodia Austria Australia - Congo, Democratic Re public of the Congo Bangladesh Belgium Bolivia, Plurinational State of Brazil

Botswana APPENDIX urveys by country and year, microdata and year, country by and household surveys List of labour force A.2.1. Table A.2. Labour force and household survey and household survey A.2. Labour force

120 APPENDIXMINDING THE GENDER GAPS 123 2014 2016 2013 2016 2016 2016 2014 2012 2015 2016 2014 2016 2016 2016 2016 2013 2016 2015 2014 2012 2014 2016 2012 Latest year 2007 2001 2001 2005 2004 2007 2005 2005 2000 2004 2004 2007 2006 Earliest year Labour Force Survey Labour Force Survey Encuesta Permanente de Encuesta Permanente Empleo Labour Force Survey Labour Force European Union Statistics European on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) European Union Statistics European on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) European Union Statistics European on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) Russia Longitudinal Moni- toring Survey Survey Labour Force Enquête Nationale sur l’Emploi Union Statistics European on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) Survey Labour Force Union Statistics European on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) European Union Statistics European on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) Quarterly Labour Force Quarterly Labour Force Survey European Union Statistics Union European on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) Quarterly Labour Force Quarterly Labour Force Survey Statistics Union European on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) European Union Statistics Union European on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) Integrated Labour Force Integrated Labour Force Survey Labour Force Survey Labour Force Labor Market Tunisia Panel Survey (TLMPS) Household Labour Force Survey and Child Labour Force Labour Survey Pakistan Country Peru Philippines Poland Portugal Romania Russian Federation Samoa Senegal Serbia Sierra Leone Slovakia Slovenia South Africa Spain Sri Lanka Sweden Switzerland Tanzania, United Republic United Republic Tanzania, of The Gambia Tunisia Turkey Uganda 2012 2015 2015 2010 2010 2015 2010 2016 2016 2015 2013 2012 2015 2014 2008 2016 2015 2015 2016 2013 2014 2016 2016 Latest year 2004 2004 2005 2005 2004 2007 2005 2005 2004 Earliest year - - European Union Statistics European on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) Household Socio Econom ic Survey (HSES) - (SA Survey Labour Force KERNAS) Survey European Union Statistics European on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) European Union Statistics European on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) Labour Force and Child Labour Force Labour Survey Harmonized Labour Force Harmonized Labour Force Survey (HLFS) European Union Statistics European on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) Labour Force Survey Labour Force European Union Statistics European on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) European Union Statistics Union European on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) Enquête Modulaire Enquête Modulaire des auprés Permanente Ménages (EMOP) Labour Force Survey Labour Force Enquête Sur L’Emploi 1–2 Enquête Sur L’Emploi Encuesta Nacional de Ocupación y Empleo (ENOE) European Union Statistics Union European on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) Labour Force Survey Labour Force Labour Force Survey Labour Force Labour Force, Child La- Labour Force, Work bour and School to Survey Transition Labour Force Survey Labour Force European Union Statistics Union European on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) General Household Survey gares para la Medición del para gares Vida (EMNV) Nivel de Encuesta Nacional de Ho

Ireland Iraq Indonesia Country Italy Latvia Lao People’s Democratic Lao People’s Republic Jordan Lithuania Liberia Luxembourg Malta Mali Malawi Madagascar Mexico Netherlands Nepal Namibia Myanmar Mongolia Norway Nigeria Nicaragua APPENDIX 122 APPENDIXMINDING THE GENDER GAPS 125 Bahamas Country Côte d’Ivoire Djibouti Equatorial Guinea Eritrea Ethiopia Eswatini Gabon Ghana Guinea Guinea-Bissau Kenya Lesotho Liberia Madagascar Malawi Mali Mauritania Mauritius Mozambique Namibia Niger Nigeria Rwanda and Principe Tome Sao Senegal Sierra Leone Somalia South Africa South Sudan of United Republic Tanzania, The Gambia Togo Uganda Zambia Zimbabwe Argentina BHS Country code CIV DJI GNQ ERI ETH ESW GAB GHA GIN GNB KEN LSO LBR MDG MWI MLI MRT MUS MOZ NAM NER NGA RWA STP SEN SLE SOM ZAF SSD TZA GMB TGO UGA ZMB ZWE ARG - Latin America and the Carib bean Subregion Americas Region Region 2016 2016 2016 2016 2011 2014 2012 2014 Latest year 2005 2000 2004 2005 2007 Algeria Egypt Libya Morocco Sudan Tunisia Sahara Western Angola Benin Botswana Burkina Faso Burundi Cabo Verde Cameroon Central African Republic Chad Comoros Congo of the Congo, Democratic Republic Country Earliest year DZA EGY LBY MAR SDN TUN ESH AGO BEN BWA BFA BDI CPV CMR CAF TCD COM COG COD Country code European Union Statistics European on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) Survey Current Population Sur- Population Current vey (CPS) Encuesta Continua de Encuesta Continua de Hogares Encuesta de Hogares por Encuesta de Hogares (EHM) Muestreo Labour Force Survey Labour Force Labour Force and Child Labour Force Labour Survey Labour Force Survey Labour Force Labour Force Survey Labour Force Northern Africa Sub-Saharan Africa Subregion

For figure 1.5 latest year is 2015. year is 2015. 1.5 latest figure For

*

United Kingdom Country United States Uruguay Venezuela, Bolivarian Venezuela, of Rep. Viet Nam Zimbabwe Zambia Yemen Africa

Region Region APPENDIX A.3. Regional and income groupings A.3. Regional income groupings and subregional regional, A.3.1. Country, Table Note: 124 APPENDIXMINDING THE GENDER GAPS 127 China China Hong Kong, Japan Republic Democratic People’s Korea, of of Republic Korea, Macau, China Mongolia China Taiwan, Australia Brunei Darussalam Cambodia Fiji Polynesia French Guam Indonesia Dem. Rep. Lao People’s Malaysia Myanmar New Caledonia New Zealand Papua New Guinea Philippines Samoa Singapore Solomon Islands Thailand Timor-Leste Tonga Vanuatu Viet Nam Afghanistan Country Qatar Saudi Arabia Arab Syrian Republic United Arab Emirates Yemen CHN HKG JPN PRK KOR MAC MNG TWN AUS BRN KHM FJI PYF GUM IDN LAO MYS MMR NCL NZL PNG PHL WSM SGP SLB THA TLS TON VUT VNM AFG Country code QAT SAU SYR ARE YEM East Asia East South-Eastern Asia and the Pacific Southern Asia Subregion Asia and the Pacific Region Region Country Barbados Belize State of Bolivia, Plurinational Brazil Chile Colombia Costa Rica Cuba Dominican Republic Ecuador El Salvador Guatemala Guyana Haiti Honduras Jamaica Mexico Nicaragua Panama Paraguay Peru Puerto Rico Saint Lucia Vincent and the Grenadines Saint Suriname and Tobago Trinidad Virgin Islands United States Uruguay of Bolivarian Rep. Venezuela, Canada United States Bahrain Iraq Jordan Kuwait Lebanon Occupied Palestinian Territory Oman Country code BRB BLZ BOL BRA CHL COL CRI CUB DOM ECU SLV GTM GUY HTI HND JAM MEX NIC PAN PRY PRT PRI LCA VCT SUR TTO VIR URY VEN CAN USA BHR IRQ JOR KWT LBN PSE OMN Subregion Northern America

Arab States Region Region APPENDIX 126 APPENDIXMINDING THE GENDER GAPS 129 Country Croatia Denmark Estonia Finland France Germany Greece Iceland Ireland Italy Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malta Montenegro Netherlands Norway Portugal Serbia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland of Republic Yugoslav The former Macedonia United Kingdom Poland Portugal Puerto Rico Qatar Saudi Arabia Singapore Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Country code HRV DNK EST FIN FRA DEU GRC ISL IRL ITA LTV LTU LUX MLT MNE NLD NOR PRT SRB SVN ESP SWE CHE MKD GBR Guam China Hong Kong, Hungary Iceland Ireland Israel Italy Japan of Republic Korea, Kuwait Subregion Argentina Australia Austria Bahamas Bahrain Barbados Belgium Brunei Darussalam Canada Channel Islands High-income countries Region Region based on ISO 3166-1 alpha-3. ILO Department of Statistics, Source: Armenia Azerbaijan Cyprus Georgia Israel Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan Turkey Turkmenistan Uzbekistan Belarus Bulgaria Czech Republic Hungary of Moldova, Republic Poland Romania Russian Federation Slovakia Ukraine Albania Austria Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina Channel Islands Country Bangladesh Bhutan India of Iran, Islamic Republic Maldives Nepal Pakistan Sri Lanka ARM AZE CYP GEO ISR KAZ KGZ TJK TUR TKM UZB BLR BGR CZE HUN MDA POL ROU RUS SVK UKR ALB AUT BEL BIH – Country code BGD BTN IND IRN MDV NPL PAK SLE Central and Asia Western Eastern Europe Northern, Southern and Western Europe Subregion

Europe and Europe Central Asia Region Region APPENDIX 128 MINDING THE GENDER GAPS

APPENDIX 131 - - Nigeria Occupied Palestinian Territory Pakistan Papua New Guinea Paraguay Peru Philippines Romania Russian Federation Saint Lucia - Vincent and the Gren Saint adines Samoa and Principe Tome Sao Serbia Solomon Islands South Africa Sri Lanka Sudan Suriname Thailand Repub Yugoslav The former lic of Macedonia Timor-Leste Tonga Tunisia Turkey Turkmenistan Ukraine Uzbekistan Vanuatu Bolivarian Repub Venezuela, lic of Viet Nam Sahara Western Zambia Armenia Azerbaijan Bangladesh Belarus Belize Bhutan Bolivia, Plurinational State of Bosnia and Herzegovina Botswana Brazil Bulgaria Cambodia Cameroon Cabo Verde China Colombia Congo Costa Rica Cuba Côte d’Ivoire Djibouti Dominican Republic Ecuador Egypt El Salvador Equatorial Guinea Eswatini Fiji Gabon Georgia Ghana Guatemala Guyana Honduras India Indonesia of Iran, Islamic Republic Iraq Switzerland China Taiwan, and Tobago Trinidad United Arab Emirates United Kingdom United States Virgin Islands United States Uruguay Lithuania Luxembourg Macau, China Malta Netherlands New Caledonia New Zealand Norway Oman Panama Latvia Nepal Niger Rwanda Senegal Sierra Leone Somalia South Sudan Arab Syrian Republic Tajikistan of United Republic Tanzania, The Gambia Togo Uganda Yemen Zimbabwe Morocco Myanmar Namibia Nicaragua -

Germany Greece Croatia Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Polynesia French Chile Albania Afghanistan Benin Burkina Faso Burundi Central African Republic Chad Comoros Congo, Democratic Repub lic of the Eritrea Ethiopia Guinea Guinea-Bissau Haiti Democratic People’s Korea, of Republic Liberia Madagascar Malawi Mali Mozambique Algeria Angola Argentina Middle-income countries Low-income countries APPENDIX 130

APPENDIXMINDING THE GENDER GAPS 133

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This report is the culmination of the extensive and often groundbreaking work undertaken in the context of the ILO’s Women at Work Centenary Initiative. The findings and recommendations of the Initiative resonate with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, which was adopted by the UN General Assembly in 2015. The realization of the 2030 Agenda depends on the achievement of gender equality in the world of work.

This report highlights key gender gaps and obstacles to decent work for women. It explores the structural barriers, including unpaid care work, that shape the nature and extent of women’s engagement in paid employment, and how laws, policies and practices in some countries have addressed them. This report reinforces the need for a multifaceted approach and provides a direction regarding the measures that can, and should, be taken to seize the opportunities presented by the changing world of work.

The ILO’s centenary provides a privileged opportunity to change the trajectory and accelerate efforts to ensure that the future delivers decent work for all women and men, in the spirit of the 2030 Agenda.

Gender, Equality and Diversity & ILOAIDS Conditions of Work and Equality Department International Labour Office (ILO) 4, Route des Morillons CH-1211 Geneva 22, Switzerland Tel: +41 (0) 22 799 6111 www.ilo.org/ged