Precious Coral Fisheries of Hawaii and the U.S. Pacific Islands

RICHARD W. GRIGG

Introduction widespread and one which renews it­ haina, Maui, at a depth of 30-75 m self very slowly. In this paper, these along a drop-off known as "stone wall" Precious corals have been used by aspects of the fishery are considered on the Lahaina Roads Reef. What humans for the fabrication ofcoral jew­ but only as they relate to the modem Ackerman and Windley had discov­ elry since antiquity (Grigg, 1989). history and management of precious ered were populations of two species Along with amber, precious coral may coral fisheries in Hawaii and the West­ of exceedingly large black corals, have also been used as a source of ern Pacific during the past 35 years. Antipathes dichotoma and Antipathes currency for trade by paleolithic man Over this period in this area, two dif­ grandis (Fig. I). Subsequent research (Tescione, 1968). As a renewable re­ ferent precious coral fisheries have has shown that 12 additional species source in the sea, precious corals are been developed; one in relatively shal­ exist in Hawaiian waters but most of thought to be the slowest growing or­ low water between 30-100 m for sev­ these occur at depths below 100 m, ganisms of any known fishery past or eral species of black coral, and the and none are large enough or are of present. Pink and red coral fisheries other, for pink, gold, and bamboo cor­ sufficient quality to be of commerical exist in the Mediterranean Sea and the als at depths of 400-1500 m. A brief value for coral jewelry (Grigg and Pacific Ocean. Black corals are dis­ history of both fisheries is presented Opresko, 1977). tributed world-wide and small fisher­ including a description of their ecol­ The discovery of black coral in Ha­ ies for black coral exist in all oceans. ogy and management of target species. waii in 1958 led to the establishment Hence, precious corals represent a Future research needs for both fisher­ of a small cottage industry that pro­ unique and interesting case history of ies are described and future prospects duced curios and black coral jewelry a fishery which is very old and quite of the precious coral industry are in Lahaina, Maui (Stewart, 1962b). In considered. 1960, John Stewart and Jack Ackerman started a company known as Maui Richard W. Grigg is with the Dept. of Ocean­ Taxonomy ography, 1000 Pope Rd., University of Hawaii, Divers. Over the next ten years, Maui Honolulu, Hawaii 96822. Views of opinions Briefly, all species of precious coral Divers grew steadily under the direc­ expressed or implied are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the position of in the Western Pacific belong to one of tion of Clifford Slater, and was joined the National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA. three Orders within the Class Anthozoa, by about a dozen other small compa­ Phylum Coelenterata. The pink and nies. By 1969 the industry collectively bamboo corals, Coralhum spp. and was producing about $2 million gross Lepidisis olapa, are in the Order retail sales; part of these sales included ABSTRACT - The precious coralfish­ Gorgonacea. The Hawaiian gold coral, imports of pink coral jewelry from Tai­ ery in Hawaii and the Western Pacific consists of one industry but two distinct Gerardia sp., is in the Order Zoanthidae wan and Japan. and separate fisheries. Thefirst is the har­ and the black corals, Antipathes In 1965, Japanese coral fishermen vest of black coral by scuba divers from dichotoma, A. grandis. A. ulex, and discovered a huge bed of commercial depths of 30-100 m. The second is a fish­ Cirrhipathes anguina, are all in the pink coral at about 400-m depth on the ery for pink and gold coral at depths be­ Order Antipathidae. Gorgonians are tween 400 and 1500 m and employs either Milwaukee Banks in the Emperor Sea­ a human-operated submersible that per­ octocorals while the Hawaiian gold and mount Chain north of Midway Island mits selective harvest or tangle net dredges black corals are hexocorals. near the northwesternmost end of the which are nonselective. The modern his­ Hawaiian Archipelago. In terms of sig­ History of the Precious Coral tory ofthese fisheries date from /958 until nificance to the United States, only the present. In this paper the ecology, life Fishery in Hawaii and the about 10% of the entire area (the so­ history. and management of the dominant Western Pacific species that make up these fisheries are re­ called Midway Grounds) exist within viewed. Research needs ofthe fisheries and Commercial beds of black coral were the U.S. economic zone (EEZ). Never­ the economic and future prospects of the discovered in Hawaii in 1958 by Jack theless, as a result of this discovery, precious coral industry are also described. At the present, the precious coral jewelry Ackerman and Larry Windley (Stewart, interest in precious coral resources dra­ industry in Hawaii (all species) is valued at 1962a; Grigg, 1965). This discovery matically increased in Hawaii. This about $25 million at the retailleve/. was located 4.8 km due west of La­ stimulated new exploration in the high

50 Marine Fisheries Review Figure I.-Jack Ackerman and Larry Windley display a large colony of Antipathes dichotoma collected from a depth of 65 m off Lahaina, Maui. The colony is dead and encrusted with numerous sponges and other invertebrates. Even so, the skeleton is still of commercial quality for the manufacture of coral jewelry.

55(2), /993 5/ Hawaiian Islands and in 1966, Vernon habitat with Corallium secundum. The cific-wide. From the time of the major Brock and Ted Chamberlain of the Maui Divers operation lasted 6 years discovery of Corallium secundum on University of Hawaii discovered a but was discontinued in 1978 because the Milwaukee Banks in 1965 to the small bed of pink coral Corallium of high operating costs. The annual present, the annual supply of both pink secundum, near 400 m depth off Maka­ harvest of pink and gold coral from the and red corals has been extremely er­ puu, Oahu (Fig. 2). In the following Makapuu Bed during this period is ratic. The harvest of shallow water three years, a small group of fishermen given in Table 1. Since this time, the Corallium by Japanese and Taiwanese dredged the Makapuu Bed for pink industry in Hawaii has relied on stock­ coral fishermen first peaked in 1969 coral on a small scale using tangle nets piles of gold coral and exports of pink when production Pacific-wide reached (Fig. 3). and red corals (Corallium spp.) mostly 150 metric tons. Following this boom In 1970 a long-term research pro­ from Taiwan and Japan. The only other year, production fell precipitously and gram on precious corals began at the attempt to harvest pink corals domes­ remained low for the next five years University of Hawaii and this led to tically within the Western Pacific EEZ the development of a selective harvest­ was in 1988, when crew members of Table 1.-Annual harvest 01 pink and gold corallrom ing system utilizing a manned submers­ the vessel Kilauea used nonselective the Makapuu Bed (kg). ible (Grigg et aI., 1973; Figure 4). In tangle nets at Hancock Seamount. Their CoraIlium 1973, Maui Divers of Hawaii incorpo­ catch was only 450 kg of Corallium Year Gear secundum Gerardia sp. rated this system and began a secundum and most of the colonies har­ 1966-69 Dredge 1800 0 1970-72 No harvest 0 0 commerical operation of selective har­ vested were dead and of low quality. 1973 Submersible 538 0 1974 Submersible 2209 734 vest for pink, gold, and bamboo coral Because Hawaii's precious coral in­ 1975 Submersible 1385 621 which lasted until 1978. The gold coral dustry continues to be dependent on 1976 Submersible 400 363 1977 Submersible 1421 329 (Gerardia sp.) and bamboo coral sources of raw material outside the US 1978 (Lepidisis olapa) (Muzik, 1978) co­ EEZ, it is important to analyze trends (Jan-June) Submersible 474 50 exist within the same depth zone and in the supply of Corallium spp. Pa­ 1979-92 no harvest 0 0

Figure 2.-Corallium secundum (center) at a depth of 390 m in the Makapuu coral bed. The substratum consists of a hard fossilized limestone. It is swept by strong bottom currents which prevent the buildup of sediments. The measuring rod is marked at 10 cm intervals.

52 Marine Fisheries Review Figure 3.-A = Coral tangle dredges consisting of stones with attached netting.

(Grigg, 1984). Accurate statIstIcs for By 1991, production Pacific-wide were at unprecedented highs. Accord­ these years are not available. Then in stood at an all time low of 2,930 kg ing to the American Institute in Tai­ 1978, a deep-water undescribed spe­ (Table 2) and prices of raw material wan, coral production in Taiwan fell to cies of Corallium (sp. nov.) was dis­ covered by a Japanese fishermen at Table 2.-Total foreign yield (kg) of precious coral (Corallium spp.) in the Pacific during the years depths between 900 and 1500 m on the 1979-91. Emperor Seamounts. While the color Japan of this species is spotty (sometimes Taiwan Midway Western (All areas called Scotch), varing between pink Year grounds Pacific Submersible combined) Total and white, it was extremely abundant, 1979 76,988 14,516 0 123,000 214,504' and like the 1965 discovery, it pro­ 1980 74,228 10,227 0 154,000 238,455' 1981 30,484 5,381 775 254.000 290,6402 duced a "coral rush." In the peak year 1982 52,166 3,000 551 69,200 123,9172 of 1981, over 100 coral boats from 1983 51,087 2,947 306 109,000' 163,4932 1984 33,164 3,315 634 157,000' 194,1132 Japan and Taiwan fished the Midway 1985 9,322 2,366 816 214,000' 226,5042 Grounds and production neared almost 1986 1,650 1,268 1,261 141,000' 146,1792 1987 585 1,986 425 106,000' 108,9772 300 metric tons (t) Pacific-wide (Table 1988 217 1,605 1,082 50,0005 52,0942 2). Unfortunately, this intensive fish­ 1989 1,961 1,057 938 5,400' 9,156 1990 0 (2,1724 ) 1,000' 3,172 ing effort led to a gradual depletion of 1991 0 (1,3904 ) -1,000' -2,930 the resource, illustrating the well es­ , Grigg, 1984. tablished pattern for all precious coral 2 All Japan Coral Fishing Association. 'Coordination Council for North American Affairs, Taipei, Taiwan, D. K. P. Liu. fisheries: exploration, discovery, 4 D. M. Ancona, Embassy of the United States, Tokyo, Japan. Western Pacific and submersible catch combined. exploitation, and depletion (Grigg, 5 Taiwan Fisheries Bureau, Sing-Hwa Hu. Personal commun. 1989. Taipei. 6 Personal Communication, Vanila Lin, Taipei, Taiwan. 1990. 1989). 7 American Institute in Taiwan, M. J. Matthews. Personal commun. 1992 Taipei.

55(2), 1993 53 Figure 3.-B =Japanese coral fishing boat showing line haulers, tangle net dredges, and rollers on side of vessel.

I t in 1990 but exports drawn from from the black coral beds off Maui and Production by Maui Divers of Ha­ previous year stockpiles were 63 t of Kauai. During the late 70' s and early waii accounts for more than 50% of all coral products. As stockpiles of the 80' s the demand for black coral was locally produced black coral jewelry resource are gradually reduced world­ greatly reduced, being replaced by a in the State of Hawaii. Today, consid­ wide, new production will depend on higher consumer interest in pink and erably less black coral is used for fab­ the discovery of new precious coral gold coral. However, since about 1986, rication than during the 60's and 70's beds. This boom and bust cycle of har­ demand for black coral has been because the jewelry items produced are vest and supply dramatically illustrates steadily increasing. Consumption by smaller and of higher quality and be­ the need for management of the fish­ one company, Maui Divers of Hawaii, cause modem cutting procedures are ery. Management has been hampered Ltd., illustrates this trend (Table 3). much more efficient than in the past. by the multinational character of the In November of 1987, black coral was fishery and because many precious named the State "Gem" and this has in­ coral beds exist in international waters. Table 3.-Consumption of Hawaiian black coral by creased consumer interest considerably. In contrast to the pink and red coral Maui Divers of Hawaii, Ltd., 1982-92. Over the years, the stability of the fishery in the Pacific, the black coral Year Weight (all species combined), kg industry has been aided by the avail­ fishery in Hawaii is relatively stable. 1982 78 ability of inexpensive black coral from While demand has fluctuated consid­ 1983 70 the Philippines and Tonga (Harper, 1984 257 erably over the years since its discov­ 1985 278 1988). These sources have filled the 1986 463 ery in 1958, the supply of black coral 1987 934 demand for low quality but high vol­ has never failed to meet demand. In 1988 432 ume jewelry products. Also black coral 1989 824 the early years of the industry during 1990 1295 resources in Hawaii have been well the 1960's and early 70's, as much as 1991 1740 managed by local fishermen who vol­ 1992 (Jan-July) 1238 10,000 kg were harvested annually untarily do not harvest colonies below

54 Marine Fisheries Review Figure 4.-As the Maui Divers Star II submersible approaches the surface, a subtender using scuba collects gold coral, Gerardia sp., from the basket.

55(2), 1993 55 48 inches (1.2 m) in height. This size tion) appears to rarely occur. Most spe­ Pacific make these living resources limit has been adopted by the Western cies of precious coral are uni-sexual or highly vulnerable to over-exploitation Pacific Regional Fisheries Manage­ dioecious, i.e. the sexes are separate. in unmanaged fisheries. This is because ment Council and has been recom­ The age of reproductive maturity of many year classes are exposed to har­ mended to the State of Hawaii and is Corallium secundum and A. dichotoma vesting at the same time. Virtually de­ based on the growth rate and repro­ is similar, occurring about age 12-13 cades of accumulated standing stock ductive pattern of Antipathes dicho­ which is about one-sixth the longevity can be collected during short intensive toma and calculations of maximum of the oldest colonies. Fertilization of periods of fishing. Indeed, the histori­ sustained yield (Grigg, 1976). Hawaiian precious corals appears to cal pattern of the fishery worldwide is Overall, the precious coral industry take place externally within the water one of discovery, exploitation and in Hawaii has steadily grown over the column. The duration of the larval stage depletion. past 34 years since its inception. At the is unknown for most species of pre­ Historically, species of Corallium retail level today, the precious coral cious coral, but studies of one species, have been harvested non-selectively industry is valued at about $25 million Corallium rubrum, in the Mediterra­ using various types of dredges. In the and consists of about 100 retailers. nean Sea suggest that larvae of this Meditteranean Sea a heavy wooden A small but stable black coral fishery species remain competent for several cross outfitted with tangle netting (The in Hawaii continues to thrive while the weeks (Vighi, 1970). In general, settle­ Cross of Saint Andrew) is dragged fishery Pacific-wide for Corallium spp. ment is most successful on clean swept across the bottom where corals are bro­ has drastically declined owing to deple­ surfaces exposed to strong bottom cur­ ken and entangled in the mesh. Japa­ tion of the resource. Present demand for rents. The larvae of both species of nese and Taiwanese fishermen also use Corallium is being met largely by the Antipathes in Hawaii are known to be tangle gear although theirs is simpler utilization of stockpiles. The future of negatively phototactic which explains in design, consisting of either stones or the Corallium fishery will depend on the why they are not found at shallow iron bars with attached netting (Fig. 3). discovery of new beds of commercial depths « 30 m) and are most abundant Since the inception of SCUBA, shal­ grade species of pink and red coral. beneath overhangs and on other dimly low water colonies in the Medit­ lit surfaces (Grigg, 1965). teranean Sea (up to 110 m in depth) Ecology of precious corals The ecological requirements of all have been harvested selectively by The ecology and patterns of life his­ species of precious coral in the west­ divers. In Hawaii the black coral fish­ tory of various species of precious cor­ ern Pacific can be briefly summarized ery also employs SCUBA divers who als have been reviewed by Grigg (1974, as follows. All species require a firm selectively harvest colonies with axes, 1976, 1984, 1989). In general, most (rocky) substratum free of sediment hammers, and saws (Fig. 4). The first species ofprecious corals are slow grow­ and most thrive in areas swept by mod­ selective harvest of Corallium in which a ing, have low rates of recruitment and erate to strong currents. All species submersible was used by Maui Divers of mortality, and consequently are relatively lack symbiotic algae in their tissues Hawaii in 1973. This was accomplished long lived. The oldest colonies of (ahermatypic) and most are found in with the use of a sophisticated cutter, Corallium secundum in the Makapuu Bed deep water below the euphotic zone claw, and basket assembly that was at­ off Oahu probably reach an age of 75 (Table 4). All species are filter feeders tached to the submersible (Fig. 5, Grigg years, and the largest colonies of Anti­ and many are fan-shaped, a growth et aI., 1973). Since 1983 an unmanned pathes dichotoma and A. grandis may form which maximizes contact of feed­ submersible (robot) has been used in Ja­ even be older. Populations of both ing surfaces with particles or mi­ pan to harvest selective species of pre­ Corallium secundum and both black coral croplankton entrained in the water cious coral in traditional seas (Table 2). species appear to be recruitment limited column. Light and temperature appear Precious coral resources in Hawaii (Grigg, 1988). In favorable environments to influence larvae more than adults. and the Western Pacific fall under the for Corallium secundum and A. The lower depth limit of A. dichotoma dichotoma in Hawaii, populations are and A. grandis coincides with the top Table 4.-Depth zonation of all species of precious relatively stable suggesting that recruit­ of the thermocline in the high Hawai­ coral in the western Pacific. ment and mortality are approximately in ian islands. Larvae may avoid settling steady state. However, in suboptimal en­ deeper where lower temperature may Species and common name Depth range (m) vironments, the age frequency distribu­ prevent reproduction (Grigg, 1977, Corallium secundum, Angle skin coral tions of both species are very uneven or 1984). Species of Corallium exist be­ 350 -475 Corallium sp. nov., truncated probably owing to episodic low the euphotic zone at depths Midway deepsea coral 1000-1500 mortality events (personal observation). between 350 and 1,500 m where tem­ Gerardia sp., Hawaiian gold coral 300-400 Mortality is most often the result of perature varies between 14 0 and 3°C. Lepidisis olapa, bamboo coral 350-400 smothering by sediments and by bio­ Antipathes dichotoma, black coral 30-100 erosion of the substrata which leads to Resource management Antipathes grandis, pine black coral 45-100 toppling of colonies. Fragmentation The life history attributes of all spe­ Antipathes ulex, fern black coral 40-100 Antipathes anguina, wire black coral and reattachment (asexual reproduc­ cies of precious corals in the western 20-60

56 Marine Fisheries Review Figure 5.-A black coral diver in Hawaii approaches a small colony of Anlipalhes dicholoma at a depth of 50 m off Lahaina, Maui.

55(2), 1993 57 management authority of the State of the harvest of A. dichotoma and A. assessment techniques, and selective Hawaii and the U.S. Federal govern­ grandis. At the present time, black coral harvesting gear (submersibles or re­ ment. The State has clear jurisdiction divers in Hawaii comply voluntarily mote control harvester vehicles) is re­ over resources out to three miles but with this draft regulation. quired. Makapu'u is the only desig­ also claims authority over inter-island Precious coral resources within the nated Established Bed. Conditional waters. Hence the State has declared U.S. EEZ (Fig. 6) are managed by the beds are ones for which yields have jurisdiction over the Makapuu Coral Western Pacific Regional Fishery Man­ been estimated on the basis of bed size Bed situated 9 km (6 miles) off agement Council (WESTPAC), under relative to established beds with the Makapuu in the channel between Oahu a Fishery Management Plan (FMP) for assumption that ecological conditions and Molokai. Federal jurisdiction ex­ precious coral (Dep. of Commerce, at established beds are representative tends from 3 miles outside the State of 1980). The FMP, finalized in Septem­ of conditions at all other beds. Four Hawaii, Guam, and American Samoa ber 1983, allows for domestic and for­ beds are designated as conditional beds: to 200 miles, and from the shoreline of eign fishing by regular or experimental Kea-hole Point, Kaena Point, Brooks all U.S. possessions in the Western permits and requires logbooks of the Banks, and 180 Fathom Bank. Nonse­ Pacific (Johnson Atoll, Kingman Reef, permittees. Specific regulations con­ lective harvesting is permitted only in and Palmyra, Wake, Jarvis, Howland tained in the FMP are as follows: the two conditional beds in the North­ and Baker islands) to 200 miles. This The FMP and regulations outline and west Hawaiian Islands (Brooks and the area is defined as the U.S. Exclusive classify the known beds of precious 180 Fathom Banks). A refugia bed is Economic Zone (EEZ). corals within the Western Pacific Re­ one set aside to serve as a baseline Presently black corals in Hawaiian gion, and designate harvesting method study area and possibly reproductive waters are managed by the State of and the amount of corals that can be reserve. No harvesting of any kind is Hawaii. Fishermen are required to have harvested. There are four bed classifi­ permitted in Refugia. Presently, the commercial fishing licenses and report cations: 1) Established Beds, 2) Con­ WESTPAC bed, between Nihoa and their catch monthly to the Hawaii Di­ ditional Beds, 3) Refugia Beds, and 4) Necker Islands, is the only designated vision of Aquatic Resources. A state Exploratory Permit Areas. Established Refugia. Exploratory permit areas are regulation has been drafted which sets beds are ones with a history of harvest, unexplored portions of the EEZ in a minimum size of 48 inches in colony and optimum yields have been estab­ which coral beds are almost certain to height and 3/4" in basal diameter for lished on the basis of biological stock exist, but no beds have yet been 10­

NORTHWESTERN HAWAIIAN ISLANDS MAIN HAWAIIAN ISLANDS HANCOCK t-~~,.S;CE:-:-ATM-=-O-=-UN-,-T:.:S -+-__----'.;~__-+ -+ ++ +------:30.

KURE I. V, "MIDWAY:.".. (" IS. I R ,j,PEr , L"&l: H_,ERMES REEF BENSALEUX SALMoN REEF" BANK USIANSKI I. ~~SAN I. RAITA BANK I----+---==.~---+----""-',"- ~~~ ,/ \'!~~RN~&~:C;S--t------+-+---:~.-'o"'o-..::::c--I------2S· "c ~BROOKS • ""'1 (, BED~.NECKERI.: ~~~ FRENCH ').:J .. ," • FRIGATE / 'J"o"NIHOA SHOALS REFUGIA co: KAUAI MAKAPUU NIIH~ :4})AHo/BED I :loo KAU~A /'I!:,0'MOLDKAI """ €€~ KAENA POINT (;~~MAlJI ! BED LANArc..... ------t-20' KEAHOLE-'" BED p elF I C o C E A

180' 175' 170' 165' 160' ISS' 161 20'W Figure 6.-Map of the EEZ in the southern half of the Hawaiian Archipelago showing the location of five precious coral beds.

58 Marine Fisheries Review always been unable to meet demand. Only the most accessible black coral beds off ~ 300 Lahaina, Maui, have been depleted. Foreign poaching has been a serious I­ M " a 055 problem in the past. During the 1980' s, :J a:: Japanese and Taiwanese coral vessels u 200 continuously violated the EEZ near the w a:: Hancock Seamounts. In 1985, about 20 Taiwanese coral draggers report­ , ,, M=0066 edly poached about 100 tons of Corallium from seamounts within the o 100 , .-I , EEZ north of Gardner Pinnacles and W " M "0.077 Laysan Island. Absence of poaching >­ since that time could indicate that the - ... -::. ::: ::::-r resources in these areas have been eco­ 50 60 70 nomically exhausted. A research pro­ y E A R S gram is currently planned to resurvey the Hancock Seamounts in 1994 with Figure 7.-The Beverton and Holt yield-per-recruit model the University of Hawaii research sub­ was used to estimate MSY (vertical arrows) for Cora Ilium secundum in the Makapuu coral bed at 3 different values mersible Pisces V, in order to assess of natural mortality. Dashed lines indicate yield curves the present condition of precious coral produced by applying a fishing mortality of 0.06 at four resources in this area. different ages. Research Needs and Future Prospects cated. There are four exploratory per­ Corallium secundum (Fig. 2, 7) and mit areas; one surrounding the Hawai­ the Gulland Model (MSY =0.4 M 80) The most pressing need of the pre­ ian Islands, another that encompasses where m = natural mortality and 80 is cious coral fishery (and industry) is Guam and the Commonwealth of the the virgin biomass, for Gerardia and stock assessment; first in order to de­ Northern Marianas, a third that en­ Lepidisis. scribe the status of the stocks within circles American Samoa, and a fourth, Having described the management established grounds, and second, to dis­ which was created by Amendment 1 to measures established to conserve pre­ cover new areas. Without substantial the FMP, which includes the EEZ's of cious coral resources in Hawaii and efforts to explore and discover new all the remaining U.S. Pacific Island the Western Pacific, it is important to grounds, the precious coral fishery will possessions. Either selective or nonse­ evaluate their effectiveness over the undoubtedly continue to decline. The lective harvest gear is permitted in ex­ history of the fishery. For pink corals, problem will become increasingly more ploratory permit areas except in the management efforts have been success­ serious as existing stockpiles accumu­ Hawaii exploratory area around the ful for the domestic fishery; however, lated during the early 1980' s are gradu­ Main Hawaiian Islands. poaching by foreign fishing has fre­ ally exhausted. Specific weight quotas and size lim­ quently occurred within the U.S. EEZ The most promising exploratory ar­ its have been determined based on es­ and is difficult to control. eas appear to be in southern oceans. timates of maximum sustainable yields Considering the domestic coral fish­ Channel waters around Madagascar and optimum yields. For example, the eries first, the cumulative harvest of and Tasmania (Grigg and Brown, 1991) established bed at Makapu'u has a 2­ Corallium from the Makapu'u bed be­ are particularly promising areas and year harvest quota for selective gear tween 1966 and 1978 was about 32% scattered occurrences of large colonies only: 2,000 kg for C. secundum, 600 of the standing stock. The average an­ of Cora/lium spp. have been reported kg for Gerardia sp. and 500 kg for L. nual harvest was 685 kg, somewhat (exact locations are well guarded se­ o/apa. Only colonies of C. secundum less than the best estimate of MSY, crets). Considerable exploration has taller than 10 inches can be harvested. near 1,000 kg. Surveys of the Makapu'u been conducted in the tropical Pacific Quotas of 1,000 kg of all species of bed in 1983 and again in 1985 showed by CCOP-SOPAC (Committee for Co­ precious coral combined, exist for each substantial recovery at rates in close ordination of Joint Prospecting for Min­ of the EEZ exploratory areas. Foreign agreement with model predictions in eral Resources in South Pacific fishing is allowed in exploratory areas, the FMP (Grigg, 1988). For black coral, Offshore Areas), and Cora/lium spp. if the quotas are not taken by domestic the combined MSY for beds off Maui have been recorded from many locali­ fishermen. Maximum sustainable and Kauai is 6,250 kg/yr (Grigg, 1976). ties (Cook Islands, Fiji, Kiribati, yields were calculated by using the Harvest levels of black coral above Solomon Islands, Tonga, Vanuatu, and Beverton and Holt cohort production MSY occurred only in the earliest years W. Samoa), but unfortunately not in model (Beverton and Holt, 1957) for of the fishery (Table 3) and supply has commercial quality or abundance

55(2), 1993 59 (Harper, 1988). Most exploratory continue to depend on exports from Taiwan for jointly managing the pre­ dredging by CCOP-SOPAC, however, these countries; therefore, what hap­ cious coral fisheries in the Pacific. has been at depths between 200 and pens to the Japanese and Taiwanese 500 m, and virtually nothing is known fleet is important. Exploration is very Literature Cited about the potential of deeper water re­ expensive and there appears to be little Beverton, R. J. H. and S. V. Holt. 1957. On the sources (such as Corallium sp. nov. Japanese or Taiwanese interest in wide dynamics of exploited fish populations. Fish which occurs at a 1,000-1,500 m depth ranging fishing expeditions at the Invest. Minist. Agric. Fish. Food. (G.B.), Ser. II, 19: 1-553. by the Emperor Seamounts). present time. For this reason, the fu­ Dep. of Commerce. 1980. FMP for the precious Another important research question ture of the industry can only be de­ coral fishery of the Western Pacific region. Fed. Reg. 45( 180):60957-60981. concerns recovery rates (recruitment scribed at this juncture as uncertain. Grigg, R. W. 1965. Ecological studies of black and growth) in areas which have been Prices will undoubtedly continue to coral in Hawaii. Pac. Sci. 19:244-260. heavily harvested. A proposal to assess climb. The raw material for Midway _-,,-_. 1974. Distribution and abundance of precious corals in Hawaii. In A.M. the stocks on the Hancock Seamounts deep-sea coral is still (1990) reason­ Cameron et al. (Editors), Proc. 2nd Int. Coral using the Pisces V submersible has been able at about $150/kg but prices for Reef Symp., 2, Great Barrier Reef Comm., accepted by the Hawaii Undersea Re­ high quality pink and red Corallium Australia, p. 235-240. _--,----_. 1976. Fishery management of pre­ search Laboratory at the University of peaked in 1990 at $3,069/kg and cious and stony corals in Hawaii. UHIHI­ Hawaii and is presently scheduled for $16,103/kg, respectively (D. Ancona, SEAGRANT-TR-77-03: 1-48. ___ . 1977. Population dynamics of two the summer of 1995. The whole area of U.S. Embassy, Tokyo. Personal com­ gorgonian corals. Ecology 1991. 58:278­ population dynamics of precious corals mun. 1991). The future of the industry 290. is in need of further research. would appear to depend on either suc­ _-;-_. 1984. Resource management of pre­ cious corals. A review and application to The mariculture of precious corals cessful future exploration or a break­ shallow water reef building corals. Marine is an exciting new area of research. A through in the mariculture of precious Ecology 5:57-74. new laboratory for the biological, eco­ corals. _.,------,-. 1988. Recruitment limitation of a deep benthic hard-bottom octocoral popula­ nomic, and technical research of pre­ As for the future of the black coral tion in the Hawaiian Islands. Mar. Ecol. Prog. cious corals has recently been fishery, at least in Hawaii, it appears to Ser., 45: 121-126. established in Kochi, Japan, in order to be secure in terms of both supply and _-;--~. 1989. Precious coral fisheries of the Pacific and Mediterranean. In J. F. Caddy attempt the culture of precious coral demand for the resource. The manage­ (Editor), Marine invertebrate fisheries: Their (Sadao Kosuge, Director of the Insti­ ment of other species of precious coral assessment and management, p. 637-645. tute of Malacology, Tokyo. Personal in Hawaii and the Western Pacific will John Wiley and Sons. Grigg, R. W., and D. Opresko. 1977. Order commun. 1992). To date, colonies of continue to be covered by the existing Antipatharia: black corals. In Reef and shore Coralliumjaponicum have been main­ FMP of WESTPAC. Regarding the fauna of Hawaii. B.P. Bishop Mus. Spec. tained alive in culture for over one control of foreign fishing in interna­ Pub. 64( I):242-261. Grigg, R. W, and G. Brown. 1991. Tasmanian year but growth rates are very slow tional waters, it is in the best interest gem corals. The Australian Gemmologist, and colonies have not been induced to of the United States, Japan, and Tai­ 17:399-404. reproduce. However, the research is wan to enter into an international treaty Grigg, R. W., B. Bartko, and C. Brancart. 1973. A new system for the commerical harvest of still in a very early stage. for the purpose of conservation of pre­ precious coral. UHIHI-SEAGRANT-AR-73­ While a complete analysis of the cious corals. However, before this can OJ: 1-6. economics of the precious coral fish­ be achieved, an impetus for such imple­ Harper. J.R. 1988. Precious coral prospecting strategies for the south Pacific region. CCOP/ ery is beyond the scope of this paper, it mentation must be initiated by one or SOPAC Tech. Rep. 84, 80 p. is important to mention that this is an­ all three countries. Based on the prin­ Muzik, K. 1978. A biolominescent gorgonian, other area in need of future research. ciple of common heritage embodied in Lepidisis a/apa, new species (Coelenterata, Octocorallia) from Hawaii. Bull. Mar. Sci. The worldwide glut of Corallium pre­ the International Law of Sea (LOS) 28:735-741. cious coral produced during the boom convention, and on articles of the LOS Stewart, J. 1962a. The Hawaiian black coral years of the early 1980' s caused prices Treaty which urge agreements between story. Part I. Lapidary, July, 1962,388 p. to fall sometimes even below break­ member countries on measures to con­ Stewart, J. 1962b. The Hawaiian black coral story. Part II. Lapidary, August, 1962,490 p. even costs for Taiwanese and Japanese serve living resources within and be­ Tescione, G. 1968. The Italians and their coral coral fishermen and many vessels yond EEZ's, the Western Pacific fishing. Fausto Fiorentino, Napoli, Italy, 490 p. dropped out of the fishery during this Fishery Council has requested that the Vighi, M. 1970. Recerche sui cicIo reproduttivo del corallo rosso (C. rub rum (L)) del time. The future supply of Corallium U.S. State Department enter into mul­ promontorio di Portofino. Lincei-Mem. Sci. to the Hawaiian industry will probably tilateral arrangements with Japan and fisiche, ecc. Ser. III. (10): 1-26.

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