The Precious Corals

No. 1, January 2010

ISBN: 1-934061-43-3

The Precious Corals Fishery Management Plan of the Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council By Richard Grigg i The Precious Corals The Precious Corals Fishery Management Plan of the Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council

By Richard W. Grigg Department of Oceanography University of Hawaii Honolulu, Hawaii

January 2010

Opposite: A large colony I. Introduction and history of the precious corals fishery of black coral (Antipathes griggi) photographed at a depth of 200 feet off Precious corals have been treasured as jewelry by mankind ever Lahaina, Maui, Hawaii. since the dawn of history. The earliest records of man’s use of precious Photo courtesy of R. Grigg coral date back almost 25,000 years and consist of perforated and Cover photo courtesy of polished beads of red coral (Corallium rubrum) recovered from D. Doubilet archaeological grave excavations in Germany (Tescione, 1965). Red coral is found in the Mediterranean Sea at depths of 10–600 m; therefore, early man must have collected it by way of shallow-water divers or possibly from storm deposits on Mediterranean beaches. Over the millennia, red coral artifacts have been found in Sumerian artwork (~5,000 Before Present), in Egyptian tombs, again buried with the dead, and more commonly in Greco-Roman jewelry and sculpture. Shortly after the birth of Christ, the Greeks invented a special device, a wooden cross with attached netting, to drag and entangle red coral from depths greater than humans could dive. This device, known as the Ingegno (also Saint Andrew’s Cross), was used intermittently by various fishers in Mediterranean Seas up until the 20th century when it was almost completely replaced by divers equipped with SCUBA diving equipment (Tescione, 1965). Precious corals were not discovered in the Pacific Ocean until 1803 in waters off Japan where beautiful red (Corallium japonicum) and pink (C. elatius) corals were discovered at depths ranging between 100 and 300 m. A fishery did not develop in Japan, however, until after the Meiji Reform in 1868, before which the absolute rule of the Emperors forbade free enterprise. While precious coral fisheries developed in the far Western Pacific after 1868, little is known of their history for the next 100 years. Shortly after 1868, about 100 small boats began collecting red coral from Japanese coastal waters. Unfortunately, the method used was highly destructive tangle nets (mops), and the known grounds were quickly exhausted (Grigg, 1971). Annual pro- duction generally ranged under 10 tons. New grounds were discovered spora- dically, but they too underwent rapid depletion. This boom and bust pattern characterized fishing efforts by the Japanese and Taiwanese coral fishermen until two decades after World War II. In 1963 and again in 1965, Japan- ese coral draggers made two large discoveries, the first on the Oza Banks, 160 km south of Okinawa, and the second on the Milwaukee Banks in the Emperor Seamounts, 800 km northwest of Midway Island, at depths near 400 m (Grigg, 1971). Then in 1969, Taiwanese boats discovered even more, new and rich precious coral banks on other Emperor Seamounts. During this period in the 1960s almost 230 tons of pink coral (C. secundum) worth over $4 million were harvested collectively from these areas (Grigg, 1971). As a result of the successful and profitable discoveries of precious coral in the Emperor Seamounts, two sci- Figure 1. Star II submersible surfacing with precious corals collected from the Makapuu Bed entists from the University of Hawaii in 1974. Photo courtesy of D. Doubilet (UH), Ted Chamberlain and Vernon Brock, set out in 1969 to explore for of the gear, and both realized that a new management regime that ultimately similar resources in the main Hawaiian selective method of harvest (Figure 1) became the first Fishery Management Islands. They were almost immediately would need to be developed before Plan (FMP) of the Western Pacific successful just 9 km off the east coast the new beds could be harvested in a Regional Fishery Management Council of Oahu where they discovered the sustainable manner. Chamberlain and (WPRFMC). Adding impetus to this now famous Makapuu Bed at a depth of Brock’s discovery set in motion a new program was another discovery of 400 m (Grigg, 1974). Chamberlain and research program at the University several species of shallow water black Brock were again using dragging gear of Hawaii that over the next 40 years corals in Hawaii in 1958. Black corals consisting of weighted salmon netting. would lead to many other major are also utilized in the manufacture of Both recognized the destructive nature discoveries including development of a jewelry and are, therefore, classified as

2 precious corals. The history of this were harvesting black corals in the Dr. Garth Murphy in the Department discovery, as well as research and ma- Auau Channel off Lahaina, Maui. of Oceanography to obtain a multi-year nagement of black corals, is covered For the next 10 years, harvest rates grant from the National Science in Section II. would remain low, less than 3,000 Foundation to investigate the ecology A final and extremely important kg/yr (Poh, 1971). The new cottage of precious corals throughout the point is to distinguish between precious industry was economically profitable Hawaiian Archipelago. With continued corals and shallow-water reef-building and gradually began to grow. By the funding later from the National Sea corals. They are NOT the same! Their mid-sixties, Maui Divers of Hawaii Grant College Program, this work ecologies are completely different, as relocated to Oahu and about five other continued virtually uninterrupted for are all management issues and policies. small companies started up on Maui or the next 30 years. Over this time As a consequence, the WPRFMC has Oahu. Management and regulation of frame, the results provided the main developed a separate and entirely this fledging fishery was a responsibility foundation for the Precious Corals different FMP for the management of of the State of Hawaii, Department of FMP produced by the WPRFMC. shallow-water coral reef ecosystems. Fish and Game, although in those years virtually no oversight was exercised III. Extended jurisdiction and II. History of the black coral over the fishery. the creation of Fishery fishery in Hawaii The lack of management effort by the State of Hawaii was partially due Management Councils In 1958, Jack Ackerman and Larry to the fact that in the early 1960s In 1976, the US Congress passed Windley discovered a large bed of almost nothing was known about the an Act that extended US jurisdiction commercial quality black coral at ecology and biology of black coral in over fishery resources from 3 to 200 depths between 35–100 m off Lahaina, Hawaii. This information gap was also miles offshore, later to be called the US Maui (Grigg, 1965). Their discovery the impetus for a new research project exclusive economic zone (EEZ). This had been stimulated by the occasional at the University of Hawaii entitled Act, named the Fishery Conservation collection of broken branches of black “Ecological studies of black coral in and Management Act (FCMA), was coral recovered from the entangled Hawaii.” The study was conducted by later called the Magnuson-Stevens Act lines of Lahaina bottomfish fishermen. Richard Grigg and eventually served as (MSA). Although enacted in 1976, The Maui Bed (later officially defined as the subject of his master’s thesis at the the FCMA became officially effective the Auau Channel Bed) contained two University of Hawaii, Department of on March 1, 1977 (Grigg, 1976). main species, Antipathes griggi and Zoology, in 1964 (Grigg, 1965). The In addition to extending US juris- A. grandis. A third species, A. ulex, major results of this preliminary re- diction, a major outcome of the FCMA also known as fern coral, was present search showed that the larvae of A. was the creation of eight Regional in the bed, but its skeleton turned out griggi and A. grandis are both nega- Fishery Management Councils that to contain streaks of brown color and tively phototaxic, thus explaining their were given responsibility for conserving was slightly less dense than the other settlement behavior at depths of low and managing fishery resources of the two species. Other deeper water species light intensity generally below zones US EEZ. The WPRFMC was given of black coral had been discovered in of active growth of shallow-water jurisdiction and management authority Hawaii by the Challenger Expedition reef corals. Reef corals contain algal for the State of Hawaii and all other (1872–76) and the Albatross Expedition pigments (zooxanthellae) that require US Pacific Islands including the (1902), but all of these species were sunlight for photosynthesis, whereas Territories of American Samoa and too small and too rare to be considered black corals are completely devoid of Guam, the eight Pacific Remote Island for anything other than their biological algal symbionts. The early research by Areas (PRIAs)—Wake Island, Johnson significance. Of the 150 species of black Grigg also provided a preliminary list Island, Howland Island, Baker Island, coral that are known worldwide (Grigg of habitat requirements of both species Kingman Reef, Jarvis Island, Palmyra and Opresko, 1977), fewer than a of black coral including a firm and Atoll and Midway Atoll—and even- half-dozen are large enough and with rugose substratum for settlement and tually the Commonwealth of the sufficient density and consistency to attachment as well as strong bottom Northern Marianas (CNMI). One of be suitable for cutting, carving and currents for the active transport of the major tasks of the FCMA was the polishing into black coral jewelry. detritus and micro-planktonic food preparation and implementation of Ackerman and Windley’s discovery particles and for sweeping the bottom FMPs in accordance with the National represented a major opportunity for clear of sediments. This early research Standards, which require achievement the development of a new precious would resume in 1970, when Grigg of sustainable optimum yield (OY) coral industry in Hawaii. Within one returned to the University of Hawaii for all major fisheries in the region. year, they had set up a small company where he was hired as an assistant At the outset, precious corals were in Lahaina, Maui, giving birth to a new marine biologist at the Hawaii Institute identified by the WPRFMC as one firm called Maui Divers of Hawaii. of Marine Biology on Coconut Island. of the major fishery resources in the Soon, a small number of divers (~10) In that year, Dr. Grigg teamed up with region requiring an FMP.

3 Figure 2. Distribution and abundance of deepwater precious corals in the Hawaiian Archipelago based on 215 dredge haul samples collected by the UH research program. Coral beds are highlighted. Solid lines in insets indicate high abundance of precious coral.

Prior to 1976, management of fishery flight over the Northwestern Hawaiian argument that led to the development resources in the US Pacific Islands Islands (NWHI) and its offshore waters. of a Precious Corals FMP. Therefore, was plagued by many problems inclu- Other violations within the US EEZ the WPRFMC began to work imme- ding frequent incursions by foreign in Hawaii were rumored to have diately on preparation of an FMP that fishermen and lack of oversight and taken place as far south as seamounts would include both deepwater pre- adequate enforcement by state and north of French Frigate Shoals where cious species as well as black corals. federal agencies. In the case of pre- large amounts of precious corals were Before describing the Precious Corals cious corals, Japanese and Taiwanese reportedly harvested. Unfortunately, FMP, however, it is important to first coral draggers were very active in the there are no accurate records of these discuss the natural history of precious Emperor Seamounts beginning in 1965 events and their exact locations and corals in general, as well as the results continuing into the 1970s and even harvest amounts are unknown. of the precious corals research program the 1980s, with sporadic reports of The large beds of precious coral at the University of Hawaii up until their entry into US waters within the discovered and exploited by Japanese 1976. Much of the policy and guidelines 200-mile EEZ. In 1977, some of and Taiwanese coral draggers and their in the Precious Corals FMP was based these incursions were still taking place known and suspected poaching in US on this early body of knowledge. inside US territorial limits. The most waters during these years were among conspicuous of these events occurred the major reasons the WPRFMC iden- IV. Natural history of in 1978 at Hancock Seamount just tified precious corals as a high priority precious corals inside the US 200-mile EEZ. Photo- fishery in need of immediate attention. graphs of two Japanese coral draggers, By 1976, the black coral fishery in In this section, it is again important the Hoku Maru and the Manpuku Hawaii had also grown and expanded to distinguish precious corals from No. 18, were taken by Robert Iverson beyond Maui to Kauai and occasionally shallow-water reef corals. Their taxono- of the US National Marine Fishery the big island of Hawaii, and its need mies and ecologies are completely dif- Service during a routine Coast Guard for management was another strong ferent, and their habitats rarely overlap.

4 In general, precious corals are deep- fishery resources, whereas coral reefs V. Early research on precious water corals living below the euphotic are more often considered habitat to corals in Hawaii zone (zone of photosynthesis). All be protected as sanctuaries or refugia. precious corals lack symbiotic algae, In general, most species of precious As mentioned in Section II, the and none form reefs. Universally, pre- coral form solitary colonies living in first ecological research conducted on cious corals form solitary colonies. In deep water. Almost all are slow grow- precious corals in Hawaii was on black contrast, shallow-water reef corals live ing, have low rates of recruitment and corals in the early 1960s (Grigg, 1965). within the euphotic zone and almost natural mortality, and consequently are Basically this work described the habitat all harbor symbiotic algae. And, more relatively long lived. In the far west- requirements and larval and feeding importantly, virtually all shallow-water ern Pacific, all species of commercially behavior of A. griggi and A. grandis reef corals form reefs, giving way to valuable precious corals are vulnerable in the black coral beds off Lahaina, their name, reef-building (hermatypic) to overexploitation in unmanaged Maui, in the Auau Channel. Also, as corals. In many places in the world, fisheries. This is because many year mentioned above, a very much larger reef building corals are increasingly classes are exposed to harvesting at and longer research program focused undergoing stress due to natural and the same time. Virtually decades of more on deepwater precious coral anthropogenic factors such as pollu- accumulated standing stock can be species began in 1970 at the University tion and global warming. Deepwater collected during short intensive periods of Hawaii. The results of these pro- pre-cious corals, on the other hand, of fishing. Unfortunately, this pattern grams relevant to the Precious Corals are rarely impacted by these type of of fishing has been employed by the FMP are described below. It is also anthropogenic stressors, except, of Japanese and Taiwanese coral draggers important to reiterate the importance course, by destructive fishing methods who use destructive tangle gear. This of the very large discoveries of pre- such as tangle gear or even selective practice has repeatedly led to a pattern cious coral in the Emperor Seamounts over-harvest. Successful management of discovery and heavy exploitation and the discovery of the Makapuu Bed strategies for precious corals invariably followed by depletion. It is this history at 400 m depth. The immediate priori- require sustainable yield methods while in the far western Pacific Ocean and the ties were to complete the mapping and reef corals are increasingly managed Emperor Seamounts that motivated re- stock assessment of deepwater precious by precautionary principles such as search efforts in the Hawaiian Archipe- coral within the Hawaiian Archipelago no-take zones or marine protected areas lago to develop methods of sustainable and to develop sustainable and ecolo- (MPAs). Precious corals are considered selective harvest. gically sound methods of harvest.

Figure 3. The Hawaiian Archipelago illustrating the major precious coral beds that exist in the main Hawaiian Islands and the NWHI.

5 With regard to stock assessment, Table I. Management guidelines of precious corals in Hawaii (Grigg, 1976) initial exploration was limited to dredging with small tangle gear. A two-man Species Growth Mortality Yield/ Age/MSY MSY OY Size submersible, the Star II, was acquired cm/yr annual recruit yrs Kg Kg inches by the University of Hawaii in 1971, and this technology was first used Black corals (A. griggi & A. grandis) to map the Makapuu Bed down to Maui Bed 6.42 0.07 1050 gm 28 6174 5000 48 425 m located about 9 km off Oahu in the Molokai Channel (Figure 1). Kauai Bed 1543 1250 48 During the first three years of the Gold (Gerardia sp.) program, 16 cruises on the UH research vessel Teritu were conducted during 650 which 215 dredge haul stations were sampled spanning the entire length of Pink coral (C. secundum) the Hawaiian Archipelago from the Makapuu 0.9 0.066 203 34 1072 1000 10 island of Hawaii to Hancock Seamount Bed 180 miles northwest of Kure Atoll Conditional 0.9 0.066 203 34 prorated 10 (Figure 2). During these expeditions, Beds six precious coral beds were discovered Exploratory 0.9 0.066 203 34 1000 10 and/or explored: from north to south Beds 1) 180-Fathom Bank (Hancock Sea- mounts) north of Kure Atoll, 2) Brooks • The Preliminary Management Plan (PMP) the Makapuu Bed. It also recommended the Bed, 3) Westpac Bed (later to become for Precious Corals was completed in 1977 prohibition of coral dredging for commercial a Refugia) between Nihoa and Necker (US Department of Commerce, 1977). The harvest of all species due to it destructive and Islands, 4) Kaena Point Bed, 5) Maka- management measures contained therein wasteful nature. were considered preliminary and temporary; puu Bed, and 6) Keahole Bed off the therefore, they are not discussed in detail • The OY size limit of 10 inches for C. secundum island of Hawaii (Figure 3). Of these, here. Basically, the proposed action in the was lowered from 12 (MSY size limit) due to the Makapuu Bed was by far the largest PMP prohibited foreign harvest in the US economic considerations. The OY for gold bed covering at least 3.6 square km EEZ until surplus levels of precious coral had coral was first reported in the PMP. Bamboo been determined. The PMP also contained corals, while allocated in the PMP, were never in area at depths of 350–425 m. The estimates of OY for pink and gold corals in targeted for harvest by the fishery. Star II submersible made 10 dives in 1971–72, all in the Makapuu Bed, to further map the extent of the resource (pink and gold corals) and to begin were also studied. A detailed descrip- OY (Grigg, 1976) Other approaches what would become a long-term study tion of the methods and results of have been used elsewhere in the of their ecology. this work can be found in the UH Sea world to manage precious corals, such A secondary topic of the 1970 Grant Technical Report 77-03 (Grigg, as rotation of beds, closed seasons, program was the continuation of the 1976). It should also be noted that arbitrary size limits or weight quotas earlier work on the black coral fishery the methods of study and questions (Caddy, 1993), but none of these but focused more broadly on stock asked were designed to satisfy the seemed appropriate for circumstances assessment off all islands. This work requirements of a fishery model that in the Hawaiian Islands where few beds led to the discovery of two more beds, had been chosen to produce estimates exist, or at least were known to exist one off Kauai and the other at several of maximum sustainable yield (MSY) in the early 1970s. locations off the island of Hawaii. and OY. OY is defined as the yield For the purpose of this review, all Ecological studies relevant to fishery that will produce a) the greatest of the results applicable to produce management were also undertaken in bene-fit to the nation and b) MSY as estimates of MSY and OY for pink, gold these beds. modified by relevant economic, social and black coral are given in Table I. The ecological factors that were and ecological factors. The paper by Grigg in 1976 contains considered most important for fishery Fortunately, as it turned out in 1976, a complete description of all methods management were rates of growth, one of the National Standards of the and results, as well as a description of recruitment and natural mortality, and FCMA was to achieve OY on a sus- the Beverton and Holt Model and how reproductive behavior and seasonality. tainable basis from each fishery. The it was used to produce management Habitat requirements, depth zonation, management model selected early on guidelines for both the Preliminary and both larval and feeding behavior was the Beverton and Holt Model Management Plan (PMP) and final FMP. that produces estimates of MSY and

6 VI. FMP for precious corals in Exploratory Area; the genus Corallium This is because all deepwater coral beds the Western Pacific Region was expanded to include other species in the Hawaiian Archipelago exist out- of the genus; and new Experimental side of the 3-mile State limit and, Preparation of a final FMP for Fishing Permits were created to stimu- therefore, fall under federal jurisdic- precious corals was a lengthy and tedious late exploration. In the second amend- tion. In contrast, the majority of the process that was not fully complete until ment, overfished was defined as occur- black coral commercial beds in the 1983 (Fishery Management Plan for ring when harvesting had reduced the Hawaiian Archipelago are found mainly Precious Coral Fisheries of the Western spawning biomass to 20 percent of its within 3 miles of the coastline and their Pacific Region, 1983). unfished condition. In the third amend- management falls under State juris- While highly technical and detailed, ment, a framework process was estab- diction. It is interesting, when one the basic elements of the initial plan were lished to facilitate future changes. examines the history of each fishery, as follows: Later amendments increased the that the deepwater fishery for pink and First, four categories of management minimum size of black corals from 36 gold coral has experienced a pattern area were created: 1) Established Beds, inches to 48 inches for fishermen not of off and on activity, while the black 2) Conditional Beds, 3) Exploratory exempted (grandfathered), prohibited coral fishery has operated continuously Areas, and 4) Refugia. Established Beds the use of non-selective fishing gear to since inception in 1958, marking over were defined as beds of known area harvest precious coral so size limits could 50 years of uninterrupted harvest in which OY had been determined. be met, designated the Auau Channel activity. The total annual landings of Only one Established Bed was defined black coral bed as an Established Bed, each fishery over its entire history are for the region—the Makapuu Bed off set a two-year 5,000-kg quota for black tabulated in Tables II and III. Oahu, Hawaii. Conditional Beds are corals in the Auau Channel, and created Over its entire history in Hawaii, beds known to contain precious corals a five-year moratorium on the harvest the deepwater precious corals fishery but in which the OY is prorated based of gold coral in the Western Pacific has rarely had annual harvest levels on the area of the Conditional Bed Region. The rationale for the gold coral that exceeded the estimates of OY for relative to the area of the Makapuu moratorium was based on a new but either pink or gold coral. Why the Bed. Exploratory Areas include all preliminary study of its growth rate fishery has been so on and off then is other areas in the US EEZ that are not using radiometric methods. The results not related to abundance of the re- Established, Conditional or Refugia suggested a slower growth rate and sources or problems of supply. The Beds. Second, weight quotas and size greater longevity (Roark et al., 2006). problems lie mainly with economic limits were set for Established and The above description of the factors. First, the cost of operation is Conditional Beds (Table 1). The plan Precious Corals FMP makes it clear very high due to the necessity to use also provided for closures when weight that deepwater precious pink and submersible technology for selective quotas were reached except that a gold corals were the resources of harvest. Diving operations are also two-year weight quota of 2,000 kg for primary concern in the original plan. weather limited. For example, strong C. secundum was allowed to be harvested in one year or less in the Makapuu Table II. Annual harvest of pink, gold and red coral in Hawaii (kg). Bed, but that, once attained, the bed would be closed for the remainder of Year Gear C. secundum Gerardia sp. C. regale the two-year time period. All other 1966–1969 Dredge1. 1800 0 0 quotas were based on one-year seasons. 1970–1972 No harvest 0 0 0 Third, the OY for Exploratory Beds 1973 Submersible2. 538 0 0 was set at 1,000 kg basically to serve 2. as an incentive for exploration rather 1974 Submersible 2209 734 0 than for commercial harvest. A more 1975 Submersible2. 1385 621 0 detailed description of the FMP can 1976 Submersible2. 400 363 0 be found in Vol. 45, No. 189, of the 1977 Submersible2. 1421 329 0 US Federal Register, published on 1978 Submersible2. 474 50 0 August 30, 1983. 1979–1987 No harvest 0 0 0 One feature of all FMPs is that they 3. are not fixed documents. Changes can 1988 Dredge 500 0 0 be made in the form of various amend- 1989–1999 No harvest 0 0 0 ments. In the case of the Precious 1999–2001 Submersible4. 1216 150 61 Corals FMP, three amendments were 2002–2009 No harvest 0 0 0 added during the first 15 years of operation. In the first amendment, the 1. United Fishing 2. Maui Divers of Hawaii 3. Vessel Aukai 4. American Divers eight PRIAs were identified as a single

7 trade winds and rough seas limited increased (Parrish, 2006; Table III). Table III. Annual harvest of American Divers to operate just 20 Also, in 2001 an alien species, Carijoa black coral* in Hawaii (kg), except percent of the time each year it was riisei, was discovered invading the as noted. in operation. Finally, the value of the deeper zones of the black coral resource itself can vary between $100 bed off Maui at depths of 80-100 m, Year Maui Bed Kauai Bed and $1,000/kg (Grigg, 2002) and has and it has been overgrowing portions always been marginally sufficient to of the substratum as well as many 1958–19681. 3,000 0 produce sustainable profits for the adult colonies of both species of black 2. 1968–1972 4,000 2,000 industry. During periods of no domes- coral (Grigg, 2003, 2004; Kahng and 1972–19803. 8,000 4,000 tic harvest, the precious coral jewelry Grigg, 2005). While this invasion is 19814. 72 0 industry relied solely on imports from limited in scope and does not appear Taiwan, Japan and Italy. to be escalating (S. Kahng, personal 1982 430 0 The black coral fishery in Hawaii communication), the growing demand 1983 867 0 has enjoyed a more profitable and on the resource by both increased 1984 1,422 0 continuous history. Examination of harvest and overgrowth by C. riisei 1985 140 0 Table III illustrates a highly variable colonies suggests there is a need for catch record, but this is primarily an more stringent guidelines such as a 1986 425 0 artifact of incomplete reporting to the reduction in OY or a larger size limit 1987 1,978 0 Hawaii Division of Aquatic Resources, (Grigg, 2004). Because of these de- 1988 234 0 especially during the years 1981–1997. velopments, the WPRFMC in 2007 1989 464 0 In spite of this problem, the landings increased the minimum-size limit for do not appear to have exceeded esti- black coral by removing a prior 1990 395 0 mates of OY (5,000 kg/yr for the exemption allowing harvest of black 1991 1,048 0 Maui Bed) (Table III). In this regard, it coral with a minimum-size diameter 1992 1,090 0 is important to clarify that harvest of of 3/4 inch. All harvest of black coral black coral has always been selective, must now be done at a minimum 1-inch 1993 393 0 favoring large colonies and discourag- base diameter or 48-inch minimum 1994 1,979 0 ing the collection of undersize colo- height. In 2008, the WPRFMC esta- 1995 2,735 0 nies. The research on black coral (Grigg, blished a quota for the Auau Channel 1996 2,211 0 1976) not only established estimates of Bed (also known as the Maui Bed) of OY but also recommended a size limit 5,000 kg/2 years. 19974. 689 0 of 48 inches for both species of black While management of the black 1999–20055. 3,182 0 coral (Table I). coral fishery has been traditionally the In Figure 4, the age frequency of responsibility of the State of Hawaii, *Antipathes griggi and A. grandis the black coral populations of Maui the WPRFMC has also been active in 1–3. Annual harvest based on interviews are shown in 1975 versus 1998. Clearly, the management of this fishery and with divers recruitment over this time period has sponsored a management workshop on 4. Annual harvest as reported to the State been nearly continuous, and the fishery black coral in cooperation with the of Hawaii, Div. of Aquatic Resources, 1981–1997 itself can therefore be considered State of Hawaii on April 18–19, 2006. 5. Parrish, 2006 stable. That was in 1998. Unfortunately Indeed, it was this workshop that led since that time, annual harvest has to the passage of the more stringent

Figure 4. Age frequency distributions of black coral (A. griggi) in the Maui Bed in 1975 and 1998 (Grigg, 2001). Note that 97% of the bed in 1998 is entirely due to recruitment since 1975. In other words, recruitment has been sustainable over the entire time period of 23 years between 1975 and 1998.

8 management guidelines for the black The future of Hawaii’s precious fishery and industry to the nation. In coral fishery that are described above corals industry, on the other hand, will spite of various logistical and economic (WPRFMC, 2006). depend on the cost and availability of limitations over the past 50 years, the foreign imports. Over the years, when precious coral industry in the State of VII. Summary and future prospects the domestic deepwater precious coral Hawaii has grown to well over $50 of the precious corals fishery fishery was inactive, the industry was million annually and employs more than in the Western Pacific Region sustained by this source of both raw 1,000 people. It is even more impor- and finished material. tant to understand that, without the At the present time (2009) the The black coral fishery and industry regulatory authority inherent in the deepwater precious coral fishery in continues to thrive. The State of Hawaii FMP developed by the WPRFMC and Hawaii is dormant. Even though the and the WPRFMC are now working the cooperation of the State of Hawaii, NWHI have been closed due to classi- together to improve management guide- environmental concerns would have fication as a marine national monument, lines, and the fishermen are now accu- prevented significant development of adequate supplies still exist in known rately reporting annual harvest. The the deepwater precious coral and black beds in the main Hawaiian Islands. fishermen fully appreciate the need to coral fisheries. The problem is not supply, but rather carefully abide by the 48-inch size limit It is also important to recognize that the high cost of operation versus the for black coral. They understand that the WPRFMC was a pioneer in deve- present value of target species. Unless the future of the industry, as well as loping rules and regulations to success- prices of the raw material for pink, red their own future, depends on the fully manage precious coral resources. and gold coral increase significantly, continued sustainability of the resource. The Precious Corals FMP could, in the outlook for the fishery over the As it now stands, after 50 years of fact, be used as a template for other short term will depend on the possible operation, the black coral fishery in precious coral fisheries in the world development of a low cost, remote Hawaii is one of the few fisheries in (Italy, France, Japan, and Taiwan) controlled technology that would dra- the world that has remained sustainable that are in urgent need of comparable matically reduce the cost of harvest. over this period of time. management programs (Grigg, 1993, This is an obvious opportunity for Finally, it is important to assess the 1984 and 1982). future research. economic value of the precious coral

References Caddy, J.F. 1993. Background concepts for a —. 1976. Fishery management of precious and Roark, E.B., T.P. Guilderson, R.B. Dunbar, and rotating harvesting strategy with particular refer- stony corals in Hawaii. UH Sea Grant Technical B.L. Ingram. 2006. Radiocarbon-based ages ence to the Mediterranean red coral resource. Report 77-03. 48pp and growth rates of Hawaiian deep-sea corals. In: Red coral in the Mediterranean Sea: Art, history —. 1974. Distribution and abundance of pre- Marine Ecology Progress Series 327:1–14. and science. Ministry of Resources, Agriculture, cious corals in Hawaii. Proceedings of the 2nd Tescione, G. 1965. Il corallo, nella storia e Food and Forestry, Italy. P 201–227. International Coral Reef Symposium 2:235–240. nell’arte. Montanino Editore, Napoli, Italy. Fishery management plan for precious coral —. 1971. Status of the precious coral industry in United States. Department of Commerce. fisheries of the Western Pacific Region. Japan, Taiwan and Okinawa. UNIHI-SEAGRANT- 1977. Environmental Impact Statement/Pre- Federal Register 45 (30 August 1983). AR-71-02. liminary Management Plan for Precious Corals. Grigg, R.W. 2004. Harvesting impacts and —. 1965. Ecological studies of black coral in NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service. invasion by an alien species decrease estimates Hawaii. Pacific Science 19:244–260. Western Pacific Regional Fishery Manage- of black coral yield off Maui. Pacific Science ment Council. 2006. 2006 Black Coral Science 58:1–6. Grigg, R.W. and D.M. Opresko. 1977. Order Antipatharia, black corals. In: Reef and Shore and Management Workshop Report. Photocopy. —. 2003. Invasion of a deep black coral bed by Fauna of Hawaii. B.P. Bishop Museum Special an alien species, Carijoa riisei, off Maui, Hawaii. Publication 64(1): 242–261. Coral Reefs 22:121–122. Kahng, S.E. 2008. Personal communication. —. 2002. Precious corals in Hawaii: Discovery of a new bed and revised management measures Kahng, S.E. and R.W. Grigg. 2005. Impact of for existing beds. Marine Fisheries Review an alien octocoral, Carijoa riisei, on black corals 64(1):13–20. in Hawaii. Coral Reefs 24(4):556–562. —. 2001. Black coral: History of a sustainable Opresko, D.M. 2009. A new name for the fishery in Hawaii.Pacific Science 55:291–299. Hawaiian Antipatharian coral formerly known as Antipathes dichotoma (Cnidaria: Anthozoa: —. 1993. Precious coral fisheries of Hawaii and Antipatharia). Pacific Science 63:277–291. the US Pacific Islands. Marine Fisheries Review 55:50–60. Parrish, F. 2006. Black oral landings 1985–2005. In: 2006 Black Coral Science and Management —. 1984. Resource management of precious Workshop Report. Western Pacific Regional corals: A review and application to shallow water Fishery Management Council. Photocopy. The pink coral (Corallium secundun) is the reef building corals. Marine Ecology 5:57–74. Poh, K.K. 1971. Economics and market potential most abundant deepwater precious coral —. 1982. Economics and future development of of the precious coral industry in Hawaii. UNIHI- in the Hawaiian Archipelago. Photo courtesy the precious coral fishery in the Pacific. Infofish SEAGRANT-AR-71-03. 22pp. of D. Doubilet (2): 8–11 9 Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council Photo c ourt es 1164 Bishop Street, Suite 1400 Honolulu, Hawaii 96813

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