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Phds Before, Els and Joke, Inspired and Supported Me in Many Ways iii Faculteit Sociale Wetenschappen Centre for Migration and Intercultural Studies (CeMIS) Feeding the Ties to “Home” Moroccan Diaspora Policies for the Next Generation Dissertation submitted for the degree of Doctor in Social Sciences at the University of Antwerp by Rilke Mahieu under the supervision of Prof. dr. Christiane Timmerman† (University of Antwerp) Prof. dr. Noel Clycq (University of Antwerp) Prof. dr. Nadia Fadil (Catholic University of Leuven) Antwerp, 2019 i ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Looking back at the trajectory leading to the completion of this doctoral dissertation, a sense of gratitude dominates. This doctoral dissertation would have not been accomplished without the generous financial support of the FWO Flanders and without the many people involved. First and foremost, I wish to thank all my respondents, in Morocco and elsewhere, for their willingness to share their thoughts, stories, and networks with me. I cannot put into words how enriching these encounters have been, both academically and personally. Next, I wish to thank my supervisors: Chris; because of her belief in me and for offering me so many opportunities for professional growth; Nadia; for her stimulating insights and warm encouragement; and Noel; for his readiness to jump into the boat at the final stage and for being there whenever needed. Sadly, Chris passed away in February 2019. While she was unable to witness the completion of this dissertation, I know she would have been immensely proud of me. My doctoral committee members Dimitri Mortelmans and Noël Salazar pushed my work forward with their sharp but always constructive remarks. Scholars like Koen Bogaert, Alexandra Délano Alonso, Lauren Wagner, Jean-Michel Lafleur, Mohamed Berriane, Marlies Casier, Peggy Levitt, Sami Zemni, Maja Povrzanovic Frykman and Martha Bivand Erdal challenged my views by asking the right questions or by pointing at new perspectives. I also wish to thank the anonymous peer reviewers who reviewed my published articles and book chapter, and the jury members at my public defense. I also received support and encouragement from numerous colleagues at CeMIS, my “home” at the University of Antwerp. Colleagues and former colleagues like François, Edith, Ina, Els, Bea, Sanne, An, Marie-Lou, Joris, Joris, Petra, Rut, Christof, Ward, Lore and many others offered me at one point or another their critical feedback, encouragement, practical support or simply a listening ear. I also want to thank my friends and family, who offered me the necessary distraction — in the form of their company, music, good food, and other enjoyable iii things in life. In particular those friends who completed their PhDs before, Els and Joke, inspired and supported me in many ways. Throughout this dissertation, I highlight the importance of acknowledging one’s “roots”. Speaking of my own “roots”; I owe the development of my talents to the dedicated education of my parents, and I thank them for instilling in me the confidence to pursue whatever aspirations I have. Finally, I owe thanks to Benjamin, my life companion, and our two children Gusta and Rosanne, for teaching me each and every day the most important lessons in life. I am also grateful to my parents and parents-in-law, for taking care of these two little ones so often, in order to allow me to pursue my ambitions. Bedankt, merci, shukran bezzaf, thank you. iv COMPOSITION OF THE JURY Supervisors Prof.dr. Christiane Timmerman† (University of Antwerp) Prof. dr. Noel Clycq (University of Antwerp) Prof. dr. Nadia Fadil (Catholic University of Leuven) Individual doctoral commission members Prof. dr. Noël Salazar (Catholic University of Leuven) Prof. dr. Dimitri Mortelmans (University of Antwerp) Additional jury members Prof. dr. Nadia Bouras (Leiden University) Prof. dr. Anja van Heelsum (University of Amsterdam) Prof. dr. Kristof Titeca (University of Antwerp) v vi CONTENTS Acknowledgments .................................................................iii Composition of the jury ..........................................................v Contents ..............................................................................vii Introductory summary: on cows and calves 1 Part 1: Studying Moroccan diaspora policies: Theoretical background, case description, and methodology Chapter 1: Theoretical Background 11 Synopsis 13 Conceptual toolkit: core theoretical concepts 13 Transnationalism 14 Definitions 14 The transnational subject: what or who is transnational? 15 A generational perspective on transnationalism 16 The study of transnationalism: analytic viewpoints 18 Diaspora: what’s in a name? 21 Theoretical debates on diaspora 21 Diaspora as a category of practice 26 Origin states and their expatriate populations: theories and practices 29 Emigration and the state: challenges and state responses 29 Diaspora policies: insights from empirical studies 35 Historical views on diaspora policies 36 Explanatory frameworks for diaspora policies, and their limitations 38 Reception of diaspora policies by expatriate populations 42 Chapter 2: Moroccan Migration, Transnationalism, and the State 45 Synopsis 47 The Moroccan State 47 The Moroccan political system 47 vii The impact of the Moroccan political system on diaspora policies 50 The global position of the Moroccan State 52 Moroccan emigration: patterns and demographics 55 Historical and geographical evolution of the profile of Moroccan migration 55 Demographic shifts in the Moroccan expatriate population: the rise of post-migrant generations 59 Moroccan transnational ties and the Moroccan State 61 Socio-economic ties: individual remittances, collective remittances, transnational investments and entrepreneurship 63 Social ties: return visits and family formation 67 Cultural ties: language and religion 71 Political ties: dual nationality, citizenship, and political participation 74 Chapter 3: Research Questions, Design, and Approach 79 Synopsis 81 Research questions and design 81 Research methodology 86 Political ethnography 87 In-depth interviews 90 Desk research 93 Reflections on my researcher positionality 94 Part 2: Empirical studies on Moroccan diaspora policies for “the next generations” Overview 107 Chapter 4: Competing Origin Country Perspectives on Emigrants’ Descendants: Moroccan Diaspora Institutions’ Policy Views and Practices Regarding the “Next Generations Abroad” 111 Abstract 113 Introduction 113 Research design and methodology 115 Analytic framework 117 viii The governmentality perspective 117 Governing the diaspora 119 Moroccan diaspora policies 122 Government rationalities: how and why to govern post-migrant moroccans? 126 The homeland-centered rationality 126 The diaspora-centered rationality 134 Comparing and contextualizing government rationalities 138 Conclusion 141 Chapter 5: The Shifting Moroccan Policy Paradigm Regarding the Integration of MREs (Moroccans Living Abroad): Reconciling Transnational Ties and Migrant Integration 145 Abstract 147 Introduction 147 The integration-transnationalism nexus reconsidered: the origin state perspective 149 The Moroccan paradigm shift regarding emigrant integration: from rejection to promotion 151 The antagonistic perspective: integration as a threat to transnational ties 152 The turning point: recognition of integration 154 The synergistic perspective: promoting integration as a diaspora policy goal 155 Transnational attachments as a lever for integration: underlying dynamics 162 The culture of origin as a point of reference and a source of empowerment 164 Openness and tolerance as inherently Moroccan values 169 Conclusion 173 Chapter 6: Feeding the Ties to “Home”: Diaspora Policies for the Next Generation 177 Abstract 179 Introduction 179 Theorizing diaspora policies 180 Research methodology 183 ix Morocco’s diaspora policies for the next generations 184 Morocco’s shifting relationship with its expatriate communities 184 The Summer Universities for young Moroccans Living Abroad 186 A targeted diaspora policy methodology for the next generation 188 Moroccan national identity across borders and generations 189 Polishing Morocco’s image 192 Mobilizing the next generations for Morocco’s development 194 Conclusive reflections: A diaspora policy methodology for the next generations 196 Chapter 7: “We’re not Coming from Mars; We Know How Things Work in Morocco!” How Diasporic Moroccan Youth Resists Political Socialization in State-led Homeland Tours 199 Abstract 201 Introduction 201 Political socialization in homeland tours 204 The Summer Universities 209 Negotiating socialization during the Summer Universities 210 Contesting organizers’ perspectives on Morocco: “This is not the real Morocco!” 211 Questioning managerial practices: The Summer Universities as a mirror for Moroccan politics and society 216 Practice what you preach? Clientelism and censorship 217 Professional management: Clashing perspectives 218 The Summer Universities as a showcase for Moroccan policies 220 Conclusion 222 Chapter 8: Theoretical Contributions to the Academic Debate and Future Avenues for Research 225 Introduction 227 Diaspora Policies 2.0 for the next generations 228 Changing population, shifting diaspora policies 229 Instrumentalization of homeland-oriented identifications 233 Ambitious policies, ambiguous outcomes 235 Routes for future research 238 x Bibliography ......................................................................243 Nederlandstalige samenvatting............................................. 268 Annex 1: Chronologic overview of interviews ........................272
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