Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000 Edited by Clive Wilkinson Dedication This book is dedicated to the many people who are collectively working to conserve the vast heritage of coral reef ecosystems throughout the world – we thank them for their efforts. It is also dedicated to the partners of the International Coral Reef Initiative and to agencies of the Government of the United States operating through the US Coral Reef Task Force. Of particular mention is the support to the GCRMN from the US Department of State and the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. This report has been produced for the sole use of the party who requested it. The application or use of this report and of any data or information (including results of experiments, conclusions, and recommendations) contained within it shall be at the sole risk and responsibility of that party. AIMS does not provide any warranty or assurance as to the accuracy or suitability of the whole or any part of the report, for any particular purpose or application. Subject only to any contrary non-excludable statutory obligations neither AIMS nor its personnel will be responsible to the party requesting the report, or any other person claiming through that party, for any consequences of its use or application (whether in whole or part). Cover images courtesy of Sandy Tudhope and Lida Pet-Soede. © Australian Institute of Marine Science, 2000 Cape Ferguson, Queensland, and Dampier, Western Australia Postal addresses: PMB No 3 PO Box 264 Townsville MC QLD 4810 Dampier WA 6713 Australia Australia Telephone: (07) 4753 4444 (08) 9183 1122 Facsimile: (07) 4772 5852 (08) 9183 1085 World Wide Web: www.aims.gov.au National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication data: Status of coral reefs of the world: 2000. ISBN 0 642 32209 0. 1. Coral reefs and islands. I. Wilkinson, Clive R. II. Australian Institute of Marine Science. 578.7789 ii FOREWORD Over the past few years, I have become increasingly concerned about the continued degradation of coral reefs, some of the most valuable and spectacular places on earth. Coral reefs are important to us in so many ways. They provide food and livelihoods for millions of people; they help protect coastal communities from tropical storms; and they support rich communities of marine life that rival even rainforests in their biological diversity. These ‘rainforests of the sea’ have already begun to provide new medicines and other compounds to combat diseases and solve other human needs. And we’ve just begun to explore the rich life of our coral reefs. Today, millions of people visit coral reef ecosystems every year to experience the beauty and bounty of healthy coral reefs. In the United States alone, coral reefs support millions of jobs and billions of dollars from tourism related activities. These are just a few of the reasons why coral reefs are so valuable, and why it is so important for us to protect the world’s vulnerable coral reefs. In 1997 and 1998, coral reefs began bleaching and dying across huge regions of the world in association with changes in ocean and climate conditions. In many areas, coral reef ecosystems were devastated, along with the human communities that depended on them. The impacts were on a global scale never before recorded. Scientists now believe that coral reefs may be the first natural ecosystem to clearly show the potential impacts of global climate change. The struggle to conserve the coral reefs is now at a critical stage. While changes in climate conditions may continue to impact coral reefs for some time, coral reefs are losing an even greater battle with water and air pollution, sediment runoff caused by deforestation and coastal development, and over-exploitation, including the insidious practices of dynamite and cyanide fishing. In many areas, the living coral reefs may soon be gone. If coral reefs are lost, many coastal populations will lose their primary source of food, jobs, cultural heritage and long-term prosperity. To conserve these natural treasures, we must reduce human impacts on coral reefs by immediately controlling pollution, reducing over-fishing and increasing protection and sustainable use of our valuable coral reef resources. By working together – from local communities to regions and internationally – I believe we can, and must, reverse the tide of destruction and conserve the world’s precious coral reefs. iii Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000 This report is a tremendous example of what partnerships can do to protect and sustain coral reefs worldwide. This historic document brings together scientific information from around the world to provide the most comprehensive status report to date on the health of the world’s coral reefs. The report is made possible by the efforts of nations, communities and individuals from all over the world to monitor the health of coral reef ecosystems. Without these monitoring programs, this report would not be possible, and we would be severely limited in our ability to address the coral reef crisis. And these efforts are just the beginning. We need more monitoring, research, management and education to adequately track, and improve, the health of coral reefs around the world. This report documents the continuing and disturbing decline in the health of the coral reefs worldwide, which was initially expounded in the first report from the Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network in 1998. Unfortunately, the report provides powerful new evidence that coral reefs continue to be destroyed and degraded in many areas, threatening the very existence of these valuable resources. Now the question is: what are we willing to do about it? I am very pleased that the United States has been able to join with so many international partners in efforts to protect coral reef ecosystems. I sincerely commend the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI), the Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN), the sponsors of this report, and all those who have supported efforts to monitor, manage and conserve the world’s reefs. The children of tomorrow have the right to experience the beauty and wonder of coral reef ecosystems. I call on all of us – nations, societies and individuals – to act now to reduce the threats to these remarkable ecosystems. We must ensure that this report marks the beginning of a powerful new age of coral reef protection, not the sad ending to their very existence. Al Gore Vice President United States of America iv CONTENTS COUNTRIES, STATES AND TERRITORIES VII ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xi INTRODUCTION 1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 7 Clive Wilkinson 1. THE 1997-98 MASS CORAL BLEACHING AND MORTALITY EVENT: 2 YEARS ON Clive Wilkinson 21 2. REGIONAL STATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN THE RED SEA AND THE GULF OF ADEN Nicolas Pilcher and Abdullah Alsuhaibany 35 3. STATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN THE ARABIAN/PERSIAN GULF AND ARABIAN SEA REGION (MIDDLE EAST) Nicolas J. Pilcher, Simon Wilson, Shaker H. Alhazeem and Mohammad Reza Shokri 55 4. STATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN EAST AFRICA: KENYA, MOZAMBIQUE, SOUTH AFRICA AND TANZANIA David Obura, Mohammed Suleiman, Helena Motta, and Michael Schleyer 65 5. STATUS OF CORAL REEFS OF THE SOUTHERN INDIAN OCEAN: THE INDIAN OCEAN COMMISSION NODE FOR COMOROS, MADAGASCAR, MAURITIUS, REUNION AND SEYCHELLES Lionel Bigot, Loic Charpy, Jean Maharavo, Fouad Abdou Rabi, Naidoo Ppaupiah, Riaz Aumeeruddy, Christian Viledieu and Anne Lieutaud 77 6. STATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN SOUTH ASIA: BANGLADESH, INDIA, MALDIVES AND SRI LANKA Arjan Rajasuriya, Hussein Zahir, E.V. Muley, B.R. Subramanian, K. Venkataraman, M.V.M. Wafar, S.M. Munjurul, Hannan Khan and Emma Whittingham 95 7. SOUTHEAST ASIAN REEFS - STATUS UPDATE: CAMBODIA, INDONESIA, MALAYSIA, PHILIPPINES, SINGAPORE, THAILAND AND VIETNAM Loke Ming Chou 117 8. STATUS OF CORAL REEFS OF EAST AND NORTH ASIA: CHINA, JAPAN AND TAIWAN Shuichi Fujiwara, Takuro Shibuno, K. Mito, Tatsuo Nakai, Yasunori Sasaki, Dai Chang-feng and Chen Gang 131 9. STATUS OF CORAL REEFS OF AUSTRALASIA: AUSTRALIA AND PAPUA NEW GUINEA Thomas Maniwavie, Hugh Sweatman, Paul Marshall, Phil Munday and Vagi Rei 141 v 10. STATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN THE SOUTHWEST PACIFIC: FIJI, NAURU, NEW CALEDONIA, SAMOA, SOLOMON ISLANDS, TUVALU AND VANUATU Robin South and Posa Skelton 159 11. STATUS OF SOUTHEAST AND CENTRAL PACIFIC CORAL REEFS IN ‘POLYNESIA MANA NODE’: COOK ISLANDS, FRENCH POLYNESIA, KIRIBATI, NIUE, TOKELAU, TONGA, WALLIS AND FUTUNA Bernard Salvat 181 12. STATUS OF CORAL REEFS OF AMERICAN SAMOA AND MICRONESIA: US-AFFILIATED AND FREELY ASSOCIATED ISLANDS OF THE PACIFIC C.E. Birkeland, P. Craig, G. Davis, A. Edward, Y. Golbuu, J. Higgins, J. Gutierrez, N. Idechong, J. Maragos, K. Miller, G. Paulay, R. Richmond, A. Tafileichig and D. Turgeon 199 13. STATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN THE HAWAIIAN ARCHIPELAGO David Gulko, James Maragos, Alan Friedlander, Cynthia Hunter and Russell Brainard 219 14. STATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN THE US CARIBBEAN AND GULF OF MEXICO: FLORIDA, TEXAS, PUERTO RICO, US VIRGIN ISLANDS AND NAVASSA Billy Causey, Joanne Delaney, Ernesto Diaz, Dick Dodge, Jorge R. Garcia, Jamie Higgins, Walter Jaap, Cruz A. Matos, George P. Schmahl, Caroline Rogers, Margaret W. Miller and Donna D. Turgeon 239 15. STATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN THE NORTHERN CARIBBEAN AND WESTERN ATLANTIC Jeremy Woodley, Pedro Alcolado, Timothy Austin, John Barnes, Rodolfo Claro-Madruga, Gina Ebanks-Petrie, Reynaldo Estrada, Francisco Geraldes, Anne Glasspool, Floyd Homer, Brian Luckhurst, Eleanor Phillips, David Shim, Robbie Smith, Kathleen Sullivan Sealey, Mónica Vega, Jack Ward and Jean Wiener. 261 16. STATUS OF CORAL REEFS OF NORTHERN CENTRAL AMERICA: MEXICO, BELIZE, GUATERMALA, HONDURAS, NICARAGUA AND EL SALVADOR Philip Kramer, Patricia Richards Kramer, Ernesto Arias-Gonzalez and Melanie McField 287 17. STATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN THE EASTERN CARIBBEAN: THE OECS, TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO, BARBADOS, THE NETHERLANDS ANTILLES AND THE FRENCH CARIBBEAN Allan H.