Handbook on Legislative Reform
HandbookȱonȱLegislativeȱReform:ȱ RealisingȱChildren’sȱRightsȱ ȱ Volumeȱ1ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱȱȱȱȱ ȱ Handbook on Legislative Reform
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ HandbookȱonȱLegislativeȱReform:ȱRealisingȱChildren’sȱRights,ȱVol.1ȱ ©ȱUnitedȱNationsȱChildrenȇsȱFundȱ(UNICEF),ȱGender,ȱRightsȱandȱ CivicȱEngagement,ȱDivisionȱofȱPolicyȱandȱPractice,ȱNewȱYork,ȱ2008ȱ ȱ Gender,ȱRightsȱandȱCivicȱEngagementȱSection,ȱDivisionȱofȱPolicyȱ andȱPracticeȱ UNICEFȱ 3ȱUNȱPlaza,ȱNY,ȱNYȱȱ10017ȱ November,ȱ2008ȱ
The material in this Handbook has been commissioned by the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF). The contents do not necessarily reflect the policies or the views of UNICEF.
The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this Handbook do not imply on the part of UNICEF the expression of any opinion whatsoever concerning the legal status of any country or territory, or of its authorities or the delimitation of its frontiers.
The text has not been edited to official publication standards and UNICEF accepts no responsibility for errors.
Any part of this Handbook may be freely reproduced with the appropriate acknowledgement.
Photo credit: UNICEF/HQ04-0604/Giacomo Pirozzi Handbook on Legislative Reform
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSȱ
Thisȱpublicationȱwouldȱnotȱhaveȱbeenȱpossibleȱwithoutȱtheȱ commitmentȱandȱunconditionalȱsupportȱofȱElizabethȱGibbons,ȱ AssociateȱDirector,ȱGenderȱRightsȱandȱCivicȱEngagementȱSectionȱ (UNICEF).ȱWeȱoweȱaȱspecialȱthanksȱtoȱDanielȱSeymour,ȱChief,ȱGenderȱ andȱRightsȱUnit,ȱ(UNICEF)ȱandȱDavidȱClarkȱNutritionȱSpecialistȱ (Legal)ȱNutritionȱSection,ȱ(UNICEF)ȱforȱtheirȱinvaluableȱcounselȱandȱ supportȱthroughoutȱtheȱprocessȱofȱpreparationȱofȱthisȱpublication.ȱ ȱ TheȱcontributorsȱtoȱthisȱpublicationȱincludeȱBeatriceȱDuncan,ȱEricaȱ Hall,ȱChristineȱLundy,ȱRoseȱNathan,ȱNadineȱPerrault,ȱandȱVanessaȱ Sedletzki.ȱWarmȱthanksȱareȱdueȱtoȱthemȱforȱtheirȱresearchȱandȱ contribution.ȱ ȱ Weȱwishȱtoȱexpressȱourȱgratitudeȱtoȱtheȱmanyȱindividualsȱwhoȱ providedȱusefulȱcomments,ȱsuggestionsȱandȱsupportȱforȱtheȱ preparationȱofȱthisȱpublication.ȱInȱparticular,ȱweȱwouldȱlikeȱtoȱ acknowledgeȱtheȱworkȱdoneȱbyȱNadineȱPerrault,ȱUNICEF,ȱGenderȱandȱ RightsȱUnit,ȱwhoȱtookȱprimaryȱresponsibilityȱforȱconceptualizingȱandȱ developingȱthisȱHandbook.ȱManyȱotherȱpeopleȱwithinȱUNICEFȱ contributedȱtheirȱtimeȱtoȱreadingȱandȱcommentingȱonȱvariousȱchapters.ȱ SpecialȱthanksȱgoȱtoȱNoreenȱKhan,ȱVeronicaȱAvati,ȱRajaeȱMseferȱ Berrada,ȱSusanȱBissell,ȱAmandaȱBissex,ȱCandieȱCassabalian,ȱShelleyȱ Cassey,ȱMatthewȱDuncan,ȱAnthonyȱHodges,ȱLivȱElinȱIndreiten,ȱ GhassanȱKhalil,ȱSirajȱMahmudov,ȱMurielȱMafico,ȱKirstenȱDiȱMarino,ȱ MargieȱdeȱMonchy,ȱSamuelȱMomanyi,ȱWilfredoȱNuqui,ȱKayodeȱ Oyegbite,ȱSilviaȱPasti,ȱMannanȱRana,ȱRiffatȱSardar,ȱLilianȱSelenje,ȱErikaȱ Strand,ȱandȱKadjoȱYao.ȱ ȱ UsefulȱinformationȱandȱadviceȱwereȱreceivedȱfromȱSavitriȱGoonesekereȱ andȱRangitaȱdeȱSilvaȱDeȱAlwis.ȱWeȱareȱgratefulȱforȱtheirȱgenerousȱ support.
Handbook on Legislative Reform
Contentsȱ ȱ ȱ Contributorsȱ ExecutiveȱSummaryȱ–ȱNadineȱPerraultȱ ChapterȱIȱ–ȱNadineȱPerraultȱ ChapterȱII,ȱPartȱ1ȱ–NadineȱPerrault,ȱEricaȱHallȱ ChapterȱII,ȱPartȱ2ȱ–ȱChristineȱLundyȱ ChapterȱIIIȱ–ȱBeatriceȱDuncanȱ ChapterȱIVȱ–ȱVanessaȱSedletzkiȱ ChapterȱVȱ–ȱRoseȱNathanȱ ȱ Glossary ...... i Realising Children’s Rights ...... x Executive Summary ...... x Purpose of the Handbook ...... xi Using the Handbook...... xii Structure of the Handbook...... xiii La realización de los derechos de la infancia...... xvi Resumen Ejecutivo ...... xvi Objetivo del Manual...... xvii Utilización del Manual ...... xviii Estructura del Manual...... xix La réalisation des droits de l’enfant ...... xxii Résumé Analytique...... xxii Pourquoi ce manuel...... xxiii Utilisation du Manuel...... xxiv Structure du Manuel ...... xxv Chapter 1 ...... 1 COMPREHENSIVE AND HOLISTIC LEGISLATIVE REFORM ON BEHALF OF CHILDREN’S RIGHTS...... 1 Part 1 HUMAN RIGHTS-BASED APPROACH TO LEGISLATIVE REFORM ...... 2 1.1 Human Rights-based Legislative Reform ...... 2 1.2 Human Rights Principles and Legislative Reform ...... 3 Part 2 CRITICAL COMPONENTS OF A HUMAN RIGHTS-BASED APPROACH TO LEGISLATIVE REFORM...... 10 2.1 Characteristics of a Human Rights Approach to Legislative Reform ...... 10 2.2 Value-added of a Human Rights-based Approach to Legislative Reform ...... 20 Chapter 2 ...... 23 ASSESSING COMPLIANCE OF NATIONAL LEGISLATION WITH INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS NORMS AND STANDARDS...... 23 Part 1 LEGAL TRADITIONS AND SYSTEMS ...... 26 1.1 Introduction to Legal Traditions and Systems...... 26 1.2 Differing Legal Systems ...... 28 1.3 Status of International Human Rights Instruments in Domestic Legislation ...37 1.4 Conclusion ...... 37 Part 2 LEGISLATION REVIEW AND REFORM ON BEHALF OF CHILDREN'S RIGHTS ...... 38 2.1 Why Review and Reform Legislation? ...... 38 2.2 Review of Legislation ...... 43 Handbook on Legislative Reform
2.3 Reform of Legislation ...... 87 2.4 Conclusion ...... 105 Chapter 3 ...... 108 CONSTITUTIONAL REFORMS IN FAVOUR OF CHILDREN...... 108 Part 1 CONSTITUTIONS AS TOOLS OF LEGISLATIVE AND POLICY REFORMS...... 109 1.1 The Role of Constitutions in State Affairs ...... 109 1.2 Constitutions as Frameworks for Legislative Reform...... 112 1.3 Constitutions as Frameworks for Policy Reform ...... 113 1.4 Constitutions Should Reinforce the Status of Children as Subjects of Human Rights ...... 114 1.5 Key Considerations in the Formulation of the Substance and Process of Constitutions in Favour of Children...... 116 1.6 The Relationship between Constitutions, Customary Law and Islamic Law .119 1.7 The Interface between International Law and Constitutional Reforms...... 125 Part 2 GENERAL CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS IN FAVOUR OF CHILDREN ...... 127 2.1 Principle 1: Universality...... 127 2.2 Principle 2: Inalienability, Indivisibility and Interdependency ...... 130 2.3 Principle 3: Accountability...... 142 2.4 Principle 4: Participation...... 148 Part 3 SPECIFIC CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS IN FAVOUR OF CHILDREN...... 149 3.1 The Relationship between Specific and General Provisions ...... 149 3.2 Definition and Legal Status of the Child...... 150 3.3 Application of the Principles of the CRC...... 151 Part 4 POST-CONSTITUTIONAL REFORMS: THE NEXT STEPS...... 160 4.1 Who Are the Stakeholders and What Should They Do for Children?...... 161 4.2 Wide Dissemination of the Constitution through Appropriate Means ...... 162 4.3 Constitutional Litigation and Interpretation ...... 163 Part 5 CONCLUSIONS AND LESSONS LEARNED FROM CONSTITUTIONAL REFORM EXPERIENCES ...... 166 Chapter 4 ...... 170 LEGISLATIVE REFORM FOR THE PROTECTION OF THE RIGHTS OF CHILD VICTIMS OF TRAFFICKING ...... 170 Part 1 DEFINITIONS ...... 172 1.1 General Definition...... 173 1.2 Regional Instruments ...... 174 1.3 Definition of a Child ...... 175 1.4 The Notion of Exploitation ...... 176 Part 2 GUIDING PRINCIPLES...... 178 2.1 Right to Non-discrimination...... 179 2.2 Jurisdiction...... 179 2.3 Best Interests of the Child ...... 180 2.4 Right to Life, Survival and Development...... 180 2.5 Respect for the Views of the Child ...... 181 Part 3 RIGHTS OF VICTIMS ...... 182 3.1 Guiding Principles Specific to the Rights of Victims...... 183 3.2 Concrete Steps for the Protection of Child Victims ...... 187 3.3 Rights of Victims in Judicial Proceedings ...... 189 3.4 Status of Victims in Receiving States ...... 193 Part 4 PREVENTION...... 197 4.1 Action on Demand ...... 198 4.2 Addressing Factors of Vulnerability to Trafficking ...... 201 Part 5 CRIMINALIZATION ...... 204 5.1 Jurisdiction...... 205 Handbook on Legislative Reform
5.2 Criminal Liability of Legal Entities ...... 206 5.3 Activities Related to Trafficking...... 207 5.4 Sanctions ...... 208 5.5 Evidence...... 208 5.6 Extradition...... 209 Part 6 INSTITUTIONAL REFORM ...... 211 6.1 Creation of a Specific Institution ...... 211 6.2 Structure...... 212 6.3 Accountability...... 214 6.4 Strengthening Law Enforcement...... 214 Part 7 PROCESSES AND ENTRY POINTS ...... 215 7.1 A Human Rights-based Approach to Legislative Reform in the Area of Trafficking ...... 215 Chapter 5 ...... 221 REALISING CHILDREN’S RIGHTS TO ADEQUATE NUTRITION THROUGH NATIONAL LEGISLATIVE REFORM...... 221 1.1 Technical Considerations in Establishing Legal Requirements: Legislation or Regulations (Subsidiary Legislation)? ...... 227 1.2 Specific Interventions to Fulfill Children’s Right to Adequate Nutrition: Combating Micronutrient Malnutrition...... 231 1.3 Promoting Optimal Nutrition and Health during Infancy and Early Childhood: Adopting and Strengthening the International Code of Marketing of Breastmilk Substitutes ...... 242 1.4 Accompanying Social Policies to Protect, Promote and Support Breastfeeding ...... 259 1.5 Establishing a Policy Environment to Protect against Childhood Obesity and Promote Physical Activity...... 265 1.6 Participatory processes...... 271 Chapter 5: Annex 1 ...... 276 Summary of the Code’s Provisions ...... 276 Chapter 5: Annex 2 ...... 279 Summary of the ILO Maternity Convention and Recommendations ...... 279 ȱ
Handbook on Legislative Reform
Glossaryȱ Noteȱfromȱtheȱauthorȱ–ȱTheȱdefinitionsȱofȱtheȱfollowingȱconceptsȱareȱ tailoredȱstrictlyȱtoȱtheȱuseȱandȱcontextȱinȱtheȱtextȱofȱtheȱHandbook.ȱ ______ȱ ȱ Affirmativeȱactionȱ–ȱAȱmechanismȱforȱpromotingȱequalȱaccessȱbyȱ activelyȱpromotingȱtheȱinterestsȱofȱpeopleȱfromȱgroupsȱthatȱhaveȱ traditionallyȱexperiencedȱdiscrimination.ȱ ȱ Automaticȱincorporationȱ–ȱAȱconstitutionalȱprovisionȱbyȱwhichȱ internationalȱtreatiesȱorȱconventionsȱareȱautomaticallyȱincorporatedȱ directlyȱintoȱdomesticȱlegislation,ȱbecomingȱimmediatelyȱandȱfullyȱ justiciable.ȱ(SeeȱMonistȱsystemȱbelow).ȱ ȱ Caseȱlawȱ–ȱInȱtheȱcommonȱlawȱsystem,ȱlawȱwhichȱisȱcreatedȱbyȱ argumentsȱandȱjudicialȱdecisionsȱrelatingȱtoȱspecificȱcases.ȱ(Seeȱ Commonȱlawȱsystemȱbelow).ȱ ȱ ChildȬfriendlyȱcourtȱproceduresȱ–ȱProcessesȱandȱproceduresȱwhichȱ areȱdesignedȱtoȱmakeȱtheȱcourtȱaccessibleȱtoȱandȱlessȱintimidatingȱforȱ childrenȱwhoȱappearȱasȱwitnessesȱorȱvictims.ȱSuchȱmeasuresȱincludeȱ courtroomsȱspeciallyȱdesignedȱtoȱputȱchildrenȱatȱease,ȱlegalȱandȱ supportȱstaffȱtrainedȱtoȱprepareȱchildrenȱbyȱexplainingȱtheȱprocessȱtoȱ themȱinȱwaysȱthatȱtheyȱwillȱunderstand,ȱandȱprovisionsȱtoȱinvolveȱ familyȱorȱotherȱtrustedȱindividualsȱinȱbothȱtheȱcourtȱproceedings,ȱinȱ supportȱofȱtheȱchild,ȱandȱinȱfollowȬupȱandȱrecoveryȱprogrammes. 1ȱ ȱ Childȱtraffickingȱ–ȱAnyȱactȱwhichȱinvolvesȱtheȱillicitȱtransportationȱofȱ childrenȱfromȱoneȱplaceȱtoȱanother.ȱInternationalȱtraffickingȱisȱdefinedȱ byȱtheȱcrossingȱofȱinternationalȱboundaries.ȱ ȱ Childrenȱbornȱoutȱofȱwedlockȱ–ȱChildrenȱwhoseȱparentsȱatȱbirthȱareȱ notȱlegallyȱrecognisedȱasȱbeingȱmarriedȱtoȱeachȱotherȱunderȱtheȱlawȱ applicationȱtoȱtheseȱchildren.ȱ ȱ
1 RESOLVE Manitoba, “Child Victim Support Service”, Resolve News, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Research and Education for Solutions to Violence and Abuse, Volume 7, Number 2, June 2005.
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Childrenȱinȱconflictȱwithȱtheȱlawȱ–ȱChildrenȱwhoȱareȱsuspectedȱorȱ accusedȱofȱinfringingȱcriminalȱlaws.ȱ ȱ Children’sȱcodesȱ(alsoȱknownȱasȱchildren’sȱactsȱorȱchildren’sȱstatutes)ȱ –ȱComprehensiveȱlegislationȱcoveringȱaȱwideȱrangeȱofȱaspectsȱofȱtheȱ livesȱofȱchildren,ȱusuallyȱincludingȱnameȱandȱnationality,ȱfamilyȱ relations,ȱstandardsȱofȱcareȱandȱprotectionȱmeasures.ȱ ȱ Civilȱlawȱ–ȱAȱsystemȱofȱlawȱderivedȱmainlyȱfromȱRomanȱlaw,ȱ emphasisingȱtheȱarrangementȱofȱlawsȱintoȱcomprehensiveȱnationalȱ codes.ȱCivilȱlawȱreliesȱheavilyȱonȱwrittenȱlaw. 2ȱ ȱ CodexȱAlimentariusȱ–ȱAȱfoodȱcodeȱestablishedȱbyȱtheȱWorldȱHealthȱ Organizationȱ(WHO)ȱandȱFoodȱandȱAgricultureȱOrganizationȱ(FAO),ȱ definingȱqualityȱstandardsȱtoȱbeȱmetȱforȱfoodȱthatȱhasȱbeenȱfortified.ȱȱ ȱ Commonȱlawȱ–ȱAȱsystemȱofȱlawȱderivedȱfromȱEnglishȱtradition,ȱinȱ whichȱlawȱisȱdeterminedȱnotȱonlyȱthroughȱwrittenȱlegislationȱ(Statutes)ȱ butȱalsoȱbyȱcourtȱdecisionsȱthroughȱtheȱcreationȱofȱjudicialȱprecedentȱ fromȱdecisionsȱonȱspecificȱcasesȱtriedȱbeforeȱtheȱcourts. 3 ȱ(SeeȱalsoȱCaseȱ lawȱabove).ȱ ȱ Constitutionȱ–ȱTheȱfundamentalȱlawȱofȱaȱState,ȱtypicallyȱoutliningȱtheȱ structureȱofȱgovernmentȱandȱtheȱmeansȱbyȱwhichȱtheȱgovernmentȱwillȱ operate;ȱmayȱalsoȱincludeȱtheȱprinciplesȱofȱhumanȱrightsȱwhichȱareȱ intendedȱtoȱguideȱallȱgovernmentȱaction,ȱincludingȱlegislation. 4ȱ ȱ Criminalȱcodeȱ–ȱAȱbodyȱofȱlawȱthatȱdefinesȱcriminalȱactsȱandȱtheȱ applicationȱofȱcriminalȱjustice.ȱ ȱ Customaryȱlawȱ–ȱUsuallyȱunwritten,ȱtheȱsystemȱofȱlawȱwhichȱhasȱ developedȱoverȱtimeȱinȱspecificȱcommunitiesȱorȱsocialȱgroups,ȱderivedȱ fromȱlongȬestablishedȱpracticesȱthatȱhaveȱacquiredȱtheȱforceȱofȱlawȱbyȱ commonȱadoptionȱorȱacquiescence;ȱcustomaryȱlawȱisȱsometimesȱ
2 See Chapter 2 for more details. 3 See Chapter 2 for more details. 4 See Chapter 3 for more details.
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administeredȱbyȱtraditionalȱchiefsȱandȱtheirȱcouncils,ȱoftenȱdealingȱ withȱmattersȱrelatingȱtoȱchildrenȱandȱfamily. 5ȱ ȱ Dualistȱsystemȱ–ȱUsuallyȱfoundȱinȱcommonȱlawȱregimes,ȱaȱsystemȱinȱ whichȱinternationalȱtreatiesȱorȱagreementsȱareȱnotȱautomaticallyȱ incorporatedȱintoȱnationalȱorȱdomesticȱlaw;ȱsuchȱincorporationȱ requiresȱspecificȱlegislativeȱmeasuresȱtoȱbeȱaccomplished.ȱNationalȱ lawsȱneedȱtoȱbeȱpassedȱtoȱincorporateȱtheȱprinciplesȱbehindȱtheseȱ treatiesȱorȱagreements.ȱ(ContrastȱtoȱMonistȱsystem,ȱbelow).ȱ ȱ Dutyȱbearersȱ–ȱThoseȱwhoȱareȱresponsibleȱforȱensuringȱthatȱtheȱrightsȱ ofȱdesignatedȱgroupsȱareȱprotected,ȱpromotedȱandȱfulfilled;ȱforȱtheȱ rightsȱofȱchildren,ȱtheȱStateȱisȱtheȱprimaryȱdutyȱbearerȱandȱisȱ responsibleȱforȱcreatingȱconditionsȱinȱwhichȱotherȱdutyȱbearers,ȱsuchȱ asȱparents,ȱserviceȱworkers,ȱcommunityȱleaders,ȱtheȱprivateȱsector,ȱ donorsȱandȱinternationalȱinstitutions,ȱcanȱmeetȱtheirȱresponsibilitiesȱforȱ alsoȱprotecting,ȱpromotingȱandȱfulfillingȱtheȱrightsȱofȱchildren. 6 ȱȱ ȱ Effectiveȱremediesȱ–ȱJudicialȱorȱadministrativeȱremediesȱintendedȱtoȱ restoreȱtoȱaȱvictimȱorȱvictimsȱofȱhumanȱrightsȱviolationsȱthoseȱrightsȱ andȱentitlementsȱwhichȱwereȱdeniedȱand,ȱinȱcasesȱwhereȱthisȱisȱ deemedȱnecessaryȱbyȱtheȱauthoritiesȱmandatingȱtheȱremedies,ȱtoȱ extendȱcompensationȱforȱlossesȱsustainedȱinȱtheȱviolationȱofȱtheȱ victim’sȱorȱvictims’ȱrights.ȱ ȱ Enablingȱlegislationȱ–ȱInȱdualistȱcountries,ȱtheȱmeansȱbyȱwhichȱ internationalȱagreementsȱareȱincorporatedȱintoȱnationalȱlaw,ȱthroughȱ constitutionalȱamendment,ȱlawȱorȱdecree.ȱ(SeeȱDualistȱsystemȱabove).ȱ ȱ Equalȱprotectionȱclausesȱ–ȱAsȱaȱcomplementȱtoȱnonȬdiscriminationȱ provisions,ȱtheseȱhumanȱrightsȱprovisionsȱprovideȱforȱequalȱaccessȱorȱ equalȱopportunityȱforȱall.ȱȱ ȱ ExtraȬterritorialȱjurisdictionȱ–ȱTheȱcapacityȱofȱaȱStateȱtoȱapplyȱlawȱandȱ exerciseȱauthorityȱthroughȱtheȱapplicationȱofȱnationalȱlegislationȱtoȱ criminalȱactsȱinvolvingȱtheirȱnationalsȱ(asȱperpetratorȱorȱvictim)ȱand/orȱ
5 Heritage Community Foundation, “Nature’s Laws: Customary Law”, at Albertasource.ca, viewed 10 June 2008. See Chapter 2 for more details. 6 Thies, Joachim, “Introduction to Rights-based Programming”, Part 1: Rights Based Programming – An Evolving Approach, Save the Children, Sweden, 2004, p.3.
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criminalȱactsȱprejudicialȱtoȱtheȱinterestsȱofȱtheȱcountryȱorȱofȱitsȱ nationalsȱcommittedȱoutsideȱtheȱterritoryȱinȱwhichȱtheȱlawȱisȱenforcedȱ andȱofȱwhichȱtheȱaccusedȱisȱaȱnational.ȱTheȱexerciseȱofȱextraȬ territorialityȱmayȱbeȱlimitedȱbyȱtheȱsovereigntyȱofȱtheȱStateȱinȱtheȱ territoryȱwhereȱtheȱactsȱtakeȱplace. 7ȱ ȱ Familyȱlawȱ–ȱTheȱbodyȱofȱlegislationȱwhichȱaddressesȱallȱaspectsȱofȱ familyȱrelations,ȱincludingȱmarriage,ȱdivorce,ȱcustodyȱofȱchildren,ȱ responsibilityȱforȱtheȱupbringingȱofȱchildren,ȱadoptionȱ(whereȱ permitted)ȱandȱinheritance.ȱȱ ȱ Femaleȱgenitalȱmutilationȱ–ȱCustomaryȱactivitiesȱwhichȱentailȱ mutilationȱofȱfemaleȱgenitaliaȱ(i.e.ȱpartialȱorȱcompleteȱremovalȱofȱtheȱ clitoris,ȱorȱtheȱlabiaȱminoraȱ(excision)ȱorȱofȱanyȱexternalȱgenitalia,ȱwithȱ stitchingȱorȱnarrowingȱofȱtheȱvaginalȱopeningȱ(infibulation)),ȱoftenȱ performedȱonȱwomenȱandȱgirls.ȱ ȱ Foodȱfortificationȱ–ȱTheȱadditionȱofȱmicronutrientsȱorȱotherȱessentialȱ elementsȱthatȱmayȱhaveȱbeenȱremovedȱinȱprocessingȱtoȱcommonlyȱ usedȱfoods,ȱinȱorderȱtoȱcombatȱwidespreadȱmicronutrientȱdeficiencies.ȱ ȱ GenderȬsensitiveȱcourtȱproceduresȱ–ȱProceduresȱandȱprocessesȱwhichȱ takeȱintoȱaccountȱtheirȱimpactȱonȱwomen,ȱmen,ȱboysȱandȱgirls,ȱ includingȱtheȱspecialȱcircumstancesȱofȱwomenȱandȱgirls,ȱdesignedȱtoȱ overcomeȱtheȱmarginalizationȱofȱandȱdiscriminationȱagainstȱwomenȱ andȱgirls.ȱ ȱ Goodȱgovernanceȱ–ȱTheȱprocessȱbyȱwhichȱpublicȱinstitutionsȱconductȱ publicȱaffairs,ȱmanageȱpublicȱresourcesȱandȱguaranteeȱtheȱrealisationȱ ofȱhumanȱrightsȱinȱaȱmannerȱessentiallyȱfreeȱofȱabuseȱandȱcorruption,ȱ andȱwithȱdueȱregardȱforȱtheȱruleȱofȱlaw.ȱ ȱ Holisticȱapproachȱ(toȱlegislativeȱreform)ȱ–ȱAnȱapproachȱwhichȱ encompassesȱallȱtheȱdimensionsȱofȱtheȱsituationsȱbeingȱaddressed,ȱforȱ exampleȱtakingȱintoȱaccountȱtheȱentiretyȱofȱchildren’sȱlivesȱinȱrevisingȱ legislationȱthatȱaffectsȱchildrenȱandȱaddressingȱtheȱissuesȱinȱtermsȱofȱ
7 Coughlan, Steve; Currie, Robert J.; Kindred, Hugh M.; and Scassa, Teresa, Global Reach, Local Grasp: Constructing Extraterritorial Jurisdiction in the Age of Globalization, Dalhousie Law School, Prepared for the Law Commission of Canada, June 23, 2006, pp. 4-8.
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bothȱtheȱlegalȱareasȱinvolvedȱandȱtheȱmeasuresȱneededȱtoȱensureȱ effectiveȱapplicationȱandȱenforcementȱofȱtheȱlaw. 8ȱ ȱ Homogeneousȱsystemȱ–ȱAȱlegalȱsystemȱbasedȱonȱaȱsingleȱlegalȱ tradition,ȱeitherȱcivilȱlawȱorȱcommonȱlaw. 9 ȱȱ ȱ HumanȱrightsȬbasedȱapproachȱ(HRBA)ȱtoȱlegislativeȱreformȱ–ȱAnȱ approachȱbasedȱonȱinternationalȱstandardsȱandȱnormsȱandȱonȱtheȱfullȱ recognitionȱofȱtheȱequalȱrightsȱofȱchildren,ȱboysȱandȱgirls,ȱmenȱandȱ womenȱandȱtheȱrealisationȱofȱStateȱobligationsȱunderȱtheȱinternationalȱ humanȱrightsȱinstrumentsȱtoȱwhichȱtheȱStateȱisȱparty. 10ȱ ȱ Indirectȱdiscriminationȱ–ȱDiscriminationȱwhichȱdoesȱnotȱoccurȱbyȱ explicitȱprohibitionsȱorȱrestrictions,ȱbutȱratherȱbyȱcreatingȱconditionsȱinȱ whichȱcertainȱgroupsȱareȱneverthelessȱeffectivelyȱpreventedȱfromȱ exercisingȱallȱtheirȱrights;ȱforȱexample,ȱbyȱstructuringȱvotingȱinȱ electionsȱinȱsuchȱaȱwayȱthatȱpeopleȱwhoȱcannotȱreadȱareȱunableȱtoȱ participate,ȱtherebyȱeffectivelyȱexcludingȱaȱcategoryȱofȱpersonsȱ (illiterate,ȱwithȱdisabilitiesȱetc.)ȱfromȱvoting.ȱ ȱ InterȬConventionȱapproachȱ–ȱAnȱapproachȱwhichȱusesȱtheȱbroadȱ spectrumȱofȱhumanȱrightsȱinstrumentsȱforȱtheȱformulationȱofȱ constitutionalȱprovisions,ȱnationalȱlegislationȱorȱgovernmentȱ programmes.ȱ ȱ Internationalȱinstrumentsȱ–ȱInternationallyȱadoptedȱtreaties,ȱ conventions,ȱcovenants,ȱprotocolsȱandȱdeclarations,ȱincludingȱthoseȱ thatȱcomeȱunderȱtheȱUnitedȱNations,ȱitsȱSpecializedȱAgenciesȱorȱ regionalȱorganisations.ȱ ȱ Internationalȱlawȱ–ȱTheȱbodyȱofȱnormsȱandȱstandardsȱcontainedȱ withinȱinternationalȱhumanȱrightsȱandȱhumanitarianȱinstruments,ȱ includingȱtheȱhumanȱrightsȱconventionsȱandȱcovenantsȱofȱtheȱUnitedȱ Nationsȱsystem,ȱtheȱconventionsȱofȱtheȱInternationalȱRedȱCross,ȱandȱ theȱjurisprudenceȱofȱtheȱinternationalȱcourtsȱandȱspecialȱtribunalsȱthatȱ haveȱbeenȱconstitutedȱbyȱinternationalȱagreement.ȱ ȱ
8 See Chapter 1 for more details. 9 See Chapter 2 for more details. 10 See Chapter 1 for details.
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Islamicȱlawȱ–ȱAȱsystemȱofȱcivilȱandȱpenalȱlawsȱthatȱisȱpredominantlyȱ basedȱonȱShari’a,ȱwithȱaȱbodyȱofȱinterpretationȱandȱjurisprudenceȱthatȱ mayȱbeȱinformedȱbyȱlocalȱexperience.ȱ ȱ Justiciableȱ–ȱSubjectȱtoȱdueȱprocessȱinȱaȱcourtȱofȱlaw.ȱ ȱ Juvenileȱjusticeȱ–ȱAȱspecialȱdimensionȱofȱtheȱjusticeȱsystemȱwhichȱ recognisesȱtheȱneedsȱandȱrightsȱofȱchildrenȱwhoȱmayȱcomeȱintoȱconflictȱ withȱtheȱlaw.ȱ ȱ Lawȱ–ȱWithȱregardȱtoȱhumanȱsociety,ȱtheȱbodyȱofȱrules,ȱregulationsȱ andȱprohibitions,ȱdevelopedȱthroughȱcustom,ȱorȱadoptedȱandȱ promulgatedȱbyȱtheȱgovernment,ȱwhichȱguideȱtheȱconductȱofȱ individuals,ȱorganisationsȱandȱtheȱgovernmentȱinȱrelationȱtoȱothersȱ withȱwhomȱtheȱpolitical,ȱcivic,ȱeconomicȱandȱsocialȱenvironmentȱisȱ shared.ȱ ȱ Lawȱreformȱcommissionsȱ–ȱPermanentȱstandingȱbodiesȱusedȱinȱsomeȱ countriesȱtoȱreviewȱexistingȱlegislationȱandȱmakeȱrecommendationsȱonȱ newȱmeasuresȱorȱrevisionȱofȱexistingȱlegislationȱinȱorderȱtoȱbringȱtheȱ expressionȱofȱlawȱupȱtoȱcurrentȱstandards.ȱ ȱ Legalȱilliteracyȱ–ȱLackȱofȱknowledgeȱofȱlawsȱorȱofȱtheȱlegislativeȱ process.ȱ ȱ Legalȱreformȱ–ȱReformȱofȱtheȱlegalȱsystem,ȱincludingȱtheȱjudiciary,ȱ policeȱandȱcustodialȱinstitutions.ȱ ȱ Legalȱsystemȱ–ȱEncompassesȱallȱtheȱrulesȱandȱinstitutions,ȱbasedȱonȱitsȱ legalȱtradition,ȱwhichȱdetermineȱhowȱtheȱlawȱisȱapplied. 11ȱ ȱ Legalȱtraditionȱ–ȱTheȱculturalȱperspectiveȱunderȱwhichȱtheȱlegalȱ systemȱisȱcreated,ȱprovidingȱtheȱphilosophyȱforȱhowȱtheȱsystemȱshouldȱ beȱorganisedȱandȱhowȱlawȱshouldȱbeȱformedȱandȱimplemented. 12ȱ ȱ Legislationȱ–ȱAllȱactsȱofȱtheȱlegislature,ȱincludingȱformalȱlaws,ȱ governmentȱactionȱplans,ȱbudgets,ȱandȱadministrativeȱmeasures.ȱ
11 See Chapter 2 for more details. 12 See Chapter 2 for more details.
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ȱȱ Legislativeȱreformȱ–ȱReformȱofȱtheȱwholeȱbodyȱofȱlegislation,ȱ includingȱConstitutionalȱlaws,ȱactsȱofȱtheȱlegislature,ȱformalȱlaws,ȱ decreesȱandȱadministrativeȱmeasuresȱasȱwellȱasȱlegalȱinstitutions.ȱ ȱ Localȱorȱdomesticȱlawȱ–ȱLawȱthatȱisȱadoptedȱbyȱandȱprevailsȱwithinȱaȱ specificȱcountry,ȱasȱopposedȱtoȱinternationalȱlaw.ȱ(Seeȱabove).ȱ ȱ Mainstreamingȱ–ȱApplyingȱprogrammesȱorȱapproachesȱwhichȱhaveȱ beenȱtriedȱandȱtestedȱinȱaȱsmallȱrepresentativeȱregionȱtoȱtheȱentireȱ country.ȱ ȱ Micronutrientȱmalnutritionȱ–ȱCausedȱbyȱtheȱlackȱofȱessentialȱ micronutrientsȱ(suchȱasȱiodine,ȱiron,ȱfolicȱacid,ȱorȱvitaminsȱAȱorȱD)ȱinȱ theȱdiet,ȱresultingȱinȱdevelopmentalȱdeficitsȱorȱvulnerabilityȱtoȱ particularȱailments.ȱ ȱ Minorityȱgroupȱ–ȱAnyȱgroupȱwhich,ȱbyȱvirtueȱofȱitsȱethnicȱ composition,ȱplaceȱofȱorigin,ȱtraditionalȱpractices,ȱorȱlanguageȱorȱ cultureȱisȱmarginalizedȱinȱsocietyȱandȱeffectivelyȱdeprivedȱofȱrights;ȱ theȱtermȱmayȱalsoȱbeȱappliedȱmoreȱgenerallyȱtoȱgroupsȱwhich,ȱ althoughȱnotȱaȱnumericalȱminorityȱinȱsociety,ȱareȱneverthelessȱtreatedȱ byȱlawȱorȱcustomȱasȱifȱtheyȱwereȱlessȱsignificantȱthanȱothers,ȱasȱwomenȱ areȱinȱmanyȱcountries.ȱ ȱ Mixedȱsystemsȱ–ȱLegalȱsystemsȱwhichȱinvolveȱcombinationsȱofȱmoreȱ thanȱoneȱlegalȱtraditionȱoftenȱinvolvingȱsomeȱformȱofȱcustomaryȱorȱ traditionalȱlawȱorȱIslamicȱlawȱcombinedȱwithȱcivilȱorȱcommonȱlaw. 13 ȱ (ContrastȱtoȱHomogeneousȱsystems,ȱabove).ȱ ȱ Monistȱsystemȱ–ȱAȱsystemȱinȱwhichȱnationalȱandȱinternationalȱlawȱareȱ viewedȱasȱaȱsingleȱlegalȱsystem,ȱandȱinternationalȱtreaties,ȱonceȱratifiedȱ orȱaccededȱto,ȱautomaticallyȱbecomeȱpartȱofȱnationalȱlaw.ȱ ȱ NonȬdiscriminationȱ–ȱOneȱofȱtheȱfundamentalȱprinciplesȱofȱhumanȱ rights,ȱwhichȱprohibitsȱandȱcondemnsȱanyȱdistinction,ȱexclusion,ȱ restrictionȱorȱpreferenceȱbasedȱonȱgroundsȱsuchȱasȱ“race,ȱcolour,ȱsex,ȱ
13 See Chapter 2 for more details.
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language,ȱreligion,ȱpoliticalȱorȱotherȱopinion,ȱnational,ȱethnicȱorȱsocialȱ origin,ȱproperty,ȱdisability,ȱbirthȱorȱotherȱstatus.’ȱ(CRC,ȱArticleȱ2.1).ȱ ȱ NonȬrefoulementȱ–ȱAȱprincipleȱofȱcustomaryȱinternationalȱlawȱwhichȱ opposesȱ anyȱ measureȱ attributableȱ toȱ theȱ Stateȱ whichȱ couldȱ haveȱ theȱ effectȱ ofȱ returningȱ anȱ asylumȱ seekerȱ orȱ refugeeȱ toȱ theȱ frontiersȱ ofȱ territoriesȱ whereȱ hisȱ orȱ herȱ lifeȱ orȱ freedomȱ wouldȱ beȱ threatened,ȱ orȱ whereȱ heȱ orȱ sheȱ isȱ atȱ riskȱ ofȱ persecution,ȱ includingȱ interception,ȱ rejectionȱatȱtheȱfrontier,ȱorȱindirectȱrefoulement. 14ȱ ȱ Penalȱreformȱ–ȱReformȱofȱtheȱpenalȱsystemȱ(i.e.ȱcourtȱsystem,ȱprisons,ȱ andȱotherȱpenalȱinstitutions).ȱȱ ȱ Personalȱlawȱ–ȱLawȱwhichȱrelatesȱtoȱtheȱstatusȱofȱpersons,ȱinȱparticularȱ regardingȱadoption,ȱmarriage,ȱdivorce,ȱburial,ȱandȱdevolutionȱofȱ propertyȱonȱdeathȱinȱsomeȱconstitutionalȱregimes.ȱ ȱ Pluralȱsystemsȱ–ȱseeȱMixedȱsystemsȱ(above).ȱ ȱ Positiveȱdiscriminationȱ–ȱSeeȱAffirmativeȱactionȱ(above);ȱthisȱtermȱisȱ notȱgenerallyȱusedȱinȱcontemporaryȱdiscussion.ȱ ȱ Reflectionȱdelayȱ–ȱAȱmechanismȱinstitutedȱbyȱsomeȱStatesȱasȱaȱmiddleȱ groundȱbetweenȱrespectȱforȱtheȱrightsȱofȱvictimsȱofȱtraffickingȱandȱ States’ȱneedȱtoȱarrestȱandȱprosecuteȱtraffickers,ȱtoȱensureȱthatȱvictimsȱ canȱrecoverȱfromȱtheirȱtrauma,ȱhaveȱaccessȱtoȱsupportȱandȱassistanceȱ includingȱmedicalȱcareȱandȱlegalȱadvice,ȱandȱcanȱthusȱmakeȱanȱ informedȱdecisionȱaboutȱwhetherȱtheyȱwantȱtoȱtestifyȱagainstȱtheȱ trafficker.ȱ ȱ Ruleȱofȱlawȱ–ȱAȱprincipleȱaccordingȱtoȱwhichȱlawsȱhaveȱtheȱultimateȱ authorityȱoverȱtheȱactionsȱofȱallȱindividualsȱ(includingȱgovernmentȱ representatives).ȱGovernmentȱauthorityȱisȱexercisedȱonlyȱinȱaccordanceȱ withȱpubliclyȱdisclosedȱlawsȱandȱregulations,ȱandȱisȱsubjectȱtoȱtheȱ normalȱchecksȱofȱanȱindependentȱjudiciary.ȱ ȱ
14 Global Consultations on International Protection, Cambridge Roundtable, 9- 10 July 2001, organised by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees and the Lauterpacht Research Centre for International Law, Summary Conclusions - The Principle of Non- Refoulement.
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SelfȬexecutingȱ–ȱOfȱinternationalȱtreatiesȱandȱconventions,ȱbecomingȱ partȱofȱdomesticȱlawȱasȱaȱconsequenceȱofȱratificationȱorȱaccessionȱ(inȱ monistȱsystems).ȱ ȱ Statutesȱ–ȱLawsȱenactedȱbyȱtheȱlegislature,ȱsubjectȱtoȱjudicialȱreviewȱ andȱinterpretation.ȱ ȱ Supremacyȱclausesȱ–ȱConstitutionalȱprovisionsȱwhichȱaffirmȱtheȱ supremacyȱofȱtheȱConstitutionȱoverȱallȱotherȱlegislationȱorȱregulations.ȱ ȱ Systemȱofȱpresumptionȱ–ȱInȱcriminalȱlaw,ȱifȱcertainȱconditionsȱareȱ gathered,ȱevenȱifȱthereȱisȱnoȱsubstantialȱevidenceȱagainstȱaȱparticularȱ person,ȱthatȱpersonȱisȱpresumedȱguilty.ȱ ȱ Traditionalȱlawȱ–ȱSeeȱCustomaryȱlaw,ȱabove.
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HandbookȱonȱLegislativeȱReform:ȱ RealisingȱChildren’sȱRightsȱ ȱ ExecutiveȱSummaryȱ ȱ InȱreviewingȱStatesȱParties’ȱreports,ȱtheȱCommitteeȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱ Childȱ(CRCȱCommitteeȱorȱtheȱCommittee),ȱtheȱtreatyȱbodyȱwhichȱ monitorsȱtheȱprogressȱmadeȱinȱimplementingȱtheȱConventionȱonȱtheȱ RightsȱofȱtheȱChildȱ(CRC),ȱhasȱconsistentlyȱstressedȱtheȱneedȱforȱ reviewȱandȱreformȱofȱnationalȱlegislationȱtoȱharmoniseȱitȱwithȱtheȱ principlesȱandȱprovisionsȱofȱtheȱCRC.ȱTheȱCommitteeȱhasȱoftenȱ recommendedȱthatȱSatesȱPartiesȱ“undertakeȱcomprehensiveȱreviewȱofȱ [national]ȱlegislationȱandȱensureȱitsȱconformityȱwithȱtheȱprinciplesȱandȱ provisionsȱofȱtheȱConvention.”15 ȱȱ ȱ Directlyȱorȱindirectly,ȱtheȱCRCȱreportingȱprocessȱhasȱundoubtedlyȱ inspiredȱlawȱreformȱinȱmanyȱStatesȱandȱdrawnȱpoliticalȱattentionȱtoȱ children’sȱrights.ȱSeveralȱStatesȱhaveȱrespondedȱtoȱtheȱCommittee’sȱ repeatedȱrecommendationsȱforȱreformȱofȱnationalȱlegislationȱbyȱ enactingȱchildren’sȱcodesȱorȱchildren’sȱacts.16ȱOtherȱStatesȱhaveȱ enactedȱlawsȱonȱspecificȱissuesȱrelatedȱtoȱchildren’sȱrights,ȱsuchȱasȱ childȱlabour,ȱchildȱtrafficking,ȱfemaleȱgenitalȱmutilationȱandȱtheȱ protectionȱofȱadolescentȱmothers.ȱStatesȱPartiesȱhaveȱalsoȱrevisedȱ existingȱlawsȱandȱregulations,ȱandȱprovidedȱframeworksȱwhichȱ includeȱlegalȱguaranteesȱofȱandȱresponsibilitiesȱforȱrespondingȱtoȱ violationsȱofȱchildren’sȱrights.ȱAȱnumberȱofȱcountriesȱhaveȱadoptedȱ Constitutionsȱwithȱprovisionsȱdedicatedȱtoȱtheȱprotectionȱofȱtheȱrightsȱ ofȱtheȱchild.17ȱSomeȱhaveȱamendedȱtheirȱcriminalȱcodesȱtoȱintroduceȱ provisionsȱdesignedȱtoȱcombatȱsexualȱexploitationȱofȱchildrenȱandȱ punishȱperpetrators.ȱInȱtheȱareaȱofȱjuvenileȱjustice,ȱimportantȱstepsȱ haveȱbeenȱtakenȱinȱmanyȱpartsȱofȱtheȱworldȱtoȱintegrateȱhumanȱrightsȱ
15 See, e.g., Committee on the Rights of the Child, ‘Concluding Observations: Liberia’, U.N. Doc. CRC/C/15/Add.236 (4 June 2004), para. 10; Committee on the Rights of the Child, ‘Concluding Observations: Singapore’, U.N. Doc. CRC/C/15/Add.220 (27 October 2003), para. 9. 16 Duncan, Beatrice. Global perspective on consolidated children’s statutes, draft working paper UNICEF, DPP, 2007. 17 UNICEF (2005); Laying the Foundation for Children’s Rights, Innocenti Insight, p25.
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standardsȱintoȱnationalȱlawsȱandȱpoliciesȱandȱtoȱgiveȱspecialȱattentionȱ toȱtheȱrightsȱofȱchildrenȱinȱconflictȱwithȱtheȱlaw.18ȱ ȱ However,ȱdespiteȱtheseȱadvances,ȱinȱmanyȱofȱtheȱcountriesȱwhereȱ reformsȱhaveȱtakenȱplace,ȱtheȱCRCȱCommitteeȱhasȱfoundȱthatȱtheyȱdoȱ notȱ“sufficientlyȱreflectȱtheȱcomprehensiveȱrightsȬbasedȱapproachȱ enshrinedȱinȱtheȱConvention,”19 ȱorȱthatȱtheȱlawsȱenactedȱ“doȱnotȱfullyȱ reflectȱtheȱprinciplesȱandȱprovisionsȱofȱtheȱCRC.” 20 ȱInȱotherȱinstances,ȱ theȱCommitteeȱhasȱobservedȱtheȱpersistenceȱofȱdiscriminationȱagainst,ȱ amongȱothers,ȱgirls,ȱchildrenȱbornȱoutȱofȱwedlock,ȱchildrenȱwithȱ disabilities,ȱindigenousȱchildrenȱandȱchildrenȱbelongingȱtoȱminorityȱ groups.ȱAdditionally,ȱtheȱCommitteeȱhasȱstressedȱtheȱfailureȱofȱsomeȱ Statesȱtoȱimplementȱorȱenforceȱalreadyȱexistingȱlaws.ȱMoreover,ȱfewȱ StatesȱPartiesȱtoȱtheȱCRCȱhaveȱadoptedȱaȱholisticȱapproachȱtoȱ legislativeȱreform.ȱReformȱofȱnationalȱlegislationȱhasȱbeenȱ accomplishedȱinȱanȱisolatedȱandȱscatteredȱmannerȱwithoutȱtakingȱintoȱ accountȱtheȱprincipleȱofȱinterconnectednessȱorȱindivisibilityȱofȱrights.ȱ Inȱaddition,ȱlegislativeȱreformȱhasȱtendedȱtoȱbeȱdominatedȱbyȱ lawmakers,ȱparliamentariansȱand/orȱgovernmentȱexpertsȱinȱclosedȱ settings.ȱFewȱprocessesȱhaveȱprovidedȱanȱenvironmentȱconduciveȱtoȱ civilȱsocietyȱparticipation,ȱmuchȱlessȱchildren’sȱparticipation. 21ȱ ȱ PurposeȱofȱtheȱHandbookȱȱ ȱ ThisȱHandbookȱonȱLegislativeȱReform:ȱRealisingȱChildren’sȱRightsȱ(theȱ Handbook)ȱaimsȱtoȱsupportȱtheȱeffectiveȱimplementationȱofȱtheȱCRCȱ andȱtheȱConventionȱonȱtheȱEliminationȱofȱAllȱFormsȱofȱDiscriminationȱ againstȱWomenȱ(CEDAW), 22 ȱandȱadvanceȱgenderȱequalityȱbyȱ influencingȱtheȱadoptionȱofȱlegislativeȱmeasures,ȱsocialȱpoliciesȱandȱ
18 For more information see Nundy, Karuna. Global Status of legislative reform related to the CRC, UNICEF, DPP, 2004 and Desk review of legislative advances related to the CRC - Phase I of the Legislative Reform Initiative, UNICEF, DPP, (2004). 19 See, e.g. Kuwait, U.N. Doc. CRC/C/15/Add.96 (26 October 1998); Belize, U.N. Doc. CRC/C/15/Add.99 (10 May 1999). 20 See, e.g. Belarus, U.N. Doc. CRC/C/15/Add.17 (7 February 1994). 21 For more information see: Desk review of legislative advances related to the CRC - Phase I of the Legislative Reform Initiative, UNICEF, DPP, (2004). 22 The Handbook is supportive of legislative initiatives in relation to CEDAW in areas that are related to children’s rights (example, CEDAW Article 5), in addition to those which demonstrate complementarities between women’s and children’s rights (example, CEDAW Article 9).
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institutionalȱchangesȱthatȱpromoteȱgenderȱequalityȱandȱresultsȱforȱ childrenȱthrough:ȱ ȱ x Contributingȱtoȱprocessesȱleadingȱtoȱtheȱeffectiveȱadoption,ȱ enactment,ȱimplementation,ȱandȱenforcementȱofȱnationalȱ legislationȱthatȱcompliesȱwithȱinternationalȱhumanȱrightsȱ standardsȱandȱnorms;ȱandȱȱ x Providingȱclearȱandȱillustrativeȱoptionsȱandȱgoodȱpracticesȱthatȱ canȱbeȱusedȱasȱguidanceȱtoȱstrengthenȱStatesȱParties’ȱeffortsȱtoȱ complyȱwithȱinternationalȱinstruments,ȱparticularlyȱtheȱCRCȱ andȱCEDAW.ȱ ȱ ThisȱHandbookȱadvocatesȱforȱaȱhumanȱrightsȬbasedȱapproachȱtoȱ legislativeȱreformȱwithȱgenderȱequalityȱatȱitsȱcore.ȱItȱisȱinspiredȱbyȱtheȱ needȱforȱinnovativeȱprocessesȱandȱapproachesȱtoȱtheȱestablishmentȱofȱaȱ legalȱframeworkȱthatȱeffectivelyȱprotectsȱchildrenȱ(bothȱgirlsȱandȱboys)ȱ andȱensuresȱtheȱfullȱrealisationȱofȱtheirȱrights.ȱItȱisȱalsoȱmotivatedȱbyȱ theȱneedȱtoȱdisseminateȱmoreȱwidelyȱpracticalȱexperiencesȱofȱrightsȬ basedȱapproachesȱtoȱlegislativeȱreformȱinitiativesȱinȱfavourȱofȱchildren.ȱȱ ȱ UsingȱtheȱHandbookȱȱ ȱ TheȱHandbookȱisȱintendedȱtoȱserveȱasȱguidanceȱforȱlegislators,ȱ parliamentarians,ȱjurists,ȱlawyers,ȱjudges,ȱlineȱministries,ȱgovernmentȱ officials,ȱhumanȱrightsȱandȱchildren’sȱrightsȱadvocates,ȱpolicyȬmakers,ȱ andȱforȱallȱthoseȱinvolvedȱinȱharmonizingȱnationalȱlegislationȱwithȱ internationalȱinstruments,ȱparticularlyȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAW.ȱItȱisȱ designedȱtoȱbeȱused,ȱinȱwholeȱorȱinȱpart,ȱasȱaȱuserȬfriendlyȱpracticalȱ guideȱtoȱassistȱinȱlegalȱreformȱforȱtheȱrealisationȱofȱchildren’sȱrights.ȱȱ ȱ TheȱHandbookȱplacesȱchildrenȱatȱtheȱcentreȱofȱtheȱreformȱprocessȱbyȱ envisagingȱthemȱasȱsubjectsȱofȱrightsȱwithȱspecialȱprotectionȱandȱ entitlementsȱtoȱmakeȱclaimsȱfromȱdutyȱbearers.ȱItȱtakesȱintoȱaccountȱ theȱgeneralȱprinciplesȱofȱhumanȱrightsȱlawȱinȱadditionȱtoȱthoseȱwhichȱ deriveȱspecificallyȱfromȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAW.ȱȱTheȱHandbookȱalsoȱ takesȱintoȱconsiderationȱtheȱgenderȱdimensionȱofȱlegislativeȱreformȱ withȱaȱviewȱtoȱensuringȱthatȱinitiativesȱresultȱinȱtheȱeliminationȱofȱ disparitiesȱbetweenȱboysȱandȱgirls,ȱandȱdiscriminationȱagainstȱtheȱ latterȱgroup.ȱ
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ȱ TheȱHandbookȱanalysesȱdifferentȱtypesȱofȱlegislation,ȱincludingȱ constitutionalȱlaw,ȱspecificȱareasȱofȱlawsȱ(suchȱasȱfamilyȱlaw,ȱjuvenileȱ justice,ȱlabourȱlaw,ȱetc.)ȱasȱwellȱasȱconsolidatedȱchildren’sȱcodes/acts.ȱItȱ providesȱguidanceȱbothȱonȱtheȱprocessȱandȱtheȱsubstanceȱofȱlegislativeȱ reformȱinitiatives.ȱItȱprovidesȱaȱmethodologyȱforȱreviewȱofȱlegislationȱ andȱproposesȱaȱseriesȱofȱelementsȱforȱholisticȱandȱcomprehensiveȱ legislativeȱreformȱinȱcomplianceȱwithȱinternationalȱinstrumentsȱandȱ standards,ȱparticularlyȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAW.ȱȱ ȱ TheȱHandbookȱincludesȱexcerptsȱfromȱselectedȱprovisionsȱofȱnationalȱ legislationȱinȱdifferentȱlegalȱsystemsȱandȱtraditions,ȱaccompaniedȱbyȱ briefȱcommentaries.ȱTheseȱexamplesȱareȱnotȱintendedȱtoȱserveȱasȱ modelsȱbutȱratherȱasȱillustrations.ȱ ȱ TheȱHandbookȱlooksȱatȱtheȱentireȱprocessȱofȱdraftingȱlegislation,ȱ includingȱidentificationȱofȱresources,ȱbudgets,ȱandȱregulations,ȱasȱwellȱ asȱtheȱmechanismsȱandȱinstitutionsȱneededȱtoȱensureȱtheȱeffectiveȱ implementationȱofȱlaws.ȱItȱseeksȱtoȱencourageȱaȱgreaterȱunderstandingȱ ofȱtheȱlinksȱbetweenȱlaw,ȱinstitutions,ȱsocialȱpolicy,ȱandȱresourceȱ allocation.ȱFinally,ȱtheȱHandbookȱaddressesȱtheȱissuesȱofȱlegalȱ illiteracy,ȱlawȱdissemination,ȱandȱsocialȱmobilisation,ȱpartnership,ȱandȱ advocacyȱactivitiesȱforȱaȱmoreȱeffectiveȱprocessȱofȱformulationȱandȱ implementationȱofȱlaws.ȱ ȱ ItȱisȱtheȱhopeȱthatȱthisȱHandbookȱgivesȱlifeȱtoȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAWȱbyȱ servingȱasȱaȱreferenceȱguideȱforȱharmonisingȱnationalȱlegislationȱforȱ childrenȱwithȱinternationalȱhumanȱrightsȱstandards.ȱ ȱȱ StructureȱofȱtheȱHandbookȱ ȱ TheȱHandbookȱisȱdividedȱintoȱvolumesȱwithȱchapters.ȱEachȱchapterȱisȱ dividedȱintoȱsections,ȱwhichȱcanȱbeȱtakenȱasȱdistinctȱtoȱaȱcertainȱextent.ȱȱ ȱ Theȱvolumesȱcomplementȱeachȱother.ȱTakenȱtogether,ȱtheyȱprovideȱtheȱ necessaryȱelementsȱforȱcomprehensiveȱandȱholisticȱlegislativeȱreformȱ inȱcomplianceȱwithȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAW.ȱ ȱ
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VolumeȱIȱofȱtheȱHandbookȱ ȱ ChapterȱIȱ ComprehensiveȱandȱHolisticȱReformȱonȱ BehalfȱofȱChildren’sȱRightsȱ ChapterȱIIȱ AssessingȱComplianceȱofȱNationalȱ LegislationȱwithȱInternationalȱHumanȱRightsȱ NormsȱandȱStandardsȱȱ ChapterȱIIIȱ ConstitutionalȱReformsȱinȱFavourȱofȱChildrenȱ ChapterȱIVȱ LegislativeȱReformȱforȱtheȱProtectionȱofȱtheȱ RightsȱofȱChildȱVictimsȱofȱTraffickingȱ ChapterȱVȱ RealisingȱChildren’sȱRightsȱtoȱAdequateȱ NutritionȱthroughȱNationalȱLegislativeȱ Reformȱȱ ȱ SummaryȱofȱtheȱChaptersȱ ȱ Chapterȱ Iȱ “Comprehensiveȱ andȱ Holisticȱ Reformȱ onȱ Behalfȱ ofȱ Children’sȱ Rights”ȱ setsȱ theȱ overallȱ frameworkȱ ofȱ theȱ Handbookȱ byȱ supportingȱtheȱviewȱthatȱlegislativeȱreformȱinȱfavourȱofȱchildrenȱmustȱ beȱgearedȱtowardsȱtheȱfulfilmentȱofȱchildren’sȱhumanȱrights.ȱ ȱ Chapterȱ IIȱ “Assessingȱ Complianceȱ ofȱ Nationalȱ Legislationȱ withȱ Internationalȱ Humanȱ Rightsȱ Standardsȱ andȱ Norms”ȱ exploresȱ theȱ reasonsȱ forȱ undertakingȱ aȱ reviewȱ andȱ possibleȱ reformȱ ofȱ nationalȱ legislationȱrelatingȱtoȱchildren,ȱandȱoutlinesȱsomeȱofȱtheȱconsiderationsȱ andȱ approachesȱ thatȱ canȱ beȱ usedȱ asȱ partȱ ofȱ theȱ reviewȱ andȱ reformȱ process.ȱ ȱ ChapterȱIIIȱ“ConstitutionalȱReformsȱinȱFavourȱofȱChildren”ȱpresentsȱaȱ setȱ ofȱ broadȱ guidelinesȱ onȱ possibleȱ optionsȱ forȱ theȱ formulationȱ andȱ interpretationȱofȱconstitutionsȱasȱintegralȱpartsȱofȱcomprehensiveȱandȱ holisticȱ legislativeȱ reformȱ inȱ favourȱ ofȱ children.ȱ Chapterȱ IIȱ isȱ aȱ guidanceȱtoolȱforȱuseȱonȱtheȱoccasionȱofȱconstitutionalȱreformȱandȱcanȱ alsoȱserveȱasȱanȱadvocacyȱtoolȱforȱcountriesȱthatȱhaveȱyetȱtoȱconsiderȱ reform.ȱ ȱ Chapterȱ IVȱ “Legislativeȱ Reformȱ forȱ theȱ Protectionȱ ofȱ theȱ Rightsȱ ofȱ ChildȱVictimsȱofȱTrafficking”ȱfocusesȱonȱtheȱrightsȱofȱchildȱvictimsȱandȱ theȱ legislativeȱ processesȱ forȱ protectingȱ theseȱ rights,ȱ indicatingȱ theȱ standardsȱ towardsȱ whichȱ oneȱ shouldȱ aim.ȱ Chapterȱ IVȱ usesȱ theȱ
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principlesȱ andȱ provisionsȱ ofȱ humanȱ rightsȱ instrumentsȱ asȱ basicȱ referenceȱpointsȱforȱproposingȱlegislativeȱmeasures.ȱ ȱ ChapterȱVȱ“RealisingȱChildren’sȱRightsȱtoȱAdequateȱNutritionȱthroughȱ NationalȱLegislativeȱReform”ȱaddressesȱhowȱlawsȱandȱregulationsȱcanȱ impactȱfourȱfocusedȱnutritionȱinterventionsȱthatȱguaranteeȱchildrenȱtheȱ rightȱ toȱ adequateȱ nutrition:ȱ 1)ȱ combatingȱ micronutrientȱ malnutrition,ȱ primarilyȱ throughȱ foodȱ fortification;ȱ 2)ȱ protecting,ȱ promoting,ȱ andȱ supportingȱbreastfeeding;ȱ3)ȱenactingȱorȱstrengtheningȱaccompanyingȱ socialȱ policiesȱ toȱ enableȱ womenȱ toȱ breastfeed;ȱ andȱ 4)ȱ promotingȱ healthyȱ dietsȱ andȱ physicalȱ activityȱ toȱ reverseȱ childhoodȱ obesityȱ andȱ resultingȱchronicȱdiseasesȱinȱdevelopedȱandȱdevelopingȱcountries.ȱȱ
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Manualȱsobreȱreformaȱlegislativa:ȱ Laȱrealizaciónȱdeȱlosȱderechosȱdeȱlaȱ infanciaȱ ȱ ResumenȱEjecutivoȱ ȱ En su examen de los informes de los Estados Parte, el Comité de los Derechos del Niño (el Comité), el órgano creado en virtud de tratados que supervisa el progreso alcanzado en la aplicación de la Convención sobre los Derechos del Niño (la Convención), ha hecho hincapié sistemáticamente en la necesidad de revisar y reformar la legislación nacional con el objetivo de armonizarla con los principios y las disposiciones de la Convención. El Comité ha recomendado a menudo que el Estado Parte “lleve a cabo un amplio examen de la legislación [nacional] con miras a asegurar que su legislación interna se ajuste plenamente a los principios y disposiciones de la Convención23“.
Directa o indirectamente, el proceso de presentación de informes sobre la Convención ha servido sin duda de ejemplo para la reforma legislativa en muchos Estados y ha llamado la atención de las instancias políticas sobre los derechos de la infancia. Varios Estados han respondido a la repetida recomendación del Comité en favor de la reforma de la legislación nacional, mediante la promulgación de códigos sobre la infancia o Leyes sobre la infancia24. Otros países han promulgado leyes sobre cuestiones específicas relacionadas con los derechos de la infancia, como el trabajo infantil, la trata de niños y niñas, la mutilación genital femenina y la protección de las madres adolescentes. Los Estados Parte han revisado también las leyes y regulaciones existentes, y han brindado marcos que incluyen garantías jurídicas y responsabilidades por la violación de los derechos de la infancia. Algunos países han enmendado sus códigos penales para incorporar disposiciones dirigidas a combatir la explotación sexual de los niños y a castigar a los culpables. En la esfera de la justicia de menores, se han adoptado importantes medidas en muchas partes del mundo para integrar las normas de derechos humanos en las leyes y políticas nacionales y prestar una especial atención a los derechos de los niños que están en conflicto con la ley25.
23 Véase, por ejemplo, Comité de los Derechos del Niño, “ Observaciones finales: Liberia”, U.N. Doc. CRC/C/15/Add.236 (4 de junio de 2004), para. 10; Comité de los Derechos del Niño, “ Observaciones finales: Singapur”, U.N. Doc. CRC/C/15/Add.220 (27 de octubre de 2003), para. 9. 24 Duncan, Beatrice. Global perspective on consolidated children’s statutes, borrador de documento de trabajo, UNICEF, DPP, 2007. 25 Para obtener más información, véase Nundy, Karuna. Global Status of legislative reform related to the CRC, UNICEF, DPP, 2004 y Desk review of legislative advances related to the CRC - Fase I de la Iniciativa de Reforma Legislativa, UNICEF, DPP, (2004).
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Sin embargo, a pesar de estos avances logrados en todo el mundo, en muchos de los países donde se han llevado a cabo las reformas, el Comité ha observado que éstas no “no son un fiel trasunto de los derechos consagrados en la Convención26”, o que las leyes promulgadas “no reflejan plenamente los principios y disposiciones de la Convención27”. En algunas ocasiones, el Comité ha observado la persistencia de la discriminación contra las niñas y las mujeres, contra los hijos nacidos fuera del matrimonio, contra los niños con discapacidades, contra los niños indígenas y contra los niños que pertenecen a grupos minoritarios. En otros casos, el Comité ha señalado la incapacidad de aplicar o poner en vigor las leyes ya existentes. Además, pocos Estados Parte de la Convención han adoptado un enfoque holístico a la reforma legislativa. La reforma de la legislación nacional se ha llevado a cabo de una manera aislada y dispersa (por ejemplo, sin tener en cuenta el principio de la interrelación o la indivisibilidad de los derechos). Además, como es tradicionalmente el caso, la reforma legislativa sigue siendo una tarea ejecutada por legisladores, parlamentarios y/o expertos gubernamentales en entornos cerrados. Pocos procesos han brindado un entorno favorable a la participación de la sociedad civil, y mucho menos a la participación de los niños28.
ObjetivoȱdelȱManualȱȱ
Este Manual sobre reforma legislativa en favor de la infancia (el Manual) tiene como objetivo prestar apoyo a la aplicación efectiva de la Convención y de la Convención sobre la eliminación de todas las formas de discriminación contra la mujer (CEDAW)29, y promover la igualdad entre los géneros influyendo en la aprobación de medidas legislativas, políticas sociales y cambios institucionales que fomenten la igualdad entre los géneros y tengan como resultado cambios reales y positivos para la infancia.
Los objetivos fundamentales del Manual son: x Contribuir a los procesos que conducen a la aprobación, promulgación y aplicación y puesta en vigor efectivas de leyes nacionales que cumplan con las normas y regulaciones internacionales de derechos humanos; y x Brindar opciones claras e instructivas y buenas prácticas que puedan utilizarse como orientación para reforzar las actividades de los
26 Véase, por ejemplo, Kuwait, U.N. Doc. CRC/C/15/Add.96 (26 de octubre de 1998); Belice, U.N. Doc. CRC/C/15/Add.99 (10 de mayo de 1999). 27 Véase, por ejemplo, Belarús, U.N. Doc. CRC/C/15/Add.17 (7 de febrero de 1994). 28 Para obtener más información, véase: Desk review of legislative advances related to the CRC - Phase I of the Legislative Reform Initiative, UNICEF, DPP, (2004). 29 El Manual apoya las iniciativas legislativas relacionadas con la Convención sobre la eliminación de todas las formas de discriminación contra la mujer en esferas que están relacionadas con los derechos de la infancia (por ejemplo, el artículo 5) además de aquellos que demuestren una complementariedad entre los derechos de las mujeres y los niños (por ejemplo, el artículo 9).
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Estados Parte dirigidas a cumplir con los instrumentos internacionales, especialmente con la Convención y la CEDAW.
Este Manual promueve un enfoque basado en los derechos humanos con respecto a la reforma legislativa en favor de la infancia. Se inspira en la necesidad de establecer procesos y enfoques innovadores para establecer un marco jurídico que proteja eficazmente a los niños y garantice la plena realización de sus derechos. También está motivado por la necesidad de difundir experiencias más amplias y prácticas de los enfoques sobre las iniciativas de reforma legislativa en favor de la infancia basados en los derechos.
UtilizaciónȱdelȱManualȱȱ
El objetivo del Manual es servir de orientación a legisladores, parlamentarios, juristas, abogados, jueces, ministros del ramo, oficiales gubernamentales, defensores de los derechos humanos y de los derechos de la infancia, encargados de establecer políticas y a todos aquellos que participen en tareas dirigidas a la armonización de la legislación nacional con los instrumentos internacionales, especialmente la Convención y la CEDAW.
El Manual está concebido para que se utilice, en su totalidad o en parte, como una guía práctica que sirva de asistencia en la reforma legislativa para la realización de los derechos de la infancia. Está escrito en un lenguaje simple y por tanto lo pueden utilizar todas las personas e instituciones interesadas en las iniciativas de reforma legislativa en favor de la infancia.
El Manual sitúa a los niños en el centro de los procesos de reforma al considerarles como sujetos de derechos, con derechos a una protección especial y a exigir su cumplimiento a los detentores de obligaciones. Tiene en cuenta los principios generales de la legislación sobre derechos humanos, además de los que figuran en la Convención y la CEDAW. El Manual tiene también en cuenta las dimensiones de género de la reforma legislativa con miras a garantizar que las iniciativas tengan como resultado la eliminación de las disparidades entre los niños y las niñas.
El Manual analiza diferentes tipos de leyes, entre ellos leyes constitucionales, esferas específicas de las leyes (como la ley de la familia, la justicia de menores, la ley laboral, etc.) así como los códigos/leyes consolidados sobre la infancia. Ofrece orientación tanto sobre el proceso como sobre la sustancia de las iniciativas de reforma legislativa. Sin caer en la jerga jurídica, el Manual establece una metodología para el examen de la legislación y propone una serie de elementos para una reforma holística y amplia, de conformidad con los instrumentos y normas internacionales, especialmente la Convención y la CEDAW.
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A manera de ejemplos, el Manual incluye pasajes extraídos de una selección de disposiciones legislativas nacionales, acompañados de comentarios breves, y toma nota de los diferentes sistemas jurídicos y tradiciones. Estos ejemplos no pretenden servir como “modelos” de legislación o como una “fórmula mágica”, sino más bien como indicaciones y fuentes de inspiración para el lenguaje y las disposiciones que se utilizan en la legislación nacional de los Estados Parte de la Convención. Por tanto, el Manual presenta un marco flexible, que el Estado puede adaptar a su sistema jurídico y a sus exigencias nacionales particulares.
El Manual analiza todo el proceso de redacción de leyes, que incluye la definición de los recursos, presupuestos y regulaciones, así como los mecanismos e instituciones necesarios para garantizar una aplicación eficaz de las leyes. Procura alentar una mayor comprensión de los vínculos entre las leyes, las instituciones, la política social y la asignación de recursos. Finalmente, el Manual aborda cuestiones como el desconocimiento de las leyes, la diseminación de las leyes y la movilización social, las asociaciones y las actividades de promoción para que el proceso de formulación y aplicación de las leyes sea más eficaz.
Se espera que este Manual sirva como guía de consulta para armonizar la legislación nacional en favor de la infancia con las normas internacionales de derechos humanos, y para dotar de contenido a la Convención y la CEDAW.
EstructuraȱdelȱManualȱȱ
El Manual está dividido en varios volúmenes, que incluyen una serie de capítulos principales. Cada capítulo se divide a su vez en diferentes secciones, que hasta cierto punto pueden considerarse como entidades separadas.
Los distintos volúmenes están concebidos para que se complementen el uno al otro y, en su conjunto, ofrecen todos los elementos necesarios para una reforma amplia e integral en línea con la Convención y la CEDAW.
Volumen I del Manual
El primer volumen incluye los cinco capítulos siguientes:
Capítulo I Reforma amplia e integral en favor de la infancia Capítulo II Armonización de la legislación nacional relativa a la infancia con las normas y regulaciones internacionales de derechos humanos Capítulo III Reformas constitucionales en favor de la infancia Capítulo IV Cumplimiento de los derechos de la infancia a una nutrición adecuada por medio de la reforma legislativa nacional
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Capítulo V Reforma legislativa para la protección de los derechos de los niños víctimas de la trata
Resumen de los capítulos
El Capítulo I “Reforma amplia e integral en favor de la infancia” establece el tono general del Manual, al apoyar el punto de vista de que la reforma legislativa en favor de la infancia debe estar dirigida hacia el cumplimiento de los derechos humanos de los niños.
El Capítulo II “Armonización de la legislación nacional relativa a la infancia con las normas y regulaciones internacionales de derechos humanos” explora las razones para llevar a cabo una revisión y una posible reforma de la legislación nacional relacionada con la infancia, y describe algunas de las consideraciones y enfoques que pueden utilizarse como parte del proceso de revisión y reforma.
El Capítulo III “Reformas constitucionales en favor de la infancia” presenta una serie de directrices amplias sobre posibles opciones para la formulación e interpretación de las constituciones como parte integral de una reforma legislativa amplia y holística en favor de la infancia. El Capítulo III tiene carácter de promoción, y sirve de instrumento orientativo para su utilización en ocasión de una reforma constitucional, y también es un llamado de atención para los países que todavía no han tomado en consideración la necesidad de una reforma.
El Capítulo IV “Cumplimiento de los derechos de la infancia a una nutrición adecuada por medio de la reforma legislativa nacional” describe cómo las leyes y regulaciones pueden repercutir en cuatro intervenciones centradas en la nutrición que son elementos cruciales en la combinación que garantiza a la infancia el derecho a una nutrición adecuada: 1) combatir la desnutrición de micronutrientes, especialmente por medio del enriquecimiento de los alimentos; 2) proteger, promover y apoyar la lactancia materna; 3) promulgar o reforzar las políticas sociales complementarias que permiten amamantar a las mujeres; y 4) promover regímenes alimentarios sanos y actividades físicas para contrarrestar la alarmante tendencia hacia la obesidad infantil y las enfermedades crónicas resultantes, tanto en los países en desarrollo como desarrollados.
El Capítulo V “Reforma legislativa para la protección de los derechos de los niños víctimas de la trata” se centra en los derechos de las víctimas infantiles y de los procesos legislativos para proteger estos derechos, e indica las normas que deben ser el objetivo de todos. Como ocurre con los otros capítulos, el Capítulo V utiliza los principios y las disposiciones de los instrumentos de derechos humanos como punto de referencia básico para proponer medidas
xx Handbook on Legislative Reform legislativas, que deben en última instancia conducir al cumplimiento de los derechos de la infancia en esta esfera.ȱ
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Manuelȱrelatifȱàȱlaȱréformeȱdeȱlaȱlégislationȱ:ȱ Laȱréalisationȱdesȱdroitsȱdeȱl’enfantȱ ȱ RésuméȱAnalytiqueȱ ȱ Lors de son examen des rapports soumis par les États Parties à la Convention relative aux droits de l’enfant (CDE), le Comité des droits de l’enfant (Comité CDE ou le Comité), l’organe créé aux fins d’application de la CDE qui suit les progrès accomplis en faveur de sa mise en œuvre, a souligné à maintes reprises qu’un examen et une réforme des législations nationales s’imposait à des fins d’harmonisation avec les principes et les dispositions de la CDE. Le Comité a recommandé plusieurs fois aux États Parties de « procéder à un examen approfondi de [leur] législation [nationale] pour veiller à ce qu’elle soit pleinement conformes aux principes et aux dispositions de la Convention »30.
Directement ou indirectement le mécanisme d’établissement des rapports de la CDE a indubitablement été à l’origine des réformes législatives entreprises par de nombreux États, et il a attiré l’attention des cercles politiques sur les droits de l’enfant. Plusieurs États ont tenu compte des efforts du Comité qui leur a recommandé à plusieurs reprises d’entreprendre des réformes de leur législation nationale en promulguant des codes ou des textes de loi en faveur des enfants31. D’autres pays ont adopté des lois sur des aspects spécifiques des droits de l’enfant, comme le travail des enfants, la traite d’enfants, les mutilations génitales féminines et la protection des mères adolescentes. Les États Parties ont également amendé les lois et réglementations en vigueur, et créé des cadres comprenant des garanties et des responsabilités juridiques en cas de violations des droits de l’enfant. Certains pays ont amendé leur code pénal en introduisant des dispositions ayant pour but de lutter contre l’exploitation sexuelle des enfants et de punir les auteurs de tels délits. Dans le domaine de la justice appliquée aux mineurs, des mesures importantes ont été prises dans plusieurs régions du monde visant à intégrer les normes qui sous- tendent les droits de l’homme dans les législations et politiques nationales, et à apporter une attention particulière aux droits des enfants en conflit avec la loi32.
30 Voir, par ex.., Comité des droits de l’enfant, ‘Observations finales : Libéria’, Doc. ONU : CRC/C/15/Add.236 (4 juin 2004), par. 10; Comité des droits de l’enfant, ‘Observations finale : Singapour’, Doc. ONU : CRC/C/15/Add.220 (27 octobre 2003), par. 9. 31 Duncan, Beatrice. Global perspective on consolidated children’s statutes, projet de document de travail, DPP, 2007. 32 Pour plus d’informations, consulter Nundy, Karuna. Global Status of legislative reform related to the CDE, UNICEF, DPP, 2004 et Desk review of legislative advances related to the CRC - Phase I de l’Initiative de réforme législative, UNICEF, DPP, (2004).
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Toutefois, malgré ces progrès, dans plusieurs des pays où des réformes sont intervenues, le Comité a constaté que « les dispositions et les principes contenus dans la Convention ne sont pas complètement traduits dans le droit interne »33, ou que les lois adoptées ne sont pas « pleinement compatibles avec les dispositions et les principes de la Convention »34. Dans d’autres cas, le Comité a observé une persistance de la discrimination à l’égard des filles et des femmes, des enfants nés en dehors des liens du mariage, des enfants handicapés, des enfants autochtones et des enfants appartenant à des groupes minoritaires. Dans d’autres cas, le Comité a constaté que les législateurs avaient fait leur travail mais que les lois n’étaient pas appliquées. Par ailleurs, seuls quelques États Parties à la CDE ont abordé leur réforme législative dans une optique générale. Les réformes des législations nationales ont souvent été menées en l’absence de toute coordination (sans tenir compte du principe d’indivisibilité des droits et des liens qui les unissent). En outre, conformément à la tradition, les réformes législatives ont été menées à bien en vase clos par des législateurs, des parlementaires et/ou des experts gouvernementaux. Rares sont celles qui sont le fruit d’une participation de la société civile, et encore moins des enfants35.
Pourquoiȱceȱmanuelȱȱ
Ce Manuel sur les réformes législatives en faveur des enfants (le Manuel) a pour but de soutenir la mise en œuvre de la CDE et de la Convention sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination à l’égard des femmes (CEDAW)36, et de promouvoir l’égalité des sexes en pesant en faveur de l’adoption de mesures législatives, de politiques sociales et de changements institutionnels favorables à l’égalité des sexes et entraînant des changements réels et positifs pour les enfants.
Les principaux objectifs poursuivis avec ce Manuel sont les suivants : x Contribuer à des mécanismes entraînant l’adoption, la promulgation et l’application d’une législation nationale conforme aux normes et règles internationales relatives aux droits de l’homme; et x Fournir des options claires, des illustrations et des pratiques couronnées de succès pouvant servir de d’encadrement pour renforcer les initiatives des États Parties visant à se mettre en conformité avec les instruments internationaux, notamment la CDE et la CEDAW.
33 Voir par ex. Kuweït, Doc. ONU CRC/C/15/Add.96 (26 octobre 1998); Belize, Doc ONU. CRC/C/15/Add.99 (10 mai 1999). 34 Voir par ex. Bélarus, Doc ONU. CRC/C/15/Add.17 (7 février 1994). 35 Pour plus d’informations, consulter : Desk review of legislative advances related to the CRC - Phase I de l’Initiative de réforme législative, UNICEF, DPP, (2004). 36 Le présent Manuel soutient les initiatives législatives relatives à la CEDAW dans la mesure où elles ont un rapport avec les droits de l’enfant (par exemple, l’Article 5 de la CEDAW) en plus des initiatives qui révèlent la complémentarité des droits des femmes et des enfants (par exemple, l’Article 9 de la CEDAW).
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Le présent Manuel préconise d’inscrire les réformes législatives en faveur des enfants dans la perspective des droits fondamentaux. Il s’inspire de la nécessité d’avoir recours à des approches et mécanismes novateurs lors de la création d’un cadre juridique capable de protéger efficacement les enfants et de garantir la réalisation totale de leurs droits. Il est aussi le fruit d’une prise de conscience : la nécessité de faire mieux connaître en pratique les réformes législatives en faveur des enfants menées dans l’optique des droits fondamentaux.
UtilisationȱduȱManuelȱȱ
Ce Manuel servira de référence aux législateurs, parlementaires, juristes, avocats, juges, employés des ministères, fonctionnaires, défenseurs des droits de l’homme et des droits de l’enfant, décideurs, et à tous ceux qui contribuent à l’harmonisation des législations nationales avec les instruments internationaux, en particulier la CDE et la CEDAW.
Ce Manuel devrait servir de guide pratique, dans son intégralité ou par chapitre, encourageant les réformes législatives en faveur de la réalisation des droits de l’enfant. Il a été rédigé dans une langue simple de façon à pouvoir être utilisé par toute personne ou institution soucieuse de mener à bien une réforme législative en faveur des enfants.
Ce Manuel place les enfants au centre du mécanisme de réforme en les considérant comme des détenteurs de droits devant bénéficier d’une protection spéciale et susceptibles de faire valoir leurs droits auprès de ceux qui ont des devoirs à leur égard. Il prend en compte les principes généraux des instruments relatifs aux droits de l’homme en plus de ceux qui sous-tendent la CDE et la CEDAW. Le présent manuel tient aussi compte de la composante femmes dans la réforme législative dans le but de s’assurer que les initiatives contribuent à l’élimination des disparités entre les filles et les garçons.
Le manuel analyse différent types de législations : droit constitutionnel, domaines spécifiques du droit (droit de la famille, justice appliquée aux mineurs, droit du travail, etc.) ainsi que les codes ou instruments qui concernent les enfants. Il fournit des conseils à la fois sur les mécanismes et la substance des réformes législatives. Sans tomber dans le jargon juridique, le Manuel propose une méthodologie d’examen de la législation et une série d’éléments constituant d’une réforme globale et en profondeur de la législation, en conformité avec les normes et instruments internationaux, en particulier la CDE et la CEDAW.
À titre d’exemple, le Manuel cite des extraits de dispositions des législations nationales accompagnés de brefs commentaires en tenant compte des divers systèmes juridiques et traditions. Ces exemples ne sont pas là pour servir de « modèles » de législation ou de « formule magique », mais ce sont plutôt des
xxiv Handbook on Legislative Reform illustrations et des sources d’inspiration concernant l’énoncé et la manière dont les États Parties à la CDE ont inscrit les dispositions dans leur législation nationale. Ainsi, le Manuel propose un cadre souple que l’État adaptera à son système juridique et aux conditions nationales qui lui sont propres.
Le Manuel décrit le mécanisme de rédaction d’un projet de loi dans son intégralité, en commençant par l’identification des ressources, des budgets et des réglementations, jusqu’aux mécanismes et institutions indispensables pour garantir l’application des lois. Il s’efforce de promouvoir une meilleure compréhension des liens qui unissent les textes de lois, les institutions, les politiques sociales et l’allocation des ressources. Enfin, le Manuel aborde divers autres problèmes : méconnaissance des lois, diffusion des lois, mobilisation sociale, partenariats et activités de sensibilisation afin de renforcer l’efficacité du processus de formulation et d’application des lois. Ce Manuel a été conçu dans le but de servir de guide lors de l’harmonisation des législations nationales en faveur des enfants avec les normes internationales relatives aux droits de l’homme et de donner vie à la CDE et à la CEDAW.
StructureȱduȱManuelȱ
Le Manuel est divisé en plusieurs volumes comprenant chacun plusieurs chapitres importants. Chaque chapitre est ensuite divisé en différentes sections, qui peuvent être abordées séparément dans une certaine mesure.
Les différents volumes se complètent et l’ensemble contient tous les éléments indispensables à l’entreprise d’une réforme globale et en profondeur de la législation en conformité avec la CDE et la CEDAW.
Volume I du Manuel
Le premier volume se compose de cinq chapitres :
Chapitre I Réforme globale et en profondeur de la législation en faveur des enfants Chapitre II Conformité de la législation nationale relative aux enfants avec les standards et les normes des instruments internationaux relatifs aux droits de l’homme Chapitre III Réformes constitutionnelles en faveur des enfants Chapitre IV Réalisation du droit de l’enfant à une nutrition adéquate grâce à une réforme de la législation nationale Chapitre V Réforme de la législation sur la protection des droits des enfants victimes de la traite d’enfants
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Résumé des chapitres
Le Chapitre I « Réforme globale et en profondeur de la législation en faveur des enfants » donne le ton du Manuel en affirmant que toute réforme de la législation en faveur des enfants doit être axée sur la réalisation des droits fondamentaux des enfants.
Le Chapitre II « Conformité de la législation nationale relative aux enfants avec les standards et les normes des instruments internationaux relatifs aux droits de l’homme » explore les raisons pour lesquelles un gouvernement entreprendra un examen et éventuellement une réforme de sa législation nationale relative aux enfants, et il décrit certaines considérations et méthodes qui s’avéreront utiles lors de l’examen et de la réforme.
Le Chapitre III « Réformes constitutionnelles en faveur des enfants » présente un jeu de directives générales sur les options possibles en termes de formulation et d’interprétation des Constitutions en tant qu’éléments intégraux d’une réforme globale et en profondeur de la législation en faveur des enfants. Le Chapitre III relève de la sensibilisation, se voulant outil d’orientation à utiliser lors des réformes constitutionnelles et servant aussi de signal d’alarme pour les pays qui n’ont pas encore envisagé de réforme.
Le Chapitre IV « Réalisation du droit de l’enfant à une nutrition adéquate grâce à une réforme de la législation nationale » parle de la manière dont les lois et les réglementations peuvent avoir un impact sur quatre interventions relatives à la nutrition qui sont des éléments cruciaux d’un ensemble qui garantit aux enfants le droit à une nutrition adéquate : 1) combattre la malnutrition due à la carence en micronutriments, essentiellement grâce à l’enrichissement des aliments; 2) protéger, promouvoir et soutenir l’allaitement maternel; 3) adopter ou renforcer des politiques sociales d’accompagnement pour permettre aux femmes de nourrir au sein; et 4) promouvoir des régimes alimentaires sains et l’activité physique pour inverser la tendance alarmante à l’obésité chez les enfants et les maladies chroniques qui en résultent dans les pays développés comme dans les pays en développement.
LeȱChapitreȱVȱ«ȱRéformeȱdeȱlaȱlégislationȱsurȱlaȱprotectionȱdesȱdroitsȱ desȱenfantsȱvictimesȱdeȱlaȱtraiteȱd’enfantsȱ»ȱexamineȱlesȱdroitsȱdesȱ enfantsȱvictimesȱdeȱlaȱtraiteȱd’enfantsȱetȱlesȱmesuresȱlégislativesȱquiȱ permettentȱdeȱprotégerȱcesȱdroits,ȱetȱilȱdécritȱlesȱnormesȱversȱlesquellesȱ lesȱpaysȱdevraientȱtendre.ȱCommeȱlesȱautresȱchapitres,ȱleȱChapitreȱVȱ s’appuieȱsurȱlesȱprincipesȱetȱdispositionsȱdesȱinstrumentsȱrelatifsȱauxȱ droitsȱdeȱl’hommeȱquiȱserventȱdeȱréférenceȱdeȱbaseȱpourȱproposerȱdesȱ mesuresȱlégislativesȱdevantȱmenerȱenȱfinȱdeȱcompteȱauȱrespectȱdesȱ droitsȱdeȱl’enfantȱdansȱceȱdomaine.ȱ
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Chapterȱ1ȱ ȱ COMPREHENSIVEȱANDȱHOLISTICȱ LEGISLATIVEȱREFORMȱONȱ BEHALFȱOFȱCHILDREN’SȱRIGHTSȱ ȱ TheȱadoptionȱofȱtheȱConventionȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChildȱ(CRC) 37 ȱ wasȱaȱmajorȱbreakthroughȱinȱtheȱpromotionȱandȱprotectionȱofȱ children’sȱrights.ȱTheȱCRCȱmovedȱbeyondȱguaranteeingȱprotectionȱtoȱ children,ȱtoȱclearlyȱspellingȱoutȱchildren’sȱstatusȱasȱholdersȱofȱrights,ȱinȱ allȱaspectsȱofȱcivil,ȱpolitical,ȱeconomic,ȱsocialȱandȱculturalȱlife.ȱArticleȱ4ȱ ofȱtheȱCRC 38 ȱsetsȱoutȱtheȱoverallȱobligationȱ“toȱtakeȱappropriateȱ legislative,ȱadministrativeȱandȱotherȱmeasures”ȱtoȱimplementȱtheȱ rightsȱguaranteedȱbyȱtheȱCRCȱandȱthus,ȱimpliesȱthatȱ“legislativeȱ reform”ȱisȱoneȱofȱtheȱmostȱeffectiveȱentryȱpointsȱandȱstrategiesȱtoȱ advanceȱchildren’sȱrights.ȱȱItȱsuggestsȱthatȱlegislativeȱreformȱwithȱtheȱ mereȱobjectiveȱofȱ‘puttingȱtheȱlawȱinȱplace’ 39 ȱisȱinadequateȱtoȱachieveȱ bothȱharmonizationȱofȱnationalȱlegislationȱwithȱtheȱCRCȱandȱeffectiveȱ implementationȱofȱchildren’sȱrights.ȱ ȱ TheȱCRCȱprovidesȱanȱopportunityȱtoȱadoptȱanȱapproachȱbasedȱonȱtheȱ recognitionȱofȱtheȱrightsȱofȱtheȱchild,ȱusingȱtheȱprinciplesȱandȱ provisionsȱofȱtheȱConventionȱasȱaȱfundamentalȱreferenceȱpointȱforȱtheȱ processȱandȱcontentȱofȱlegislativeȱreform.ȱTheȱCRCȱestablishesȱgroundsȱ forȱcomprehensiveȱandȱholisticȱlegislativeȱreformsȱthatȱrequireȱStatesȱ Partiesȱtoȱexamineȱtheȱwholeȱspectrumȱofȱlegislationȱandȱregulationsȱ thatȱaffectȱtheȱrealisationȱofȱchildren’sȱrightsȱȬȱfromȱconstitutionalȱandȱ penalȱreformsȱtoȱreformsȱofȱjudicialȱsystemsȱȬȱandȱadoptȱlegislationȱ andȱregulationsȱwhichȱreflectȱtheȱinterconnectedȱnatureȱofȱtheȱrightsȱ guaranteedȱbyȱtheȱCRC.ȱThisȱholisticȱapproachȱtoȱpolicyȱplanningȱandȱ
37 The CRC was adopted by the UN General Assembly on 20 November 1989. 38 CRC, Article 4. 39 Goonesekere, Savitri, Protecting the world’s children: Impact of the Convention on the Rights of the Child in diverse legal systems, Introduction and Overview, UNICEF, Cambridge University Press (2007).
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implementationȱisȱessentialȱifȱlegislativeȱreformȱisȱtoȱresultȱinȱpositiveȱ changesȱforȱchildren.ȱȱ ȱ Thisȱchapterȱpresentsȱanȱapproachȱtoȱlegislativeȱreformȱthatȱisȱ concernedȱwithȱunderstandingȱtheȱcriticalȱindivisibilityȱofȱcivilȱandȱ political,ȱcultural,ȱeconomicȱandȱsocialȱrightsȱfromȱanȱinterȬdisciplinaryȱ perspective,ȱandȱthatȱencompassesȱdifferentȱinterventions,ȱasȱwellȱasȱ integratedȱmeasuresȱtoȱrealiseȱchildren’sȱrights. 40ȱ ȱ Partȱ1ȱ HUMANȱRIGHTSȬBASEDȱ APPROACHȱTOȱLEGISLATIVEȱREFORMȱ ȱ 1.1ȱ HumanȱRightsȬbasedȱLegislativeȱReformȱ ȱ Thereȱisȱnoȱsingleȱdefinitionȱofȱlegislativeȱreform.ȱExpertsȱworkingȱinȱ thisȱfieldȱhaveȱusuallyȱdefinedȱtheȱconceptȱforȱthemselvesȱandȱitȱisȱ oftenȱunderstoodȱinȱaȱnarrowȱsense,ȱasȱmerelyȱchangingȱlaws.ȱȱ ȱ However,ȱlegislativeȱreformȱencompassesȱmoreȱthanȱmerelyȱ“puttingȱ theȱlawȱinȱplace.”ȱItȱinvolvesȱreviewingȱandȱreformingȱnotȱonlyȱlawsȱ (i.e.ȱlegislationȱalreadyȱinȱplace)ȱbutȱalsoȱthoseȱmeasuresȱnecessaryȱtoȱ effectivelyȱimplementȱthemȱȬȱregulations,ȱinstitutions,ȱpolicies,ȱbudgetȱ allocationsȱandȱtheȱprocessȱofȱreformȱinȱtheȱcountry. 41 ȱȱ ȱ Fromȱaȱhumanȱrightsȱperspective,ȱlegislativeȱreformȱrelatedȱtoȱtheȱCRCȱ isȱanȱapproachȱbasedȱonȱtheȱfullȱrecognitionȱofȱtheȱequalȱrightsȱofȱ children,ȱboysȱandȱgirls,ȱasȱsubjectsȱofȱrightsȱinȱsociety.ȱItȱisȱanȱ approachȱthatȱdemandsȱfullȱpublicȱparticipationȱinȱtheȱdrafting,ȱdebateȱ andȱapprovalȱofȱlegislationȱbyȱallȱthoseȱdirectlyȱorȱindirectlyȱaffectedȱ byȱtheȱlegislation.ȱItȱisȱalsoȱanȱapproachȱthatȱisȱdirectedȱtowardsȱtheȱ effectiveȱimplementationȱofȱsuchȱlegislationȱinȱallȱsegmentsȱofȱsocietyȱ andȱallȱaspectsȱofȱchildren’sȱlives.ȱȱ ȱ
40 Based on Perrault, Nadine, Bringing Child Rights to Reality, Needs and Prospects: Beyond the law prepared for the International interdisciplinary course on children’s rights, Ghent University, UNICEF, DPP (2006). 41 Hall, Erica, Something to think about, Internal bulletin sponsored by the Global Policy Section, UNICEF, Bulletin no. 40 (April 2006).
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AȱhumanȱrightsȬbasedȱapproachȱ(HRBA)ȱtoȱlegislativeȱreformȱmayȱbeȱ definedȱasȱaȱframeworkȱforȱensuringȱfullȱcomplianceȱofȱnationalȱ legislationȱwithȱinternationalȱhumanȱrightsȱnormsȱandȱconcreteȱ realizationȱofȱhumanȱrights.ȱȱ ȱ 1.2ȱȱ HumanȱRightsȱPrinciplesȱandȱLegislativeȱReformȱ ȱ Theȱcoreȱhumanȱrightsȱprinciples 42 ȱguideȱlegislativeȱreformȱinitiatives.ȱ Theseȱprinciplesȱare:ȱa)ȱuniversalityȱofȱrights;ȱb)ȱinterdependenceȱandȱ interȬconnectednessȱofȱrights,ȱ(holisticȱvisionȱwithȱemphasisȱonȱ prioritiesȱandȱstrategiesȱtoȱsecureȱrightsȱinȱtheȱcontextȱofȱavailableȱ resources);ȱc)ȱnonȬdiscriminationȱandȱequality;ȱd)ȱparticipationȱofȱallȱ stakeholdersȱasȱaȱrightȱ(ownershipȱandȱsustainability);ȱe)ȱ accountabilityȱofȱallȱdutyȱbearersȱforȱhumanȱrightsȱobligationsȱandȱtheȱ ruleȱofȱlaw. 43 ȱȱInȱaddition,ȱanȱHRBAȱtoȱlegislativeȱreformȱrelatedȱtoȱtheȱ CRCȱtakesȱintoȱaccountȱtheȱguidingȱprinciplesȱofȱtheȱConvention.ȱAsȱ such,ȱtheȱprincipleȱofȱtheȱbestȱinterestsȱofȱtheȱchildȱshouldȱbeȱtheȱbasisȱ uponȱwhichȱallȱeffortsȱtoȱreformȱnationalȱlegislation,ȱcustomsȱandȱ practicesȱareȱundertaken.ȱȱ ȱ 1.ȱUniversalityȱofȱRightsȱ ȱ Anȱapproachȱtoȱlegislativeȱreformȱbasedȱonȱhumanȱrightsȱrecognizesȱ thatȱallȱhumanȱrightsȱapplyȱequallyȱinȱallȱcultures,ȱtraditionsȱandȱ politicalȱsystems,ȱwithoutȱadjustmentȱorȱmitigation.ȱAnȱHRBAȱtoȱ legislativeȱreformȱrequiresȱtheȱdevelopmentȱofȱaȱlegalȱframeworkȱthatȱ effectivelyȱprotectsȱandȱfulfilsȱtheȱrightsȱofȱallȱchildren,ȱbothȱboysȱandȱ girls.ȱLegislativeȱreformȱthatȱcapturesȱtheȱprincipleȱofȱuniversalityȱofȱ rightsȱshouldȱbeȱaimedȱatȱensuringȱinclusiveness,ȱespeciallyȱinȱfavourȱ ofȱtraditionallyȱexcludedȱgroups.44ȱThus,ȱitȱcallsȱforȱtheȱabolishmentȱofȱ “anyȱdistinction,ȱexclusion,ȱrestrictionȱorȱpreference”45ȱwhichȱhasȱtheȱ effectȱofȱnullifyingȱorȱimpairingȱtheȱrecognition,ȱenjoymentȱorȱexerciseȱ ofȱallȱtheȱrightsȱsetȱforthȱinȱtheȱCRC.ȱAtȱtheȱsameȱtime,ȱuniversalȱ enjoymentȱofȱrightsȱimpliesȱtakingȱpositiveȱmeasures,ȱthroughȱtheȱ
42 UN Common Understanding on HRBA (Stanford Consensus, 2003). 43 Core principles of a rights-based approach to programming (from Core Course: Human Rights Principles for Programming). 44 For more details see: Duncan, Beatrice. Chapter III of the Handbook, Constitutional reforms in favour of children, UNICEF, DPP (2007). 45 CCPR General Comment no. 18 on Non-discrimination, Human Rights Committee (1989).
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adoptionȱofȱlegislativeȱprovisionsȱinȱfavourȱofȱchildrenȱinȱvulnerableȱ situationsȱ(e.g.,ȱasylumȱseekers,ȱmigrantȱchildren,ȱchildrenȱwithȱ disabilities,ȱchildrenȱinȱconflictȱwithȱtheȱlawȱetc.).ȱ ȱ 2.ȱInterdependenceȱofȱRightsȱ ȱ AnȱHRBAȱtoȱlegislativeȱreformȱrecognizesȱthatȱeachȱrightȱisȱdependentȱ onȱtheȱfulfilmentȱofȱallȱtheȱotherȱrightsȱandȱthatȱthereforeȱallȱrightsȱ mustȱbeȱrespected.ȱThus,ȱtranslatingȱtheȱprincipleȱofȱinterdependenceȱ ofȱrightsȱrequiresȱadoptingȱaȱcomprehensiveȱandȱbalancedȱapproachȱ thatȱfocusesȱonȱtheȱfullȱrangeȱofȱrights.ȱAllȱlawsȱ(constitutional,ȱcivil,ȱ penal,ȱlabour,ȱsocialȱetc.),ȱasȱwellȱasȱallȱcomponentsȱofȱtheȱjudicialȱ systemȱmustȱtoȱbeȱreviewedȱand,ȱifȱnecessary,ȱamendedȱinȱlightȱofȱthisȱ understanding.ȱThisȱrequiresȱaȱrevisionȱofȱtheȱentireȱlegalȱframeworkȱ soȱasȱtoȱensureȱthatȱitȱisȱcoherentȱandȱdoesȱnotȱcontradictȱitself.ȱForȱ instance,ȱfromȱaȱrightsȱperspective,ȱpreventingȱchildȱmarriageȱrequiresȱ ensuringȱthatȱtheȱminimumȱageȱforȱmarriageȱisȱhigherȱthanȱtheȱ minimumȱschoolȬleavingȱageȱandȱtheȱminimumȱageȱofȱemployment.ȱ Children’sȱaccessȱtoȱjusticeȱandȱimplementingȱagenciesȱ(includingȱtheȱ courts),ȱthroughȱtheȱdevelopmentȱofȱlegalȱassistanceȱprogrammes,ȱ accessibleȱcomplaintsȱmechanismsȱandȱchildȬfriendlyȱandȱgenderȱ sensitiveȱcourtȱprocedures,ȱalsoȱrequiresȱadequateȱattention.ȱ ȱ AnȱHRBAȱtoȱlegislativeȱreformȱlogicallyȱleadsȱtoȱtheȱrealisationȱofȱtheȱ otherȱhumanȱrightsȱinstrumentsȱthatȱaȱcountryȱhasȱratified.ȱTheȱCRCȱ andȱtheȱCEDAWȱare,ȱforȱexample,ȱinterrelatedȱinȱseveralȱaspects.ȱ TheseȱaspectsȱincludeȱinterȱaliaȱtheȱprotectionȱagainstȱgenderȬbasedȱ discrimination,ȱrightsȱtoȱhealth,ȱnutritionȱandȱeducation,ȱandȱ protectionȱfromȱsexualȱabuse,ȱincludingȱsexualȱtrafficking.ȱInȱotherȱ areas,ȱsuchȱasȱmarriageȱandȱprotectionȱfromȱviolence,ȱrespectȱforȱtheȱ provisionsȱofȱoneȱConventionȱstrengthensȱtheȱprotectionsȱsetȱoutȱinȱtheȱ other.ȱThereforeȱtheȱimplementationȱofȱoneȱwillȱinȱmanyȱcasesȱfacilitateȱ implementationȱofȱtheȱother.ȱȱ ȱ Boxȱ1:ȱIndivisibilityȱandȱInterȬconnectednessȱofȱrightsȱ TheȱCRCȱCommitteeȱhasȱonȱseveralȱoccasionsȱstressedȱtheȱneedȱtoȱtakeȱaccountȱofȱ theȱ principleȱ ofȱ indivisibilityȱ inȱ legislativeȱ reformȱ initiatives.ȱ Inȱ itsȱ recommendationsȱ toȱ Benin,ȱ theȱ Committeeȱ welcomedȱ “theȱ measuresȱ takenȱ toȱ strengthenȱtheȱlegalȱframeworkȱonȱtheȱrightȱofȱtheȱchildȱandȱtoȱbringȱtheȱnationalȱ legislationȱ intoȱ conformityȱ withȱ theȱ Convention,ȱ notablyȱ theȱ Personsȱ andȱ Familyȱ Codeȱ andȱ theȱ draftȱ Children’sȱ Code.”ȱ However,ȱ theȱ Committeeȱ notedȱ thatȱ thisȱ
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legislationȱinȱsomeȱareasȱwasȱnotȱcoherentȱ(particularlyȱonȱissuesȱofȱviolenceȱagainstȱ children)ȱandȱthatȱotherȱnationalȱlegislationȱwasȱnotȱbroughtȱinȱconformityȱwithȱtheȱ CRC.ȱ ȱ Source:ȱCRC/C/BEN/CO/2ȱ(20ȱOctoberȱ2006).ȱ ȱ 3.ȱNonȬdiscriminationȱandȱEqualityȱ ȱ AnȱHRBAȱtoȱlegislativeȱreformȱhelpsȱtackleȱtheȱrootȱcausesȱofȱ discriminationȱandȱstrivesȱtoȱeliminateȱtheȱgapsȱandȱobstaclesȱ responsibleȱforȱexclusionȱandȱdiscrimination.ȱItȱisȱoneȱofȱtheȱmostȱ effectiveȱstrategiesȱtoȱcounterȱlawsȱandȱculturalȱandȱtraditionalȱ practicesȱthatȱaffectȱandȱdisempowerȱcertainȱindividualsȱand/orȱ groups. 46ȱ ȱ AnȱHRBAȱtoȱlegislativeȱreformȱentailsȱabolitionȱofȱlawsȱthatȱopenlyȱ discriminateȱagainstȱwomenȱandȱgirls.ȱItȱalsoȱpromptsȱanȱexaminationȱ ofȱlawsȱthat,ȱwhileȱtextuallyȱ‘neutral’ȱhaveȱaȱdisproportionatelyȱ negativeȱimpactȱonȱwomenȱandȱgirls.ȱAnȱHRBAȱtoȱlegislativeȱreformȱ promotesȱequalityȱnotȱjustȱinȱtermsȱofȱformalȱequalityȱ(lackȱofȱ distinctionȱbetweenȱwomenȱandȱmenȱinȱtheȱtextȱofȱlawsȱandȱpolicies)ȱ butȱalsoȱsubstantiveȱequality 47 ȱ(i.e.ȱtheȱrule’sȱresultsȱorȱeffects). 48 ȱ Promotingȱsubstantiveȱequalityȱrequiresȱexaminingȱlawsȱandȱpoliciesȱ toȱdetermineȱtheirȱimpactȱonȱwomen,ȱlookingȱforȱdisproportionatelyȱ negativeȱimpactsȱonȱwomenȱorȱaȱlackȱofȱequalityȱinȱpractice.ȱTheȱ CommitteeȱonȱEconomic,ȱSocialȱandȱCulturalȱRightsȱrefersȱtoȱthisȱasȱ “equalȱenjoymentȱofȱrights”ȱbyȱwomenȱandȱmen. 49 ȱThisȱCommitteeȱhasȱ pointedȱoutȱthatȱStatesȱmustȱconsiderȱtheȱroleȱofȱ“existingȱeconomic,ȱ socialȱandȱculturalȱinequalities,ȱparticularlyȱthoseȱexperiencedȱbyȱ women”ȱinȱperpetuatingȱinequalityȱandȱaddressȱtheseȱissuesȱinȱlaws,ȱ
46 Goonesekere, Savitri, “A gender perspective in legislative reform”, paper presented at the Expert meeting on legislative reform, UNICEF, New York (2004). 47 Schuler, Margaret and Flowers, Nancy. Women’s human rights, Facilitator’s guide, Women, Law and Development International (2003). 48 “Formal rule equality often does not produce equal results because of significant differences in the characteristics and circumstances of women and men. Substantive equality demands that rules take account of these differences to avoid gender-related outcomes that are considered unfair” (see Bartlett, T. Katharine and Harris, Angela, Gender and Law, Theory, Doctrine, Commentary (1998), p. 261-262. 49 General Comment no. 16: ‘The equal right of men and women to the enjoyment of all economic, social and cultural rights’ (art. 3 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights), paras. 3-5, U.N. Doc. E/C.12/2005/4, 11 Aug. 2005.
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policies,ȱandȱpractice. 50 ȱTheȱCommitteeȱonȱtheȱEliminationȱofȱ DiscriminationȱagainstȱWomenȱalsoȱaddressesȱthisȱindirectȱ discrimination, 51 ȱcallingȱforȱStatesȱPartiesȱtoȱtakeȱmeasuresȱtoȱcreateȱanȱ ‘enablingȱenvironment’ȱforȱwomenȱtoȱachieveȱ‘equalityȱofȱresults’.ȱThisȱ includesȱproactivelyȱaddressingȱhistoricȱdiscriminationȱandȱgenderȬ basedȱstereotypes.ȱȱ ȱ 4.ȱParticipationȱandȱInclusion 52ȱ ȱ InȱaȱhumanȱrightsȬbasedȱapproach,ȱindividualsȱareȱcentralȱtoȱtheirȱownȱ growthȱandȱadvancement.ȱLegalȱilliteracy,ȱdefinedȱasȱlackȱofȱ knowledgeȱofȱlawsȱorȱofȱtheȱlegislativeȱprocess,ȱhasȱaȱsubstantialȱ impactȱonȱaccessȱtoȱrights.ȱThus,ȱeducationȱandȱawarenessȬraisingȱareȱ essentialȱinȱorderȱtoȱensureȱthatȱparticipationȱisȱpossible.ȱCreatingȱtheȱ conditionsȱforȱchildrenȱtoȱfullyȱparticipateȱinȱtheȱdecisionsȱthatȱaffectȱ theirȱlivesȱcanȱleadȱtoȱaȱbetterȱunderstandingȱofȱtheirȱrightsȱandȱtheirȱ concernsȱbyȱallȱmembersȱofȱsociety. 53ȱ ȱ TheȱprocessȱprescribedȱbyȱtheȱCRCȱasȱaȱwholeȱandȱparticularlyȱinȱ Articleȱ4ȱforȱrealisingȱchildren’sȱrightsȱconstitutesȱaȱdepartureȱfromȱ traditionalȱpracticesȱofȱlawmaking.ȱAȱhumanȱrightsȱapproachȱtoȱ legislativeȱreformȱsupposesȱthatȱreformsȱareȱconductedȱinȱaȱ participatoryȱmannerȱ(includingȱvulnerableȱandȱmarginalizedȱ stakeholders)ȱthatȱpaysȱparticularȱattentionȱtoȱtheȱviewsȱofȱchildrenȱ andȱwomenȱinȱallȱstagesȱofȱdevelopingȱlegalȱframeworks.ȱSystematicȱ involvementȱofȱallȱsectorsȱofȱsocietyȱandȱgovernmentȱisȱanȱimportantȱ stepȱtoȱensuringȱthatȱlegislationȱinȱcomplianceȱwithȱtheȱCRCȱandȱ CEDAWȱisȱbothȱadoptedȱandȱimplemented.ȱDirectȱparticipationȱbyȱallȱ
50 Ibid. General Comment no. 16, para. 8. 51 “Indirect discrimination against women may occur when laws, policies and programmes are based on seemingly gender-neutral criteria which in their actual effect have a detrimental impact on women. Gender-neutral laws, policies and programmes unintentionally may perpetuate the consequences of past discrimination. They may be inadvertently modeled on male lifestyles and thus fail to take into account aspects of women’s life experiences which may differ from those of men. These differences may exist because of stereotypical expectations, attitudes and behaviour directed towards women, which are based on the biological differences between women and men. They may also exist because of the generally existing subordination of women by men.” See General Recommendation no. 25, on article 4, paragraph 1, of the CEDAW, on temporary special measures, n.1, p. 9 (2004). 52 For more information on participation and inclusion see UNICEF Programming Guidance Paper Series, Supporting the realisation of children’s rights through a rights-based approach to legislative reform, UNICEF, DPP (2007). 53 Ibid. p. 27.
6 Handbook on Legislative Reform thoseȱconcernedȱshiftsȱlegislativeȱreformȱfromȱaȱtraditionalȱtechnocraticȱ exerciseȱ(atȱbestȱallowingȱinputȱfromȱdesignatedȱ‘experts’)ȱtoȱaȱprocessȱ thatȱenablesȱindividualsȱandȱencouragesȱtheȱrealisationȱofȱtheirȱ rights. 54ȱ ȱ
54 Ibid. p. 27.
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Boxȱ2:ȱParticipationȱinȱlegislativeȱreformȱprocessesȱ KgotlaȱgatheringsȱȬȱInȱBotswana,ȱaȱcountryȱwithȱaȱpluralȱsystemȱ(ofȱbothȱcommonȱ lawȱandȱcustomaryȱlaw)ȱkgotlaȱgatheringsȱareȱtheȱcustomaryȱmeetingsȱofȱaȱtribeȱorȱ aȱportionȱofȱitȱtoȱdiscussȱmattersȱofȱtribalȱorȱcommunalȱconcernȱinȱaccordanceȱwithȱ customaryȱlaw.ȱTheyȱplayedȱanȱimportantȱroleȱinȱtheȱlawȱreviewȱprocess,ȱincludingȱ throughȱdiscussionsȱwithȱtheȱchildren’sȱreferenceȱgroup.ȱȱ ȱ Source: UNICEF Legislative Reform Initiative, Phase II – Legislative reform initiatives, institutional development, and policy changes in favour of children: A Ghana national study, Professor Kofi Quashigah, UNICEF Ghana (2004). ȱ Nationalȱmovementȱforȱchildren’sȱrightsȱȬȱInȱGuatemala,ȱtheȱadoptionȱofȱtheȱChildȱ andȱ Adolescentȱ Protectionȱ Actȱ tookȱ severalȱ yearsȱ andȱ wasȱ facedȱ withȱ majorȱ oppositionȱinȱtheȱParliamentȱunderȱtheȱpressureȱofȱvariousȱinfluentialȱgroups.ȱDueȱ toȱ thisȱ resistance,ȱ UNICEFȱ supportedȱ theȱ creationȱ ofȱ aȱ movementȱ forȱ children’sȱ rights,ȱ unitingȱ actorsȱ supportiveȱ ofȱ theȱ law.ȱ Theȱdifficultiesȱfacedȱ byȱ theȱ networkȱ increasedȱ solidarityȱ amongȱ itsȱ membersȱ andȱ UNICEF,ȱ andȱ establishedȱ aȱ habitȱ ofȱ “workingȱ together.”ȱ Asȱ aȱ result,ȱ whenȱ theȱ lawȱ wasȱ adopted,ȱ theȱ movementȱ forȱ children’sȱ rightsȱ persistedȱ andȱ focusedȱ itsȱ attentionȱ onȱ theȱ implementationȱ ofȱ theȱ lawȱbyȱholdingȱtheȱgovernmentȱaccountableȱandȱorganizingȱvariousȱactivitiesȱsuchȱ asȱtrainingsȱandȱconferences.ȱȱ ȱ Source: Sedletzki, Vanessa. UNICEF’s experience in the area of legislative reform: a review of selected countries (Legislative reform initiative paper series). UNICEF, DPP (2007). ȱ Referenceȱ GroupȱȬȱInȱ Botswana,ȱ theȱ lawȱ reviewȱ wasȱ undertakenȱ inȱ aȱ veryȱ participatoryȱmanner.ȱAȱfirstȱreviewȱofȱtheȱ1981ȱChildren’sȱActȱtookȱplaceȱinȱ2000Ȭ 2001.ȱ However,ȱ theȱ recommendationsȱ thatȱ resultedȱ fromȱ theȱ reviewȱ didȱ notȱ representȱpeople’sȱaspirationsȱandȱlackedȱaȱfocusȱonȱchildren’sȱrights.ȱTherefore,ȱinȱ 2003,ȱ UNICEFȱ supportedȱ anotherȱ lawȱ review,ȱ followingȱ anȱ agreementȱ withȱ theȱ governmentȱtoȱundertakeȱaȱholisticȱandȱcomprehensiveȱreviewȱofȱtheȱChildren’sȱActȱ basedȱ onȱ humanȱ rightsȱ conceptsȱ andȱ principles,ȱ andȱ followingȱ aȱ humanȱ rightsȬ basedȱ process.ȱ Twoȱ referenceȱ groupsȱ wereȱ setȱ up:ȱ aȱ Technicalȱ MultiȬsectoralȱ Referenceȱ Groupȱ andȱ aȱ Children’sȱ Referenceȱ Group.ȱ Theȱ compositionȱ ofȱ bothȱ groupsȱreflectedȱdiversityȱofȱgender,ȱexperienceȱandȱsectors.ȱGoalsȱandȱprinciplesȱofȱ theȱ groupsȱ wereȱ spelledȱ outȱ fromȱ theȱ beginningȱ andȱ wereȱ humanȱ rightsȱ based.ȱ Activitiesȱincludedȱmeetingsȱandȱretreats,ȱdiscussionsȱandȱfocusȱgroupȱdiscussionsȱ forȱchildren.ȱTheseȱactivitiesȱinvolvedȱinteractionsȱwithȱaȱwideȱrangeȱofȱactorsȱsuchȱ asȱ ministries,ȱ lawyers,ȱ judges,ȱ socialȱ workersȱ andȱ parliamentarians.ȱ RecommendationsȱwereȱfinallyȱpresentedȱtoȱtheȱPrincipalȱSecretaryȱinȱtheȱMinistryȱ ofȱGovernment.ȱȱ ȱ Source: Kamchedzera, Garton, UNICEF Legislative Reform Initiative, Phase II - The CRC, legislative reform, and customary law: A Botswana case study, UNICEF Botswana (2004). ȱ
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5.ȱAccountabilityȱandȱRuleȱofȱLawȱ ȱ Lawsȱareȱimportantȱforȱensuringȱtheȱimplementationȱofȱrights,ȱ definingȱresponsibilitiesȱandȱobligations,ȱandȱholdingȱdutyȱbearersȱ accountable.ȱHowever,ȱlawsȱmerelyȱcreateȱtheȱlegalȱframeworkȱforȱtheȱ exerciseȱandȱenjoymentȱofȱrights.ȱAȱhumanȱrightsȬbasedȱapproachȱtoȱ legislativeȱreformȱsupposesȱthatȱtheȱprocessȱofȱ“puttingȱtheȱlawȱinȱ place”ȱalsoȱenhancesȱaȱState’sȱcapacityȱtoȱfulfilȱandȱhonourȱ commitmentsȱundertakenȱbyȱratificationȱofȱhumanȱrightsȱtreatiesȱ–ȱinȱ particularȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAW.ȱAȱrightsȬbasedȱapproachȱtoȱ legislativeȱreformȱemphasizesȱempowermentȱandȱaccountabilityȱofȱ thoseȱresponsibleȱforȱcomplianceȱwithȱinternationalȱobligations.ȱȱ ȱ Theȱ‘ruleȱofȱlaw’ȱmeansȱthatȱlaws,ȱnotȱindividualsȱ(includingȱ governmentȱleaders),ȱhaveȱtheȱultimateȱpowerȱandȱthatȱtheseȱlawsȱ mustȱbeȱeasyȱtoȱunderstand. 55 ȱAȱhumanȱrightsȬbasedȱapproachȱtoȱ legislativeȱreformȱprovidesȱanȱadditionalȱsetȱofȱcodesȱthatȱbindȱ governments,ȱensuringȱtheȱaccountabilityȱofȱlegalȱsystems,ȱthrough,ȱforȱ instance,ȱanȱautonomousȱlegalȱorderȱthatȱestablishesȱregulationȱofȱ governmentȱpower.ȱSuchȱanȱapproachȱalsoȱworksȱunderȱtheȱ assumptionsȱofȱequalityȱbeforeȱlawȱandȱaȱlegalȱsystemȱwithȱfixed,ȱfair,ȱ publishedȱrulesȱofȱproceduresȱthatȱareȱconsistentlyȱandȱtransparentlyȱ applied.ȱȱ ȱ Boxȱ3:ȱBenefitsȱofȱaȱHRBAȱtoȱlegislativeȱreform x Promotesȱholisticȱandȱcomprehensiveȱreformȱ x Stimulatesȱdiscussionȱofȱbarriersȱtoȱreformȱ x Addressesȱgenderȱinequalityȱandȱdiscriminationȱagainstȱwomenȱandȱgirlsȱ x Ensuresȱthatȱlawsȱcontributeȱtoȱstrengtheningȱwomen’sȱandȱgirls’ȱcapacityȱ toȱexerciseȱtheirȱrightsȱ x Promotesȱbroadȱparticipationȱinȱpoliticalȱlifeȱ x Promotesȱbroadȱdisseminationȱofȱinternationalȱhumanȱrightsȱinstrumentsȱ andȱincreasedȱlegalȱliteracyȱ x Promotesȱeffectiveȱimplementation,ȱinȱconformityȱwithȱhumanȱrightsȱ principlesȱandȱnormsȱ x Ensuresȱspecialȱprotectionȱforȱvulnerableȱandȱmarginalizedȱchildrenȱ x Combatsȱsocialȱpracticesȱnegativelyȱaffectingȱchildrenȱandȱwomenȱandȱ
55 In the UN System, the rule of law is defined as “a principle of governance in which all persons, institutions and entities, public and private, including the State itself, are accountable to laws that are publicly promulgated, equally enforced and independently adjudicated, and which are consistent with international human rights norms and standards.” S/2004/616, para. 6.
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promotesȱpositiveȱchangeȱ x Promotesȱanȱeffective,ȱreliableȱandȱpredictableȱjudicialȱsystemȱthatȱisȱ accessibleȱtoȱallȱ x Includesȱadequateȱandȱinstitutionalizedȱmonitoringȱ x Promotesȱadoptionȱofȱredressȱmechanismsȱ x Ensuresȱthatȱlawȱcontributesȱtoȱchildren’sȱandȱwomen’sȱwellȬbeingȱtoȱtheȱ fullȱextentȱpossibleȱ ȱ Partȱ2ȱ CRITICALȱCOMPONENTSȱOFȱAȱ HUMANȱRIGHTSȬBASEDȱAPPROACHȱTOȱ LEGISLATIVEȱREFORMȱ ȱ 2.1ȱ CharacteristicsȱofȱaȱHumanȱRightsȱApproachȱtoȱ LegislativeȱReformȱ ȱ ‘Puttingȱtheȱlawȱinȱplace’ȱorȱsettingȱstandardsȱtoȱharmoniseȱwithȱ internationalȱstandardsȱisȱnotȱanȱexerciseȱlimitedȱtoȱtheȱlegislativeȱ branch,ȱbutȱisȱaȱprocessȱthatȱlinksȱtoȱeffectiveȱimplementationȱthroughȱ involvementȱofȱdifferentȱstakeholders,ȱsocialȱpolicyȱsupport,ȱ institutionalȱsupportȱandȱadequateȱresourceȱallocation. 56ȱ ȱ Boxȱ4:ȱCombatingȱFemaleȱGenitalȱMutilationȱ Inȱ recentȱ years,ȱ lawsȱ prohibitingȱ Femaleȱ Genitalȱ Mutilationȱ (FGM)ȱ haveȱ beenȱ passedȱ inȱ anȱ increasingȱ numberȱ ofȱ Africanȱ countries.ȱ Yetȱ theȱ motivationȱ behindȱ passingȱ theseȱ lawsȱ andȱ theirȱ possibleȱ consequencesȱ onȱ theȱ targetedȱ communities,ȱ particularlyȱwomen,ȱhaveȱbeenȱgivenȱlittleȱattention.ȱWhileȱfacilitatingȱtheȱpassageȱ ofȱsuchȱlegislationȱservedȱtheȱpurposeȱofȱdemonstratingȱpoliticalȱwillȱonȱtheȱpartȱofȱ governments,ȱaȱhumanȱrightsȱapproachȱtoȱlegislativeȱreformȱdictatedȱthatȱprotectionȱ ofȱ theȱ vulnerableȱ requiresȱ theirȱ participation,ȱ andȱ shouldȱ takeȱ accountȱ ofȱ theȱ indivisiblyȱ ofȱ humanȱ rights.ȱ NonȬlegalȱ measuresȱ haveȱ notȱ beenȱ consideredȱ anȱ essentialȱcompanionȱtoȱantiȬFGMȱlaws.ȱAsȱaȱresult,ȱgirlsȱandȱwomenȱfaceȱtheȱdoubleȱ jeopardyȱ ofȱ sufferingȱ FGMȱ becauseȱ itȱ isȱ anȱ entrenchedȱ socialȱ practiceȱ andȱ thenȱ beingȱpenalizedȱbyȱtheȱmodernȱlegalȱsystem.ȱSuchȱasȱcaseȱillustratesȱtheȱimportanceȱ ofȱ involvingȱ theȱ supposedȱ beneficiariesȱ ofȱ aȱ newȱ lawȱ inȱ itsȱ developmentȱ andȱ supportingȱ theȱ law’sȱ implementationȱ withȱ nonȬlegalȱ measuresȱ thatȱ ensureȱ itȱ isȱ enforcedȱeffectively.ȱ ȱ Source: Legislation as a tool for behavioural and social change, Dr. Nahid Toubia (RAINBO), paper for the Afro-Arab expert consultation on legal tools for the prevention of FGM, June 2003.ȱ
56 Goonesekere, Savitri, Protecting the world’s children: Impact of the Convention on the Rights of the Child in diverse legal systems, Introduction and Overview, UNICEF, Cambridge University Press (2007).
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ȱ AȱrightsȬbasedȱapproachȱtoȱlegislativeȱreformȱisȱrecognizableȱbyȱitsȱ criticalȱcharacteristics.ȱFirst,ȱaȱhumanȱrightsȱapproachȱtoȱlegislativeȱ reformȱisȱintrinsicȱtoȱtheȱrealisationȱofȱhumanȱrights,ȱbecauseȱtheȱ approachȱgivesȱlifeȱtoȱinternationalȱhumanȱrightsȱinstrumentsȱthroughȱ theȱharmonisationȱofȱnationalȱlegislationȱwithȱinternationalȱstandardsȱ andȱnorms.ȱSecond,ȱanȱHRBAȱtoȱlegislativeȱreformȱincorporatesȱaȱ genderȱperspectiveȱatȱallȱstagesȱofȱtheȱlegislativeȱreformȱprocess.ȱ Thirdly,ȱinstitutionalȱreformȱandȱlawȱenforcementȱthroughȱeffectiveȱ budgetȱallocations,ȱcivicȱeducation,ȱtrainingsȱandȱlegalȱilliteracyȱareȱ indispensableȱelementsȱofȱaȱhumanȱrightsȬbasedȱapproachȱtoȱ legislativeȱreform.ȱThus,ȱthisȱapproachȱisȱconcernedȱwithȱtheȱeffectiveȱ implementationȱandȱenforcementȱofȱtheȱlaws.ȱFourth,ȱwiderȱ participationȱofȱandȱpartnershipsȱamongȱconcernedȱactorsȱareȱcriticalȱ forȱensuringȱinternalizationȱandȱadherenceȱtoȱtheȱnormsȱandȱ standards.ȱOneȱvalueȱofȱensuringȱparticipationȱandȱtheȱcreationȱofȱ partnershipsȱisȱthatȱitȱprovidesȱanȱarticulatedȱmethodologyȱtoȱestablishȱ aȱlegalȱframeworkȱthatȱeffectivelyȱprotectsȱrightsȱwhileȱincreasingȱ empowermentȱandȱholdingȱtheȱdifferentȱactorsȱresponsible.ȱ ȱ AnȱaddedȬvalueȱofȱanȱHRBAȱtoȱlegislativeȱreformȱisȱthatȱitȱstimulatesȱ andȱservesȱasȱtheȱbasisȱforȱtheȱadoptionȱofȱsustainableȱsocialȱpoliciesȱinȱ favourȱofȱchildren.ȱHenceȱwhatȱwasȱperceivedȱpriorȱtoȱtheȱCRCȱasȱ supportiveȱsocialȱpoliciesȱandȱmeasuresȱonȱmattersȱsuchȱasȱhealthȱandȱ education,ȱhaveȱnowȱbecomeȱindivisibleȱdimensionsȱofȱchildren’sȱ rightsȱthatȱmustȱbeȱincorporatedȱintoȱlegislation.ȱȱ ȱ Boxȱ5:ȱHumanȱrightsȱapproachȱtoȱlegislativeȱreformȱonȱFGMȱ Inȱ Burkinaȱ Faso,ȱ theȱ passingȱ ofȱ theȱ lawȱ againstȱ FGMȱ wasȱ theȱ resultȱ ofȱ aȱ comprehensiveȱprocessȱwhichȱincluded:ȱ x AggressiveȱconsciousnessȬraisingȱcampaignsȱinȱlocalȱpopulationsȱaboutȱtheȱ harmfulȱeffectȱofȱthisȱpracticeȱ x Researchȱandȱsurveys,ȱwhichȱallowedȱforȱaȱbetterȱunderstandingȱofȱtheȱrootȱ causesȱandȱscopeȱofȱtheȱproblemȱ x InvolvementȱandȱengagementȱofȱopinionȬleadersȱandȱdecisionȬȱandȱpolicyȬ makers,ȱasȱwellȱasȱtheȱmediaȱinȱpublicȱdiscussionsȱandȱdebatesȱȱ x Establishmentȱofȱanȱinstitutionȱtoȱmonitorȱimplementationȱofȱtheȱlaw,ȱwithȱ aȱmandateȱtoȱinterveneȱinȱcaseȱofȱviolationsȱ x Formationȱofȱpartnershipsȱandȱcoalitionsȱtoȱ“StopȱFGM”ȱ x Strongȱdeterminationȱtoȱfosterȱparticipationȱinȱdraftingȱtheȱdomesticȱ legislationȱ x Trainingȱofȱjudgesȱandȱotherȱstakeholdersȱ
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x Lobbyingȱwithȱcommunityȱleadersȱ Theseȱ areȱ theȱ conditionsȱ thatȱ notȱ onlyȱ encouragedȱ theȱ adoptionȱ ofȱ theȱ legislationȱ againstȱFGM,ȱbutȱalsoȱstimulatedȱcomplianceȱwithȱtheȱlaw.ȱ ȱ Source:ȱKambou,ȱGisele,ȱTheȱlawȱasȱaȱtoolȱforȱbehavioralȱchange:ȱtheȱcaseȱofȱBurkinaȱFasoȱ(Voixȱdesȱ Femmes),ȱpaperȱforȱtheȱAfroȬArabȱexpertȱconsultationȱonȱlegalȱtoolsȱforȱtheȱpreventionȱofȱ FGMȱ(Juneȱ2003).ȱ ȱ Theȱfollowingȱsectionsȱprovideȱanȱoverviewȱofȱtheȱmajorȱ considerationsȱunderȱtheȱcharacteristicsȱmentionedȱabove. 57 ȱȱ ȱ 2.1.1ȱ HarmonisingȱNationalȱLegislationȱwithȱInternationalȱHumanȱ RightsȱNorms 58ȱ ȱ OneȱofȱtheȱultimateȱgoalsȱofȱanȱHRBAȱtoȱlegislativeȱreformȱinȱfavourȱofȱ childrenȱisȱtheȱharmonisationȱofȱnationalȱlegislationȱandȱlocalȱ traditionsȱandȱcustomsȱwithȱinternationalȱhumanȱrightsȱstandardsȱandȱ norms,ȱparticularlyȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAW.ȱTheȱstartingȱpointȱforȱsuchȱ harmonisationȱisȱaȱcloseȱexaminationȱofȱtheȱtext/substanceȱofȱnationalȱ (orȱsubȬnational)ȱlegislationȱagainstȱtheȱbackdropȱofȱCRCȱandȱ CEDAW.ȱThisȱshouldȱbeȱfollowedȱbyȱmeaningfulȱanalysisȱofȱtheȱgapsȱ andȱobstaclesȱinȱlegislationȱthatȱleadȱtoȱinequalityȱandȱnonȬrealisationȱ ofȱrights.ȱ ȱ HarmonisingȱnationalȱlegislationȱwithȱtheȱCRC 59 ȱimplies,ȱamongȱotherȱ things:ȱ ȱ x MakingȱaȱclearȱpronouncementȱonȱtheȱstatusȱofȱtheȱCRCȱinȱ domesticȱlaw;ȱ x InternalizingȱtheȱCRC.ȱTheȱintegrationȱofȱtheȱCRCȱprinciplesȱ andȱnormsȱintoȱnationalȱConstitutionsȱwillȱpreventȱsuccessiveȱ governmentsȱfromȱbacktrackingȱonȱchildren’sȱrightsȱissues.ȱ NationalȱConstitutionsȱreflectingȱCRCȱprinciplesȱandȱnormsȱ canȱbeȱusedȱtoȱchallengeȱnegativeȱpolicyȱinterventionsȱorȱlegalȱ
57 Please note that a separate chapter is dedicated to each one of the other critical characteristics of an HRBA to legislative reform. 58 The issue of harmonisation of national legislation is discussed in great detail in Chapter II of the Handbook. For a more comprehensive introduction to law review and law reforms see: Lundy, Christine. Chapter II of the Handbook, Compliance of National Legislation Related to Children with International Human Rights Standards and Norms, UNICEF, DPP (2007). 59 See: Ibid. Chapter II of the Handbook.
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changesȱandȱpromoteȱproactiveȱmeasures,ȱbothȱlegalȱandȱnonȬ legal;ȱȱ x Identifyingȱlawsȱtoȱbeȱamendedȱorȱabolishedȱinȱorderȱtoȱ harmoniseȱnationalȱlegislationȱwithȱCRCȱstandards;ȱ x Reviewingȱreservationsȱmadeȱwithȱregardȱtoȱhumanȱrightsȱ treatiesȱwithȱtheȱaimȱofȱremovingȱtheȱlegalȱconstraintsȱandȱ barriersȱandȱwithdrawingȱtheȱreservationsȱentered;ȱȱ x Removingȱconstraintsȱandȱbarriersȱtoȱequality;ȱ x Minimisingȱdiscriminationȱandȱinequalityȱinȱorderȱtoȱcreateȱaȱ cultureȱofȱrespectȱforȱhumanȱrightsȱandȱnormsȱofȱgoodȱ governanceȱunderȱtheȱruleȱofȱlaw.ȱInȱthisȱsense,ȱlawȱreformȱcanȱ helpȱtoȱweakenȱsocialȱpractices,ȱtaboosȱandȱotherȱculturalȱ trendsȱthatȱviolateȱhumanȱrights;ȱ x ExaminingȱtheȱuseȱofȱtheȱCRCȱandȱnewȱlawsȱinȱcourtsȱofȱlaw,ȱ andȱtheȱmannerȱinȱwhichȱcourtsȱareȱcontributingȱtoȱlawȱreformȱ onȱchildren’sȱrightsȱthroughȱinterpretation;ȱ x Examiningȱtheȱwayȱlawsȱareȱimplementedȱandȱdisseminated;ȱ x Examiningȱtheȱwayȱinstitutionsȱforȱlawȱimplementationȱandȱ enforcementȱareȱfunctioning.ȱ ȱ Theȱprocessȱofȱharmonisationȱalsoȱrequiresȱanȱexaminationȱofȱtheȱ socialȱandȱculturalȱcontextsȱinȱwhichȱlawsȱareȱimplemented.ȱTheseȱ contextsȱareȱimportantȱtoȱeffectiveȱharmonisationȱofȱhumanȱrightsȱ standardsȱasȱthereȱareȱoftenȱgapsȱbetweenȱlawȱandȱpractice.ȱInȱsomeȱ cases,ȱsocialȱnormsȱcanȱhaveȱanȱimportantȱinfluenceȱonȱtheȱ developmentȱofȱlegislation,ȱwhileȱinȱothersȱlawsȱmayȱnotȱbeȱ implementedȱbecauseȱtheyȱdoȱnotȱcorrespondȱtoȱsocialȱvaluesȱandȱ practices.ȱIdentifyingȱsocialȱandȱculturalȱvaluesȱthatȱsupportȱlegislativeȱ initiativesȱtoȱrealiseȱtheȱrightsȱofȱwomenȱandȱchildrenȱ(girlsȱandȱboys),ȱ asȱwellȱasȱhighlightingȱsocialȱandȱculturalȱpracticesȱthatȱcompromiseȱ humanȱrightsȬbasedȱlegislativeȱreform,ȱareȱcriticalȱtoȱtheȱadoptionȱandȱ implementationȱofȱeffectiveȱinitiatives.ȱWorkȱinȱthisȱarea,ȱtherefore,ȱ oftenȱrequiresȱanȱemphasisȱonȱeducationȱandȱshapingȱofȱculturalȱ values.ȱ ȱ 2.1.2ȱMainstreamingȱtheȱPrincipleȱofȱGenderȱEqualityȱinȱLegislativeȱ Reformȱ ȱ “Inȱmostȱsocieties,ȱtheȱformulationȱofȱlawsȱhasȱbeenȱaffectedȱbyȱ women’sȱrelationshipȱtoȱchildren.ȱAndȱhistorically,ȱtheȱimplementationȱ
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ofȱlawȱhasȱbeenȱequallyȱaffectedȱbyȱtheȱpositionȱofȱwomenȱinȱsocietyȱ andȱtheirȱrelationshipȱtoȱchildren.” 60 ȱȱ ȱ Addressingȱgenderȱissuesȱinȱtheȱlegalȱframeworkȱisȱcriticalȱforȱtheȱ simultaneousȱrealisationȱofȱbothȱwomen’sȱandȱchildren’sȱrights,ȱasȱ genderȱplaysȱaȱcrucialȱroleȱinȱtheȱorderingȱofȱourȱsocial,ȱeconomic,ȱandȱ politicalȱlives.ȱAdoptingȱaȱgenderȱperspectiveȱtoȱlegislativeȱreformȱ opensȱupȱdiscussionȱonȱculturalȱandȱreligiousȱtraditionsȱandȱleadsȱtoȱaȱ greaterȱunderstandingȱofȱtheȱcriticalȱindivisibilityȱofȱcivilȱandȱpolitical,ȱ social,ȱeconomic,ȱandȱculturalȱrights.ȱFocusingȱonȱgenderȱequalityȱisȱ necessaryȱinȱreviewingȱandȱreformingȱlawsȱandȱpoliciesȱinȱorderȱtoȱ overcomeȱsocialȱstereotypesȱandȱdiscriminationȱagainstȱwomenȱandȱ girlsȱinȱtheȱsocioȬeconomicȱandȱpoliticalȱarenas.ȱItȱrequiresȱpayingȱ specialȱattentionȱtoȱwomenȱandȱgirlsȱbothȱasȱsubjectsȱofȱrightsȱandȱ marginalizedȱgroups.ȱTheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAWȱhaveȱintroducedȱaȱgenderȱ perspectiveȱinȱlegislativeȱreform,ȱwhichȱenablesȱusȱtoȱhaveȱaȱcloserȱ lookȱatȱlawsȱthatȱdisempowerȱandȱdisadvantageȱwomenȱandȱgirls,ȱ preventingȱthemȱfromȱenjoyingȱtheirȱrights.ȱAddressingȱgenderȱissuesȱ inȱtheȱlegalȱframeworkȱisȱcriticalȱforȱtheȱsimultaneousȱrealisationȱofȱ bothȱwomen’sȱandȱchildren’sȱrights.ȱ ȱ Boxȱ6:ȱSubstantiveȱinequalityȱinȱdivorceȱpracticeȱ WomenȱinȱChinaȱhaveȱtheȱrightȱtoȱpetitionȱforȱdivorce,ȱalthoughȱcourtsȱconsiderȱtheȱ woman’sȱ accessȱ toȱ housingȱ inȱ grantingȱ theȱ petition.ȱ Becauseȱ stateȱ housingȱ policyȱ givesȱ theȱ maritalȱ homeȱ toȱ theȱ husbandȱ afterȱ divorce,ȱ aȱ womanȱ mustȱ beȱ ableȱ toȱ demonstrateȱaccessȱtoȱotherȱhousingȱinȱorderȱtoȱhaveȱtheȱdivorceȱpetitionȱgranted.ȱ Therefore,ȱaccessȱtoȱdivorceȱisȱdiscriminatoryȱinȱpractice,ȱevenȱthoughȱwomenȱhaveȱ theȱrightȱlegally.ȱ ȱ Inȱ anotherȱ exampleȱ ofȱ ostensiblyȱ equalȱ statusȱ underȱ theȱ law,ȱ Macedonia’sȱ InheritanceȱLawȱandȱFamilyȱLawȱgrantsȱequalȱrightsȱtoȱmenȱandȱwomenȱinȱfamilyȱ relations.ȱȱHowever,ȱ inȱ practice,ȱ women’sȱ limitedȱ familiarityȱ withȱ theȱ legalȱ institutionsȱthatȱprovideȱassistanceȱandȱadviceȱresultsȱinȱdiscriminatoryȱoutcomes,ȱ forȱexample,ȱfollowingȱdivorce.ȱ ȱ Sources:ȱUNIFEM,ȱGenderȱIssuesȱFactȱSheetȱNo.ȱ3,ȱwww.unifemȬ eseasia.org/resources/factsheets/UNIFEMSheet3.PDF,ȱpp.ȱ4Ȭ5;ȱȱ PressȱRelease,ȱUnitedȱNations,ȱ“Women’sȱAntiȬDiscriminationȱCommitteeȱTakesȱupȱReportȱ ofȱFormerȱYugoslavȱRepublicȱofȱMacedonia:ȱExpertsȱCommendȱRapidȱProgress,ȱUrgeȱStepsȱ OnȱTrafficking,ȱMinorityȱRights,ȱWomen’sȱPoliticalȱParticipation”ȱ(25ȱJanuaryȱ2006).ȱ ȱ
60 Ibid. Gooneskere, Savitri. A gender perspective in legislative reform, UNICEF, New York, 2004.
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2.1.3ȱImplementationȱandȱEnforcementȱofȱLegislativeȱMeasures 61ȱ ȱ Whileȱexplicitȱtextualȱconsistencyȱbetweenȱnationalȱlawsȱandȱ provisionsȱofȱinternationalȱhumanȱrightsȱinstrumentsȱisȱaȱfoundationȱ forȱeffectiveȱrealisationȱofȱrights,ȱitȱisȱnotȱsufficient.ȱLawsȱdoȱnotȱ functionȱinȱaȱvacuum,ȱandȱtheȱgreaterȱchallengeȱisȱoftenȱtheirȱ implementationȱandȱenforcement.ȱȱ ȱ Laws,ȱifȱproperlyȱimplemented,ȱshouldȱbenefitȱallȱmembersȱofȱsocietyȱ andȱpayȱspecialȱattentionȱtoȱthoseȱmostȱmarginalized.ȱHence,ȱlawsȱmayȱ requireȱspecificȱimplementationȱmeasuresȱorȱtoolsȱ(suchȱasȱregulations,ȱ codesȱofȱconductȱorȱprofessionalȱguidelines)ȱorȱadditionalȱpolicies,ȱ budgets,ȱorȱinstitutionsȱinȱorderȱtoȱbeȱeffective.ȱȱForȱinstance,ȱissuesȱ suchȱasȱtraffickingȱandȱexploitationȱinȱlabourȱcannotȱbeȱaddressedȱ effectivelyȱbyȱsolelyȱputtingȱinȱplaceȱlegalȱstandardsȱthatȱcriminalizeȱ children’sȱexploitation.ȱTheȱprocessȱofȱ‘puttingȱtheȱlawȱinȱplace’ȱ(i.e.ȱ enacting/promulgatingȱtheȱlaw)ȱshouldȱbeȱaccompaniedȱbyȱ implementationȱmeasures,ȱincludingȱtheȱdevelopmentȱofȱinstitutionsȱ thatȱsupportȱlawȱenforcementȱandȱpreventȱexploitationȱandȱtheȱ adoptionȱofȱpoliciesȱthatȱensureȱtheȱsustainabilityȱofȱtheseȱmechanisms.ȱ Equallyȱimportantȱisȱtheȱdisseminationȱofȱtheȱlawsȱtoȱstakeholdersȱandȱ theȱgeneralȱpublic,ȱtrainingȱofȱjudges,ȱawarenessȬraisingȱactivities,ȱandȱ legalȱeducation.ȱAsȱS.ȱGoonesekereȱputsȱitȱ“itȱisȱthisȱprocessȱofȱ legislativeȱreformȱthatȱmayȱbeginȱtoȱaddressȱtheȱknownȱrelationȱinȱ manyȱcountriesȱwhereȱlegislativeȱreformȱbecomesȱsterileȱrhetoricȱthatȱ failsȱtoȱtouchȱtheȱlivesȱofȱwomenȱandȱchildren.” 62 ȱȱ ȱ 1.ȱInstitutionalȱReformȱandȱDevelopmentȱ ȱ Boxȱ7:ȱInstitutionalȱreformsȱ Childȱ welfareȱ ministryȱȬȱAfterȱ theȱ ratificationȱ ofȱ theȱ CRCȱ aȱ largeȱ numberȱ ofȱ governmentsȱ prioritizedȱ children’sȱ rightsȱ enoughȱ toȱ establishȱ governmentȱ departmentsȱthatȱserveȱasȱfocalȱpointsȱforȱchildrenȱasȱwellȱasȱspecialȱtaskȱforcesȱtoȱ workȱonȱurgentȱissues.ȱTheseȱrangeȱfromȱchildȱprotectionȱunitsȱwithinȱministriesȱofȱ welfare,ȱasȱinȱEritrea;ȱtoȱministriesȱdealingȱexclusivelyȱwithȱchildren’sȱissues.ȱInȱtheȱ caseȱofȱDenmark,ȱaȱministerialȱcommitteeȱonȱchildrenȱwasȱcreatedȱwithȱaȱparallelȱ committeeȱofȱcivilȱservantsȱthatȱhandlesȱtheȱgovernment’sȱyouthȱpolicies.ȱ Source:ȱNundy,ȱK.,ȱGlobalȱStatusȱofȱlegislativeȱreformȱrelatedȱtoȱtheȱCRC,ȱUNICEF,ȱ2004,ȱp.28.ȱ
61 UNICEF, Programming guidance on legislative reform, p.36. 62 Goonesekere, Savitri. A gender perspective in legislative reform, paper presented at the Expert meeting on legislative reform, UNICEF New York (2004).
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ȱ Institutionalȱreformȱhasȱseveralȱdimensions.ȱItȱmeans,ȱamongȱothers:ȱ ȱ x Creatingȱinstitutionsȱthatȱareȱinȱlineȱwithȱhumanȱrightsȱ standardsȱandȱprinciplesȱtoȱdirect,ȱimplementȱandȱenforceȱlawsȱ orȱreformingȱinstitutions;ȱ x Buildingȱinstitutionalȱcapacity,ȱe.g.ȱtrainingȱjudgesȱandȱhelpingȱ themȱtoȱdevelopȱjurisprudenceȱonȱchildȱrights,ȱtoȱreferȱtoȱCRCȱ andȱCEDAWȱandȱotherȱhumanȱrightsȱprinciplesȱandȱprovisionsȱ inȱtheirȱdecisions;ȱ x Inȱrelationȱtoȱtheȱjudiciary,ȱstrengtheningȱcapacityȱtoȱdevelopȱaȱ judiciaryȱthatȱisȱindependentȱandȱcommittedȱtoȱtheȱruleȱofȱlaw.ȱ Lawsȱandȱrulesȱmeanȱveryȱlittleȱindeedȱwithoutȱtheȱ underpinningȱofȱanȱaccessible,ȱfair,ȱcompetent,ȱandȱeffectiveȱ judicialȱsystem;ȱ x Facilitatingȱtheȱestablishmentȱofȱmonitoringȱsystemsȱand/orȱaȱ supportiveȱinfrastructure:ȱInstitutionalȱreformȱcanȱalsoȱreferȱtoȱ nonȬlegalȱ(i.e.ȱCommitteeȱtoȱCombatȱFGM)ȱorȱsemiȬlegalȱ modelsȱ(i.e.ȱOmbudspersons,ȱHumanȱRightsȱCommissionsȱwithȱ aȱchildren’sȱfocus,ȱChildȱProtectionȱAuthorities,ȱMunicipalȱ BoardsȱforȱChildȱProtection,ȱetc.);ȱ x Establishingȱappropriateȱrecourseȱandȱmechanismsȱtoȱensureȱ redressȱinȱcaseȱofȱviolationȱofȱrights;ȱ x Establishingȱmechanismsȱforȱfreeȱlegalȱadvice/serviceȱetc.;ȱ x Facilitatingȱtheȱestablishmentȱofȱtheȱruleȱofȱlawȱbyȱensuringȱ accountabilityȱandȱtransparencyȱofȱinstitutionsȱandȱensuringȱ accessȱtoȱjusticeȱandȱadministrativeȱappealȱ(i.e.ȱforȱchildrenȱ underȱStateȱprotection).ȱ ȱ Boxȱ8:ȱMonitoringȱchildren’sȱrights 63ȱ Independentȱ Nationalȱ Institutionsȱ forȱ Children’sȱ Rightsȱ –ȱ Overȱ 40ȱ Statesȱ Partiesȱ haveȱ specialisedȱchildren’sȱrightsȱinstitutions.ȱMostȱoftenȱtheyȱtakeȱtheȱformȱofȱChildren’sȱ Ombudspersonsȱ orȱ Commissionersȱ forȱ Children’sȱ Rights.ȱ Lessȱ frequently,ȱ inȱ someȱ civilȱlawȱsystems,ȱaȱsimilarȱpostȱisȱcreatedȱcallȱtheȱDefenderȱofȱMinors.ȱAȱnumberȱofȱ theseȱ officialȱ initiativesȱ sufferȱ fromȱ limitationsȱ onȱ independenceȱ andȱ insufficientȱ resources.ȱ Someȱ areȱ empoweredȱ toȱ holdȱ independentȱ enquiries,ȱ butȱ theȱ abilityȱ toȱ initiateȱproceedingsȱagainstȱpublicȱauthoritiesȱisȱrare.ȱ Source: Nundy, Karuna. Global Status of legislative reform related to the CRC, UNICEF, DPP, 2004, p. 29.
63 For more information on monitoring mechanisms see also: Lansdown, Gerison. Independent institutions protecting children’s rights, Innocenti Digest, 8, Innocenti Research Centre (2001).
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ChildȱProtectionȱAuthorityȱȬȱAnȱinterestingȱexperimentȱhasȱtakenȱplaceȱinȱSriȱLanka.ȱ TheȱChildȱProtectionȱAuthorityȱhasȱbeenȱquiteȱeffective,ȱdrawingȱonȱtheȱadvantagesȱ ofȱ beingȱ aȱ national,ȱ interȬdepartmentalȱ authorityȱ andȱ henceȱ withȱ theȱ authorityȱ toȱ implementȱ recommendationsȱ moreȱ directly.ȱ Itsȱ activitiesȱ includeȱ theȱ adoptionȱ ofȱ measuresȱ toȱ preventȱ childȱ abuseȱ andȱ protectȱ andȱ rehabilitateȱ childȱ victims;ȱ developmentȱ ofȱ preventionȱ andȱ awarenessȱ activities;ȱ recommendationsȱ forȱ legalȱ reform;ȱmonitoringȱofȱprogressȱofȱinvestigations;ȱandȱmaintenanceȱofȱaȱdatabaseȱforȱ planningȱchildȱprotectionȱinterventions.ȱItsȱmajorȱgapȱhasȱbeen,ȱhowever,ȱtheȱweakȱ participationȱofȱNGOs.ȱȱ ȱ Source:ȱIbid.ȱGlobalȱStatusȱofȱlegislativeȱreformȱrelatedȱtoȱtheȱCRC,ȱp.ȱ25.ȱȱ ȱ 2.ȱTrainingȱandȱCapacityȬbuildingȱ ȱ AnȱHRBAȱtoȱlegislativeȱreformȱalsoȱincludesȱbuildingȱcapacities,ȱsuchȱ asȱtrainingȱjudgesȱandȱlawȱenforcementȱofficials,ȱamongȱothers,ȱwhichȱ willȱallowȱinstitutionsȱtoȱfunctionȱeffectively.ȱGovernmentȱagenciesȱ andȱministries,ȱparliamentarians,ȱjudges,ȱlawyers,ȱandȱinstitutionsȱ (suchȱasȱlawȱreformȱcommissions)ȱallȱhaveȱimportantȱrolesȱtoȱplayȱinȱ implementingȱtheȱlaws.ȱȱ ȱ Boxȱ9:ȱTrainingȱandȱcapacityȬbuildingȱ Inȱ Ghana,ȱ aȱ reviewȱ ofȱ progressȱ inȱ lawȱ enforcementȱ showsȱ aȱ clearȱ gapȱ betweenȱ practiceȱandȱenforcement.ȱȱAȱtypicalȱcaseȱinȱpointȱisȱinȱtheȱareaȱofȱtheȱpreventionȱ andȱpunishmentȱofȱharmfulȱtraditionalȱpractices.ȱExperienceȱhasȱshownȱforȱinstanceȱ thatȱTrokosi 64 ȱandȱFGM,ȱbothȱreligious/cultureȬbasedȱpractices,ȱareȱveryȱdifficultȱtoȱ eliminateȱmerelyȱthroughȱlegislation.ȱTheȱsameȱreasonȱexplainsȱtheȱobviousȱlackȱofȱ politicalȱwillȱtoȱconfrontȱtheseȱpracticesȱwithȱtheȱfullȱforceȱofȱcriminalȱlaw.ȱToȱdate,ȱ noȱ criminalȱ prosecutionȱ hasȱ beenȱ initiatedȱ againstȱ theȱ practiceȱ trokosi.ȱȱLackȱ ofȱ optionsȱ forȱ enforcementȱ andȱ limitedȱ educationȱ onȱ howȱ toȱ bringȱ aȱ claimȱ mayȱ beȱ factorsȱ thatȱ inhibitȱ theȱ effectiveȱ enforcementȱ ofȱ theȱ legislationȱ andȱ thusȱ theȱ protectionȱofȱtheȱrightsȱofȱchildren.ȱ ȱ Source:ȱUNICEFȱLegislativeȱReformȱInitiative,ȱPhaseȱIIȱ–ȱLegislativeȱreformȱinitiatives,ȱ institutionalȱdevelopment,ȱandȱpolicyȱchangesȱinȱfavorȱofȱchildren:ȱAȱGhanaȱnationalȱstudy,ȱProfessorȱ KofiȱQuashigah,ȱUNICEFȱGhanaȱ(2004).ȱ ȱ
64 The Trokosi practice is a system under which young virgin girls are sent into fetish shrines to atone for the misdeeds of relatives. In its original conception, the young girls were sent there not because any of their relatives had committed transgressions, but for the same reasons other girls entered convents. From that perspective, the Trokosi system was designed to create a class of traditional elite women, or “Fiasidi.” These “marriageable king’s initiates” were to become the mothers of the elite men and women of the society, kings, philosophers, the seers, and other men and women of virtue.
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3.ȱBudgetȱandȱResourceȱAllocationȱ ȱ TheȱneedȱforȱfundingȱforȱlegislativeȱreformȱisȱhighlightedȱbyȱtheȱCRCȱ Committee,ȱwhichȱviewsȱitȱasȱnecessaryȱtoȱrealiseȱchildren’sȱrightsȱandȱ incorporateȱtheȱinstrumentȱintoȱtheȱdomesticȱlegalȱsystem. 65 ȱLawȱ implementationȱmeasures,ȱsuchȱasȱbudgetȱandȱresourceȱallocation,ȱareȱ essentialȱtoȱlegislativeȱreform.ȱȱ ȱ Boxȱ10:ȱObstaclesȱtoȱimplementationȱofȱlawsȱ ImplementationȱofȱChildȱCareȱActȱ–ȱJamaicaȱenactedȱaȱChildȱCareȱandȱProtectionȱActȱ whichȱrepealedȱtheȱJuvenileȱAct,ȱ(aȱ45ȱyearȬoldȱAct).ȱTheȱnewȱActȱprovidesȱaȱmoreȱ comprehensiveȱpieceȱofȱlegislationȱaimedȱatȱprotectingȱtheȱchildȱinȱallȱspheresȱofȱlifeȱ andȱpromotingȱaȱcaringȱenvironmentȱtoȱgiveȱeachȱchildȱanȱequalȱfootingȱinȱsociety.ȱȱȱ ȱ However,ȱ thereȱ isȱaȱgeneralȱ concernȱ regardingȱ fundingȱ toȱsustainȱandȱimplementȱ theȱprovisionsȱofȱtheȱnewȱAct.ȱȱSomeȱspecificȱobstaclesȱforȱimplementationȱofȱtheȱ ChildȱCareȱandȱProtectionȱActȱinclude:ȱ x Insufficientȱfundingȱtoȱsustainȱtheȱtrainingȱandȱeducationalȱprogrammeȱtoȱ changeȱtheȱnationalȱmindȬsetȱaroundȱtheȱimportanceȱofȱprotectingȱchildren; x Insufficientȱfundingȱtoȱensureȱthatȱtheȱmechanismsȱandȱinstitutionsȱ functionȱasȱproposed;ȱ x InsufficientȱfundingȱforȱdayȬtoȬdayȱlogistics,ȱsuchȱasȱvehiclesȱandȱgasolineȱ toȱtransportȱchildrenȱfromȱcentresȱtoȱcourt.ȱ ȱ Source:ȱUNICEFȱLegislativeȱReformȱInitiativesȱ–ȱPhaseȱIȱ–ȱNationalȱreportȱonȱlegislativeȱreform,ȱ UNICEFȱJamaicaȱ(2004).ȱ ȱ “Legislativeȱreformȱandȱtheȱsubsequentȱimplementationȱofȱlegislationȱ throughȱpoliciesȱandȱinstitutionalȱdevelopmentȱrequireȱadequateȱandȱ oftenȱsubstantialȱallocationȱofȱfundsȱfromȱgovernmentsȱtoȱensureȱ concreteȱimplementationȱandȱtoȱmakeȱchildren’sȱrightsȱaȱreality.” 66 ȱ Fundsȱareȱnotȱonlyȱcriticalȱtoȱtheȱimmediateȱimplementationȱofȱ policies,ȱbutȱalsoȱtoȱensuringȱadherenceȱtoȱtheseȱpoliciesȱ(e.g.ȱbyȱ providingȱforȱeconomicȱopportunitiesȱtoȱtheȱgroupȱwhoȱwillȱbeȱdirectlyȱ orȱindirectlyȱaffectedȱbyȱtheȱlaw). 67 ȱȱ
65 ‘General Guidelines for periodic reports’, U.N. Doc. CRC/C/58 (November 1996). For further information on budgeting and rights, see Gore, R. Influencing Budgets for Children’s Rights (June 2004). 66 Summary Report of the Study on the Impact of the Implementation of the Convention on the Rights of the Child, Innnocenti Research Centre (2004). 67 For example, women who practice female excision/cutting as a job.
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ȱ Boxȱ11:ȱCostingȱlegislativeȱmeasuresȱ Costingȱ theȱ Southȱ Africanȱ Childȱ Justiceȱ Bill 68 Ȭȱ Anȱ importantȱ advantageȱ ofȱ havingȱ theȱ costȬeffectivenessȱanalysisȱ doneȱ whilstȱtheȱ ChildȱJusticeȱ Billȱ wasȱstillȱ beingȱ draftedȱ wasȱthatȱitȱallowedȱforȱiterationȱofȱtheȱBill.ȱTheȱBillȱhadȱbeenȱcriticizedȱatȱthatȱstageȱ forȱ theȱ factȱ thatȱ magistratesȱ presidingȱ overȱ preliminaryȱ inquiriesȱ wouldȱ haveȱ toȱ recuseȱthemselvesȱfromȱaȱsubsequentȱtrialȱifȱtheyȱhadȱheardȱanyȱprejudicialȱevidenceȱ duringȱaȱpreliminaryȱinquiry.ȱTheȱcriticsȱsaidȱthatȱthisȱwouldȱproveȱtooȱexpensive,ȱ andȱthisȱcriticismȱwasȱbeingȱusedȱbyȱsomeȱtoȱsupportȱaȱsuggestionȱthatȱtheȱBillȱbeȱ amendedȱsoȱthatȱtheȱmagistrateȱwouldȱnotȱattendȱtheȱpreliminaryȱinquiry.ȱThisȱissueȱ wasȱspecificallyȱexaminedȱbyȱtheȱeconomists,ȱandȱtheȱcostsȱwereȱfoundȱnotȱtoȱbeȱveryȱ significant,ȱsoȱtheȱmagistrate’sȱattendanceȱatȱtheȱpreliminaryȱinquiryȱremainedȱpartȱ ofȱtheȱChildȱJusticeȱBill.ȱTheȱcostingȱanalysisȱalsoȱdemonstratedȱtheȱcostȬeffectivenessȱ ofȱclusteringȱservices.ȱAnȱenablingȱclauseȱforȱtheȱestablishmentȱofȱ“oneȱstop”ȱcentresȱ wasȱthusȱaddedȱtoȱtheȱdraftȱChildȱJusticeȱBill.ȱȱ ȱ Sources:ȱBarberton,ȱC.,ȱStuart,ȱJ.,ȱandȱAjam,ȱT.,ȱCostingȱtheȱImplementationȱofȱtheȱChildȱJusticeȱBillȱ andȱdevelopingȱaȱstrategyȱforȱimplementationȱAFReC,ȱUniversityȱofȱCapeȱTownȱ(1999).ȱ ȱ Theȱnationalȱbudgetȱisȱessentiallyȱtheȱfinancialȱembodimentȱofȱaȱ government’sȱpolicy/lawȱgoals.ȱConsequently,ȱtheȱpolicyȬmakingȱandȱ budgetaryȱprocessȱshouldȱbeȱintimatelyȱrelated. 69 ȱȱThisȱimplies,ȱamongȱ others:ȱ x Aȱfocusȱonȱrealisticȱresourceȱallocationȱandȱbudgetingȱforȱ enforcementȱofȱlaws;ȱ x AwarenessȬraisingȱcampaigns,ȱinȱparticularȱlawȱawarenessȱ activitiesȱ(translationȱofȱlawsȱintoȱnational,ȱlocal,ȱminorityȱ languages,ȱeducationȱcampaignsȱandȱdisseminationȱofȱlaws,ȱ availabilityȱofȱnewȱlegislationȱtoȱpublicȱinȱreaderȬfriendlyȱ formatȱetc.);ȱ x CapacityȬbuilding/Trainingȱofȱcivilȱservants,ȱincludingȱ professionalsȱworkingȱforȱandȱwithȱchildren,ȱsuchȱasȱteachers,ȱ psychologists,ȱlawȱenforcementȱofficers,ȱpoliceȱofficers,ȱlawyers,ȱ etc;ȱ x Mechanismsȱtoȱensureȱaccessȱtoȱtheȱjudicialȱsystemȱ(e.g.ȱensureȱ availabilityȱofȱfinancialȱandȱotherȱassistance).ȱ
68 Barberton, C., Stuart, J., and Ajam, T., Costing the Implementation of the Child Justice Bill and developing a strategy for implementation AFReC, University of Cape Town (1999). 69 Perrault, Nadine. A human rights-based approach to legislative reform, Concept note, UNICEF, DPP (2004).
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ȱ Boxȱ12:ȱȱBudgetȱallocationȱforȱlegislativeȱmeasuresȱ Childȱ BudgetȱȬȱInȱ Brazil,ȱ “Theȱ Childȱ Budget”ȱ isȱ aȱ nationalȬlevelȱ effortȱ aimedȱ atȱ promotingȱtransparencyȱinȱtheȱuseȱofȱpublicȱresourcesȱthroughȱmonitoringȱpublicȱ budgetsȱandȱprovidingȱrelevantȱinformationȱtoȱcivilȱsocietyȱgroupsȱandȱothers.ȱInȱ 1995,ȱ theȱ governmentȱ formulatedȱ theȱ Pactȱ forȱ Childrenȱ document,ȱ whichȱ highlightedȱ theȱ importanceȱ ofȱ monitoringȱ publicȱ policyȱ financingȱ thatȱ affectsȱ children.ȱȱ ȱ Source:ȱInnocentiȱResearchȱCentre,ȱPromotingȱchildȱrightsȱinȱBrazil.ȱ ȱ 2.1.4ȱPartnershipsȱandȱSocialȱMobilisationȱ ȱ Establishingȱaȱlegalȱframeworkȱthatȱenablesȱtheȱrealisationȱofȱ children’sȱrightsȱrequiresȱaȱgreatȱdealȱofȱeffortȱbyȱaȱvarietyȱofȱactors.ȱ SuccessfulȱrightsȬbasedȱeffortsȱrequireȱbuildingȱeffectiveȱpartnershipsȱ withȱnationalȱcounterpartsȱ(bothȱgovernmentalȱandȱnonȬgovernmentalȱ actors)ȱtoȱensureȱtheȱinvolvementȱofȱbothȱclaimȬholdersȱandȱdutyȬ bearers,ȱincludingȱcivilȱsocietyȱactorsȱandȱStates,ȱtheȱlatterȱbeingȱ primarilyȱaccountableȱforȱrealisationȱofȱrights.ȱȱ ȱ Effectiveȱpartnerships,ȱinvolvingȱgovernmentȱandȱkeyȱstakeholders,ȱ NGOs,ȱwomen’sȱandȱyouthȱorganisations,ȱacademia,ȱandȱtheȱmedia,ȱ areȱcriticalȱasȱtheseȱgroupsȱareȱwellȱpositionedȱtoȱȱpromoteȱlegislativeȱ reformȱandȱbeȱcatalystsȱforȱmonitoringȱStates’ȱlegislativeȱreformȱ responsibility. 70 ȱȱ ȱȱ 2.2ȱ ValueȬaddedȱofȱaȱHumanȱRightsȬbasedȱApproachȱtoȱ LegislativeȱReformȱ ȱ 2.2.1ȱSustainableȱSocialȱPoliciesȱforȱChildren 71ȱ ȱ Legislativeȱreformȱisȱneitherȱanȱisolatedȱactivityȱnorȱanȱoptionalȱ activity,ȱbutȱratherȱanȱessentialȱtoolȱtoȱdevelopȱsustainableȱpoliciesȱinȱaȱ democraticȱcontext,ȱwhereȱtheȱstabilityȱandȱcontinuityȱofȱsocialȱpoliciesȱ dependȱonȱlawsȱandȱnotȱonȱtheȱdiscretionaryȱdecisionȱofȱindividualsȱatȱ theȱexecutiveȱlevel.ȱȱ
70 UNICEF Programming Guidance Paper Series, UNICEF, DPP (2007), p.76. 71 For more information on social policies see: UNICEF Programming guidance on legislative reform, p.13, and Perrault, Nadine. A Human rights-based approach to legislative reform, concept note, UNICEF, DPP (2004).
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ȱ Itȱisȱimportantȱtoȱdistinguishȱbetweenȱlawȱandȱpolicy;ȱalthoughȱtheyȱ areȱintertwined,ȱtheyȱareȱalsoȱdistinct.ȱTheȱlawȱsetsȱoutȱstandards,ȱ proceduresȱandȱprinciplesȱthatȱmustȱbeȱfollowed.ȱAȱpolicyȱoutlinesȱtheȱ goalsȱofȱgovernmentȱandȱtheȱstrategies,ȱmethods,ȱandȱprinciplesȱ intendedȱtoȱachieveȱthem.ȱSocialȱprotectionȱpolicies,ȱforȱexample,ȱ coexistȱwithȱlawsȱthatȱeitherȱreinforceȱorȱdiminishȱthisȱprotection.ȱ Inheritanceȱlawsȱcanȱsupportȱaȱpolicyȱofȱsocialȱprotectionȱforȱall,ȱbyȱ grantingȱwomenȱtheirȱrights,ȱorȱcreateȱaȱbarrierȱforȱwomenȱbyȱtreatingȱ womenȱunequally.ȱȱ ȱ Whileȱlawsȱmayȱbeȱamendedȱorȱrepealed,ȱtheyȱultimatelyȱprovideȱaȱ solidȱfoundationȱforȱpoliciesȱinȱfavourȱofȱchildrenȱandȱwomen.ȱSocialȱ policiesȱaloneȱmayȱbeȱunsustainable,ȱinȱchangingȱconditions,ȱorȱ capriciousȱifȱalignedȱveryȱstronglyȱwithȱtheȱgroupȱinȱpower.ȱSocialȱ policiesȱderivingȱfromȱlaw,ȱhowever,ȱcanȱhaveȱmoreȱpermanenceȱandȱ sustainabilityȱthanȱthoseȱcreatedȱbyȱdiscretionaryȱactionȱwithinȱtheȱ executiveȱbranchȱofȱgovernment.ȱWhenȱaȱlawȱisȱputȱinȱplace,ȱitȱcanȱ createȱanȱenvironmentȱsupportiveȱofȱsocialȱpolicies.ȱWhenȱsocialȱ policiesȱareȱintegratedȱintoȱandȱreinforcedȱbyȱlaw,ȱtheyȱwillȱbeȱdifficultȱ toȱderailȱorȱundermine.ȱTherefore,ȱsocialȱpolicyȱandȱlawȱmustȱworkȱ handȬinȬhand,ȱasȱinterrelatedȱandȱinterdependentȱtoolsȱforȱtheȱ fulfilmentȱofȱchildren’sȱandȱwomen’sȱrights.ȱ ȱ Boxȱ13:ȱSocialȱpolicyȱtoȱsupportȱlegislativeȱreformȱ InȱIreland,ȱtheȱChildȱCareȱActȱ1991ȱmovedȱawayȱfromȱtheȱperceptionȱofȱchildrenȱasȱ parentalȱpropertyȱtoȱanȱunderstandingȱofȱtheȱchildȱasȱaȱpersonȱwhoȱhasȱrightsȱbyȱ virtueȱofȱbeingȱanȱindividual.ȱThisȱshiftȱwasȱreflectedȱinȱtheȱDepartmentȱofȱHealth’sȱ Childȱ Careȱ Policyȱ thatȱ followedȱ inȱ 1993.ȱ Moreover,ȱ inȱ recognitionȱ ofȱ theȱ interdependenceȱofȱrights,ȱtheȱIrishȱGovernmentȱhasȱappointedȱaȱMinisterȱofȱStateȱ toȱtheȱDepartmentsȱofȱHealth,ȱEducationȱandȱJusticeȱwithȱspecialȱresponsibilityȱforȱ childrenȱ and,ȱ inȱ particular,ȱ forȱ theȱ coordinationȱ ofȱ theȱ activitiesȱ ofȱ threeȱ departmentsȱinȱrelationȱtoȱchildȱprotection.ȱ ȱ Source:ȱNundy,ȱKaruna,ȱGlobalȱStatusȱofȱlegislativeȱreformȱrelatedȱtoȱtheȱCRC,ȱUNICEF,ȱDPP,ȱ (2004)ȱp.ȱ22.ȱȱ ȱ Lawsȱandȱsocialȱpoliciesȱareȱequallyȱimportantȱinȱtranslatingȱchildren’sȱ andȱwomen’sȱrightsȱintoȱpractice.ȱTheȱintegrationȱofȱlawȱreformȱandȱ socialȱpolicyȱalsoȱfacilitatesȱaȱmoreȱinterdisciplinaryȱdraftingȱofȱlawsȱinȱ aȱtransparentȱandȱparticipatoryȱenvironment.ȱTheȱendȱproductȱisȱlikelyȱ toȱbeȱmoreȱenforceableȱandȱcapableȱofȱinternalizationȱasȱaȱlegitimateȱ
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standard.ȱAȱcombinationȱofȱlawȱreformȱandȱsocialȱpoliciesȱcanȱalsoȱactȱ asȱaȱbasisȱforȱhumanȱresourceȱdevelopmentȱtoȱachieveȱsustainableȱ developmentȱ(e.g.,ȱeducationȱandȱhealth,ȱandȱaccessȱtoȱresources,ȱ participation,ȱetc.ȱforȱchildren,ȱinȱparticularȱgirls,ȱwomenȱandȱmembersȱ ofȱotherȱmarginalizedȱgroups). 72ȱ ȱ 2.2.2ȱConclusionȱ ȱ Socialȱpoliciesȱandȱlegislativeȱreformȱinȱgeneralȱareasȱsuchȱasȱhousing,ȱ shelter,ȱandȱaccessȱtoȱlandȱcanȱhelpȱtoȱweakenȱnegativeȱsocialȱcustomsȱ andȱtraditionsȱthatȱinfringeȱonȱtheȱhumanȱrightsȱofȱwomenȱandȱ children.ȱAȱcombinationȱofȱlawȱreformȱandȱsocialȱpoliciesȱcanȱalsoȱactȱ asȱaȱbasisȱforȱhumanȱresourceȱdevelopmentȱtoȱachieveȱsustainableȱ developmentȱ(e.g.ȱprovidingȱaccessȱtoȱeducation,ȱhealth,ȱetc.).ȱTheȱ integrationȱofȱlegislativeȱreformȱandȱsocialȱpolicyȱwillȱalsoȱfacilitateȱaȱ newȱapproachȱandȱaȱmoreȱinterdisciplinaryȱdraftingȱofȱlawsȱinȱaȱ transparentȱandȱparticipatoryȱenvironment.ȱȱ ȱ AnȱHRBAȱtoȱlegislativeȱreformȱcanȱhelpȱpromote,ȱcatalyzeȱandȱsustainȱ socialȱpoliciesȱinȱfavourȱofȱchildren.ȱItȱcanȱhelpȱcorrectȱandȱovercomeȱ someȱofȱtheȱmainȱobstaclesȱsocialȱpoliciesȱfaceȱinȱgeneralȱandȱforȱ childrenȱinȱparticularȱ(suchȱasȱlackȱofȱfinancialȱandȱhumanȱresources,ȱ lackȱofȱempowerment,ȱtransparency,ȱandȱsustainability,ȱgenderȱ inequality,ȱetc.).ȱWhenȱaȱlawȱthatȱisȱinȱcomplianceȱwithȱhumanȱrightsȱ normsȱisȱputȱinȱplace,ȱitȱwillȱcreateȱanȱenvironmentȱsupportiveȱofȱsocialȱ policiesȱcompliantȱwithȱinternationalȱhumanȱrightsȱnorms.ȱWhenȱsuchȱ socialȱpoliciesȱareȱintegratedȱintoȱandȱreinforcedȱbyȱlaw,ȱitȱwillȱbeȱ difficultȱtoȱdislodgeȱorȱrenegeȱonȱthem.ȱȱ
72 For instance, minorities, indigenous peoples, persons with disabilities etc.
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Chapterȱ2ȱ ȱ ASSESSINGȱCOMPLIANCEȱOFȱ NATIONALȱLEGISLATIONȱWITHȱ INTERNATIONALȱHUMANȱ RIGHTSȱNORMSȱANDȱ STANDARDSȱ ȱ Thisȱchapterȱexploresȱtheȱreasonsȱforȱundertakingȱaȱreviewȱandȱ possibleȱreformȱofȱnationalȱlegislationȱrelatingȱtoȱchildrenȱandȱoutlinesȱ someȱofȱtheȱconsiderationsȱandȱapproachesȱthatȱcanȱbeȱusedȱasȱpartȱofȱ process.ȱ ȱ Weȱstartȱwithȱtheȱrecognitionȱthatȱlegislationȱisȱnotȱmerelyȱanȱ administrativeȱmechanismȱwhichȱcanȱbeȱaltered,ȱwithdrawnȱorȱ introducedȱwithȱminimalȱeffort.ȱAȱnationȇsȱlawsȱareȱaȱsignificantȱ expressionȱofȱnationalȱcharacter;ȱtheyȱdefineȱwhoȱtheȱpeopleȱofȱtheȱ countryȱare,ȱwhatȱtheyȱvalueȱandȱhowȱtheyȱrelateȱtoȱeachȱother.ȱAnyȱ changeȱtoȱlegislationȱisȱcorrelatedȱtoȱaȱchangeȱinȱtheȱcharacterȱofȱtheȱ nation.ȱLegislativeȱchangeȱmayȱcomeȱasȱaȱresultȱofȱanȱevolutionȱthatȱ hasȱtakenȱplaceȱinȱcustomsȱandȱdayȬtoȬdayȱusage,ȱorȱitȱmayȱserveȱasȱaȱ meansȱforȱcreatingȱaȱnewȱparadigmȱthatȱseemsȱimportantȱforȱtheȱfutureȱ andȱwellȬbeingȱofȱtheȱcountryȱandȱitsȱpopulation.ȱOfȱparticularȱinterest,ȱ inȱthisȱcontext,ȱisȱlegislationȱwhichȱisȱbroughtȱintoȱforceȱtoȱprotectȱ individualsȱorȱgroupsȱfromȱdiscriminationȱorȱtoȱpromoteȱparticularȱ socialȱvalues.ȱ ȱ Legislationȱofȱwhateverȱkindȱnecessarilyȱdealsȱwithȱtheȱrelationshipȱ betweenȱtheȱpopulationȱofȱtheȱcountryȱandȱitsȱgovernments,ȱasȱwellȱasȱ relationshipsȱamongȱtheȱpeopleȱthemselves.ȱThisȱisȱtheȱcaseȱwhetherȱ theȱlegislationȱdealsȱwithȱtheȱcollectionȱofȱtaxesȱorȱtheȱprohibitionȱofȱ murder.ȱAtȱtheȱrootȱofȱmostȱlawsȱareȱconceptionsȱofȱhumanȱrights,ȱ includingȱprotectionȱofȱindividualsȱfromȱphysicalȱharm,ȱparticipationȱ ofȱindividualsȱandȱgroupsȱinȱsociety,ȱandȱprovisionȱofȱopportunitiesȱ
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forȱindividualȱgrowthȱandȱdevelopment.ȱReviewȱandȱreformȱofȱ legislation,ȱwhenȱundertakenȱwithȱtheȱexplicitȱintentionȱofȱrespecting,ȱ promotingȱandȱprotectingȱtheȱhumanȱrightsȱofȱall,ȱisȱaȱwayȱforȱbothȱ governmentsȱandȱcivilȱsocietyȱtoȱhaveȱaȱdirectȱeffectȱonȱtheȱlivesȱandȱ wellȬbeingȱofȱallȱgroupsȱwithinȱtheȱpopulation.ȱ ȱ Atȱtheȱsameȱtime,ȱitȱmustȱbeȱrecognizedȱthatȱlegislationȱcanȱbeȱaȱsourceȱ ofȱdisparitiesȱandȱdiscrimination.ȱSometimesȱthisȱisȱovert,ȱasȱwithȱlawsȱ thatȱrestrictȱaccessȱtoȱcertainȱservicesȱorȱfacilitiesȱonȱtheȱbasisȱofȱage,ȱ sex,ȱrace,ȱbeliefȱorȱotherȱcriteria.ȱSometimesȱitȱisȱlessȱobvious.ȱTheȱ legislationȱmayȱmandateȱequalȱaccessȱtoȱhealthȱcare,ȱforȱinstance,ȱbutȱ alsoȱrequireȱthatȱpatientsȱpayȱforȱtheȱcareȱtheyȱreceive,ȱtherebyȱlimitingȱ theȱaccessȱforȱthoseȱwhoseȱfinancialȱresourcesȱareȱextremelyȱlimited.ȱ Legislationȱcanȱalsoȱcondoneȱexistingȱdiscriminationȱbyȱnotȱtakingȱ activeȱmeasuresȱtoȱremoveȱtheȱcausesȱofȱdiscrimination.ȱIfȱtheȱlawȱdoesȱ notȱrequireȱallȱpublicȱservicesȱtoȱbeȱreadilyȱavailableȱtoȱpeopleȱwithȱ disabilities,ȱforȱexample,ȱschoolsȱmayȱbeȱeffectivelyȱclosedȱtoȱchildrenȱ withȱphysicalȱhandicapsȱ(becauseȱtheyȱcannotȱenterȱtheȱbuilding)ȱorȱ withȱlearningȱdisabilitiesȱ(becauseȱthereȱareȱnoȱprogrammesȱorȱtrainedȱ staffȱtoȱhelpȱthemȱlearn),ȱorȱgirlsȱmayȱbeȱexcludedȱ(becauseȱsocialȱ customsȱpreventȱthemȱfromȱattendingȱschoolsȱwithȱmaleȱteachers).ȱȱ ȱ Reformingȱexistingȱlegislationȱcanȱbeȱaȱchallengingȱexercise.ȱSocialȱ structuresȱandȱvestedȱinterestsȱwhichȱareȱsupportedȱbyȱtheȱlegislationȱ asȱitȱisȱcurrentlyȱwrittenȱandȱappliedȱmayȱresistȱchange.ȱPeopleȱmayȱ fearȱtheȱunknownȱconsequencesȱofȱadoptingȱaȱdifferentȱbehaviourȱorȱ policyȱthatȱisȱcontainedȱwithinȱtheȱnewȱlegislation.ȱLegislativeȱreformȱ isȱmoreȱthanȱaȱpaperȱexercise.ȱItȱcanȱleadȱtoȱrealȱchangeȱinȱactions,ȱ systemsȱandȱattitudes,ȱatȱleastȱoverȱtime,ȱandȱtheȱdegreeȱofȱresistanceȱ willȱreflectȱtheȱimportanceȱofȱthatȱchangeȱandȱtheȱextentȱtoȱwhichȱitȱ affectsȱsocietyȇsȱfundamentalȱvalues.ȱThisȱisȱnowhereȱmoreȱevidentȱ thanȱwhenȱitȱcomesȱtoȱlegislationȱdealingȱwithȱchildrenȱandȱtheȱfamily.ȱ ȱ Inȱundertakingȱaȱprocessȱofȱlegislativeȱreformȱinȱfavourȱofȱchildren,ȱitȱ isȱalsoȱimportantȱtoȱbearȱinȱmindȱtheȱlimitationsȱandȱtheȱpotentialȱ benefitsȱofȱtheȱexercise.ȱAsȱimportantȱasȱlawȱis,ȱthereȱareȱsomeȱthingsȱitȱ cannotȱaccomplish.ȱNoȱlaw,ȱforȱinstance,ȱcanȱforceȱparentsȱtoȱhaveȱtheȱ bestȱinterestsȱofȱtheirȱchildrenȱasȱtheirȱbasicȱconcernȱ(asȱspecifiedȱinȱ Articleȱ18ȱofȱtheȱCRC).ȱHowever,ȱlegislationȱcanȱrequireȱparentsȱtoȱ behaveȱasȱifȱtheyȱdidȱso,ȱbyȱrequiringȱthemȱtoȱprovideȱtheirȱchildrenȱ
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withȱtheȱnecessitiesȱofȱlifeȱandȱtoȱfosterȱtheirȱchildrenȇsȱfullȱ development.ȱ ȱ LegalȱTraditionsȱandȱSystemsȱ ȱ Ourȱconsiderationȱofȱtheȱprocessȱandȱstructureȱofȱlegalȱreformȱinȱ favourȱofȱchildrenȱisȱbasedȱonȱtheȱrecognitionȱofȱfourȱbasicȱlegalȱ systemsȱoperatingȱaroundȱtheȱworldȱtoday:ȱcivilȱlaw,ȱcommonȱlaw,ȱ Islamicȱlaw,ȱandȱpluralȱlegalȱsystems,ȱwhichȱusuallyȱinvolveȱaȱcivilȱorȱ commonȱlawȱsystemȱcombinedȱwith,ȱorȱbalancedȱby,ȱaȱsystemȱofȱ customaryȱorȱtraditionalȱlaw.ȱTheȱcharacteristicsȱofȱeachȱofȱtheseȱ systemsȱwillȱbeȱidentified,ȱwithȱspecialȱreferenceȱtoȱtheirȱeffectȱonȱtheȱ creation,ȱadoptionȱandȱenforcementȱofȱlawsȱrelatingȱtoȱchildren.ȱ ȱ Withinȱeachȱsystem,ȱthereȱareȱdifferentȱrolesȱplayedȱbyȱtheȱlegislature,ȱ theȱexecutiveȱofȱgovernmentȱ(includingȱtheȱcivilȱservice),ȱtheȱjudiciaryȱ andȱtheȱlegalȱsystem,ȱandȱrepresentativesȱofȱcivilȱsocietyȱinȱbothȱtheȱ adoptionȱandȱtheȱimplementationȱofȱlegislation.ȱTheȱdifferentȱsystemsȱ areȱexaminedȱinȱSectionȱ2.2ȱofȱthisȱchapter.ȱ ȱ LegislativeȱReviewȱandȱReformȱ ȱ EveryȱStateȱPartyȱtoȱtheȱCRCȱisȱobligedȱtoȱundertakeȱaȱcomprehensiveȱ reviewȱofȱlegislationȱaffectingȱchildrenȇsȱrights,ȱtoȱamendȱorȱreplaceȱ legislationȱwhichȱdoesȱnotȱmeetȱtheȱStateȱPartyȇsȱcommitmentsȱunderȱ theȱConventionȱandȱtoȱadoptȱnewȱlegislationȱasȱrequiredȱtoȱfulfilȱthoseȱ aspectsȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱnotȱcoveredȱbyȱexistingȱmeasures.ȱ However,ȱeachȱcountryȱwillȱapproachȱtheȱprocessȱinȱaȱwayȱthatȱisȱ compatibleȱwithȱitsȱownȱpoliticalȱsystemȱandȱlegalȱtradition.ȱSectionȱ2.3ȱ looksȱatȱthoseȱaspectsȱofȱtheȱreviewȱandȱreformȱprocessȱwhichȱshouldȱ beȱcommonȱtoȱall.ȱ ȱ Theȱprocessesȱofȱreviewȱandȱreformȱofȱlegislationȱrelatingȱtoȱchildrenȱ areȱveryȱcloselyȱrelated.ȱAȱreviewȱofȱlegislationȱisȱusuallyȱinspiredȱbyȱ theȱneedȱorȱpoliticalȱwillȱtoȱrevise,ȱreformȱorȱotherwiseȱchangeȱanȱ establishedȱbodyȱofȱlegislation.ȱItȱwillȱalsoȱlikelyȱserveȱasȱanȱevaluationȱ ofȱtheȱexistingȱlegislationȱinȱrelationȱtoȱtheȱlegislators’ȱintentionsȱatȱtheȱ timeȱtheȱlegislationȱwasȱadoptedȱandȱtheȱwayȱinȱwhichȱthatȱlegislationȱ hasȱbeenȱimplementedȱandȱenforcedȱsinceȱitsȱadoption.ȱItȱisȱpossible,ȱ therefore,ȱforȱaȱreviewȱtoȱbeȱconductedȱwithoutȱitȱnecessarilyȱleadingȱ
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toȱlegislativeȱreform,ȱsinceȱtheȱreviewȱmayȱdemonstrateȱthatȱtheȱ legislationȱasȱitȱstandsȱisȱeffectiveȱandȱfullyȱinȱkeepingȱwithȱtheȱrightsȱ ofȱchildren.ȱReform,ȱonȱtheȱotherȱhand,ȱshouldȱalwaysȱbeȱprecededȱbyȱ aȱcarefulȱstudyȱofȱtheȱexistingȱlegislationȱandȱitsȱimplementation,ȱasȱ wellȱasȱtheȱgeneralȱsituationȱtheȱlegislationȱisȱmeantȱtoȱaddress.ȱOnlyȱ thenȱisȱitȱappropriateȱtoȱtakeȱactionȱthatȱwillȱhaveȱanȱeffectȱonȱtheȱlivesȱ ofȱchildren,ȱtheirȱfamiliesȱandȱtheirȱcommunities.ȱSectionȱ2.3ȱconsidersȱ bothȱreviewȱandȱreformȱinȱsomeȱdetailȱasȱseparateȱactivities,ȱwhileȱ maintainingȱtheȱconnectionsȱbetweenȱthem.ȱ ȱ ȱ Partȱ1ȱ LEGALȱTRADITIONSȱANDȱ SYSTEMSȱ ȱ 1.1ȱ IntroductionȱtoȱLegalȱTraditionsȱandȱSystemsȱ ȱ Inȱorderȱtoȱeffectivelyȱanalyseȱtheȱprocessȱandȱstructureȱofȱlawmakingȱ andȱlawȱimplementationȱinȱaȱcountry,ȱoneȱmustȱfirstȱunderstandȱtheȱ country’sȱlegalȱsystems.ȱTheȱlegalȱtraditionȱandȱhowȱthisȱtraditionȱ translatesȱintoȱtheȱlegalȱsystem,ȱasȱwellȱasȱlocalȱcustomsȱandȱpractice,ȱ areȱimportantȱfactorsȱinȱunderstandingȱtheȱstatusȱandȱapplicationȱofȱ humanȱrightsȱstandardsȱandȱprinciplesȱinȱaȱgivenȱcountry.ȱȱ ȱ Definitionsȱofȱtheȱtermsȱ‘legalȱsystem’ȱandȱ‘legalȱtradition’ȱmayȱvary.ȱ However,ȱinȱtheȱcontextȱofȱthisȱdocument,ȱtheȱlegalȱsystemȱofȱaȱ countryȱencompassesȱitsȱrulesȱandȱinstitutions,ȱwhichȱareȱbasedȱonȱitsȱ legalȱtradition;ȱthus,ȱwhatȱareȱbeingȱcategorizedȱasȱ“systems”ȱ(civil,ȱ common,ȱIslamicȱandȱcustomaryȱlaw)ȱareȱactuallyȱtheȱtraditionsȱuponȱ whichȱindividualȱcountries’ȱsystemsȱofȱlawȱareȱbuilt.ȱȱ ȱ Theȱlegalȱtraditionȱisȱtheȱculturalȱperspectiveȱunderȱwhichȱtheȱlegalȱ systemȱisȱcreated,ȱprovidingȱtheȱphilosophyȱforȱhowȱtheȱsystemȱshouldȱ beȱorganizedȱandȱhowȱlawȱshouldȱbeȱformedȱandȱimplemented.ȱItȱisȱ basedȱonȱaȱhistoricȱperceptionȱaboutȱtheȱroleȱofȱlawȱinȱsociety. 73ȱ
73 These definitions are taken from W. Tetley, ‘Mixed jurisdictions: common law v. civil law (codified and un-codified)’ Uniform L. R., vol. 4 (1993), p. 591, which cites Merryman, J.H., The Civil Law Tradition: An Introduction to the Legal Systems of Western Europe and Latin America, 2nd ed. (1995), p. 1. For further reading, this article is available at: http://www.unidroit.org/english/publications/review/articles/1999-3.htm.
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ȱ Itȱisȱwellȱacceptedȱthatȱtheȱtermȱ‘legalȱsystem’ȱencompassesȱthreeȱ components:ȱ1)ȱtheȱsubstanceȱofȱtheȱlaw,ȱ2)ȱtheȱstructureȱofȱtheȱlaw,ȱ andȱ3)ȱtheȱcultureȱofȱtheȱlaw.ȱ ȱ 1. Theȱsubstanceȱofȱtheȱlawȱrefersȱtoȱtheȱletterȱofȱtheȱlaw 74 ȱ(i.e.ȱtheȱ formulationȱofȱtheȱprovisionsȱandȱclauses)ȱorȱbroadȱprinciplesȱ ofȱlawȱ(whichȱareȱinterpretedȱbyȱjudges,ȱparticularlyȱinȱ commonȱlawȱcountries).ȱȱ 2. Theȱstructureȱofȱtheȱlawȱrefersȱtoȱtheȱinstitutionsȱandȱ enforcementȱmechanismsȱputȱinȱplaceȱtoȱensureȱapplicationȱofȱ theȱlaw.ȱTheseȱareȱusuallyȱtheȱcourts,ȱtribunals,ȱofficesȱofȱ ombudspersons,ȱhumanȱrightsȱcommissions,ȱetc.ȱ 3. Theȱcultureȱofȱtheȱlawȱrefersȱtoȱtheȱsocialȱandȱculturalȱcontextsȱ inȱwhichȱlawsȱareȱimplemented.ȱTheseȱincludeȱtheȱsocialȱvaluesȱ andȱpracticesȱasȱwellȱasȱsocialȱdifferencesȱthatȱmayȱexistȱwithinȱ aȱsociety.ȱ ȱ Theȱlegalȱsystemȱhasȱanȱimpactȱonȱtheȱwaysȱinȱwhichȱinternationalȱ humanȱrightsȱnormsȱareȱintegratedȱintoȱnationalȱlegislation.ȱInȱgeneral,ȱ thereȱareȱfourȱmainȱwaysȱinȱwhichȱinternationalȱlawȱcanȱbeȱ incorporatedȱintoȱlocalȱorȱdomesticȱlaw.ȱTheseȱare:ȱ ȱȱ 1. Throughȱtheȱratificationȱofȱorȱaccessionȱtoȱanyȱinternationalȱ agreement,ȱtreatyȱorȱconvention,ȱwhichȱautomaticallyȱresultsȱinȱ theȱprovisionsȱofȱthatȱinstrumentȱbeingȱincorporatedȱdirectlyȱ intoȱdomesticȱlegislation,ȱandȱbeingȱimmediatelyȱandȱfullyȱ justiciableȱ(i.e.ȱsubjectȱtoȱactionȱinȱaȱcourtȱofȱlaw).ȱThisȱisȱ referredȱtoȱasȱ“automaticȱincorporation.” 75ȱ 2. Throughȱtheȱpromulgationȱofȱspecialȱenablingȱlegislation,ȱsuchȱ asȱaȱconstitutionalȱamendment,ȱaȱlawȱorȱdecree.ȱUntilȱthisȱisȱ done,ȱtheȱinternationalȱinstrumentȱhasȱnoȱlegalȱforceȱ domestically.ȱ 3. Throughȱtheȱincorporationȱofȱtheȱinstrument,ȱinȱitsȱentirety,ȱinȱaȱ singleȱpieceȱofȱlegislation.ȱ
74 This applies specifically to the civil law system. 75 Handbook for Parliamentarians, The Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination against Women and its Optional Protocol, United Nations and Inter- Parliamentary Union (2003), p. 41.
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4. Throughȱtheȱgradualȱincorporationȱofȱvariousȱaspectsȱofȱtheȱ internationalȱinstrumentȇsȱapplicationȱoverȱtime,ȱusingȱaȱ numberȱofȱdifferentȱlaws.ȱ ȱ Theȱvariousȱwaysȱinȱwhichȱinternationalȱinstrumentsȱareȱappliedȱinȱ countriesȱareȱoutlinedȱinȱdetailȱinȱtheȱSectionȱofȱtheȱHandbookȱentitledȱ “Constitutionalȱreformsȱinȱfavourȱofȱchildren.” 76ȱ ȱ 1.2ȱ DifferingȱLegalȱSystemsȱ ȱ ThisȱSectionȱlooksȱatȱhomogeneousȱsystemsȱandȱmixed/pluralȱsystems,ȱ whichȱareȱbasedȱonȱcountries’ȱlegalȱtraditions.ȱWithinȱtheseȱtwoȱ groupsȱ(homogeneousȱandȱmixed),ȱtheȱtraditionsȱconsideredȱareȱthoseȱ whichȱsubstantiallyȱreflectȱtheȱlegalȱsystemsȱofȱtheȱStatesȱPartiesȱtoȱtheȱ CRC.ȱȱMostȱcountriesȱhaveȱsomeȱmixtureȱofȱtheseȱtraditions,ȱandȱthereȱ areȱexceptionsȱtoȱtheȱtraditionsȱdescribedȱbelow.ȱFurthermore,ȱlegalȱ traditionsȱareȱnotȱstaticȱorȱcompletelyȱdistinct,ȱandȱtheȱbelowȱ classificationsȱareȱsimplifications.ȱHoweverȱtheseȱtraditionsȱdoȱ representȱtheȱfoundationȱforȱmodernȱlegalȱsystems.ȱ ȱ Theseȱsystemsȱareȱtheȱcivilȱlaw,ȱcommonȱlaw,ȱIslamicȱlawȱandȱpluralȱorȱ mixedȱsystemsȱwithȱcomponentsȱofȱcustomaryȱlaw.ȱEachȱsystem’sȱ mainȱcharacteristicsȱareȱidentified,ȱwithȱspecialȱreferenceȱtoȱtheirȱeffectȱ onȱtheȱdomesticationȱofȱinternationalȱhumanȱrightsȱstandards,ȱasȱwellȱ asȱtheȱdrafting,ȱadoption,ȱandȱenforcementȱofȱlawsȱfocusedȱonȱ children.ȱ ȱ Asȱpreviouslyȱmentioned,ȱthereȱareȱpointsȱofȱoverlapȱbetweenȱcivilȱlawȱ andȱcommonȱlawȱinȱpractice,ȱandȱeitherȱmayȱbeȱcombinedȱwithȱIslamicȱ orȱcustomaryȱlawȱinȱaȱgivenȱcountry.ȱEvenȱwithinȱtheȱbroadȱcategoriesȱ ofȱcivilȱlawȱandȱcommonȱlaw,ȱthereȱareȱvariationsȱfromȱcountryȱtoȱ country,ȱsoȱthatȱtheȱbasicȱprinciplesȱandȱhistoricalȱbackgroundȱareȱ adaptedȱandȱcarriedȱforwardȱbasedȱonȱtheȱparticularȱsituationȱofȱeachȱ country.ȱItȱisȱfromȱtheȱcountry’sȱparticularȱexpressionȱofȱtheȱ underlyingȱtraditionȱthatȱtheȱsystemȱofȱlawȱisȱderived.ȱ ȱ
76 For a more comprehensive introduction to the status of international treaties in domestic legislation see Chapter III of this Handbook.
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1.2.1ȱ HomogeneousȱSystemsȱ ȱ Manyȱcountriesȱhaveȱaȱlegalȱsystemȱbasedȱonȱaȱsingleȱlegalȱtradition— eitherȱtheȱcivilȱlawȱtraditionȱorȱtheȱcommonȱlawȱtradition.ȱUsually,ȱ theseȱcountries’ȱsystemsȱareȱdescribedȱasȱhomogeneous.ȱTheȱprinciplesȱ ofȱtheȱcommonȱlawȱandȱcivilȱlawȱtraditionsȱapplyȱwhetherȱtheȱlegalȱ systemȱinȱtheȱcountryȱisȱhomogeneousȱorȱincludesȱtheȱtraditionȱasȱpartȱ ofȱaȱpluralistȱsystem.ȱWhileȱtheȱdescriptionsȱbelowȱfocusȱonȱtheȱ historicȱconceptsȱofȱcivilȱandȱcommonȱlawȱsystems,ȱtheȱcontrastȱ betweenȱthemȱisȱnotȱalwaysȱsharplyȱdefined.ȱCountriesȱwithȱoneȱ systemȱincreasinglyȱadoptȱconventionsȱofȱtheȱother.ȱȱ ȱ 1.2.2.ȱ CivilȱLawȱTraditionȱ ȱ TheȱcivilȱlawȱtraditionȱisȱderivedȱmainlyȱfromȱRomanȱlaw,ȱwithȱitsȱ emphasisȱonȱwritingȱlawsȱintoȱcomprehensiveȱnationalȱcodes.ȱ However,ȱsomeȱcivilȱlawȱsystemsȱremainȱunȬcodified,ȱwhileȱatȱtheȱ sameȱtimeȱsomeȱcommonȱlawȱjurisdictionsȱmayȱcodifyȱpartsȱofȱtheirȱ lawȱ(suchȱasȱaȱcriminalȱcode).ȱThus,ȱevidenceȱofȱtheȱsystematicȱ arrangementȱofȱrelatedȱlawsȱintoȱaȱsingleȱwrittenȱdocumentȱdoesȱnotȱ automaticallyȱidentifyȱaȱcivilȱlawȱsystem.ȱ ȱ Theȱcivilȱlawȱtraditionȱservesȱasȱtheȱbasisȱofȱlawȱinȱtheȱmajorityȱofȱ countriesȱofȱtheȱworld,ȱespeciallyȱinȱcontinentalȱEurope,ȱbutȱalsoȱinȱ Quebecȱ(Canada),ȱLouisianaȱ(USA),ȱJapan,ȱLatinȱAmerica,ȱandȱmostȱ formerȱcoloniesȱofȱcontinentalȱEuropeanȱcountries.ȱȱȱ ȱ Civilȱlawȱsystemsȱareȱ‘monist’ȱsystems,ȱmeaningȱthatȱnationalȱandȱ internationalȱlawȱareȱviewedȱasȱaȱsingleȱlegalȱsystem.ȱInȱgeneral,ȱnoȱ separateȱimplementingȱlegislationȱisȱneededȱtoȱenforceȱtheȱacceptedȱ internationalȱlaw.ȱSignificantly,ȱtheȱconstitutionalȱprovisionsȱofȱmostȱ civilȱlawȱcountriesȱlegallyȱentitleȱthemȱtoȱautomaticȱintegrationȱofȱ internationalȱtreatiesȱintoȱdomesticȱlawȱuponȱratificationȱ–ȱenablingȱ lawyersȱandȱjudgesȱtoȱinvokeȱthemȱdirectlyȱinȱcasesȱbroughtȱbeforeȱtheȱ courts. 77 ȱȱTherefore,ȱonceȱanȱinternationalȱhumanȱrightsȱinstrumentȱisȱ ratifiedȱbyȱsuchȱaȱcountry,ȱtheȱinstrumentȱbecomesȱpartȱofȱdomesticȱ lawȱandȱprevailsȱoverȱnationalȱlegislationȱinȱtheȱeventȱofȱaȱconflictȱ
77 UNICEF, Global Status of Legislative Reform Related to the Convention on the Rights of the Child. Compiled by Karuna Nundy (2004).
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betweenȱtheȱtwo.ȱUsually,ȱtheȱconstitutionȱindicatesȱthatȱratifiedȱ treatiesȱareȱtoȱbeȱautomaticallyȱincorporatedȱinȱthisȱway,ȱprovidedȱtheyȱ haveȱbeenȱpublishedȱinȱtheȱOfficialȱGazette.ȱInȱspiteȱofȱthisȱfact,ȱtheȱ practiceȱofȱdirectlyȱapplyingȱinternationalȱtreatiesȱinȱcourtsȱisȱlimited.ȱ FollowingȱratificationȱofȱtheȱCRC,ȱsomeȱcivilȱlawȱcountriesȱtookȱtheȱ additionalȱstepȱofȱenactingȱlawsȱthatȱreflectȱtheȱtreaty’sȱprovisions.ȱȱ ȱ Inȱcivilȱlawȱsystems,ȱtheȱlegislatureȱandȱjudiciaryȱhaveȱdifferentȱroles:ȱ theȱformerȱcreatesȱtheȱlawȱandȱtheȱlatterȱappliesȱtheȱlaw.ȱJudgesȱareȱ speciallyȱtrainedȱasȱsuch,ȱinȱtrainingȱschoolsȱorȱduringȱtheȱpostȱlawȱ schoolȱpracticalȱworkȱperiod.ȱJudicialȱdecisionsȱareȱbasedȱonȱ interpretationȱofȱtheȱwrittenȱlaw,ȱandȱlegalȱscholarshipȱ(commentariesȱ byȱexperts,ȱarticlesȱbyȱlawȱprofessors,ȱetc.)ȱmayȱbeȱusedȱtoȱaidȱthisȱ interpretation.ȱUltimately,ȱjudgesȱinȱlowerȱcourtsȱhaveȱnoȱlegalȱ obligationȱtoȱfollowȱtheȱinterpretationsȱandȱdecisionsȱofȱotherȱjudgesȱinȱ previousȱcasesȱ(exceptȱthoseȱofȱtheȱHighȱCourt,ȱSupremeȱCourtȱorȱCourȱ deȱCassation),ȱalthoughȱtheyȱmayȱdoȱsoȱinȱpractice.ȱȱ ȱ Inȱcivilȱlawȱsystems,ȱlegislatorsȱandȱlawȱprofessorsȱexertȱinfluenceȱoverȱ theȱcontentȱofȱlawȱ(itsȱtextȱandȱitsȱinterpretation).ȱTherefore,ȱtheseȱtwoȱ groupsȱareȱimportantȱpartners.ȱAdditionally,ȱinȱaȱmonistȱsystem,ȱ judgesȱcanȱbeȱcalledȱuponȱtoȱapplyȱinternationalȱhumanȱrightsȱtreatiesȱ toȱwhichȱtheȱcountryȱisȱaȱpartyȱandȱtheyȱshouldȱbeȱencouragedȱtoȱdoȱ so.ȱ ȱ 1.2.3ȱCommonȱLawȱTraditionȱ ȱ TheȱcommonȱlawȱtraditionȱisȱderivedȱfromȱtheȱEnglishȱlegalȱtradition.ȱ Historically,ȱcommonȱlawȱwasȱlawȱdevelopedȱbyȱcustomȱ(priorȱ practiceȱofȱjusticeȱofficials),ȱbeforeȱthereȱwereȱwrittenȱlaws.ȱThisȱ practiceȱhasȱcontinuedȱtoȱbeȱappliedȱbyȱcommonȱlawȱcourts,ȱevenȱafterȱ lawsȱexistedȱinȱwrittenȱform.ȱȱ ȱ Inȱtheȱcommonȱlawȱsystem,ȱcourtȱdecisionsȱ(caseȱlaw)ȱareȱanȱimportantȱ sourceȱofȱlawȱandȱexpressionȱofȱlegalȱrules.ȱTheȱcourts’ȱinterpretationȱ ofȱtheȱconstitution,ȱlegislation,ȱandȱcodesȱbecomesȱlawȱitself.ȱJudgesȱ createȱandȱrefineȱthisȱlawȱthroughȱinterpretationȱofȱcommunityȱ standardsȱandȱtraditions.ȱTheȱdecisionsȱofȱcourtsȱthusȱestablishȱ precedentȱforȱfutureȱinterpretationȱofȱtheȱlawȱbyȱjudgesȱinȱtheȱsameȱorȱ lowerȱcourtsȱwithinȱtheȱsameȱjurisdiction.ȱJudgesȱthenȱrefineȱthisȱ
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interpretationȱinȱfutureȱcasesȱbyȱextendingȱitȱtoȱdifferentȱfactsȱandȱ circumstances.ȱȱ ȱ Statutes,ȱwhichȱareȱlawsȱenactedȱbyȱtheȱlegislature,ȱareȱwrittenȱandȱ interpretedȱbyȱtheȱjudges. 78 ȱCourtȱcasesȱfillȱtheȱgapsȱinȱlegislativeȱtexts.ȱ Inȱmanyȱcommonȱlawȱcountriesȱjudgesȱareȱseenȱasȱbalancingȱtheȱpowerȱ ofȱtheȱotherȱbranchesȱofȱgovernment.ȱGenerally,ȱjudgesȱdoȱnotȱreceiveȱ specificȱtraining,ȱbutȱareȱchosenȱfromȱamongȱrespectedȱandȱ experiencedȱadvocates/lawyers.ȱ ȱ Mostȱcountriesȱofȱtheȱcommonȱlawȱtraditionȱapplyȱtheȱ‘dualist’ȱsystemȱ withȱrespectȱtoȱtreatyȱobligations. 79 ȱThisȱmeansȱthatȱinternationalȱlawȱ isȱconsideredȱaȱseparateȱsystemȱthatȱgovernsȱconductȱamongstȱStates.ȱ Itȱdoesȱnotȱacquireȱdomesticȱstatusȱuponȱratificationȱunlessȱformalȱ legislativeȱactionȱhasȱbeenȱtaken.ȱȱThus,ȱinȱcommonȱlawȱcountries,ȱ evenȱifȱanȱinternationalȱinstrumentȱsuchȱasȱtheȱCRCȱorȱCEDAWȱhasȱ beenȱratified,ȱspecificȱlegislativeȱorȱadministrativeȱmeasuresȱareȱ requiredȱtoȱincorporateȱitsȱprovisionsȱintoȱdomesticȱlaw.ȱHowever,ȱinȱaȱ fewȱcommonȱlawȱcountries,ȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAWȱhaveȱbeenȱusedȱbyȱ judgesȱinȱmakingȱdecisionsȱandȱhaveȱthusȱinfluencedȱcaseȱlaw. 80 ȱInȱ addition,ȱinȱmanyȱStatesȱParties,ȱlegislationȱincorporatingȱCRCȱandȱ CEDAWȱprinciplesȱandȱstandardsȱhasȱbeenȱpiecemealȱandȱadȱhoc.ȱȱ ȱ Anotherȱimportantȱfeatureȱofȱtheȱcommonȱlawȱtraditionȱinȱrelationȱtoȱ lawmakingȱisȱthatȱitȱisȱtraditionallyȱbasedȱonȱjudicialȱprecedentȱasȱ opposedȱtoȱcodificationȱofȱlaw,ȱtheȱmainȱfeatureȱofȱtheȱcivilȱlawȱ system.ȱThereȱis,ȱhowever,ȱemergingȱevidenceȱtoȱsuggestȱtheȱadoptionȱ ofȱsomeȱcivilȱlawȱfeaturesȱintoȱtheȱcommonȱlawȱtraditionȱandȱviceȬ versa:ȱWhereasȱinȱcivilȱlawȱcountries,ȱthereȱisȱaȱgrowingȱimportanceȱofȱ judicialȱreviewȱinȱtheȱlawmakingȱprocess,ȱinȱcommonȱlawȱcountries,ȱ thereȱalsoȱappearsȱtoȱbeȱanȱadaptationȱtowardsȱstatuteȱlawȱandȱcodes.ȱ ȱ
78 Statutes are often written to be interpreted and can therefore be rather general in their phrasing. Unless the laws are very specific in their wording, they can be interpreted quite broadly, depending on the rights and interests involved. 79 While most common law countries are dualist when it comes to international treaties, this is not because of the common law. Rather, it is the result of the application of the royal prerogative in ratification of international treaties. 80 The CRC is a key component of the definitive Canadian reference on all law affecting children (Wilson on Children and the Law).
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Inȱtheȱcommonȱlawȱtradition,ȱtheȱunderstandingȱofȱhumanȱrightsȱ (generallyȱpreservedȱinȱtheȱnationalȱconstitutionȱorȱaȱbillȱorȱcharterȱofȱ rights)ȱmayȱbeȱredefinedȱorȱexpandedȱthroughȱinterpretationȱbyȱtheȱ courts,ȱasȱjudicialȱdecisionsȱestablishȱlegalȱprecedentsȱwhichȱhaveȱtheȱ forceȱofȱlawȱinȱcommonȱlawȱcountries.ȱThus,ȱcourtsȱandȱjudgesȱareȱ importantȱpartnersȱinȱbroadlyȱdefiningȱchildren’sȱrightsȱinȱsystemsȱ basedȱonȱcommonȱlawȱtraditions.ȱJudgesȱmustȱbeȱseenȱasȱpotentialȱ advocatesȱforȱadvancingȱtheȱrealisationȱofȱchildren’sȱrights.ȱSimilarly,ȱ legislatorsȱshouldȱbeȱencouragedȱtoȱpassȱlegislationȱholisticallyȱ incorporatingȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAWȱdomestically.ȱDoingȱsoȱwillȱmakeȱ itȱeasierȱforȱpartiesȱtoȱcourtȱcasesȱtoȱinvokeȱtheȱCRCȱorȱCEDAWȱinȱ supportȱofȱtheirȱcases.ȱInȱtheȱabsenceȱofȱholisticȱincorporation,ȱ advocates/lawyersȱshouldȱencourageȱcourtsȱtoȱuseȱtheȱCRCȱandȱ CEDAWȱ(evenȱwhenȱnotȱratifiedȱbyȱtheȱState) 81 ȱasȱaȱpersuasiveȱ authority—basedȱonȱtheȱState’sȱvoluntaryȱacceptanceȱofȱobligationsȱinȱ ratifyingȱtheȱinstrument.ȱ ȱ 1.2.4ȱMixed/PluralistȱLegalȱSystemsȱ
Mixedȱorȱpluralistȱlegalȱsystemsȱareȱtheȱmostȱcomplexȱtoȱnavigateȱandȱ analyzeȱinȱtermsȱofȱhowȱbestȱtoȱsupportȱlegislativeȱreformȱforȱchildrenȱ andȱwomen.ȱTheyȱmayȱinvolveȱcombinationsȱofȱanyȱlegalȱtraditionsȱ andȱoftenȱincludeȱsomeȱformȱofȱcustomaryȱorȱtraditionalȱlaw.ȱInȱotherȱ cases,ȱpluralistȱcountriesȱcombineȱcivilȱorȱcommonȱlawȱwithȱIslamicȱ law.ȱTheȱdifferentȱtraditionsȱmayȱinteractȱorȱoperateȱinȱindependentȱ spheres.ȱPluralistȱcountriesȱposeȱtheȱdistinctȱproblemȱofȱtryingȱtoȱ balanceȱtheȱdifferentȱlegalȱapproachesȱofȱmultipleȱsystemsȱoperatingȱatȱ theȱsameȱtime.ȱȱ ȱ 1.2.5ȱIslamicȱLawȱ ȱ Islamȱprovidesȱrulesȱforȱbothȱreligiousȱandȱsecularȱlife,ȱsettingȱanȱ extensiveȱcodeȱthatȱdirectsȱhowȱtheȱfaithfulȱmustȱbehaveȱasȱaȱ community.ȱ ȱ IslamicȱlawȱisȱbasedȱuponȱtheȱprinciplesȱofȱShari’a,ȱwhichȱ“refersȱtoȱtheȱ generalȱnormativeȱsystemȱofȱIslamȱasȱhistoricallyȱunderstoodȱandȱ
81 Attorney-General of Botswana v. Unity Dow, 1992 LRC (Const) 623, decided by the Court of Appeal of Botswana.
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developedȱbyȱMuslimȱjurists.” 82 ȱȱForȱpurposesȱofȱthisȱHandbook,ȱ StatesȱPartiesȱofȱtheȱIslamicȱlegalȱtraditionȱmayȱbeȱdescribedȱasȱthoseȱ whoseȱcivilȱandȱpenalȱlawsȱareȱpredominantlyȱbasedȱonȱShari’a.ȱTheȱ Shari’aȱcoversȱaȱwideȱrangeȱofȱissues,ȱfromȱdiet,ȱtheȱuseȱofȱpublicȱspace,ȱ andȱchildȱcustodyȱtoȱcriminalȱpunishment.ȱIslamicȱlawȱisȱbasedȱ predominantlyȱonȱtheȱQur’an,ȱHadithȱorȱSunnaȱ(customȱorȱconductȱofȱ theȱProphetȱMohammed),ȱIjmaȱ(consensusȱamongȱorȱopinionȱofȱ Muslimȱjuristsȱonȱaȱquestionȱofȱlaw),ȱQiyasȱ(analogicalȱdeduction,ȱinȱ mattersȱnotȱcoveredȱbyȱtheȱotherȱsources)ȱandȱIjtihadȱ(exercisingȱ independentȱjuristicȱreasoning).ȱTheȱShari’aȱtookȱsomewhatȱdifferentȱ formsȱwithinȱtheseȱapproaches,ȱandȱitsȱcontentȱandȱmethodsȱvaryȱ acrossȱtheȱMuslimȱworldȱtodayȱdependingȱonȱprevailingȱapproachesȱinȱ eachȱregionȱandȱcountry,ȱandȱtheȱlocalȱcustomsȱthatȱinformedȱthem. 83ȱ ȱ MostȱMuslimȱcountriesȱhaveȱincorporatedȱtheȱShari’aȱintoȱtheirȱ domesticȱlaw,ȱtoȱoneȱdegreeȱorȱanother.ȱConstitutionsȱofȱIslamicȱStatesȱ alsoȱserveȱasȱusefulȱframeworksȱforȱdeterminingȱtheȱstatusȱofȱ internationalȱlawȱwithinȱtheȱlegalȱframework.ȱTheȱconstitutionsȱofȱ manyȱStatesȱprovideȱthatȱtheȱShari’aȱshallȱbeȱtheȱprincipleȱsourceȱofȱ legislation.ȱȱ ȱ InȱmanyȱStatesȱsecularȱandȱreligiousȱlawsȱcoȬexistȱwhereȱpublicȱlawȱisȱ conductedȱonȱtheȱbasisȱofȱsecularȱprinciples.ȱItȱisȱtheȱShari’aȱonȱ personalȱstatusȱmattersȱ–ȱsuchȱasȱmarriage,ȱpolygamy,ȱdivorce,ȱ repudiation,ȱcustodyȱandȱguardianshipȱofȱchildren,ȱsexualȱrelationsȱ andȱinheritanceȱ–ȱthatȱisȱmostȱfrequentlyȱfoundȱinȱlegislation.ȱThisȱisȱ primarilyȱbecauseȱtheȱQur’anȱandȱSunnaȱgiveȱtheirȱmostȱdetailedȱ prescriptionsȱonȱtheseȱmatters,ȱbecauseȱIslamicȱpersonalȱstatusȱlawsȱ wereȱoftenȱleftȱlargelyȱintactȱduringȱperiodsȱofȱcolonialȱrule,ȱandȱ becauseȱIslamicȱfundamentalistȱmovementsȱtypicallyȱmakeȱthisȱareaȱofȱ lawȱaȱmainȱfocusȱinȱtheirȱreforms. 84 ȱFurthermore,ȱthereȱareȱcountriesȱ
82 A. An-Naim, ed., Islamic Family Law in a Changing World: A Global Resource Book, Zed Books, London (2003), p. 1, as cited in S. S. Ali, ‘A Comparative Perspective of the Convention on the Rights of the Child and the Principles of Islamic Law’, in Protecting the World’s Children: Impact of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child in Diverse Legal Systems, UNICEF, Cambridge University Press: New York (2007). 83 See: Dwyer p. 2,12; Venkatraman p.1964-1970; Elahi p. 368-369; An-Naim, “Religious Human Rights” p. 342-343. 84 Lee, Waldorf, Children’s Rights and Islam, UNICEF unpublished Working Paper (2000).
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whoseȱpopulationsȱbelongȱtoȱdifferentȱfaiths 85 ȱthatȱhaveȱenactedȱ personalȱstatusȱlawsȱspecificȱtoȱeachȱofȱtheȱdominantȱreligions. 86ȱ ȱ LocalȱvariationȱalsoȱplaysȱanȱimportantȱroleȱinȱIslam.ȱNotȱonlyȱwereȱ regionalȱtraditionsȱinfluentialȱinȱtheȱdevelopmentȱofȱtheȱShari’a,ȱbutȱ religionȱasȱitȱisȱnowȱexplainedȱandȱunderstoodȱatȱtheȱlocalȱlevelȱdoesȱ notȱalwaysȱconformȱtoȱtheȱletterȱofȱtheȱQur’an.ȱSomeȱcustomaryȱ practicesȱmayȱbeȱfalselyȱcharacterisedȱasȱIslamic.ȱAlso,ȱitȱshouldȱbeȱ notedȱthatȱlocalȱcustomȱinformedȱtheȱdevelopmentȱofȱtheȱdifferentȱ Islamicȱschoolsȱofȱlaw.ȱAsȱaȱresult,ȱtheȱconflictsȱwhichȱmayȱexistȱ betweenȱchildren’sȱhumanȱrightsȱandȱwhatȱisȱunderstoodȱtoȱbeȱaȱ properȱIslamicȱwayȱofȱlifeȱareȱnotȱconsistentȱacrossȱtheȱMuslimȱworld.ȱ ȱ Therefore,ȱparticularlyȱinȱtheȱareaȱofȱfamilyȱlaw,ȱthereȱisȱsomeȱbeliefȱ thatȱaȱreformulationȱofȱpracticesȱrelatingȱtoȱcustody,ȱguardianship,ȱ marriageȱage,ȱandȱinheritanceȱrights,ȱamongȱothers,ȱisȱpossibleȱwithinȱ theȱframeworkȱofȱIslamicȱlaw.ȱ 87 ȱForȱinstance,ȱsomeȱIslamicȱStatesȱhaveȱ usedȱijtihad,ȱorȱtheȱevolvingȱinterpretationȱofȱIslamicȱreligiousȱtexts,ȱtoȱ changeȱattitudes. 88 ȱHighlightingȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱIslamicȱlawȱthatȱareȱ conduciveȱtoȱchildren’sȱrightsȱcanȱadvanceȱimplementationȱofȱtheȱCRCȱ andȱCEDAW.ȱ ȱ 1.2.6ȱTraditionalȱorȱCustomaryȱLawȱ ȱ PoliticalȱandȱhistoricalȱlinkagesȱbetweenȱaȱnumberȱofȱcountriesȱinȱAsia,ȱ AfricaȱandȱpartsȱofȱOceania, 89 ȱandȱthoseȱofȱtheȱpurelyȱcivilȱlawȱandȱ commonȱlawȱtraditionsȱ(particularlyȱFrance,ȱBritain,ȱBelgiumȱandȱ Portugal),ȱresultedȱinȱtheȱemergenceȱofȱmixedȱlegalȱtraditions.ȱMentionȱ canȱalsoȱbeȱmadeȱofȱtheȱAngloȬDutchȱsystemȱofȱlaw,ȱwhichȱaffectedȱ countriesȱinȱsouthernȱAfrica.ȱTheȱpreȬexistenceȱofȱcustomaryȱlawȱorȱ Shari’aȱ(orȱboth)ȱinȱcolonisedȱStatesȱandȱtheȱsubsequentȱpositioningȱofȱ civilȱlaw,ȱcommonȱlawȱorȱAngloȬDutchȱsystemsȱmadeȱthisȱpossibleȱandȱ persistedȱevenȱafterȱtheseȱStatesȱgainedȱpoliticalȱindependence.ȱȱ
85 Countries such as India and Sri Lanka. 86 See: Syed p. 372-374; Venkatraman p. 1972-4; Goonesekere p. 49-53; Lucas p. 54-55. 87 S. S. Ali, ‘A Comparative Perspective of the Convention on the Rights of the Child and the Principles of Islamic Law’, in Protecting the World’s Children: Impact of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child in Diverse Legal Systems, UNICEF, Cambridge University Press: New York (2007), citing various scholars of Islamic law. 88 A/52/38/Rev.1, paras 45-80. 89 UNICEF study, supra.
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ȱ Thisȱhistoricalȱprocessȱhasȱhadȱaȱprofoundȱeffectȱonȱtheȱlegislativeȱ agendaȱofȱaffectedȱStatesȱParties.ȱȱColonisationȱgenerallyȱresultedȱinȱ theȱintroductionȱofȱnewȱlaws,ȱprincipallyȱfoundedȱonȱtheȱidealsȱofȱtheȱ colonisingȱState.ȱInȱaddition,ȱtraditionsȱandȱcustomsȱcontinueȱtoȱplayȱaȱ significantȱroleȱinȱtheȱlegalȱsystemȱofȱmanyȱcountries.ȱStatesȱinȱwhichȱ traditionalȱlawȱhasȱaȱsignificantȱimpactȱoftenȱofficiallyȱrecognizeȱ certainȱcustomaryȱprovisionsȱasȱsourcesȱofȱlawȱandȱdefineȱtheȱplaceȱofȱ theseȱprovisionsȱinȱtheȱhierarchyȱofȱlaws.ȱInȱFiji,ȱforȱexample,ȱcommonȱ lawȱandȱcustomaryȱlawȱoperateȱwithinȱtheȱsameȱsystem.ȱStateȱlawȱisȱ basedȱonȱtheȱcommonȱlawȱtradition,ȱwhileȱbothȱindigenousȱFijiansȱandȱ Indiansȱhaveȱtheirȱownȱdistinctȱcustomaryȱlawȱtraditions.ȱFijiȱhasȱthusȱ integratedȱtheȱcustomaryȱlawȱintoȱbothȱitsȱconstitutionȱandȱstatutoryȱ law. 90 ȱȱ ȱ Customaryȱlaw,ȱinȱsomeȱcasesȱadministeredȱbyȱtraditionalȱchiefsȱandȱ theirȱcouncils,ȱoftenȱdealsȱwithȱmattersȱrelatingȱtoȱchildrenȱandȱfamily.ȱ Evenȱifȱtheȱwrittenȱlawsȱofȱaȱcountryȱprotectȱandȱpromoteȱchildren’sȱ andȱwomen’sȱrights,ȱtraditionalȱpracticesȱmayȱoftenȱhinderȱtheirȱ effectiveness.ȱForȱexample,ȱtheȱlawȱmayȱgrantȱwomenȱtheȱrightȱtoȱ inheritȱpropertyȱ(fromȱaȱhusbandȱorȱfatherȱwhoȱdies),ȱbutȱifȱaȱwomanȱ isȱnotȱawareȱofȱtheȱlawȱorȱifȱcustomsȱinȱherȱcommunityȱexcludeȱwomenȱ fromȱinheritingȱproperty,ȱsheȱmayȱnotȱbeȱableȱtoȱbenefitȱfromȱtheȱ law. 91 ȱInȱtheȱcaseȱofȱGhana,ȱtheȱnationalȱconstitutionȱspecificallyȱ protectsȱwomen’sȱequalȱrightȱtoȱinheritance,ȱbutȱmanyȱwomenȱareȱ unawareȱofȱtheȱlaw. 92 ȱȱ ȱ Often,ȱtheȱpluralityȱofȱsourcesȱofȱlawsȱinȱcountriesȱwithȱmixedȱlegalȱ systemsȱplacesȱthemȱatȱaȱdisadvantageȱwithȱrespectȱtoȱstandardsȱ expectedȱunderȱarticleȱ4ȱofȱtheȱCRCȱinȱgeneral,ȱinȱparticularȱtheȱ obligationȱtoȱundertakeȱlegislativeȱreform.ȱCountriesȱwithȱdiverseȱ legaciesȱusuallyȱfaceȱadditionalȱhurdlesȱinȱensuringȱthatȱtheȱlegaciesȱofȱ
90 Phillips, Gwen, ‘Application of Customary Law Rules in Fiji and the Pacific Region: Dual Systems’, in Bringing International Human Rights Law Home: Judicial Colloquium on the Domestic Application of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and the Convention on the Rights of the Child (2000), p. 122. 91 See UNICEF, Human rights for children and women: How UNICEF helps make them a reality, p. 19-20; Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions, Bringing Equality Home: Promoting and Protecting the Inheritance Rights of Women (2004). 92 Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions, Bringing Equality Home: Promoting and Protecting the Inheritance Rights of Women (2004), p. 178.
35 Handbook on Legislative Reform colonial,ȱcustomaryȱandȱShari’aȱlawsȱareȱconsistentȱwithȱtheȱprinciplesȱ andȱprovisionsȱofȱtheȱCRC.ȱȱȱ ȱ Boxȱ14:ȱMainȱcharacteristicsȱofȱkeyȱlegalȱsystemsȱ ȱ CivilȱLawȱSystemȱ x Thisȱwrittenȱlawȱisȱtheȱprimaryȱsourceȱofȱlawȱandȱisȱorganizedȱintoȱ comprehensiveȱcodes,ȱwhichȱlayȱoutȱbasicȱlegalȱprinciplesȱ(ruleȱorientedȱ system);ȱcodesȱareȱwrittenȱinȱgeneralȱlanguage.ȱ x Judgesȱapplyȱlawȱandȱuseȱlegalȱscholarshipȱasȱaȱsourceȱforȱinterpretationȱofȱ theȱlaw;ȱinterpretationȱlooksȱatȱlegislativeȱhistory,ȱdoctrine,ȱtheȱlaw’sȱ purpose.ȱ x Judgesȱhaveȱnoȱlegalȱobligationȱtoȱfollowȱtheȱinterpretationsȱandȱdecisionsȱ ofȱotherȱjudgesȱinȱpreviousȱcasesȱ(exceptȱthoseȱofȱtheȱHighȱCourtȱorȱCourȱ deȱCassation),ȱalthoughȱtheyȱmayȱdoȱsoȱinȱpractice.ȱ x Theȱjudicialȱdecisionȱprocessȱbeginsȱwithȱidentifyingȱtheȱapplicableȱ principleȱandȱthenȱapplyingȱitȱtoȱcase.ȱ x Focusȱisȱonȱsocialȱorderȱandȱtimelyȱresolutionȱofȱcases;ȱconsistencyȱofȱ interpretationȱisȱoftenȱconsideredȱlessȱimportant.ȱ x Judgesȱareȱspeciallyȱtrainedȱasȱjudgesȱ(inȱtrainingȱschoolsȱorȱduringȱtheȱ postȱlawȱschoolȱpracticalȱworkȱperiod).ȱ x LawsȱareȱpublishedȱinȱanȱOfficialȱGazette;ȱonceȱratified,ȱinternationalȱ treatiesȱwillȱbecomeȱpartȱofȱdomesticȱlawȱwhenȱtheyȱareȱpublishedȱinȱtheȱ OfficialȱGazette.ȱ ȱ CommonȱLawȱSystemȱ x Courtȱdecisionsȱ(caseȱlaw)ȱareȱanȱimportantȱsourceȱofȱlaw.ȱ x Legislationȱisȱgenerallyȱspecificȱandȱinterpretedȱbyȱjudges.ȱ x Theȱjudiciaryȱprovidesȱaȱcheckȱonȱtheȱotherȱbranches;ȱcourtȱdecisionsȱareȱ lawsȱinȱandȱofȱthemselves.ȱ x Judgesȱlookȱtoȱpreviousȱcasesȱinȱtheirȱjurisdictionȱtoȱdecideȱaȱcaseȱ(lawȱisȱ basedȱonȱwhatȱhasȱbeenȱdecidedȱbefore).ȱ x Courtȱdecisionsȱareȱveryȱ‘factȱspecific’ȱ(i.e.ȱonȱinterpretationsȱofȱtheȱfactsȱtoȱ seeȱwhatȱruleȱshouldȱbeȱappliedȱandȱhow).ȱ x Courtȱdecisionsȱmayȱcreateȱtheȱimpetusȱforȱlegislativeȱreformȱtoȱfillȱgapsȱinȱ legislationȱexposedȱbyȱcases.ȱȱ ȱ IslamicȱLawȱ x Theȱsystemȱisȱbasedȱonȱreligiousȱsourcesȱofȱlawȱandȱjuristicȱtechniques:ȱtheȱ Quran,ȱHadithȱorȱSunnaȱ(customȱorȱconductȱofȱtheȱProphetȱMohammed),ȱ Ijmaȱ(consensusȱorȱopinion,ȱagreementȱamongȱMuslimȱjuristsȱonȱaȱquestionȱ ofȱlaw),ȱQiyasȱ(analogicalȱdeduction,ȱinȱmattersȱnotȱcoveredȱbyȱtheȱotherȱ sources)ȱandȱIjtihadȱ(exercisingȱindependentȱjuristicȱreasoning).ȱ x Islamicȱlawȱmostȱoftenȱcoexistsȱwithȱcustomaryȱnormsȱand/orȱ‘secular’ȱ legalȱframeworksȱ(inȱaȱpluralistȱsystem).ȱ x Personalȱstatusȱlawȱorȱfamilyȱlawȱisȱtheȱareaȱmostȱcommonlyȱcoveredȱbyȱ Islamicȱlawȱinȱpluralistȱsystems.ȱ ȱ Traditional/CustomaryȱLawȱ
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x Thisȱrefersȱtoȱoralȱlawȱbasedȱonȱinheritedȱcustomȱandȱcommunityȱtradition.ȱ x Theseȱlawsȱoftenȱprevailȱinȱpracticeȱevenȱwhenȱatȱoddsȱwithȱformalȱwrittenȱ laws.ȱ x Traditionalȱlawȱisȱsometimesȱadjudicatedȱbyȱtraditionalȱleadersȱorȱtribalȱ councils.ȱ ȱ 1.3ȱȱ StatusȱofȱInternationalȱHumanȱRightsȱInstrumentsȱinȱ DomesticȱLegislationȱ ȱ Theȱpositionȱofȱinternationalȱhumanȱrightsȱinstruments,ȱsuchȱasȱtheȱ CRCȱandȱCEDAW,ȱvariesȱwithȱtheȱlegalȱsystemsȱandȱconstitutionalȱ structuresȱofȱdifferentȱcountries.ȱForȱsome,ȱtheȱratificationȱofȱorȱ accessionȱtoȱanyȱinternationalȱagreement,ȱtreatyȱorȱconventionȱ automaticallyȱresultsȱinȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱthatȱinstrumentȱbeingȱ incorporatedȱdirectlyȱintoȱdomesticȱlegislation,ȱandȱbeingȱimmediatelyȱ andȱfullyȱjusticiableȱ(subjectȱtoȱactionȱinȱaȱcourtȱofȱlaw).ȱForȱothers,ȱtheȱ internationalȱinstrumentȱhasȱnoȱlegalȱforceȱdomesticallyȱunlessȱandȱ untilȱspecialȱenablingȱlegislationȱisȱadopted.ȱInȱsomeȱcases,ȱthisȱmayȱbeȱ doneȱthroughȱaȱconstitutionalȱamendment.ȱOtherȱcountriesȱmayȱ chooseȱtoȱincorporateȱtheȱinstrument,ȱinȱitsȱentirety,ȱinȱaȱsingleȱpieceȱofȱ legislation.ȱStillȱothersȱwillȱuseȱaȱnumberȱofȱdifferentȱlaws,ȱdealingȱ withȱtheȱvariousȱaspectsȱofȱtheȱinstrumentȇsȱapplication,ȱtoȱincorporateȱ itȱgraduallyȱoverȱtime.ȱȱ ȱ Theȱvariousȱwaysȱinȱwhichȱinternationalȱinstrumentsȱareȱappliedȱinȱ countriesȱareȱoutlinedȱinȱdetailȱinȱtheȱSectionȱonȱconstitutionalȱ changes.ȱ ȱ 1.4ȱ Conclusionȱ ȱ Theȱlegalȱtraditionsȱinȱaȱgivenȱcountryȱcanȱhaveȱaȱprofoundȱimpactȱonȱ howȱinternationalȱhumanȱrightsȱtreatiesȱsuchȱasȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAWȱ areȱimplemented.ȱTheȱlegalȱsystemȱalsoȱhasȱanȱeffectȱonȱhowȱ stakeholdersȱcanȱadvocateȱforȱandȱsupportȱlegislativeȱreformȱ(throughȱ institutionalȱmobilization,ȱmonitoringȱofȱresourceȱallocations,ȱandȱ policyȱandȱlawȱimplementation,ȱforȱexample).ȱUnderstandingȱtheȱ foundationsȱofȱtheȱlegalȱtraditionȱinȱaȱtheoreticalȱsense 93 ȱcanȱprovideȱaȱ
93 For a more comprehensive introduction to legal traditions, see M.A. Glendon, et al., Comparative Legal Traditions in a Nutshell (2d. ed., 1999); I. Edge, ed., Islamic Law and Legal Theory, Aldershot: Dartmouth (1996).
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betterȱunderstandingȱofȱtheȱnationalȱsystem,ȱhowȱitȱworks,ȱandȱhowȱitȱ canȱfosterȱtheȱrealisationȱofȱchildren’sȱandȱwomen’sȱrights.ȱ ȱ Theȱgeneralȱprinciplesȱofȱhumanȱrightsȱ(universality,ȱindivisibilityȱandȱ interdependency) 94 ȱcollectivelyȱconnoteȱtheȱneedȱtoȱmaintainȱcohesionȱ inȱtheȱlawȱreformȱprocess.ȱȱȱ ȱ ȱ Partȱ2ȱ LEGISLATIONȱREVIEWȱANDȱ REFORMȱONȱBEHALFȱOFȱCHILDRENȇSȱ RIGHTSȱ ȱ 2.1ȱ WhyȱReviewȱandȱReformȱLegislation?ȱ ȱ Thereȱareȱseveralȱreasonsȱwhyȱaȱcountryȱwouldȱundertakeȱtoȱreviewȱ andȱreformȱitsȱlegislationȱrelatingȱtoȱchildren.ȱInȱsomeȱplaces,ȱseveralȱ factorsȱmayȱcombineȱtoȱpromptȱanȱexaminationȱofȱlegislation,ȱsocialȱ policy,ȱadministrativeȱstructuresȱandȱtheȱallocationȱofȱresourcesȱthatȱ reflectȱaȱStateȇsȱeffortȱtoȱmeetȱitsȱobligationsȱtoȱitsȱchildren.ȱTheȱreasonsȱ forȱundertakingȱtheȱexerciseȱwill,ȱtoȱaȱlargeȱextent,ȱdetermineȱtheȱ processȱfollowedȱandȱtheȱresultingȱactions.ȱ ȱ Oneȱreasonȱforȱreviewȱandȱreformȱofȱlegislationȱcouldȱbeȱtoȱensureȱthatȱ theȱStateȱPartyȱisȱmeetingȱitsȱcommitmentȱunderȱArticleȱ4ȱofȱtheȱCRCȱ toȱȈundertakeȱallȱappropriateȱlegislative,ȱadministrativeȱandȱotherȱ measuresȱforȱtheȱimplementationȱofȱtheȱrightsȱrecognizedȱinȱtheȱ presentȱConvention.ȈȱThereȱmay,ȱinȱaddition,ȱbeȱaȱsimilarȱobligationȱinȱ relationȱtoȱCEDAWȱorȱotherȱrelatedȱinternationalȱinstrumentsȱtoȱwhichȱ theȱcountryȱisȱaȱparty.ȱForȱsome,ȱaȱreviewȱofȱlegislationȱcouldȱbeȱ sparked,ȱasȱitȱwasȱinȱGhana,ȱbyȱtheȱpreparationȱofȱaȱreportȱtoȱtheȱ CommitteeȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChild. 95 ȱTheȱCommitteeȇsȱGuidelinesȱ forȱtheȱpreparationȱofȱreportsȱaskȱexplicitȱandȱpreciseȱquestionsȱaboutȱ stepsȱtakenȱtoȱimplementȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱtheȱCRCȱinȱnationalȱ
94 See http://www.unicef.org/CRC/ for more details on the general principles of human rights. 95 Quashigah, Kofi, Legislative Reform Initiatives, Institutional Development and Policy Changes in Favour of Children: A Ghana National Study, Accra, UNICEF Ghana (date unknown) [henceforth: Ghana], p. 13.
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legislation,ȱincludingȱspecificȱlaws,ȱbudgetaryȱmeasures,ȱ administrativeȱmechanismsȱandȱpoliciesȱregardingȱchildren. 96ȱ ȱ Theȱreviewȱandȱreformȱprocessȱcouldȱbeȱpartȱofȱaȱbroaderȱnationalȱ examinationȱofȱtheȱsituationȱofȱchildren.ȱThisȱmayȱbeȱdrivenȱbyȱpublicȱ concernsȱaboutȱchildȱpoverty,ȱhealth,ȱeducation,ȱnutrition,ȱlabourȱorȱ exploitation.ȱTheseȱissuesȱmayȱbeȱbroughtȱtoȱpublicȱandȱgovernmentȱ attentionȱbyȱchildren,ȱorȱbyȱtheirȱadvocates.ȱTheȱgovernmentȱmayȱtakeȱ theȱinitiative,ȱinȱresponseȱtoȱeitherȱaȱpoliticalȱdecisionȱorȱ(inȱcommonȱ lawȱcountries)ȱjudicialȱfindingsȱthatȱbringȱexistingȱlawsȱorȱpartsȱthereofȱ intoȱquestion.ȱTheȱmedia,ȱbyȱbringingȱbreachesȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱtoȱ publicȱattention,ȱcanȱbeȱinstrumentalȱinȱgeneratingȱconcernȱthatȱcanȱ leadȱtoȱreviewȱandȱreformȱofȱlegislation.ȱ ȱ Aȱdramaticȱchangeȱinȱtheȱpoliticalȱlandscape,ȱsuchȱasȱtheȱendȱofȱ ApartheidȱinȱSouthȱAfrica, 97 ȱcanȱprovokeȱaȱwideȬrangingȱreviewȱandȱ reformȱofȱnationalȱlegislation,ȱincludingȱtheȱconstitution.ȱThisȱwouldȱ naturallyȱalsoȱincludeȱlegislationȱrelatingȱtoȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱasȱaȱ matterȱofȱcourse.ȱInȱmonistȱcountries,ȱforȱwhichȱtheȱCRCȱbecameȱ enforceableȱinȱlawȱasȱaȱdirectȱresultȱofȱratificationȱorȱaccession,ȱthereȱisȱ stillȱaȱneedȱtoȱensureȱthatȱother,ȱpreȬexistingȱlegislationȱisȱinȱharmonyȱ withȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱtheȱCRC.ȱIfȱlegislationȱisȱnotȱinȱaccordȱwithȱtheȱ CRC,ȱtheȱStateȱisȱobligedȱtoȱtakeȱtheȱstepsȱnecessaryȱtoȱrectifyȱtheȱ situation,ȱsoȱasȱtoȱavoidȱcontradictionsȱbetweenȱtheȱCRCȱandȱtheȱ legislation.ȱThisȱhasȱbeenȱtheȱcase,ȱforȱexample,ȱinȱcountriesȱsuchȱasȱ Nicaragua,ȱEthiopia,ȱSyriaȱandȱBelgium.ȱ 98 ȱȱ ȱ Forȱdualistȱcountries,ȱsuchȱasȱJamaica,ȱGhanaȱandȱIndia, 99 ȱwhichȱdoȱ notȱautomaticallyȱadoptȱinternationalȱinstrumentsȱintoȱnationalȱlaw,ȱ theȱexistingȱlegislationȱneedsȱtoȱbeȱreviewedȱtoȱseeȱtheȱextentȱtoȱwhichȱ itȱfulfilsȱtheȱStateȇsȱobligationsȱunderȱtheȱCRC.ȱIfȱthereȱareȱgapsȱorȱ contradictions,ȱnewȱlegislationȱneedsȱtoȱbeȱadoptedȱtoȱestablishȱtheȱfullȱ legalȱimplementationȱofȱtheȱCRCȇsȱprovisionsȱinȱtheȱcountryȇsȱcourtsȱ
96 Hodgkin, Rachel and Peter Newell, Implementation Handbook for the Convention on the Rights of the Child, Fully Revised Edition, UNICEF, New York and Geneva (2002) [henceforth: Implementation Handbook], p. 54-5. 97 Nundy, Karuna, Global Status of Legislative Reform Related to the Convention on the Rights of the Child, Global Policy Section, UNICEF (internal paper), New York (April 14, 2004) [henceforth: Nundy], p. 13. 98 Nundy, p. 8-9 (footnote). 99 Nundy, p. 6-7 and p. 10 (footnotes).
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andȱtoȱpromoteȱtheȱfullȱimplementationȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱinȱ governmentȱpolicy,ȱprogrammesȱandȱoperations.ȱ ȱ Thereȱisȱaȱdistinctȱdifferenceȱbetweenȱaȱprocessȱofȱlegislationȱreviewȱonȱ behalfȱofȱchildrenȱthatȱarisesȱfromȱaȱbroadlyȱheldȱdesireȱonȱtheȱpartȱofȱ societyȱtoȱfosterȱaȱprotective,ȱnurturingȱorȱegalitarianȱenvironmentȱinȱ whichȱchildrenȱcanȱgrowȱandȱdevelop,ȱandȱaȱprocessȱthatȱisȱ undertakenȱinȱorderȱtoȱensureȱcomplianceȱwithȱCRC/CEDAW.ȱ ȱ Ifȱtheȱreviewȱisȱtheȱresultȱofȱaȱgeneralȱcommitmentȱonȱtheȱpartȱofȱtheȱ governmentȱandȱcivilȱsocietyȱtoȱpromotingȱtheȱbroadestȱpossibleȱ wellbeingȱofȱchildren,ȱitȱwillȱnaturallyȱlookȱatȱanȱextensiveȱrangeȱofȱ legislation.ȱLegislationȱthatȱaffectsȱchildren,ȱandȱwhichȱneedsȱtoȱbeȱ harmonisedȱwithȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAW,ȱgoesȱwellȱbeyondȱlawsȱthatȱ specificallyȱmentionȱorȱpertainȱtoȱ Legislative measures children.ȱThisȱapproachȱwillȱlikelyȱalsoȱ x Specificȱlawsȱandȱ entailȱaȱstrongerȱandȱmoreȱexpansiveȱ regulations;ȱ understandingȱofȱtheȱroleȱofȱsocietyȱasȱ x Creationȱofȱspecificȱ whole,ȱandȱtheȱadministrativeȱ institutionsȱtoȱpromoteȱandȱ structuresȱofȱtheȱStateȱinȱparticular,ȱinȱ protectȱtheȱrightsȱofȱ children;ȱ supportingȱandȱprotectingȱchildrenȇsȱ x Processesȱwithinȱexistingȱ rights.ȱHowever,ȱsuchȱanȱexerciseȱcanȱ broaderȱinstitutionsȱtoȱtakeȱ becomeȱvagueȱandȱunfocusedȱifȱitȱtriesȱ accountȱofȱtheȱinterestsȱofȱ toȱtakeȱonȱeveryȱaspectȱofȱchildrenȇsȱ children;ȱandȱ livesȱallȱatȱonce.ȱ x Governmentȱpolices,ȱplansȱ andȱprogrammes,ȱ ȱ includingȱgoalsȱsetȱforȱ Onȱtheȱotherȱhand,ȱwhileȱaȱreviewȱofȱ economic,ȱsocialȱandȱ legislationȱinȱresponseȱtoȱ culturalȱrightsȱofȱchildren,ȱ CRC/CEDAWȱavoidsȱdigressionȱandȱ suchȱas:ȱ keepsȱaȱclearȱfocusȱonȱitsȱobjective,ȱitȱ - education (e.g. school enrolment and completion mayȱbeȱseenȱasȱaȱpurelyȱtechnicalȱ targets); exerciseȱforȱgovernmentȱagencies.ȱAsȱ - health care (e.g. suchȱitȱmayȱlackȱtheȱkindȱofȱpublicȱ immunisation coverage); and supportȱthatȱenablesȱreadyȱacceptanceȱ - nutrition (e.g. access to ofȱtheȱprinciplesȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱ adequate and appropriate and,ȱeventually,ȱsupportȱforȱanyȱȱ food and nutrition).
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Legislationȱdealingȱwithȱchildren’sȱrights: x Includes: - protection from abuse and exploitation; - administration of justice; - provision of services (education, health care, nutrition, housing and economic support); - assignment of family responsibilities; and - creation of opportunities for children to participate in national life; x EstablishesȱbasicȱprinciplesȱthatȱunderlieȱallȱrelationsȱbetweenȱtheȱStateȱ andȱitsȱchildren;ȱ x Createsȱstructures,ȱprocessesȱandȱsystemsȱthroughȱwhichȱthoseȱrelationsȱ areȱcarriedȱout;ȱ x Providesȱforȱnecessaryȱadministrativeȱandȱbudgetaryȱresourcesȱtoȱ implementȱmeasuresȱadoptedȱandȱtoȱmaintainȱinstitutionsȱcreatedȱtoȱ promoteȱandȱprotectȱchildren’sȱrights;ȱandȱ x Establishesȱstandardsȱandȱmechanismsȱforȱmonitoringȱtheȱsituationȱofȱ children’sȱrightsȱinȱgeneral,ȱnotȱonlyȱinȱrelationȱtoȱspecificȱpiecesȱofȱ legislation.ȱ
resultingȱchangeȱtoȱaccustomedȱpractices.ȱItȱcouldȱresultȱinȱaȱsituationȱ inȱwhichȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱareȱformallyȱrecognisedȱinȱlawȱbutȱareȱnotȱ respectedȱinȱpractice,ȱifȱbothȱpoliticalȱwillȱandȱpopularȱacceptanceȱareȱ missing.ȱConcentrationȱonȱtheȱspecificȱprovisionsȱofȱCRC/CEDAWȱ couldȱresultȱinȱfailureȱtoȱtakeȱaccountȱofȱsomeȱmeasuresȱwhichȱhaveȱaȱ significantȱifȱindirectȱeffectȱonȱchildrenȇsȱrights.ȱItȱisȱimportantȱwithȱ thisȱapproachȱasȱwellȱtoȱrecogniseȱthatȱtheȱlegislationȱtoȱbeȱexaminedȱisȱ notȱlimitedȱtoȱspecificȱlawsȱwhichȱdealȱexplicitlyȱwithȱchildren.ȱSinceȱ justȱaboutȱanyȱactionȱofȱgovernmentȱwillȱhaveȱsomeȱeffectȱonȱtheȱlivesȱ andȱrightsȱofȱchildren,ȱallȱlegislationȱneedsȱtoȱbeȱtakenȱintoȱaccountȱinȱ assessingȱtheȱimplementationȱofȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAW.ȱ ȱ 2.1.1ȱChildrenȇsȱRightsȱandȱNationalȱLegislationȱ ȱ TheȱCRCȱservesȱnotȱonlyȱasȱanȱinternationalȱstandardȱforȱtheȱtreatmentȱ ofȱchildren,ȱbutȱalsoȱasȱaȱsymbolȱofȱtheȱnewȱandȱgrowingȱ understandingȱofȱtheȱpositionȱofȱchildrenȱinȱsociety.ȱOnceȱitȱwasȱ assumedȱeverywhereȱthatȱchildrenȱwereȱessentiallyȱobjectsȱofȱ protectionȱorȱobjectsȱofȱcontrol,ȱtheȱexclusiveȱresponsibilityȱofȱtheȱ familyȱandȱnotȱfullyȱpersonsȱinȱtheȱlegalȱsense.ȱTheȱCRCȱembodiesȱtheȱ recognitionȱthatȱchildrenȱareȱsubjectsȱofȱrightsȱandȱfullyȱentitledȱtoȱ participateȱinȱsocietyȱtoȱtheȱextentȱtheirȱdevelopingȱcapacitiesȱallow.ȱȱ ȱ
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Allȱlegislationȱrelatingȱtoȱchildren,ȱincludingȱbutȱnotȱlimitedȱtoȱfamilyȱ lawȱandȱthoseȱmeasuresȱthatȱdealȱwithȱcriminalȱactivityȱbothȱbyȱandȱ againstȱchildren,ȱneedsȱtoȱbeȱreviewedȱand,ȱifȱnecessary,ȱamendedȱinȱ theȱlightȱofȱthisȱnewȱunderstanding.ȱ ȱ Crucialȱtoȱthisȱisȱtheȱacknowledgementȱthatȱchildrenȱareȱimportantȱ membersȱofȱsocietyȱandȱthatȱsociety,ȱtherefore,ȱhasȱaȱresponsibilityȱtoȱ careȱforȱthemȱandȱpromoteȱtheirȱfullestȱpossibleȱdevelopment.ȱAȱ particularȱexampleȱofȱtheȱsortȱofȱattitudeȱthatȱneedsȱtoȱbeȱovercomeȱisȱ foundȱinȱtheȱȈdoctrineȱofȱirregularȱsituationȈȱwhichȱwas,ȱforȱyears,ȱatȱ theȱrootȱofȱmuchȱlegislationȱdealingȱwithȱchildrenȱinȱLatinȱAmericanȱ countries.ȱThisȱconceptȱheldȱthatȱchildrenȱȈareȱobjectsȱofȱjudicialȱ protectionȱratherȱthanȱindividualsȱwithȱrights.Ȉ 100 ȱItȱleftȱchildrenȱwhoȱ wereȱnotȱsubjectȱtoȱlegalȱintervention,ȱforȱexampleȱchildrenȱwhoȱliveȱinȱ householdsȱwithȱeitherȱtheirȱfamiliesȱorȱasȱdomesticȱemployees,ȱsubjectȱ toȱaȱwideȱvarietyȱofȱabusesȱwithoutȱlegalȱrecourse,ȱwhileȱtheȱjudicialȱ processȱandȱtheȱtreatmentȱofȱchildrenȱwhoȱcomeȱtoȱtheȱattentionȱofȱtheȱ courts,ȱincludingȱinȱcasesȱofȱinstitutionalȱcareȱandȱdetention,ȱdidȱnotȱ Ȉmakeȱaȱclearȱdifferenceȱbetweenȱchildrenȱinȱneedȱofȱcareȱandȱ protectionȱandȱthoseȱinȱconflictȱwithȱtheȱlaw.Ȉ 101 ȱȱ ȱ Legislationȱaffectingȱchildrenȱdoesȱmoreȱthanȱsetȱoutȱrulesȱforȱ behaviourȱwithȱregardȱtoȱchildren.ȱAlthoughȱitȱisȱimportantȱthatȱtheȱ lawȱdefineȱprohibitedȱactsȱcommittedȱeitherȱagainstȱorȱbyȱchildren,ȱandȱ setȱoutȱtheȱpenaltiesȱthatȱwillȱbeȱimposedȱforȱthoseȱacts,ȱtheȱscopeȱofȱ legislationȱinȱrelationȱtoȱchildren,ȱespeciallyȱasȱenvisagedȱbyȱtheȱCRC,ȱ isȱmuchȱbroader.ȱItȱencompassesȱallȱaspectsȱofȱaȱchildȇsȱlifeȱandȱtheȱ childȇsȱrelationshipȱtoȱothers.ȱȱ ȱ Thisȱmayȱseemȱaȱveryȱbroadȱdefinitionȱofȱlegislationȱasȱitȱrelatesȱtoȱ children.ȱHowever,ȱlegislationȱisȱtheȱprimaryȱmeansȱbyȱwhichȱ governmentsȱactȱonȱbehalfȱofȱtheȱStateȱtoȱmanageȱtheirȱmanyȱ responsibilities,ȱincludingȱresponsibilitiesȱtoȱandȱforȱchildren.ȱWhenȱ consideringȱreviewȱandȱreformȱofȱlegislationȱinȱrelationȱtoȱchildrenȇsȱ rights,ȱlegislationȱspecificallyȱdealingȱwithȱchildrenȱ–ȱfamilyȱlaw,ȱ juvenileȱjustice,ȱlawsȱaboutȱeducationȱorȱagainstȱchildȱlabour,ȱlawsȱtoȱ protectȱchildrenȱfromȱsexualȱexploitationȱ–isȱnotȱtheȱonlyȱrealmȱofȱlawȱ
100 Nundy, p. 9. 101 Nundy, p. 9.
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thatȱmustȱbeȱtakenȱintoȱaccount.ȱOtherȱpiecesȱofȱlegislation,ȱincludingȱ thoseȱthatȱdealȱwithȱmattersȱofȱgenderȱequalityȱbetweenȱmenȱandȱ women,ȱasȱwellȱasȱbetweenȱboysȱandȱgirls,ȱshouldȱalsoȱbeȱconsidered,ȱ sinceȱchildren,ȱasȱmembersȱofȱsociety,ȱareȱaffectedȱbyȱallȱlegislativeȱ action.ȱȱ ȱ 2.2ȱ ReviewȱofȱLegislationȱ ȱ 2.2.1ȱ ApproachesȱtoȱReviewȱ ȱ Theȱpreciseȱnatureȱofȱtheȱlegislationȱinȱplaceȱwillȱvaryȱfromȱcountryȱtoȱ country,ȱdependingȱonȱtheȱlegalȱsystem,ȱtheȱpoliticalȱprocess,ȱeconomicȱ circumstances,ȱtraditionalȱvaluesȱandȱtheȱroleȱofȱtheȱStateȱinȱsocialȱ matters.ȱInȱparticular,ȱtheȱmechanismsȱforȱmonitoringȱchildrenȇsȱrights,ȱ bothȱinȱlawȱandȱinȱpractice,ȱwillȱreflectȱtheȱwaysȱinȱwhichȱaȱcountryȱ managesȱtheȱrelationshipȱbetweenȱtheȱStateȱandȱtheȱpopulationȱinȱ general.ȱHowever,ȱthereȱareȱcertainȱfundamentalȱconceptsȱandȱ approachesȱthatȱshouldȱbeȱcommonȱtoȱallȱStatesȱPartiesȱtoȱtheȱCRCȱandȱ toȱCEDAW,ȱwhichȱwillȱbeȱhighlightedȱthroughoutȱthisȱchapterȱofȱtheȱ Handbookȱandȱthoseȱthatȱfollow.ȱ ȱ Theȱfollowingȱdiscussionȱdealsȱprimarilyȱwithȱtheȱincorporationȱofȱtheȱ provisionsȱandȱprinciplesȱofȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAWȱintoȱlegislation.ȱInȱ thoseȱcountriesȱwhichȱfollowȱtheȱcommonȱlawȱtradition,ȱtheȱreviewȱ shouldȱgoȱbeyondȱwrittenȱlegislationȱtoȱtheȱbodyȱofȱjurisprudenceȱandȱ caseȱlawȱthatȱhasȱaȱbearingȱonȱchildrenȇsȱrights.ȱTheȱprocessesȱ examinedȱhereȱcanȱbeȱappliedȱtoȱbothȱwrittenȱandȱunwrittenȱlaw.ȱ ȱ Thisȱguidanceȱhasȱimplications,ȱasȱwell,ȱforȱcountriesȱwithȱpluralȱlegalȱ systemsȱthatȱincludeȱcustomaryȱlaw.ȱBecauseȱcustomaryȱlawȱisȱlargelyȱ unwrittenȱandȱdependentȱonȱinterpretation,ȱanȱanalysisȱofȱtheȱsituationȱ ofȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱandȱpossibleȱrevisionȱofȱcustomaryȱlawȱwillȱhaveȱtoȱ beȱapproachedȱwithȱgreatȱsensitivity,ȱtakingȱintoȱaccountȱbothȱculturalȱ andȱhistoricalȱaspectsȱofȱtheȱcustomaryȱlaw.ȱItȱshouldȱbeȱdoneȱinȱaȱwayȱ thatȱisȱresponsiveȱtoȱtheȱcharacteristicsȱofȱeachȱcommunityȱandȱculturalȱ group.ȱInȱmanyȱpluralȱlegalȱsystems,ȱcustomaryȱlawȱisȱconstitutionallyȱ deemedȱsubservientȱtoȱtheȱstateȱstandardȱofȱcivilȱorȱcommonȱlaw.ȱInȱallȱ circumstances,ȱbecauseȱofȱtheȱuniversalityȱprincipleȱthatȱunderliesȱallȱ UnitedȱNationsȱhumanȱrightsȱinstruments,ȱrightsȱtakeȱpriorityȱoverȱ
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customȱinȱdeterminingȱwhatȱlaws,ȱrules,ȱregulationsȱandȱtraditionalȱ behavioursȱareȱacceptable.ȱTherefore,ȱitȱshouldȱbeȱpossibleȱalsoȱtoȱ reformȱcustomaryȱlawȱasȱitȱrelatesȱtoȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱbyȱmeansȱofȱ legislationȱifȱnecessary.ȱGivenȱthisȱunderstanding,ȱaȱreviewȱofȱ customaryȱlawȱasȱitȱaffectsȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱcanȱbeȱundertakenȱusingȱ theȱprocessesȱdescribedȱbelow.ȱ ȱ Similarly,ȱreviewȱandȱreformȱofȱlegislationȱthatȱderivesȱfromȱIslamicȱ lawȱinvolvesȱmoreȱthanȱtheȱrelationshipȱbetweenȱwrittenȱlawȱandȱtheȱ provisionsȱofȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAW.ȱTheȱcrucialȱreligiousȱandȱ historicalȱdimensionȱofȱIslamicȱlawȱrequiresȱanȱapproachȱthatȱtakesȱ intoȱaccountȱmoreȱthanȱwrittenȱjurisprudence,ȱconsidering,ȱforȱ example,ȱtheȱroleȱofȱreligiousȱleadersȱandȱteachers.ȱEvenȱinȱcountriesȱ whereȱIslamicȱlawȱprevails,ȱhowever,ȱitȱshouldȱbeȱpossibleȱtoȱconsiderȱ theȱapproachesȱandȱobjectivesȱofȱreviewȱandȱreformȱofȱlegislationȱasȱ describedȱhere.ȱ ȱ TheȱCommitteeȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChild,ȱinȱitsȱevaluationȱofȱStateȱ PartyȱreportsȱonȱtheȱimplementationȱofȱtheȱCRC,ȱhasȱconsistentlyȱ stressedȱtheȱneedȱforȱallȱStatesȱtoȱexamineȱtheirȱownȱlegislationȱtoȱseeȱ if,ȱandȱtoȱwhatȱextent,ȱitȱisȱinȱcomplianceȱwithȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱtheȱ CRC.ȱForȱexample,ȱinȱitsȱConcludingȱObservationsȱonȱtheȱInitialȱReportȱ ofȱIndonesia,ȱtheȱCommitteeȱsaid:ȱ ȱ “TheȱCommitteeȱrecommendsȱtoȱStatesȱPartiesȱthatȱtheyȱsetȱupȱaȱ mechanismȱtoȱensureȱthatȱallȱproposedȱandȱexistingȱlegislativeȱandȱ administrativeȱmeasuresȱareȱsystematicallyȱreviewedȱtoȱensureȱtheȱ compatibilityȱwithȱtheȱConventionȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChild.ȱSuchȱ reviewsȱshouldȱbeȱcarriedȱoutȱconsideringȱallȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱtheȱ Convention,ȱandȱbeȱguidedȱbyȱitsȱgeneralȱprinciples;ȱtheyȱshouldȱalsoȱ giveȱadequateȱattentionȱtoȱtheȱneedȱtoȱensureȱappropriateȱconsultationȱ withȱandȱinvolvementȱofȱcivilȱsocietyȱduringȱtheȱreviewȱprocess.Ȉȱ (ReportȱonȱtheȱtwentyȬsecondȱsession,ȱSeptember/Octoberȱ1999,ȱCRC/C/90,ȱ paraȱ291(f).) 102ȱ ȱ
102 Implementation Handbook, p. 59.
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2.2.2ȱ WhoȱParticipatesȱinȱtheȱReview?ȱ ȱ Aȱreviewȱofȱlegislationȱthatȱaffectsȱtheȱrightsȱofȱchildrenȱhasȱtwoȱ equallyȱimportantȱdimensions:ȱanalysisȱandȱconsultation.ȱTheseȱareȱnotȱ separateȱandȱunrelated.ȱAsȱtheȱexampleȱofȱVenezuelaȇsȱlegislationȱ reformȱprocess 103 ȱshows,ȱtheȱinteractionȱofȱtechnicalȱassessmentȱwithȱ publicȱconsultationȱcanȱproduceȱtheȱmostȱeffectiveȱresultȱwithȱtheȱ broadestȱpossibleȱpublicȱsupport.ȱ ȱ Throughout,ȱtheȱreviewȱprocessȱshouldȱinvolveȱtheȱfullȱrangeȱofȱ partiesȱwhoȱhaveȱanȱinterestȱinȱtheȱsituationȱofȱchildrenȱandȱtheirȱ rights.ȱAsȱtheȱprincipalȱorganȱofȱtheȱState,ȱresponsibleȱforȱbothȱ developingȱandȱimplementingȱlegislation,ȱtheȱgovernmentȱnaturallyȱ hasȱaȱkeyȱroleȱtoȱplayȱatȱallȱstagesȱofȱtheȱreview.ȱToȱbeȱeffective,ȱtheȱ reviewȱwillȱneedȱtoȱengageȱallȱorgansȱofȱgovernment,ȱbothȱpoliticalȱ andȱadministrative.ȱTheȱcommitmentȱofȱgovernmentȱtoȱtheȱprocess,ȱ andȱtheirȱfullȱacceptanceȱofȱtheȱresults,ȱwillȱbeȱcriticalȱtoȱtheȱsuccessȱofȱ thisȱendeavour.ȱ ȱ Atȱtheȱsameȱtime,ȱtheȱreviewȱprocessȱneedsȱtoȱgoȱwellȱbeyondȱtheȱ formalȱgovernmentalȱstructure.ȱItȱshouldȱengageȱallȱsectorsȱofȱtheȱ country,ȱcoveringȱasȱmanyȱrepresentativesȱofȱdifferentȱstakeholdersȱasȱ possible.ȱItȱisȱespeciallyȱimportantȱtoȱinvolveȱgroupsȱwhichȱmayȱbeȱ marginalizedȱorȱdisenfranchisedȱfromȱnormalȱcentresȱofȱauthorityȱandȱ decisionȬmakingȱwithinȱtheȱcountry.ȱThisȱwouldȱnormallyȱincludeȱ women,ȱgeographicallyȱisolatedȱgroupsȱandȱminoritiesȱofȱanyȱkind.ȱ ȱ Theȱfullȱscopeȱofȱtheȱlegislationȱreviewȱprocessȱdescribedȱbelow,ȱ includingȱbothȱanalysisȱandȱbroadȬbasedȱpublicȱconsultation,ȱmayȱnotȱ beȱwithinȱtheȱcapacityȱofȱallȱcountries.ȱLimitedȱresources,ȱlackȱofȱ suitableȱcivilȱsocietyȱpartnersȱforȱgovernmentȱtoȱworkȱwith,ȱlogisticalȱ problemsȱthatȱpreventȱreachingȱoutȱtoȱpeopleȱwhereȱtheyȱliveȱ throughoutȱtheȱcountryȱareȱallȱfactorsȱthatȱcanȱaffectȱtheȱabilityȱofȱthoseȱ conductingȱtheȱreviewȱtoȱbeȱasȱthoroughȱasȱtheyȱwouldȱlike.ȱEvenȱwithȱ theseȱlimitations,ȱhowever,ȱitȱshouldȱstillȱbeȱpossibleȱtoȱundertakeȱaȱ reviewȱofȱlegislationȱwhichȱwillȱexamineȱallȱrelevantȱmeasuresȱ (legislation,ȱpolicies,ȱadministrativeȱstructures,ȱbudgetaryȱprovisions)ȱ
103 Garate, Gorka, Los Procesos de Construcción de una Nueva Legalidad para Niños y Adolescentes: Tres Experiencias: Venezuela, Guatemala y Costa Rica, UNICEF El Salvador (internal paper), San Salvador (September 2005) [henceforth: Garate], p. 14-35.
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fromȱtheȱperspectiveȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrights.ȱTheȱmethodsȱmayȱvary,ȱbutȱ theȱquestionsȱaskedȱcanȱbeȱtheȱsame,ȱand,ȱevenȱifȱtheȱrangeȱofȱpeopleȱ consultedȱisȱnotȱasȱbroadȱasȱtheȱentireȱpopulation,ȱthereȱareȱalwaysȱ waysȱtoȱinvolveȱrepresentativesȱofȱcivilȱsocietyȱandȱchildrenȱ themselvesȱinȱtheȱexercise.ȱ ȱ Althoughȱtheȱspecificȱdetailsȱofȱtheȱreviewȱprocessȱwillȱvaryȱ dependingȱonȱtheȱnatureȱofȱtheȱpoliticalȱandȱlegalȱsystemȱinȱeachȱ country,ȱthereȱareȱseveralȱbasicȱelementsȱthatȱwillȱformȱpartȱofȱaȱ successfulȱreviewȱprocess.ȱTheseȱare:ȱ ȱ 1. Analysisȱofȱtheȱexistingȱlegislationȱinȱrelationȱtoȱbothȱtheȱ provisionsȱofȱtheȱCRC/CEDAWȱandȱtheȱsituationȱofȱchildrenȱinȱ theȱcountryȱconcerned,ȱincludingȱissuesȱsuchȱasȱgenderȱparity,ȱ economicȱstatusȱandȱgeographicȱlimitations;ȱ 2. Consultationȱwithȱtheȱwidestȱpossibleȱrangeȱofȱpeople,ȱ institutionsȱandȱgroupsȱinterestedȱinȱlegislationȱthatȱaffectsȱtheȱ rightsȱofȱchildren;ȱandȱ 3. Developmentȱandȱpresentationȱofȱconclusionsȱandȱ recommendationsȱforȱfurtherȱaction.ȱ ȱ Theȱanalysisȱandȱconsultationȱelementsȱofȱtheȱreviewȱprocessȱareȱ equallyȱimportantȱandȱrequireȱtheȱsameȱlevelȱofȱcommitmentȱandȱ preparationȱtoȱensureȱaȱsuccessfulȱreview.ȱWhenȱexecutedȱthoroughly,ȱ theȱprocessȱwillȱleadȱtoȱgreaterȱunderstandingȱofȱchildren’sȱrightsȱandȱ effectiveȱlegislationȱwhichȱfullyȱrespects,ȱprotectsȱandȱpromotesȱthoseȱ rights.ȱ ȱ 1.ȱAnalysisȱ ȱ Legislationȱisȱaȱspecialisedȱmeansȱforȱdefiningȱandȱimplementingȱ governmentȱpolicies,ȱplansȱandȱprogrammesȱasȱwellȱasȱaȱmechanismȱ forȱregulatingȱandȱmanagingȱrelationshipsȱandȱactionsȱwithinȱtheȱ broaderȱsociety.ȱBecauseȱitȱhasȱlegalȱforceȱandȱisȱsubjectȱtoȱtestingȱinȱaȱ courtȱofȱlaw,ȱitȱisȱwrittenȱinȱaȱpreciseȱandȱcarefullyȱnuancedȱlanguageȱ thatȱisȱsometimesȱquiteȱdifferentȱfromȱcommonȱusageȱofȱwordsȱinȱdayȬ toȬdayȱdiscourse.ȱTherefore,ȱtheȱanalysisȱofȱlegislationȱisȱaȱtaskȱ generallyȱdelegatedȱtoȱthoseȱwithȱexpertiseȱinȱtheȱfield.ȱ ȱ
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Thisȱdoesȱnotȱnecessarilyȱmeanȱitȱcanȱonlyȱbeȱdoneȱbyȱlawyers,ȱ however.ȱExpertiseȱinȱtheȱsubjectsȱdealtȱwithȱbyȱprovisionsȱofȱ CRC/CEDAW,ȱespeciallyȱthoseȱthatȱaddressȱtheȱbroaderȱsocietyȇsȱ responsibilityȱtoȱchildren,ȱcanȱbestȱbeȱfoundȱamongȱthoseȱwhoȱworkȱ withȱchildrenȱonȱaȱdailyȱbasisȱorȱwhoseȱexperienceȱliesȱwithȱtheȱ practicalȱeffectsȱofȱtheȱlegislationȇsȱimplementationȱonȱchildrenȇsȱlives.ȱ Thus,ȱinȱadditionȱtoȱthoseȱwhoȱhaveȱspecialisedȱknowledgeȱandȱ experienceȱwithȱtheȱtechnicalȱaspectsȱofȱdraftingȱandȱimplementingȱ legislationȱ(whichȱmayȱincludeȱrepresentativesȱofȱtheȱlegalȱsystem),ȱtheȱ analysisȱofȱlegislationȱinȱrelationȱtoȱtheȱrightsȱofȱchildrenȱshouldȱalsoȱ involveȱchildȱcareȱexperts,ȱhealthȱworkersȱwhoȱdealȱwithȱchildren,ȱ educators,ȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱadvocatesȱandȱanyȱothersȱwhoȱhaveȱ specialisedȱknowledgeȱofȱtheȱissuesȱtoȱbeȱconsidered.ȱDependingȱonȱ theȱlegislationȱbeingȱconsidered,ȱtheȱreviewȱcouldȱbeȱconductedȱbyȱ teamsȱofȱexpertsȱdrawnȱfromȱgovernmentȱandȱnonȬgovernmentalȱ organisations,ȱwithȱdifferentȱteamsȱanalysingȱtheȱcategoriesȱofȱ legislationȱthatȱrelateȱmostȱcloselyȱtoȱtheirȱareasȱofȱexpertise.ȱ ȱ Theȱtechnicalȱanalysisȱofȱlegislationȱshouldȱtakeȱintoȱaccountȱnotȱonlyȱ theȱextentȱtoȱwhichȱtheȱlegislationȱinȱquestionȱgivesȱeffectȱonȱpaperȱtoȱ theȱspecificȱprovisionsȱofȱCRC/CEDAWȱbutȱalsoȱtheȱwaysȱinȱwhichȱ thatȱlegislationȱdirectlyȱandȱindirectlyȱaffectsȱtheȱactualȱsituationȱofȱ childrenȱandȱtheirȱrightsȱeveryȱday.ȱThisȱmeansȱgoingȱbeyondȱmerelyȱ assessingȱtheȱtextȱofȱaȱlawȱtoȱexaminingȱhowȱitȱisȱappliedȱbyȱtheȱcourtsȱ andȱtheȱcivilȱauthoritiesȱresponsibleȱforȱimplementingȱitȱandȱ understandingȱhowȱitȱisȱviewedȱbyȱtheȱpeopleȱitȱdirectlyȱaffects,ȱ especiallyȱchildrenȱandȱtheirȱfamilies.ȱ ȱ Theȱanalysisȱcanȱbeȱledȱbyȱaȱsingleȱbodyȱwithȱaȱbroadȱrangeȱofȱ expertise,ȱsuchȱasȱtheȱChildȱLawȱReformȱAdvisoryȱCommitteeȱ establishedȱbyȱtheȱGhanaȱNationalȱCommissionȱonȱChildren. 104 ȱAȱ similarȱapproachȱwasȱusedȱinȱUganda,ȱwithȱtheȱUgandanȱChildȱLawȱ ReviewȱCommittee,ȱandȱMadagascar,ȱwithȱitsȱCommissionȱforȱtheȱ ReformȱofȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChild. 105 ȱSuchȱaȱdiverseȱgroupȱbringsȱtoȱ bearȱdifferentȱviewpointsȱandȱbackgroundsȱwhichȱwillȱenrichȱtheȱ discussionȱandȱprovideȱinsightsȱthatȱmayȱexpandȱbothȱtheȱcommitteeȇsȱ understandingȱofȱtheȱtotalȱeffectȱofȱtheȱlegislationȱonȱtheȱlivesȱofȱ
104 Ghana, p. 13. 105 African Child Policy Forum, Harmonisation of Laws Relating to Children in East and Southern Africa: A Summary Report, 2006 (draft), p. 17.
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childrenȱandȱtheȱrangeȱofȱrecommendationsȱtheȱcommitteeȱcanȱbringȱ forward.ȱ ȱ Someȱcountriesȱhaveȱpermanentȱlegalȱcommissionsȱwhichȱregularlyȱ reviewȱallȱlegislationȱandȱmakeȱrecommendationsȱforȱreformȱasȱ necessary;ȱinȱsomeȱcountries,ȱthisȱroleȱisȱperformedȱbyȱaȱspeciallyȱ designatedȱLawȱReformȱCommission.ȱȱTheȱLawȱReformȱCommissionsȱ ofȱKenya,ȱLesothoȱandȱSouthȱAfricaȱundertookȱsuchȱreviewsȱofȱ legislation. 106 ȱForȱaȱspecificȱreviewȱofȱlegislationȱrelatingȱtoȱchildrenȇsȱ rights,ȱsuchȱaȱgeneralȱcommissionȱcouldȱbeȱaugmentedȱbyȱspecialistsȱinȱ mattersȱofȱconcernȱtoȱchildren.ȱ ȱ Itȱhasȱbeenȱtheȱcaseȱinȱtheȱpastȱthatȱreviewsȱofȱlegislationȱinȱsomeȱ countriesȱhaveȱtakenȱaȱmoreȱrestrictedȱapproach.ȱThisȱhasȱusuallyȱ involvedȱhiringȱaȱsmallȱteamȱofȱlegalȱexpertsȱ(orȱsometimesȱjustȱoneȱ lawyerȱorȱjudge)ȱasȱconsultantsȱtoȱundertakeȱanȱassessmentȱofȱtheȱlawsȱ relatingȱtoȱchildrenȱinȱcloseȱcomparisonȱwithȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱCRCȱ andȱCEDAWȱ(ifȱtheȱlatterȱisȱrelevant).ȱThisȱapproachȱhasȱseveralȱ inadequacies.ȱAlthoughȱtheȱconsultantsȱengagedȱmayȱhaveȱextensiveȱ legalȱknowledgeȱinȱtheȱspecificȱareasȱcoveredȱbyȱtheȱlegislationȱ studied,ȱtheyȱoftenȱlackȱexperienceȱinȱtheȱactualȱimplementationȱofȱtheȱ legislationȱandȱknowledgeȱofȱtheȱsituationȱofȱchildrenȱinȱregardȱtoȱthatȱ subjectȱareaȱ(health,ȱeducation,ȱnutrition,ȱemployment,ȱabuse,ȱetc.).ȱȱAsȱ aȱconsequence,ȱtheirȱreviewȱofȱtheȱlegislationȱtendsȱnotȱtoȱbeȱasȱ completeȱasȱitȱmightȱbeȱwithȱaȱmoreȱbroadȬbasedȱgroupȱofȱexperts.ȱ Thereȱisȱalsoȱtheȱriskȱthat,ȱwithȱsuchȱaȱnarrowlyȱbasedȱapproach,ȱtheȱ personalȱideasȱandȱexpectationsȱofȱtheȱconsultantsȱmayȱbiasȱtheȱ assessmentȱinȱsomeȱdirection,ȱbecauseȱtheyȱwouldȱlackȱtheȱwiderȱ perspectiveȱofȱaȱmoreȱheterogeneousȱreviewȱpanel.ȱAsȱaȱbonus,ȱ expandingȱtheȱrangeȱofȱpeopleȱinvolvedȱinȱtheȱanalysisȱcanȱbeȱseenȱasȱ anȱillustrationȱofȱtheȱrightȱtoȱparticipation.ȱ ȱ Theȱanalysisȱofȱlegislation,ȱwithȱitsȱsupportingȱinformation,ȱcanȱbeȱ usedȱbyȱtheȱexpertsȇȱgroupȱtoȱformulateȱrecommendationsȱforȱfurtherȱ action.ȱBut,ȱbeforeȱaȱfinalȱdecisionȱisȱmade,ȱitȱisȱimportantȱthatȱtheȱ conclusionsȱofȱtheȱreviewȱareȱfullyȱownedȱbyȱtheȱpeopleȱwhoȱwillȱhaveȱ toȱtakeȱresponsibilityȱforȱtheȱnecessaryȱfollowȬup:ȱThisȱincludesȱnotȱ onlyȱtheȱgovernment,ȱbutȱalsoȱcivilȱsocietyȱandȱtheȱpublicȱinȱgeneral.ȱ
106 Ibid, p. 17.
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ȱ Forȱtheȱgovernmentȱtoȱfullyȱownȱtheȱreviewȱprocess,ȱfromȱtheȱ beginning,ȱrepresentativesȱofȱkeyȱministriesȱshouldȱbeȱinvolvedȱinȱtheȱ analysisȱofȱexistingȱlegislationȱandȱinȱformulatingȱanyȱ recommendationsȱaboutȱchangesȱthatȱmayȱbeȱneeded,ȱincludingȱ decisionsȱaboutȱbudgetaryȱandȱadministrativeȱresourcesȱtoȱsupportȱtheȱ implementationȱofȱexistingȱlegislationȱandȱanyȱnewȱmeasuresȱthatȱmayȱ beȱproposed.ȱTheȱprocessesȱfollowedȱinȱGhana,ȱJamaica 107 ȱandȱ Venezuelaȱareȱallȱgoodȱexamplesȱofȱtheȱengagementȱofȱgovernmentȱ Ministriesȱandȱagenciesȱfromȱtheȱbeginning.ȱInȱVenezuela,ȱtheȱroleȱofȱ theȱSpecialȱCongressionalȱCommissionȱwasȱcrucialȱinȱfocusingȱpoliticalȱ attentionȱonȱtheȱlegislation,ȱwhileȱtheȱinvolvementȱofȱtheȱNationalȱ InstituteȱforȱChildrenȱ(INAM)ȱensuredȱgovernmentȱcommitmentȱtoȱtheȱ implementationȱofȱtheȱconclusionsȱofȱtheȱprocess. 108 ȱGhanaȇsȱ engagementȱofȱvariousȱgovernmentȱministries,ȱdepartmentsȱandȱ agenciesȱalsoȱestablishedȱaȱsolidȱbasisȱforȱcontinuedȱgovernmentȱ supportȱofȱtheȱresults.ȱ ȱ 2.ȱConsultationȱ ȱ Theȱtechnicalȱanalysis,ȱhowever,ȱisȱonlyȱpartȱofȱtheȱworkȱthatȱneedsȱtoȱ beȱdoneȱforȱaȱthoroughȱreview.ȱInȱorderȱtoȱunderstandȱtheȱrealȱeffectȱofȱ theȱexistingȱlegislationȱandȱtheȱwaysȱinȱwhichȱtheȱlegislationȱrelatesȱtoȱ theȱrealȱsituationȱofȱchildren,ȱitȱisȱimportantȱtoȱundertakeȱaȱ consultationȱthatȱwillȱinvolveȱasȱmanyȱsegmentsȱofȱcivilȱsocietyȱasȱ possible.ȱThisȱwillȱbeȱimportantȱnotȱonlyȱforȱanyȱcorrectiveȱactionȱthatȱ mayȱresult,ȱbutȱalsoȱforȱtheȱeffectiveȱapplicationȱofȱexistingȱlegislationȱ andȱnewȱmeasuresȱthatȱmayȱbeȱadoptedȱasȱaȱresultȱofȱ recommendationsȱarisingȱfromȱtheȱreview.ȱThisȱisȱparticularlyȱ importantȱinȱcountriesȱwithȱpluralȱlegalȱsystemsȱthatȱincorporateȱ customaryȱlaw.ȱAsȱaȱgeneralȱrule,ȱtheȱbroaderȱtheȱparticipationȱ throughoutȱtheȱreviewȱprocess,ȱtheȱgreaterȱtheȱlikelihoodȱofȱpublicȱ supportȱforȱanyȱlegislationȱthatȱpromotes,ȱprotectsȱandȱrespectsȱ childrenȇsȱrights.ȱ ȱ Theȱpossibleȱrangeȱofȱparticipantsȱinȱtheȱconsultativeȱphaseȱofȱtheȱ reviewȱprocessȱisȱextensive.ȱConsultationȱshouldȱengageȱasȱmanyȱ
107 UNICEF Jamaica, Advancing Children's Rights in Jamaica: Report on Legislative Reform Initiative, UNICEF Jamaica, Kingston (August 2004) [henceforth: Jamaica]. 108 See Garate, p. 14-35.
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differentȱpointsȱofȱviewȱasȱpossible,ȱtoȱensureȱtheȱwidestȱpossibleȱ perspectiveȱonȱtheȱwaysȱinȱwhichȱtheȱlegislationȱunderȱconsiderationȱ affectsȱtheȱlivesȱofȱchildrenȱandȱwomen.ȱȱ Itȱisȱimportantȱtoȱengageȱtheȱpeopleȱwhoȱworkȱwithȱtheȱlegislationȱandȱ itsȱeffectsȱonȱaȱdayȬtoȬdayȱbasis.ȱTheseȱcanȱincludeȱteachers,ȱhealthȱ workers,ȱsocialȱserviceȱworkers,ȱcorrectionalȱstaff,ȱtheȱstaffȱofȱ governmentȬoperatedȱrecreationalȱandȱculturalȱinstitutions,ȱ administratorsȱandȱmanagers,ȱincludingȱtheȱgovernmentȱstaffȱworkingȱ inȱareasȱsuchȱasȱsocialȱworkersȱandȱemployeesȱofȱcivilȱregistries.ȱȱ Dependingȱonȱtheȱsubjectȱmatter,ȱthisȱcategoryȱmayȱalsoȱincludeȱtheȱ judgesȱandȱlawyersȱwhoȱconsiderȱtheȱlegislationȱinȱcourtȱorȱinȱ mediation.ȱ ȱ Sinceȱtheȱspecificȱprovisionsȱofȱtheȱlegislationȱmayȱbeȱimplementedȱatȱ lowerȱlevelsȱofȱgovernmentȱ(state/provincial,ȱdistrictȱandȱmunicipal)ȱ theȱrepresentativesȱofȱthoseȱlevelsȱofȱgovernmentȱshouldȱbeȱgivenȱaȱfullȱ opportunityȱtoȱpresentȱtheirȱopinionsȱandȱexperiences.ȱTraditionalȱorȱ tribalȱleadersȱshouldȱbeȱableȱtoȱofferȱtheirȱownȱexperienceȱasȱaȱ counterpointȱtoȱtheȱformalȱgovernmentȱsystem,ȱespeciallyȱinȱcountriesȱ inȱwhichȱcustomaryȱlawȱplaysȱanȱimportantȱrole.ȱCivilȱsociety,ȱasȱ representedȱbyȱorganisationsȱthatȱworkȱwithȱchildrenȱandȱwomenȱ and/orȱhumanȱrightsȱissues,ȱhasȱanȱimportantȱcontributionȱtoȱmakeȱinȱ anyȱreviewȱofȱlegislationȱdealingȱwithȱchildrenȱandȱaffectingȱtheȱrightsȱ ofȱchildrenȱandȱwomen.ȱȱ Who to Consult ȱ x TechnicalȱStaffȱ Otherȱpotentiallyȱhelpfulȱparticipantsȱinȱtheȱ x Judgesȱ consultationȱincludeȱreligiousȱleaders,ȱ x Lawyersȱinȱtheȱfieldȱ academics,ȱtheȱprivateȱsectorȱ(businessȱ x Politiciansȱ(allȱparties)ȱ leaders)ȱandȱtheȱmedia,ȱnotȱonlyȱforȱtheȱ x Otherȱlevelsȱofȱ governmentȱ influenceȱtheyȱhaveȱonȱtheȱopinionsȱandȱ x TraditionalȱLeadersȱ actionsȱofȱtheȱgeneralȱpopulationȱbutȱalsoȱ x ChildrenȇsȱNGOsȱ becauseȱtheyȱwillȱhaveȱvaluableȱinsightsȱ x Women’sȱNGOsȱ intoȱtheȱbasisȱforȱspecificȱmeasuresȱdealingȱ x Humanȱrightsȱ withȱchildrenȱandȱtheȱsocialȱcontextȱinȱ agenciesȱ x ReligiousȱLeadersȱ whichȱtheȱlegislationȱoperates.ȱ x Academicsȱ ȱ x Mediaȱ Parentsȱandȱotherȱfamilyȱmembersȱwhoȱ x Communityȱ haveȱexperienceȱwithȱtheȱoperationȱofȱtheȱ Organisationsȱ legislationȱandȱtheȱeffectsȱitȱhasȱonȱfamilyȱ x Familiesȱ x Childrenȱ lifeȱandȱtheȱwellȬbeingȱofȱchildrenȱshouldȱbeȱ
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givenȱtheȱfullestȱpossibleȱopportunityȱtoȱexpressȱtheirȱviewsȱandȱmakeȱ theirȱrecommendations.ȱȱ ȱ Last,ȱbutȱfarȱfromȱleast,ȱchildrenȱthemselvesȱshouldȱbeȱactivelyȱ engagedȱinȱtheȱreviewȱprocess,ȱsinceȱtheyȱareȱtheȱonesȱmostȱ immediatelyȱandȱdirectlyȱaffectedȱbyȱtheȱlegislationȱbeingȱconsidered.ȱ Theȱparticipationȱofȱchildrenȱisȱdiscussedȱinȱmoreȱdetailȱinȱparagraphsȱ 49ȱtoȱ56ȱbelow.ȱ ȱ Ofȱcourse,ȱnotȱallȱofȱtheseȱgroupsȱwillȱparticipateȱatȱallȱstagesȱorȱtoȱtheȱ sameȱdegree,ȱbutȱitȱisȱnecessaryȱthatȱtheyȱareȱallȱinvolvedȱinȱaȱrealȱandȱ notȱtokenȱfashionȱifȱtheȱreviewȱofȱlegislationȱinȱrelationȱtoȱchildrenȇsȱ rightsȱisȱtoȱhaveȱanyȱpositiveȱeffectȱinȱtermsȱofȱgenerallyȱacceptedȱ practicesȱandȱtheȱwaysȱthatȱvariousȱentitiesȱofȱgovernmentȱandȱsocietyȱ dealȱwithȱchildren.ȱ ȱ 2.2.3ȱ PublicȱParticipationȱ ȱ Asȱtheȱfirstȱstepȱinȱtheȱconsultationȱaspectȱofȱ PublicȱParticipation theȱlegislationȱreviewȱprocess,ȱtheȱ 1.ȱDisseminateȱanalysisȱ assessmentsȱofȱtheȱtechnicalȱteamsȱandȱtheirȱ asȱwidelyȱasȱpossible.ȱ analysisȱofȱlegislationȱthatȱhasȱledȱtoȱthoseȱ 2.ȱProvideȱ opportunitiesȱforȱpublicȱ assessmentsȱshouldȱbeȱmadeȱavailableȱtoȱasȱ debate.ȱ wideȱaȱpublicȱasȱpossible,ȱsoȱthatȱtheyȱcanȱ 3.ȱEducateȱpublicȱaboutȱ learnȱwhatȱisȱneededȱforȱchildrenȱandȱwhatȱ childrenȇsȱrights.ȱ theirȱgovernmentȱcouldȱdeliverȱthroughȱ 4.ȱIntegrateȱpublicȱ legislation.ȱȱ contributionsȱintoȱ overallȱreviewȱprocess.ȱ ȱ Thisȱcouldȱbeȱdoneȱbyȱpreparingȱaȱsummaryȱreport,ȱwrittenȱinȱeasilyȱ accessibleȱlanguage,ȱwhichȱwouldȱthenȱbeȱdistributedȱinȱmuchȱtheȱ sameȱwayȱasȱtheȱcountryȱreportsȱtoȱtheȱCommitteeȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱ Childȱareȱdistributed.ȱCopiesȱcouldȱbeȱsentȱto:ȱ ȱ x libraries,ȱȱ x allȱinterestedȱorganisationsȱbothȱgovernmentalȱandȱnonȬ governmental,ȱȱ x religiousȱbodiesȱ(especiallyȱimportantȱinȱcountriesȱwithȱIslamicȱ law),ȱȱ x academicȱinstitutions,ȱȱ x theȱmediaȱforȱwiderȱdistribution,ȱandȱȱ
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x groupsȱwithȱaȱparticularȱinterestȱinȱtheȱfindingsȱofȱtheȱtechnicalȱ analysis,ȱincludingȱmembersȱofȱtheȱlegalȱprofession,ȱchildȱcareȱ workersȱandȱtheirȱagencies,ȱandȱotherȱlevelsȱofȱgovernmentȱ whichȱmayȱhaveȱresponsibilityȱforȱactionsȱonȱbehalfȱofȱchildren.ȱ ȱ Theȱwidestȱpossibleȱpublicationȱofȱtheȱresultsȱofȱtheȱtechnicalȱanalysisȱ willȱserveȱtoȱpromoteȱaȱbroadȬbasedȱpublicȱdiscussionȱofȱtheȱ implicationsȱofȱtheȱanalysis,ȱandȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱinȱgeneral.ȱIdeally,ȱ andȱespeciallyȱifȱanyȱchangesȱinȱlegislationȱareȱrequiredȱtoȱenhanceȱ complianceȱwithȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAW,ȱtheȱdiscussionȱwillȱleadȱtoȱ broadȬbasedȱpublicȱsupportȱforȱlegalȱmeasuresȱinȱfavourȱofȱchildrenȇsȱ rights.ȱ ȱ Theȱpublicȱconsultationȱprocessȱcouldȱbeȱledȱbyȱaȱgovernmentȱagencyȱ orȱspecialȱtaskȱforce,ȱorȱbyȱaȱmixedȱgovernment/nonȬgovernmentalȱ committeeȱorȱcoalition,ȱorȱitȱcouldȱbeȱledȱbyȱaȱcompletelyȱnonȬ governmentalȱbodyȱestablishedȱtoȱpromoteȱchildrenȇsȱrights.ȱForȱ example,ȱinȱJamaica,ȱpublicȱinvolvementȱinȱreviewingȱexistingȱ legislationȱandȱlobbyingȱforȱchangesȱwasȱsparkedȱbyȱtheȱJamaicaȱ CoalitionȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱChildrenȱ(JCRC),ȱaȱcoalitionȱofȱseveralȱnonȬ governmentalȱorganisationsȱwhichȱwasȱoriginallyȱestablishedȱtoȱ promoteȱratificationȱofȱtheȱCRCȱandȱwhichȱnowȱoperatesȱtoȱencourageȱ measuresȱtoȱputȱtheȱCRCȇsȱprovisionsȱintoȱpractice.ȱ ȱ Afterȱconductingȱtheirȱownȱanalysisȱofȱexistingȱlegislation,ȱemployingȱ aȱlegalȱexpert,ȱtheȱJCRCȱconductedȱanȱintensiveȱcampaignȱtoȱbringȱtheȱ issuesȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱandȱtheȱneedȱforȱimprovedȱchildȱprotectionȱ legislationȱtoȱtheȱattentionȱofȱpoliticiansȱandȱtheȱgeneralȱpublic.ȱTheȱ methodsȱusedȱincluded:ȱ ȱ x lobbying,ȱȱ x letterȬwriting,ȱȱ x providingȱinformationȱtoȱtheȱmedia,ȱȱ x participatingȱinȱradioȱprogrammes,ȱȱ x holdingȱeducationalȱworkshops,ȱandȱȱ x coordinatingȱwithȱtheȱoutreachȱeffortsȱofȱvariousȱorganisationsȱ interestedȱinȱtheȱwelfareȱofȱchildren. 109 ȱȱ ȱ
109 Jamaica, p. 18.
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Althoughȱaȱbroadlyȱrepresentativeȱconsultativeȱprocessȱmayȱbeȱ complexȱandȱcomplicatedȱtoȱorganizeȱandȱmanage,ȱitȱhasȱtheȱ advantageȱofȱdilutingȱtheȱimpactȱonȱtheȱprocessȱ(andȱonȱanyȱnewȱ legislationȱthatȱmayȱresult)ȱofȱindividualȱprejudices,ȱpreconceptionsȱ andȱprioritiesȱthatȱmightȱeasilyȱdistortȱaȱmoreȱnarrowlyȬbasedȱreview.ȱ Theȱmoreȱdiverseȱtheȱparticipationȱinȱtheȱprocess,ȱtheȱmoreȱobjectiveȱ theȱresultingȱconclusionsȱareȱlikelyȱtoȱbe.ȱAȱbroadȬbasedȱprocessȱwillȱ allowȱdivergentȱpointsȱofȱviewȱtoȱbeȱexpressedȱasȱconstructivelyȱasȱ possible,ȱasȱpartȱofȱanȱeffortȱtoȱdevelopȱaȱnationalȱconsensus.ȱ ȱ 2.2.4ȱ PublicȱConsultationȱandȱEducationȱ ȱ Whereȱlegislation,ȱtraditionalȱpracticeȱandȱtheȱprinciplesȱofȱchildrenȇsȱ rightsȱtakeȱdistinctlyȱdifferentȱapproachesȱtoȱtheȱtreatmentȱofȱchildrenȱ andȱtheirȱpositionȱinȱsociety,ȱthoseȱdifferencesȱareȱboundȱtoȱbeȱ reflectedȱinȱtheȱdiscussionsȱandȱdebatesȱthatȱdevelopȱthroughȱ consultationȱwithȱtheȱvariousȱgroups.ȱItȱisȱimportantȱthatȱtheseȱ differentȱviewsȱbeȱgivenȱtheirȱdueȱattention;ȱEveryoneȱhasȱaȱrightȱtoȱbeȱ heard.ȱItȱisȱalsoȱimportantȱthatȱtheȱfocusȱofȱtheȱconsultationȱonȱtheȱ rightsȱofȱchildrenȱnotȱbeȱlost,ȱwhateverȱotherȱclaimsȱ(forȱexample,ȱtheȱ ȈrightsȈȱofȱparents)ȱmayȱbeȱraised.ȱ ȱ Theȱmereȱideaȱthatȱchildrenȱhaveȱrights,ȱmuchȱlessȱtheȱnatureȱofȱthoseȱ rights,ȱcanȱcreateȱaȱgreatȱdealȱofȱcontroversyȱinȱmostȱsocietiesȱandȱ cultures.ȱThereȱhasȱbeenȱandȱwillȱcontinueȱtoȱbeȱsomeȱresistanceȱinȱ manyȱplacesȱtoȱtheȱideaȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱand,ȱbyȱextension,ȱtoȱanyȱ legislationȱthatȱmayȱexistȱorȱbeȱproposedȱtoȱfulfilȱthoseȱrights.ȱNoȱ matterȱhowȱcompleteȱandȱcomprehensiveȱlegislationȱmayȱbeȱwithȱ respectȱtoȱchildrenȇsȱrights,ȱthereȱcanȱbeȱnoȱeffectiveȱimplementationȱ unlessȱthereȱisȱatȱleastȱaȱgeneralȱagreementȱonȱtheȱpartȱofȱaȱsignificantȱ segmentȱofȱtheȱpopulationȱthatȱtheȱrightsȱofȱchildrenȱareȱvalidȱandȱ shouldȱbeȱrespected.ȱ ȱ Muchȱofȱtheȱapprehensionȱcausedȱbyȱtheȱideaȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱcanȱ beȱattributedȱtoȱlackȱofȱknowledgeȱorȱunderstandingȱofȱtheȱprinciplesȱ behindȱtheȱCRCȱandȱtheȱspecificȱprovisionsȱwhichȱareȱtoȱbeȱreflectedȱinȱ nationalȱlegislation.ȱTheȱlegislationȱreviewȱprocess,ȱtherefore,ȱprovidesȱ aȱgoodȱopportunityȱtoȱeducateȱmembersȱofȱtheȱpublic,ȱandȱmembersȱofȱ theȱvariousȱinterestȱgroupsȱthatȱhaveȱaȱstakeȱinȱgreaterȱrecognitionȱofȱ andȱrespectȱforȱchildrenȇsȱrights,ȱinȱtheȱbasicȱtenetsȱofȱtheȱCRCȱandȱ
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CEDAWȱandȱtheȱwaysȱinȱwhichȱthoseȱprinciplesȱcanȱandȱshouldȱbeȱputȱ intoȱpracticeȱinȱtheirȱcountry.ȱ ȱ Thisȱeducationȱcanȱbeȱintegratedȱwithȱtheȱdiscussionȱofȱspecificȱlaws,ȱ toȱenableȱpeopleȱtoȱseeȱhowȱrightsȱareȱnotȱmerelyȱabstractȱconceptsȱbutȱ theȱessentialȱfoundationȱonȱwhichȱpracticalȱactionȱonȱbehalfȱofȱchildrenȱ andȱtheirȱfamiliesȱisȱbased.ȱByȱconnectingȱtheȱdiscussionȱofȱrightsȱtoȱanȱ assessmentȱofȱtheȱeffectȱofȱactualȱlawsȱonȱtheȱlivesȱofȱchildren,ȱtheȱ peopleȱwhoȱareȱmostȱdirectlyȱinvolvedȱinȱdealingȱwithȱchildrenȱ–andȱ who,ȱbyȱextension,ȱhaveȱtheȱmostȱimmediateȱinfluenceȱonȱtheȱwayȱinȱ whichȱtheirȱrightsȱareȱaddressedȱ–ȱcanȱseeȱhowȱtheȱideaȱofȱrightsȱforȱ childrenȱisȱtranslatedȱintoȱrealȱimprovementsȱinȱtheȱwayȱchildrenȱareȱ treated.ȱ ȱ Someȱofȱtheȱmostȱimportantȱbeneficiariesȱofȱthisȱeducationȱwillȱbeȱtheȱ governmentȱofficials,ȱmembersȱofȱtheȱjudiciaryȱandȱlawȱenforcementȱ officialsȱwhoȱareȱresponsibleȱforȱtheȱeffectȱtheirȱadoptionȱandȱ enforcementȱofȱlegislationȱhaveȱonȱchildrenȱandȱfamilies.ȱByȱmakingȱaȱ connectionȱbetweenȱtheȱCRC/CEDAWȱandȱnotȱonlyȱnationalȱlaws,ȱbutȱ alsoȱacceptedȱstandardsȱofȱpracticeȱ(forȱexampleȱinȱtheȱtreatmentȱofȱ childrenȱwhoȱcomeȱintoȱcontactȱwithȱtheȱjusticeȱsystem),ȱtheseȱofficialsȱ mayȱbeȱableȱtoȱadaptȱtheȱwayȱtheyȱdealȱwithȱchildrenȱtoȱrespectȱtheȱ rightsȱofȱthoseȱchildren.ȱIfȱtheȱconsultationȱleadsȱtoȱsupportȱforȱ necessaryȱchangesȱinȱtheȱwayȱthatȱlegislationȱwhichȱaffectsȱchildrenȱ andȱtheirȱrightsȱisȱimplemented,ȱevenȱwithoutȱspecificȱchangesȱtoȱthatȱ legislation,ȱthisȱwillȱhaveȱbeenȱanȱeffectiveȱandȱworthwhileȱendeavour.ȱ ȱ 2.2.5ȱ ChildrenȇsȱParticipationȱinȱReviewȱofȱLegislationȱ ȱ InȱJamaica,ȱchildrenȱthemselvesȱwereȱinvolvedȱinȱtheȱpublicȱ consultationȱonȱtheȱnewȱChildȱCareȱandȱProtectionȱActȱthroughȱislandȬ wideȱworkshops,ȱwhereȱvaluableȱcontributionsȱtoȱtheȱfinalȱbillȱwereȱ made. 110 ȱTheȱinclusionȱofȱchildrenȱinȱtheȱlegislationȱreviewȱprocessȱisȱ intendedȱnotȱmerelyȱtoȱprovideȱopportunitiesȱforȱmediaȱcoverageȱandȱ platitudes.ȱIfȱtheȱprocessȱofȱreviewingȱlegislationȱisȱtoȱbeȱanȱeffectiveȱ meansȱforȱassessingȱtheȱimplementationȱofȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱtheȱ ConventionȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChildȱinȱanyȱgivenȱcountry,ȱthatȱ processȱshouldȱitselfȱreflectȱtheȱrightsȱenshrinedȱinȱtheȱCRC.ȱPreȬ
110 Ibid.
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eminentȱamongȱthoseȱisȱtheȱobligationȱofȱtheȱStateȱPartyȱtoȱȈassureȱtoȱ theȱchildȱwhoȱisȱcapableȱofȱformingȱhisȱorȱherȱownȱviewsȱtheȱrightȱtoȱ expressȱthoseȱviewsȱfreelyȱinȱallȱmattersȱaffectingȱtheȱchildȈȱ(Articleȱ12ȱ ofȱtheȱCRC).ȱȱ ȱ Legislationȱreviewȱonȱbehalfȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱisȱclearlyȱaȱmatterȱ affectingȱtheȱchild.ȱTheȱchallengeȱisȱhowȱtoȱallowȱandȱenableȱchildrenȱ toȱacquireȱtheȱinformationȱtheyȱneedȱtoȱformȱandȱexpressȱopinions,ȱandȱ howȱtoȱcreateȱtheȱconditionsȱunderȱwhichȱtheirȱviewsȱcanȱbeȱheardȱandȱ Ȉgivenȱdueȱweightȱinȱaccordanceȱwithȱtheȱageȱandȱmaturityȱofȱtheȱ childȈȱ(Articleȱ12.1.).ȱThisȱisȱaȱflexibleȱandȱfluidȱconcept.ȱItȱcannotȱbeȱ basedȱonȱageȱalone,ȱsinceȱtheȱcapacityȱtoȱunderstandȱissuesȱandȱ articulateȱthatȱunderstandingȱcanȱvaryȱconsiderablyȱamongȱchildrenȱofȱ theȱsameȱage.ȱTheȱconsultativeȱprocessȱneedsȱtoȱbeȱdesignedȱinȱsuchȱaȱ wayȱthatȱchildrenȱofȱanȱappropriateȱageȱtoȱunderstandȱandȱcommentȱ onȱtheȱlegislationȱbeingȱconsideredȱwillȱhaveȱsuitableȱopportunitiesȱtoȱ presentȱtheirȱviews.ȱ ȱ InȱsomeȱStatesȱParties,ȱcreativeȱandȱdynamicȱmeansȱhaveȱbeenȱfoundȱ toȱfacilitateȱchildrenȇsȱparticipationȱinȱcrucialȱdiscussionsȱaboutȱ legislationȱthatȱaffectsȱthem.ȱInȱSouthȱAfrica,ȱchildrenȱfromȱallȱpartsȱofȱ theȱcountryȱwereȱbroughtȱtogetherȱforȱanȱintensiveȱweekȱofȱexchangingȱ experiences,ȱstudyingȱissuesȱandȱpresentingȱtheirȱopinionsȱinȱaȱvarietyȱ ofȱwaysȱ–ȱusingȱsongs,ȱskitsȱandȱstoryȬwritingȱtoȱexpressȱtheirȱviews. 111 ȱ Theȱchildrenȱinȱthisȱactivityȱwereȱallȱoverȱtenȱyearsȱofȱage,ȱandȱcapableȱ ofȱarticulatingȱbothȱtheirȱexperiencesȱandȱtheirȱideasȱfairlyȱclearly.ȱ Youngerȱchildrenȱmight,ȱinȱsimilarȱcircumstances,ȱbeȱgivenȱtheȱ opportunityȱtoȱuseȱdrawingȱandȱplayȱwithȱpuppetsȱorȱdollsȱtoȱtellȱ adultsȱhowȱparticularȱlegislationȱhasȱaffectedȱthem.ȱ ȱ Anotherȱmodelȱforȱchildrenȇsȱparticipationȱisȱprovidedȱbyȱtheȱ CaribbeanȱConferenceȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChild.ȱThisȱwasȱanȱ intergovernmentalȱmeetingȱwhichȱtookȱplaceȱinȱBelizeȱCityȱinȱOctoberȱ 1996ȱthatȱusedȱaȱnumberȱofȱinnovativeȱmethodsȱtoȱengageȱtheȱchildrenȱ ofȱtheȱCaribbeanȱregionȱinȱidentifyingȱimportantȱissuesȱandȱdevelopingȱ recommendationsȱforȱsolutionsȱinȱtheȱBelizeȱCommitmentȱtoȱAction.ȱ Schoolsȱallȱoverȱtheȱregionȱwereȱgivenȱresourcesȱtoȱenableȱthemȱtoȱuseȱ theȱCRCȱasȱaȱteachingȱtoolȱinȱtheȱclassroomȱandȱfacilitateȱcommentȱbyȱ
111 Note: This is based on the author's recollection of a UNICEF video made around 1995.
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studentsȱonȱkeyȱissuesȱbeforeȱtheȱConferenceȱtookȱplace.ȱIndividualȱ childrenȱwereȱgivenȱtheȱresourcesȱtoȱsendȱtheirȱcommentsȱdirectlyȱtoȱ theȱConference,ȱbyȱletter,ȱbyȱfacsimileȱorȱthroughȱtheȱInternetȱandȱtheȱ WorldȱWideȱWeb,ȱinȱsomeȱcasesȱusingȱtheȱtechnicalȱfacilitiesȱofȱ internationalȱorganisations’ȱoffices.ȱDuringȱtheȱactualȱConferenceȱ session,ȱchildrenȱfromȱBelize,ȱwithȱchildȱrepresentativesȱfromȱotherȱ countries,ȱheldȱtheirȱownȱChildrenȇsȱForumȱatȱtheȱConferenceȱsite.ȱ There,ȱtheyȱdevelopedȱrecommendationsȱforȱactionȱwhichȱwereȱpassedȱ onȱtoȱtheȱdelegatesȱatȱtheȱConferenceȱandȱincorporatedȱinȱtheȱfinalȱtextȱ ofȱtheȱBelizeȱCommitment. 112ȱ ȱ Inȱeveryȱcase,ȱtheȱroleȱofȱadults,ȱinȱbothȱgovernmentȱandȱnonȬ governmentalȱorganisations,ȱisȱofȱcriticalȱimportanceȱinȱopeningȱtheȱ channelsȱofȱcommunicationȱandȱensuringȱthatȱtheȱchildrenȱfeelȱtheyȱ haveȱbeenȱheardȱandȱthatȱtheirȱviewsȱwillȱhaveȱaȱpositiveȱeffect.ȱ ȱ TheȱchallengeȱofȱhowȱtoȱdetermineȱtheȱȈevolvingȱcapacityȈȱofȱtheȱchildȱ toȱreasonȱandȱexpressȱopinionsȱthatȱmeritȱconsiderationȱisȱoneȱthatȱ affectsȱnotȱonlyȱtheȱprocessȱofȱlegislationȱreviewȱbutȱalsoȱtheȱcontentȱofȱ recommendationsȱforȱanyȱchangesȱtoȱeitherȱlegislationȱorȱpractice.ȱTheȱ termȱȈevolvingȱcapacityȈȱisȱusedȱinȱArticleȱ5ȱofȱtheȱCRCȱtoȱdefineȱtheȱ wayȱinȱwhichȱparents,ȱguardiansȱandȱothersȱ(suchȱasȱteachersȱofȱallȱ sorts)ȱwhoȱhaveȱcareȱofȱtheȱchild,ȱguideȱtheȱchildȇsȱownȱabilityȱtoȱclaimȱ andȱexerciseȱtheȱrightsȱrecognisedȱinȱtheȱCRC.ȱItȱrefersȱtoȱtheȱwayȱinȱ whichȱaȱchildȇsȱabilityȱtoȱunderstandȱandȱactȱonȱthatȱunderstandingȱ changesȱwithȱgreaterȱexperienceȱandȱtheȱdevelopmentȱofȱintellectualȱ abilitiesȱasȱtheȱchildȱgrowsȱolder.ȱItȱshouldȱnotȱbeȱtakenȱtoȱimplyȱthatȱ childrenȇsȱrightsȱevolveȱandȱchangeȱasȱtheȱchildrenȱbecomeȱmoreȱ mature,ȱonlyȱthatȱtheȱabilityȱofȱchildrenȱtoȱexpressȱopinionsȱonȱtheȱ exerciseȱofȱthoseȱrightsȱchanges.ȱ ȱ InȱArticleȱ12ȱofȱtheȱCRC,ȱthisȱconceptȱisȱpresentedȱfromȱtheȱperspectiveȱ ofȱhowȱchildrenȇsȱopinionsȱareȱtoȱbeȱacceptedȱandȱconsidered.ȱTheyȱareȱ toȱbeȱȈgivenȱdueȱweightȱinȱaccordanceȱwithȱtheȱageȱandȱmaturityȱofȱtheȱ child.ȈȱTheȱconsultationȱprocessȱinȱtheȱcontextȱofȱreviewȱofȱlegislationȱ shouldȱenableȱallȱchildrenȱwhoȱareȱaffectedȱbyȱtheȱlegislationȱtoȱ presentȱtheirȱopinions.ȱThoseȱopinionsȱshouldȱinfluenceȱtheȱ
112 Lundy, Christine, The Report of the Caribbean Conference on the Rights of the Child: Meeting the Post Ratification Challenge, UNICEF CAO, Bridgetown, p. 8, and author's recollection.
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conclusionsȱofȱtheȱreviewȱtoȱtheȱextentȱthatȱtheyȱcarryȱtheȱappropriateȱ weightȱbasedȱonȱtheȱcapacityȱofȱtheȱchildrenȱtoȱunderstandȱtheȱissuesȱ beingȱaddressedȱandȱtoȱcommentȱappropriately.ȱ ȱ Aȱpublicȱconsultationȱprocessȱthatȱdoesȱnotȱprovideȱforȱappropriateȱ participationȱbyȱchildrenȱwhoȱareȱcapableȱofȱparticipatingȱ(whateverȱ theirȱchronologicalȱage)ȱwillȱnotȱfulfilȱtheȱobligationsȱofȱtheȱStateȱPartyȱ underȱtheȱCRC.ȱAnyȱrecommendationsȱthatȱmayȱcomeȱfromȱsuchȱaȱ processȱwillȱlikelyȱinadequatelyȱreflectȱtheȱrealȱsituationȱofȱchildrenȱ andȱtheȱfullȱrangeȱofȱmeasuresȱneededȱtoȱprotectȱandȱpromoteȱtheirȱ rights.ȱTheȱmereȱactȱofȱseeingȱandȱhearingȱchildrenȱparticipateȱ constructivelyȱinȱaȱreviewȱofȱtheȱlegislationȱthatȱaffectsȱthemȱcanȱhaveȱ aȱpositiveȱeffectȱonȱtheȱgeneralȱpublicȇsȱperceptionȱofȱchildrenȇsȱabilityȱ toȱparticipateȱinȱsociety.ȱ ȱ 2.2.6ȱ GovernmentȱEngagementȱ ȱ Throughoutȱtheirȱconsultationȱprocess,ȱtheȱJCRCȱinȱJamaicaȱworkedȱ closelyȱwithȱaȱlongȱlistȱofȱgovernmentȱministriesȱandȱagencies,ȱwhichȱ ensuredȱthatȱbothȱtheȱprocessȱandȱtheȱresultingȱrecommendationsȱwereȱ endorsedȱbyȱtheȱgovernment.ȱTheȱgovernmentȱministriesȱandȱagenciesȱ includedȱtheȱChildrenȇsȱServicesȱDivision,ȱtheȱBureauȱofȱWomenȇsȱ Affairs,ȱtheȱOfficeȱofȱtheȱSpecialȱEnvoyȱforȱChildren,ȱtheȱPlanningȱ InstituteȱofȱJamaica,ȱtheȱMinistriesȱofȱHealth,ȱofȱEducationȱandȱCulture,ȱ ofȱLocalȱGovernmentȱandȱCommunityȱDevelopment,ȱofȱNationalȱ SecurityȱandȱJustice,ȱofȱLabourȱandȱSocialȱSecurity,ȱandȱtheȱOfficeȱofȱ theȱPrimeȱMinister. 113 ȱȱ ȱ Thisȱkindȱofȱsignificantȱgovernmentȱinvolvementȱisȱcrucialȱtoȱcreatingȱ theȱconditionsȱunderȱwhichȱtheȱconclusionsȱofȱtheȱreviewȱcanȱbeȱ adoptedȱbyȱtheȱgovernmentȱandȱusedȱtoȱgenerateȱappropriateȱactionȱtoȱ reinforceȱtheȱrightsȱofȱchildren.ȱItȱisȱparticularlyȱimportantȱthatȱtheȱ governmentȱinvolvementȱinȱtheȱJamaicanȱprocessȱwasȱnotȱlimitedȱtoȱ thoseȱagenciesȱspecificallyȱchargedȱwithȱresponsibilityȱforȱchildrenȇsȱ matters.ȱTheȱreviewȱshouldȱalsoȱengageȱmajorȱministriesȱcrossingȱallȱ sectoralȱlinesȱandȱinvolvingȱtheȱparticipationȱofȱtheȱhighestȱpoliticalȱ levelsȱ(asȱinȱtheȱJamaicanȱcase,ȱwithȱtheȱOfficeȱofȱtheȱPrimeȱMinister).ȱ
113 Jamaica, p. 18.
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Thisȱbroadȱcommitmentȱwouldȱclearlyȱshowȱpriorityȱbeingȱgivenȱtoȱtheȱ questionȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱasȱreflectedȱinȱlegislation.ȱ ȱ Forȱmostȱreviewsȱofȱlegislation,ȱitȱwillȱbeȱextremelyȱhelpfulȱtoȱengageȱ theȱactiveȱparticipationȱofȱatȱleastȱseniorȱcivilȱservantsȱand,ȱideally,ȱtheȱ ministersȱasȱwellȱwhoȱareȱresponsibleȱforȱgovernmentȱpolicyȱandȱ actionȱinȱtheȱfollowingȱareas:ȱ ȱ x Planningȱ x FinanceȱandȱBudgetingȱ x Justiceȱ(forȱbothȱlegalȱissuesȱandȱdraftingȱofȱlegislation)ȱ x Healthȱ x Educationȱ x SocialȱServicesȱ/ȱChildȱWelfareȱ x Labourȱ x WomenȇsȱIssuesȱ x NationalȱSecurityȱ/ȱPoliceȱ/ȱPrisonsȱandȱCorrectionalȱServicesȱ x Recreationȱ/ȱCultureȱ x HumanȱRightsȱ ȱ 2.2.7ȱ OrganisingȱandȱManagingȱtheȱReviewȱofȱLegislationȱ ȱȱȱ Theȱeffectivenessȱofȱaȱlegislationȱreviewȱdependsȱonȱtheȱstrengthȱandȱ commitmentȱofȱitsȱcoordinationȱandȱmanagement.ȱDifferentȱcountriesȱ haveȱfoundȱaȱvarietyȱofȱwaysȱtoȱsetȱinȱmotionȱandȱmaintainȱtheȱ momentumȱofȱsuchȱprocesses.ȱInȱGhana,ȱitȱwasȱtheȱmixedȱ(governmentȱ andȱnonȬgovernment)ȱGhanaȱNationalȱCommissionȱonȱChildrenȱwhichȱ setȱtheȱprocessȱinȱmotionȱafterȱtheirȱpreparationȱofȱtheȱfirstȱnationalȱ reportȱtoȱtheȱUNȱCommitteeȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChildȱrevealedȱaȱ numberȱofȱlegalȱinadequacies. 114 ȱTheȱprocessȱinȱJamaicaȱwasȱledȱ primarilyȱbyȱtheȱnonȬgovernmentalȱJamaicaȱCoalitionȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱ theȱChild,ȱalthoughȱlegislatorsȱandȱgovernmentȱministriesȱplayedȱ importantȱrolesȱinȱtheȱlatterȱstages. 115 ȱVenezuelaȇsȱprocessȱwasȱ somewhatȱdiffuse,ȱinvolvingȱseveralȱagenciesȱandȱorganisations,ȱbutȱ theȱSpecialȱCongressionalȱCommissionȱheldȱtheȱprocessȱtogetherȱandȱ keptȱitȱfocusedȱonȱtheȱobjectiveȱofȱimprovingȱlegislationȱdealingȱwithȱ children. 116ȱ
114 Ghana, p. 28. 115 Jamaica, p. 18. 116 Garate, p. 17-21.
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ȱ Inȱtheseȱexamples,ȱtheȱimportanceȱofȱtheȱroleȱofȱNGOsȱandȱcivilȱsocietyȱ isȱclearlyȱdemonstrated.ȱWhetherȱonȱtheirȱownȱorȱinȱcooperationȱwithȱ government,ȱtheyȱprovidedȱleadershipȱthatȱensuredȱchildrenȱwereȱtheȱ priority.ȱNGOsȱcoordinated,ȱlobbiedȱgovernment,ȱconductedȱmediaȱ promotionȱandȱpublicȱeducationȱandȱcreatedȱspaceȱforȱpublicȱ engagementȱinȱtheȱreviewȱprocess.ȱEffectiveȱcivilȱsocietyȱparticipationȱ inȱtheȱreviewȱofȱlegislationȱrequiresȱthatȱtheȱvariousȱcivilȱsocietyȱ organisationsȱbeȱstrongȱandȱwellȬorganised.ȱThisȱisȱnotȱalwaysȱtheȱ case.ȱParticularlyȱwhenȱtheyȱareȱexpectedȱtoȱtakeȱleadȱrolesȱinȱtheȱ reviewȱprocess,ȱeitherȱonȱtheirȱownȱorȱinȱpartnership,ȱtheseȱ fundamentalȱrepresentativesȱofȱtheȱpublicȱinterestȱwillȱoftenȱneedȱ support.ȱSuchȱsupportȱmayȱcomeȱfromȱinternationalȱagenciesȱ(suchȱasȱ UNICEFȱorȱSaveȱtheȱChildren),ȱfromȱnationalȱNGOsȱorȱcoalitions,ȱorȱ fromȱtheȱgovernmentȱstructuresȱwhichȱrelateȱtoȱtheȱareasȱofȱconcernȱofȱ theȱcivilȱsocietyȱorganisations.ȱ ȱ Sometimes,ȱtheȱNGOȱsectorȱcannotȱtakeȱaȱleadingȱroleȱinȱreview.ȱAȱ numberȱofȱfactorsȱmayȱlimitȱcivilȱsocietyȱcapacity,ȱincludingȱinternalȱ upheavals,ȱpoliticalȱsituations,ȱdifficultiesȱinȱcommunicationȱandȱtravelȱ betweenȱdifferentȱpartsȱofȱtheȱcountry,ȱandȱwidespreadȱilliteracyȱ whichȱmayȱrestrictȱpeopleȇsȱaccessȱtoȱinformation.ȱInȱtheseȱ circumstances,ȱtheȱgovernmentȱmayȱhaveȱnoȱoptionȱbutȱtoȱactȱonȱitsȱ ownȱtoȱpromoteȱsomeȱlevelȱofȱpublicȱconsultationȱonȱlegislationȱ relatingȱtoȱchildren.ȱThisȱwasȱtheȱcaseȱinȱBurkinaȱFaso,ȱwhereȱtheȱ governmentȱtookȱtheȱinitiativeȱinȱassessingȱexistingȱlegislationȱandȱ proposingȱchanges. 117ȱ ȱ Evenȱinȱcountriesȱwhereȱcivilȱsocietyȱorganisationsȱhaveȱplayedȱaȱ prominentȱrole,ȱtheȱleadershipȱandȱinitiativeȱtakenȱbyȱtheȱgovernmentȱ orȱbyȱlegislativeȱbodiesȱgaveȱtheȱreviewȱitsȱvalidityȱandȱopenedȱtheȱ wayȱtoȱimprovingȱtheȱlegislationȱrelatingȱtoȱchildren.ȱTheȱ improvementȱmightȱhaveȱcomeȱthroughȱensuringȱmoreȱeffectiveȱ implementationȱofȱexistingȱlegislationȱorȱbyȱtheȱdevelopmentȱandȱ adoptionȱofȱnewȱlegislationȱmoreȱinȱkeepingȱwithȱtheȱCRCȱandȱ CEDAW.ȱȱSinceȱtheyȱhaveȱtheȱprimaryȱresponsibilityȱforȱlegislationȱ andȱforȱtheȱenforcementȱofȱlaws,ȱgovernmentsȱmustȱbeȱsignificantȱ
117 UNICEF Burkina Faso, Legislative Reform Initiative: Phase II: Country Study, UNICEF Burkina Faso (internal paper), Ouagadougou, date unknown, p. 28-9.
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playersȱthroughoutȱtheȱreviewȱprocessȱandȱtakeȱfullȱownershipȱofȱtheȱ conclusionsȱofȱtheȱreview,ȱasȱanȱessentialȱcomponentȱofȱtheirȱ obligationsȱunderȱtheȱCRC/CEDAW.ȱ ȱ Theȱprocessȱofȱreviewingȱlegislationȱonȱbehalfȱofȱchildrenȱcanȱbeȱledȱbyȱ differentȱentitiesȱatȱdifferentȱstages,ȱasȱwasȱtheȱcaseȱinȱVenezuela,ȱforȱ example. 118 ȱThereȱmayȱbeȱbenefitsȱtoȱthisȱapproach,ȱinȱhelpingȱtoȱ achieveȱdifferentȱgoalsȱatȱdifferentȱstagesȱinȱtheȱprocess.ȱRaisingȱpublicȱ andȱpoliticalȱawarenessȱofȱtheȱimportanceȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱandȱtheȱ possibleȱneedȱtoȱadaptȱlawsȱtoȱsupportȱthoseȱrightsȱisȱaȱtaskȱoftenȱbestȱ suitedȱtoȱNGOsȱandȱotherȱcivilȱsocietyȱactors,ȱsuchȱasȱreligiousȱ organisationsȱandȱtheȱmedia.ȱThisȱmayȱhelpȱfosterȱtheȱpoliticalȱwillȱtoȱ improveȱtheȱwayȱgovernmentsȱ(atȱallȱlevels)ȱfulfilȱtheirȱresponsibilitiesȱ toȱchildrenȱandȱtheirȱfamiliesȱinȱaccordanceȱwithȱcommitmentsȱunderȱ theȱCRC/CEDAW.ȱIfȱlegislativeȱchangesȱ Steps in Legislative Review areȱrequired,ȱgovernmentsȱshouldȱtakeȱ 1. Identify coordinator chargeȱofȱdevelopingȱtheȱlegislationȱandȱ 2. Clarify reason for review 3. Define scope settingȱtheȱconditionsȱunderȱwhichȱtheȱ 4. Set time-line newȱlegislationȱcanȱbeȱimplementedȱ 5. Clarify methods to be used effectively.ȱTheseȱgoalsȱmayȱwellȱbeȱ 6. Identify participants in analysis and consultation easierȱtoȱachieveȱifȱtheȱvariousȱstrengthsȱ 7. Set up feedback system andȱexpertisesȱofȱdifferentȱentitiesȱcanȱbeȱ 8. Affirm government commitment to follow-up broughtȱtoȱbearȱatȱtheȱappropriateȱtimes.ȱȱ ȱ Thereȱisȱnonethelessȱgreatȱvalueȱinȱhavingȱtheȱprocessȱmanagedȱfromȱ beginningȱtoȱendȱbyȱaȱsingleȱcoordinator.ȱChangingȱresponsibilityȱforȱ deliveringȱresultsȱanyȱstageȱinȱtheȱprocessȱcausesȱundesirableȱdelays.ȱ Havingȱtheȱsameȱcoordinatorȱthroughout,ȱmotivatedȱtoȱachieveȱtheȱ objectiveȱofȱtheȱreview,ȱmakesȱforȱmoreȱeffectiveȱmanagementȱofȱtheȱ process.ȱ(Thatȱobjectiveȱshouldȱbeȱimprovingȱimplementationȱofȱ existingȱlegislationȱandȱproposingȱrecommendationsȱforȱanyȱnewȱ legislationȱthatȱmayȱbeȱneededȱtoȱsupportȱchildrenȇsȱrights).ȱThisȱwasȱ theȱexperienceȱinȱGhana 119 ȱandȱJamaica, 120 ȱforȱexample.ȱAsȱtheseȱ countryȱexamplesȱalsoȱshow,ȱtheȱvalueȱofȱhavingȱaȱsingleȱcoordinatorȱ isȱenhancedȱwhenȱthatȱbodyȱincludesȱrepresentationȱfromȱbothȱtheȱ governmentȱandȱcivilȱsociety.ȱȱ ȱ
118 Garate, p. 14-35. 119 Ghana, p. 13-14. 120 Jamaica, p. 18-19.
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Whoeverȱassumesȱresponsibilityȱforȱoverseeingȱtheȱlegislationȱreviewȱ processȱmustȱunderstandȱthatȱthisȱisȱaȱmajorȱcommitmentȱofȱbothȱtimeȱ andȱresources.ȱBothȱoverseeingȱtheȱworkȱofȱtechnicalȱanalysisȱandȱ managingȱtheȱbroadȱpublicȱconsultationȱrequireȱpeopleȱwhoȱhaveȱ themselvesȱtheȱanalyticalȱskillsȱandȱmanagementȱexpertiseȱtoȱdoȱthisȱ workȱeffectively.ȱInȱmanyȱcountries,ȱthereȱmayȱbeȱaȱneedȱforȱoutsideȱ assistanceȱtoȱdoȱthisȱwell.ȱDrawingȱonȱregionalȱcapacitiesȱtoȱtakeȱ advantageȱofȱpositiveȱexperiencesȱinȱneighbouringȱjurisdictionsȱcouldȱ beȱofȱgreatȱhelp.ȱThereȱis,ȱtherefore,ȱanȱimportantȱsupportiveȱroleȱforȱ organisationsȱsuchȱasȱtheȱAfricanȱUnionȱandȱCARICOM.ȱȱ ȱ Whileȱdirectȱinvolvementȱinȱtheȱprocessȱbyȱinternationalȱagenciesȱ (suchȱasȱUNICEFȱandȱSaveȱtheȱChildren)ȱwouldȱnotȱbeȱdesirable,ȱsinceȱ theȱprocessȱandȱitsȱfinalȱresultȱmustȱbeȱfullyȱownedȱbyȱtheȱgovernmentȱ andȱpeopleȱofȱtheȱcountryȱconcerned,ȱthereȱisȱaȱsignificantȱroleȱtheseȱ agenciesȱcanȱplayȱinȱsupportingȱtheȱorganisation(s)ȱwhichȱareȱtakingȱaȱ leadingȱroleȱinȱcreatingȱchangeȱthatȱbenefitsȱtheirȱownȱchildren.ȱ ȱ Theȱreviewȱofȱlegislationȱasȱitȱaffectsȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱcanȱbeȱcontainedȱ withinȱaȱpoliticalȱorȱadministrativeȱstructureȱ(governmentȱdepartmentȱ orȱministryȱorȱanȱindependentȱinstitution)ȱorȱitȱcanȱbeȱestablishedȱasȱaȱ freeȬstandingȱandȱselfȬsufficientȱprocess.ȱExamplesȱofȱtheȱlatterȱ approachȱincludeȱnationalȱenquiriesȱorȱspecialȱcommissionsȱtaskedȱ withȱconductingȱaȱthoroughȱexaminationȱofȱtheȱpresentȱsituationȱandȱ comingȱupȱwithȱrecommendationsȱforȱfutureȱaction,ȱincludingȱreformȱ ofȱlawsȱifȱneeded.ȱSomeȱcountriesȱusedȱtheȱmoreȱindependentȱ mechanismȱeffectivelyȱinȱtheȱ1970sȱandȱ1980sȱtoȱexamineȱsociallyȱ significantȱissuesȱsuchȱasȱtheȱstatusȱofȱwomenȱorȱrelationshipsȱbetweenȱ differentȱethnicȱorȱreligiousȱgroups.ȱThisȱapproachȱmayȱalsoȱbeȱ extremelyȱusefulȱnow,ȱinȱtheȱcontextȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱandȱtheȱlaw.ȱ ȱ 2.2.8ȱ StructureȱofȱaȱReviewȱofȱLegislationȱ ȱ Theȱcoordinatorȱofȱtheȱlegislationȱreviewȱwillȱprobablyȱstartȱtheȱ processȱbyȱclarifyingȱtheȱcontext:ȱtheȱreasonsȱforȱundertakingȱtheȱ reviewȱinȱtheȱfirstȱplace,ȱtheȱscopeȱofȱtheȱreviewȇsȱactivitiesȱandȱtheȱ lengthȱofȱtimeȱthatȱtheȱprocessȱisȱexpectedȱtoȱtake.ȱTheȱplanȱforȱtheȱ reviewȱshouldȱoutlineȱtheȱanticipatedȱoperationȱofȱbothȱtheȱanalyticalȱ andȱconsultativeȱaspects.ȱIdeally,ȱtheseȱshouldȱbeȱimplementedȱ together,ȱsoȱthatȱtheyȱcanȱinteractȱandȱreinforceȱeachȱother.ȱThisȱwasȱ
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theȱcaseȱinȱVenezuela,ȱwhereȱtheȱtechnicalȱworkȱofȱtheȱexpertsȱwhoȱ wereȱassessingȱandȱdraftingȱnewȱlegislationȱoccurredȱinȱparallelȱwithȱ theȱvariousȱpublicȱactivitiesȱthatȱallowedȱcivilȱsocietyȱandȱspecialisedȱ interestȱgroupsȱtoȱpresentȱtheirȱviewsȱofȱlegislationȱforȱchildren. 121 ȱȱ ȱȱ Theȱreviewȱcoordinatorȱshouldȱalsoȱidentifyȱtheȱmethodsȱtoȱbeȱusedȱ throughoutȱtheȱreview.ȱInȱadditionȱtoȱaȱformalȱanalysisȱofȱtheȱ legislationȱbeingȱstudiedȱinȱrelationȱtoȱtheȱCRC/CEDAW,ȱitȱmayȱbeȱ helpfulȱtoȱconductȱspecificȱstudiesȱtoȱdetermineȱtheȱeffectȱandȱtheȱ effectivenessȱofȱparticularȱmeasuresȱ(whichȱcouldȱinclude,ȱinȱadditionȱ toȱlegislation,ȱsocialȱpolicies,ȱgovernmentȱprogrammesȱandȱ institutionalȱactivities).ȱSomeȱpossibleȱmethodologiesȱtoȱconsiderȱare:ȱ ȱ x socioȬeconomicȱstudiesȱofȱaffectedȱgroups;ȱȱ x statisticalȱanalysisȱ(includingȱgenderȬȱandȱageȬsensitiveȱdata);ȱ x publicȱopinionȱsurveys;ȱȱ x ȈauditsȈȱofȱtheȱimplementationȱofȱcertainȱpiecesȱofȱlegislation;ȱȱ x publicȱmeetings;ȱȱ x focusedȱconsultationsȱwithȱspecificȱgroups;ȱandȱ x inȬdepthȱinterviewsȱwithȱthoseȱwhoseȱlivesȱareȱaffectedȱbyȱtheȱ legislation,ȱincludingȱchildrenȱandȱtheirȱfamilyȱmembersȱasȱ wellȱasȱtheȱpeopleȱwhoȱimplementȱprogrammesȱandȱpoliciesȱ relatedȱtoȱtheȱlegislation.ȱ ȱ Thereȱmayȱbeȱaȱplace,ȱinȱthisȱprocess,ȱforȱreferenceȱtoȱexpertsȱandȱtoȱ experiencesȱinȱotherȱcountriesȱwithȱsimilarȱlegalȱsystems.ȱ ȱ Theȱreviewȱprocessȱshouldȱhaveȱaȱclearlyȱdefinedȱtimetable.ȱWhileȱitȱisȱ importantȱtoȱtakeȱenoughȱtimeȱtoȱcompleteȱaȱthoroughȱanalysisȱofȱtheȱ legislationȱandȱtoȱdevelopȱsuitableȱandȱusefulȱrecommendations,ȱtheȱ reviewȱshouldȱnotȱbeȱopenȬended.ȱAȱreviewȱthatȱcontinuesȱforȱmonthsȱ orȱyearsȱwithoutȱanyȱappreciableȱachievementȱinȱtermsȱofȱeitherȱ developingȱaȱbroadȱnationalȱconsensusȱonȱchildrenȱandȱtheirȱrightsȱorȱ determiningȱspecificȱrecommendationsȱaboutȱtheȱnextȱpracticalȱstepsȱtoȱ beȱtakenȱwillȱnotȱbeȱseenȱasȱhelpfulȱorȱeffective.ȱAȱcomprehensiveȱ review,ȱwhichȱcoversȱallȱaspectsȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱinȱtheȱcountry,ȱ doesȱnotȱneedȱtoȱbeȱexhaustive.ȱThereȱshouldȱbeȱaȱclearȱdeadlineȱforȱ
121 Garate, p. 18.
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theȱcompletionȱofȱtheȱreviewȱfromȱtheȱbeginning,ȱandȱtheȱprocessȱ shouldȱbeȱimplementedȱonȱtheȱbasisȱofȱaȱrealisticȱschedule.ȱ ȱ Fromȱtheȱbeginning,ȱitȱisȱimportantȱtoȱdetermineȱtheȱdegreeȱofȱ specificityȱneededȱtoȱattainȱaȱclearȱviewȱofȱtheȱsituationȱwithoutȱlosingȱ focus.ȱTooȱmuchȱdetailȱcanȱcauseȱtheȱreviewersȱtoȱbecomeȱimmersedȱinȱ legalȱminutiaeȱandȱloseȱsightȱofȱtheȱrealȱgoal,ȱwhichȱisȱtoȱseeȱifȱtheȱ legislationȱcurrentlyȱinȱplaceȱfullyȱrespects,ȱprotectsȱandȱpromotesȱ childrenȇsȱrightsȱand,ȱifȱitȱdoesȱnot,ȱidentifyȱwaysȱinȱwhichȱitȱmightȱbeȱ improved.ȱ ȱ AppropriateȱȈfeedbackȈȱmechanismsȱthroughoutȱtheȱprocessȱwillȱhelpȱ toȱkeepȱitȱrelevantȱandȱresponsiveȱtoȱnotȱonlyȱtheȱrealȱlegalȱsituationȱofȱ childrenȱbutȱalsoȱtoȱpublicȱexpectations.ȱForȱexample,ȱinȱVenezuela,ȱtheȱ regularȱexchangesȱbetweenȱtheȱSpecialȱCongressionalȱCommissionȱandȱ bodiesȱsuchȱasȱtheȱCentreȱforȱJudicialȱResearchȱandȱtheȱNGOȱcoalitionȱ soughtȱparticipationȱofȱtheȱvariousȱpartiesȱinvolvedȱinȱtheȱreviewȱ processȱandȱensuredȱthatȱtheȱinputsȱofȱeachȱoneȱwereȱavailableȱforȱtheȱ othersȱtoȱincorporateȱintoȱtheirȱownȱconclusions.ȱAsȱtheȱreviewȱprocessȱ unfolds,ȱitȱisȱlikelyȱthatȱpublicȱexpectationsȱwillȱchangeȱinȱresponseȱtoȱ theȱavailabilityȱofȱmoreȱandȱbetterȱinformationȱaboutȱtheȱsituationȱofȱ childrenȇsȱrights.ȱFromȱtheȱbeginning,ȱflexibilityȱmustȱbeȱestablishedȱinȱ orderȱtoȱadjustȱeitherȱtheȱquestionsȱbeingȱaskedȱorȱtheȱmethodsȱ employedȱasȱtheȱsituationȱevolves.ȱ ȱ Whetherȱtheȱinitialȱanalyticalȱphaseȱofȱtheȱreviewȱprocessȱisȱconductedȱ byȱaȱsmallȱnumberȱofȱexpertsȱorȱtakesȱtheȱformȱofȱaȱbroaderȱandȱmoreȱ publicȱexercise,ȱitȱwillȱbeȱimportantȱtoȱdefineȱtheȱscopeȱofȱtheȱexercise,ȱ byȱidentifyingȱtheȱlegislationȱandȱanyȱrelatedȱpolicies,ȱprogrammesȱ andȱinstitutionalȱstructuresȱthatȱwillȱbeȱsubjectȱtoȱreview.ȱItȱisȱselfȬ evidentȱthatȱtheȱmoreȱlegislationȱthereȱisȱtoȱbeȱanalysed,ȱtheȱlongerȱtheȱ reviewȱprocessȱwillȱtakeȱandȱtheȱmoreȱcomplexȱitȱwillȱbe.ȱThisȱ considerationȱshouldȱbeȱbalancedȱagainstȱtheȱrecognitionȱthatȱitȱwillȱ alsoȱresultȱinȱaȱmoreȱthoroughȱandȱcomprehensiveȱassessmentȱofȱtheȱ waysȱinȱwhichȱlegislationȱaffectsȱchildrenȇsȱrights.ȱȱ ȱ Theȱendȱresultȱofȱtheȱreviewȱshouldȱbeȱtoȱpromoteȱfurtherȱactionȱasȱ needed.ȱIfȱthereȱisȱaȱreport,ȱitȱshouldȱnotȱbeȱleftȱtoȱsitȱonȱaȱshelf,ȱ unopened,ȱitsȱrecommendationsȱunimplemented.ȱFromȱtheȱbeginningȱ ofȱtheȱreviewȱprocess,ȱthereȱshouldȱbeȱaȱfirmȱcommitmentȱfromȱtheȱ
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governmentȱtoȱactȱinȱresponseȱtoȱtheȱconclusionsȱofȱtheȱreview.ȱThisȱ willȱalsoȱmakeȱtheȱprocessȱmuchȱlivelier,ȱbecauseȱpeopleȱwhoȱ participateȱwillȱknowȱthatȱtheirȱcontributionȱwillȱhaveȱsomeȱeffectȱonȱ actionsȱthatȱwillȱbeȱtakenȱlater.ȱ ȱ 2.2.9ȱ ReviewingȱLegislationȱ ȱ Asȱaȱpointȱofȱdepartureȱforȱtheȱreview,ȱconsiderationȱmayȱbeȱgivenȱtoȱ theȱconstitutionalȱbasisȱforȱtheȱlegislation.ȱThisȱcanȱinvolveȱtheȱmoreȱ technicalȱaspectsȱofȱtheȱconstitutionalȱstructure,ȱsuchȱasȱtheȱdivisionȱofȱ powersȱandȱresponsibilityȱamongȱdifferentȱjurisdictionsȱinȱaȱfederalȱ system,ȱasȱwellȱasȱanȱassessmentȱofȱtheȱwaysȱinȱwhichȱconstitutionalȱ guaranteesȱandȱprotectionsȱofȱhumanȱrightsȱrelateȱtoȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱ theȱinternationalȱConventions.ȱItȱcanȱbeȱparticularlyȱusefulȱtoȱidentifyȱ thoseȱareasȱinȱwhichȱnationalȱhumanȱrightsȱprotectionsȱsurpassȱthoseȱ providedȱforȱinȱinternationalȱinstruments.ȱ ȱ Someȱnationalȱconstitutionsȱhaveȱclearlyȱdefinedȱprovisionsȱrelatingȱtoȱ childrenȇsȱrights,ȱoutliningȱspecificȱgovernmentȱresponsibilitiesȱtoȱ adoptȱandȱimplementȱlegislationȱtoȱgiveȱeffectȱtoȱthoseȱprovisions.ȱ Suchȱprovisionsȱmayȱprovideȱtheȱimpetusȱforȱaȱreviewȱofȱlegislationȱasȱ itȱrelatesȱtoȱchildren’sȱrights.ȱInȱotherȱcountries,ȱtheȱconstitutionalȱ provisionsȱapplicableȱtoȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱmayȱbeȱgeneral,ȱinȱtheȱcontextȱ ofȱtheȱrightsȱofȱtheȱbroaderȱpopulation,ȱsoȱinterpretationȱofȱtheȱrelevantȱ guidanceȱmayȱbeȱneededȱtoȱclarifyȱhowȱtheyȱrelateȱtoȱtheȱspecificȱrightsȱ ofȱchildren.ȱ(SeeȱChapterȱ3ȱbelowȱforȱfurtherȱexaminationȱofȱthisȱaspectȱ ofȱtheȱreviewȱprocess).ȱ ȱ Sinceȱoneȱofȱtheȱgoalsȱofȱtheȱreviewȱisȱlikelyȱtoȱbeȱtoȱgenerateȱchangesȱ inȱattitudes,ȱbehaviourȱand,ȱifȱnecessary,ȱlegislationȱinȱfavourȱofȱ childrenȇsȱrights,ȱandȱtoȱdoȱthisȱasȱquicklyȱandȱeffectivelyȱasȱpossible,ȱ theȱefficiencyȱofȱtheȱreviewȱisȱanȱimportantȱconsideration.ȱThisȱmeansȱ carefullyȱselectingȱtheȱlegislationȱthatȱwillȱbeȱassessedȱasȱpartȱofȱtheȱ termsȱofȱreferenceȱofȱtheȱreview.ȱTheȱselectionȱmayȱbeȱfairlyȱ straightforward,ȱespeciallyȱifȱtheȱreviewȱisȱundertakenȱinȱresponseȱtoȱ specificȱconcerns,ȱsuchȱasȱaȱgapȱinȱcoverageȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱ identifiedȱinȱtheȱcourseȱofȱreportingȱtoȱtheȱCommitteeȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱ theȱChild,ȱorȱasȱaȱresultȱofȱaȱcourtȱchallengeȱbasedȱonȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱ andȱaȱsubsequentȱjudicialȱdecisionȱthatȱcallsȱintoȱquestionȱsomeȱ
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existingȱlegislation,ȱorȱbecauseȱofȱaȱconcernȱthatȱisȱbroughtȱtoȱtheȱ public’sȱattentionȱbyȱmediaȱcoverage.ȱ ȱ Theȱlegislationȱtoȱbeȱreviewedȱmightȱbeȱdividedȱintoȱthreeȱcategoriesȱofȱ decreasingȱpriority:ȱȱ ȱ 1. Legislationȱatȱtheȱnationalȱlevelȱwhichȱdealsȱdirectlyȱwithȱ mattersȱaffectingȱtheȱrightsȱofȱchildren,ȱsuchȱasȱlawsȱrelatingȱtoȱ marriage,ȱdivorceȱandȱchildȱcustody;ȱjuvenileȱjustice;ȱandȱ servicesȱforȱdisabledȱchildren;ȱȱȱ 2. Legislationȱatȱtheȱnationalȱlevelȱwhich,ȱwhileȱnotȱreferringȱ specificallyȱtoȱchildren,ȱneverthelessȱhasȱanȱeffectȱonȱthemȱandȱ theirȱrights,ȱsuchȱasȱlegislationȱonȱtheȱoperationȱofȱelectronicȱ media;ȱregulationsȱforȱemploymentȱprogrammes;ȱandȱlawsȱ governingȱtheȱsafetyȱofȱautomobiles;ȱandȱȱ 3. Legislationȱatȱotherȱlevelsȱofȱgovernmentȱthatȱhasȱanȱeffectȱonȱ childrenȇsȱrights.ȱThisȱmayȱbeȱgivenȱincreasedȱpriorityȱinȱ federalȱStatesȱinȱwhichȱtheȱlowerȱlevelsȱofȱgovernmentȱhaveȱ primaryȱorȱsignificantȱrolesȱtoȱplayȱinȱtheȱareasȱcoveredȱbyȱtheȱ CRC/CEDAWȱ(forȱinstance,ȱfamilyȱlaw,ȱeducationȱorȱhealthȱ care),ȱorȱinȱdecentralizedȱStatesȱwhichȱmakeȱdistrictsȱorȱ municipalitiesȱresponsibleȱforȱdeliveringȱservicesȱinȱsectorsȱ affectingȱchildren.ȱThisȱisȱaȱbroadȱcategory,ȱwhichȱcanȱcoverȱ everythingȱfromȱcriminalȱlaw,ȱtheȱorganizationȱandȱoperationȱ ofȱpoliceȱandȱcorrectionalȱservicesȱ(inȱfederalȱStatesȱwithȱ decentralizedȱresponsibilities),ȱtoȱtheȱsettingȱofȱspeedȱlimitsȱinȱ schoolȱzonesȱandȱmunicipalȱrulesȱaboutȱtheȱoperationȱofȱstoresȱ sellingȱproductsȱtoȱchildren.ȱ ȱ Inȱmanyȱjurisdictions,ȱsomeȱlegislationȱrelatingȱtoȱchildrenȱandȱtheirȱ rightsȱmayȱalreadyȱbeȱassembledȱintoȱaȱcompendium,ȱforȱexampleȱ dealingȱwithȱfamilyȱlawȱorȱjuvenileȱjustice.ȱInȱcommonȱlawȱcountries,ȱ suchȱaȱcompendiumȱwouldȱalsoȱincludeȱrelevantȱjurisprudence,ȱandȱinȱ Islamicȱlawȱcountriesȱitȱwouldȱnaturallyȱincorporateȱtheȱvariousȱ elementsȱofȱShari’aȱthatȱareȱappliedȱthere.ȱCountriesȱwithȱpluralȱlegalȱ systemsȱinvolvingȱtraditionalȱorȱcustomaryȱlawȱwouldȱincludeȱthoseȱ practicesȱasȱwell.ȱ ȱ Ifȱsuchȱaȱcatalogueȱdoesȱnotȱexist,ȱitȱmightȱbeȱworthwhileȱtoȱcompileȱ oneȱasȱtheȱfirstȱstepȱofȱtheȱreviewȱprocess.ȱSuchȱaȱcompilationȱwouldȱ
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beȱusefulȱnotȱonlyȱforȱtheȱreviewȱbutȱalsoȱforȱtheȱworkȱofȱchildrenȇsȱ advocatesȱinȱaȱvarietyȱofȱcontexts.ȱPreparationȱofȱsuchȱaȱcompendiumȱ shouldȱbeȱdoneȱwithȱtheȱrecognitionȱthatȱlegislationȱaffectingȱchildrenȱ andȱtheȱexerciseȱofȱtheirȱrightsȱdoesȱnotȱalwaysȱreferȱexplicitlyȱtoȱ childrenȱinȱtitlesȱorȱshortȱdescriptions.ȱSomeȱknowledgeȱofȱtheȱgeneralȱ contentȱandȱapplicationȱofȱsuchȱlawsȱwillȱhelpȱtoȱdetermineȱtheirȱ applicabilityȱinȱtheȱcontextȱofȱtheȱreview.ȱ(Thisȱwouldȱbeȱaȱgoodȱ exerciseȱforȱstudentsȱofȱlawȱorȱrelatedȱdisciplines).ȱ ȱ Challenges of Legislative Inȱcountriesȱwithȱpluralȱlegalȱsystemsȱthatȱ Review 1. Differences between legal haveȱaȱcomponentȱofȱtraditionalȱorȱ systems customaryȱlaw,ȱtheȱchallengeȱmayȱbeȱtoȱpullȱ 2. Problems of enforcement togetherȱadequateȱinformationȱonȱtheȱ (economic, geographic, cultural, social) customaryȱlaw,ȱwhichȱmayȱnotȱbeȱwrittenȱorȱ 3. Lack of capacity to mayȱbeȱwrittenȱonlyȱinȱveryȱvagueȱterms.ȱ implement laws 4. Implicit discrimination Theȱreviewȱmayȱhaveȱtoȱundertakeȱaȱ 5. Application of a compilationȱofȱcustomaryȱjurisprudenceȱbyȱ relativistic approach which interviewingȱtraditionalȱchiefsȱorȱothersȱ sets priorities among rights whoȱadministerȱtheȱcustomaryȱlawȱifȱsuchȱ informationȱisȱnotȱotherwiseȱavailable.ȱToȱtheȱextentȱthatȱtheȱ customaryȱlawȱisȱaȱvalidȱandȱactiveȱdeterminantȱofȱchildrenȇsȱ treatmentȱinȱsociety,ȱitȱneedsȱtoȱbeȱtakenȱfullyȱintoȱaccountȱatȱallȱstagesȱ ofȱtheȱreview.ȱInȱGhana,ȱforȱexample,ȱtheȱlegislationȱreviewȱtookȱ accountȱofȱsuchȱissuesȱasȱsuccessionȱunderȱcustomaryȱlaw,ȱforcedȱandȱ earlyȱmarriages,ȱeconomicȱslaveryȱandȱotherȱmattersȱinȱwhichȱtheȱ customaryȱlawȱhadȱaȱclearȱeffectȱonȱtheȱabilityȱofȱchildrenȱtoȱrealiseȱ theirȱrights.ȱWithoutȱtakingȱsuchȱaspectsȱintoȱaccount,ȱanyȱanalysisȱofȱ legislationȱasȱitȱisȱappliedȱtoȱchildrenȱinȱGhanaȱwouldȱhaveȱbeenȱ incompleteȱandȱtheȱconclusionsȱreachedȱbyȱtheȱreviewȱwouldȱhaveȱ beenȱlessȱrelevantȱasȱaȱresult. 122ȱ ȱ Itȱisȱalsoȱimportantȱtoȱconsiderȱtheȱimplicationsȱofȱlegislationȱwhichȱ seemsȱpurelyȱtechnicalȱorȱirrelevantȱtoȱtheȱinterestsȱofȱchildren.ȱTheȱ studyȱconductedȱinȱYemen,ȱforȱexample,ȱpointedȱoutȱthatȱaȱnewȱLawȱonȱ LocalȱAdministrationȱwouldȱresultȱinȱaȱdecentralizationȱofȱresponsibilityȱ forȱdeliveringȱgovernmentȱservices,ȱwhichȱwouldȱleadȱtoȱaȱgreaterȱ chanceȱofȱgovernmentȱprogrammesȱmeetingȱtheȱrealȱneedsȱofȱchildrenȱ inȱtheȱcommunityȱbecauseȱtheȱpeopleȱresponsibleȱforȱtheȱprogrammesȱ
122 Ghana, p. 16-9.
66 Handbook on Legislative Reform wouldȱbeȱfromȱtheȱcommunityȱtheȱprogrammesȱwereȱaffecting.ȱThisȱ wouldȱbeȱpredicated,ȱhowever,ȱonȱtheȱavailabilityȱofȱadequateȱ resourcesȱatȱtheȱlocalȱadministrationȱlevelȱtoȱdeliverȱtheȱnecessaryȱ services. 123ȱ ȱ Asȱtheȱlegislationȱisȱassembledȱbyȱcategory,ȱoneȱthingȱthatȱisȱlikelyȱtoȱ emergeȱisȱaȱlackȱofȱbalanceȱbetweenȱdifferentȱcategoriesȱofȱlegislation.ȱ Forȱexample,ȱinȱHaiti 124 ȱandȱGabon 125 ȱmuchȱdetailedȱlegislationȱisȱinȱ placeȱtoȱdetermineȱtheȱnatureȱofȱaȱchildȇsȱpaternityȱ(ȈlegitimateȈȱ children,ȱȈnaturalȈȱchildren,ȱchildrenȱbornȱofȱadulteryȱorȱincest,ȱevenȱ childrenȱbornȱtoȱtwoȱsuccessiveȱlegitimateȱmarriages) 126 ȱbutȱprovisionsȱ toȱgovernȱtheȱinstitutionalȱcareȱofȱabandonedȱorȱorphanedȱchildrenȱareȱ notablyȱinadequate. 127 ȱEvenȱatȱthisȱpreliminaryȱstageȱofȱtheȱanalysis,ȱitȱ shouldȱbeȱpossibleȱtoȱidentifyȱgapsȱandȱareasȱwhereȱmoreȱattentionȱisȱ needed.ȱTheȱaccumulationȱofȱconclusionsȱsuchȱasȱthisȱthroughoutȱtheȱ review,ȱfedȱbackȱintoȱtheȱprocessȱofȱbothȱanalysisȱandȱconsultation,ȱ willȱleadȱtoȱtheȱdevelopmentȱofȱclearȱrecommendationsȱforȱaction,ȱ whichȱshouldȱbeȱtheȱfinalȱresultȱofȱtheȱreview.ȱ ȱ Itȱisȱinevitable,ȱwhereȱtwoȱorȱmoreȱdifferentȱlegalȱsystemsȱoperateȱinȱ theȱsameȱcountry,ȱthatȱtheȱreviewȱofȱlegislationȱwillȱhaveȱtoȱaddressȱ conflictsȱinȱbothȱprincipleȱandȱpracticeȱbetweenȱsystems.ȱEvenȱwhenȱ theȱconstitutionȱestablishesȱwhichȱsystemȱ(usuallyȱtheȱlawȬbasedȱorȱ
123 Beatty, Sharon, Dr. Barbara Croken, Abdul Hakim Al Hamdani, Fatima Jibran, Saed al Mahktafi, Impact of the Convention on the Rights of the Child in Yemen, Rädda Barnen/Save the Children, Sana'a (25 August 1998) [henceforth: Yemen], p. 10. 124 Vieux, Serge-Henri and Bernard Gousse, Étude Comparative entre la Convention relative aux droits de l'enfant et La législation haïtienne, publication details unknown, unpaginated [henceforth: Haiti]. 125 Plan Étude Comparative entre la Législation Gabonaise, La Convention relative aux droits de l'enfant, La Charte Africaine des droits et du bien-être de l'enfant, UNICEF (internal working document; no publication data) [henceforth: Gabon]. 126 Haiti, p. 8-12, p. 56-9, p. 83-5, p. 113-6; Gabon p. 9-19. 127 Gabon, 17th page (being orphaned as a prerequisite for adoption) and 23rd and 24th pages (guardianship), but the section on children in care of the State (22nd and 23rd page) refers only to children removed from their parents' care, either for the child's protection or at the request of their parents. There is no reference to orphans in institutional care. With regard to abandoned children, the only reference is in connection with birth registration (10th page). Haiti discusses adoption (11th and 12th pages) without mentioning orphans. Adoption is also dealt with as a remedy for abandoned children (61st to 67th page). The 29th page contains a reference to support for minor orphans of civilian or military employees of the State. The care of abandoned children as vagabonds, who must be placed in re-education institutions until they reach the age of majority, is referred to on the 31st page but no description is provided for the structure and operation of such institutions, although the comment is made that there are not enough of them.
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judiciaryȬbasedȱone)ȱwillȱprevailȱinȱeventȱofȱdifferencesȱbetweenȱtheȱ approachesȱtakenȱbyȱtheȱtwoȱsystemsȱtoȱtheȱsameȱsituation,ȱtraditionȱ andȱcustomȱcanȱexertȱaȱstrongȱinfluenceȱonȱpeopleȇsȱbehaviour.ȱTheȱ reviewȱmayȱwellȱhaveȱtoȱtakeȱaȱpositionȱonȱtheȱimplicationsȱofȱsuchȱ differencesȱbetweenȱlawȱandȱcustomȱforȱchildrenȇsȱrights.ȱThoseȱ conductingȱtheȱreviewȱwillȱhaveȱtoȱbeȱpreparedȱforȱtheȱpossibilityȱofȱ conflictȱinȱresponsesȱtoȱtheȱreviewȇsȱpositionȱonȱwhatȱmayȱbeȱveryȱ sensitiveȱissues.ȱ ȱ Equallyȱimportantȱasȱassessingȱlegislationȱasȱitȱisȱwritten,ȱinȱrelationȱtoȱ theȱspecificȱConventionȱprovisions,ȱisȱassessingȱtheȱimplementationȱofȱ thatȱlegislationȱandȱtheȱwayȱinȱwhichȱthatȱimplementationȱaffectsȱtheȱ situationȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrights.ȱNonȬlegislativeȱinstrumentsȱofȱ governmentȱmayȱalsoȱbeȱrelevantȱinȱassessingȱtheȱeffectivenessȱofȱ legislationȱinȱspecificȱareas.ȱSuchȱinstrumentsȱcouldȱincludeȱsocialȱ policyȱdeclarations,ȱoperationalȱplansȱofȱtheȱrelevantȱministries,ȱ budgetsȱandȱotherȱfiscalȱdocumentsȱofȱgovernment,ȱandȱtheȱ organisationalȱstructure,ȱmanagementȱandȱmonitoringȱofȱinstitutionsȱ dealingȱwithȱchildren.ȱ ȱ Manyȱcountriesȱhaveȱwonderfulȱlawsȱonȱtheirȱbooksȱthatȱperfectlyȱ reflectȱtheȱcommitmentȱtoȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱexpressedȱinȱCRC/CEDAW,ȱ butȱinȱactualȱpracticeȱtheȱresultȱisȱlessȱthanȱideal.ȱInȱHaiti,ȱforȱexample,ȱ theȱstudyȱfoundȱthatȱthereȱisȱaȱlegalȱrequirementȱthatȱallȱchildrenȱ attendȱelementaryȱschool,ȱwithȱexplicitȱpenaltiesȱ(fineȱorȱ imprisonment)ȱforȱparentsȱwhoseȱchildrenȱdoȱnotȱattendȱschool.ȱEvenȱ so,ȱaȱlargeȱpercentageȱofȱchildrenȱdoȱnotȱattendȱschool,ȱandȱtheirȱ parentsȱdoȱnotȱsufferȱpenalties.ȱIndeed,ȱitȱisȱdoubtfulȱthatȱtheȱpenaltiesȱ wouldȱleadȱtoȱtheȱlegislatedȱgoalȱbecauseȱofȱtheȱeconomicȱfactorsȱ whichȱprohibitȱschoolȱattendanceȱforȱpoorȱchildren. 128 ȱTheȱexistenceȱofȱ aȱlawȱcompellingȱeducationȱdoesȱnot,ȱofȱitself,ȱfulfilȱtheȱrequirementsȱ ofȱArticleȱ28ȱofȱtheȱCRCȱor,ȱforȱthatȱmatter,ȱArticleȱ10ȱofȱCEDAW.ȱ ȱ Theȱassessmentȱofȱlegislationȱrelatingȱtoȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱshouldȱtakeȱ intoȱaccountȱaspectsȱofȱimplicitȱdiscriminationȱthroughȱtheȱunequalȱ applicationȱofȱthoseȱlawsȱacrossȱgender,ȱgeographic,ȱeconomic,ȱsocialȱ andȱculturalȱdifferences.ȱTheȱHaitiȱstudyȱprovidesȱanotherȱexampleȱofȱ
128 Haiti, p. 21-2.
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thisȱinȱtheȱlegalȱprovisionsȱrelatingȱtoȱbirthȱregistration. 129 ȱTheȱlawȱ establishesȱthatȱallȱchildrenȱareȱtoȱbeȱdulyȱregisteredȱatȱbirth.ȱTheȱ registrationȱprocess,ȱhowever,ȱrequiresȱtheȱservicesȱofȱaȱcivilȱregistryȱ official.ȱEveryȱcantonȱisȱsupposedȱtoȱhaveȱsuchȱanȱofficial,ȱbutȱalmostȱ halfȱofȱthem,ȱprimarilyȱinȱisolatedȱruralȱareas,ȱdoȱnot.ȱAsȱaȱresult,ȱ childrenȱbornȱinȱthoseȱcantonsȱareȱnotȱregisteredȱasȱrequiredȱbyȱlaw,ȱ notȱbecauseȱofȱanyȱdeliberateȱneglectȱonȱtheȱpartȱofȱparents,ȱbutȱ becauseȱofȱtheȱcircumstancesȱthatȱaffectȱtheȱimplementationȱofȱtheȱlaw.ȱ Thisȱisȱaȱclearȱexampleȱofȱgeographicȱandȱperhapsȱalsoȱeconomicȱ discriminationȱ(sinceȱthoseȱwithȱeconomicȱresourcesȱwouldȱbeȱableȱtoȱ travelȱtoȱtownsȱwithȱaȱcivilȱregistryȱofficialȱtoȱregisterȱtheirȱchildrenȇsȱ birth).ȱ ȱ Thereȱisȱstillȱaȱstrongȱsenseȱinȱmanyȱpartsȱofȱtheȱworldȱ–ȱnotȱjustȱinȱ countriesȱwithȱcustomaryȱlegalȱsystemsȱ–ȱthatȱmattersȱconcerningȱ childrenȱandȱtheȱfamily,ȱincludingȱsuchȱissuesȱasȱearlyȱmarriage,ȱ femaleȱgenitalȱmutilationȱandȱchildȱlabour,ȱshouldȱnotȱbeȱdealtȱwith,ȱ muchȱlessȱcontrolled,ȱbyȱtheȱauthoritiesȱofȱtheȱState.ȱTheȱvirtualȱwallȱ thatȱhasȱdividedȱtheȱhousehold,ȱtheȱdomainȱofȱtheȱfamilyȱandȱ traditionalȱpractices,ȱfromȱtheȱwiderȱsocietyȱgovernedȱbyȱlawsȱandȱ conceptsȱofȱrightsȱremainsȱaȱsourceȱofȱcontroversyȱinȱmany,ȱifȱnotȱ most,ȱcountriesȱregardlessȱofȱtheirȱtypeȱofȱlegalȱsystem.ȱItȱisȱthisȱwallȱ thatȱisȱbeingȱdismantledȱbyȱtheȱapplicationȱofȱuniversalȱhumanȱrightsȱ principlesȱtoȱchildrenȱ(and,ȱtoȱtheȱextentȱthatȱtheyȱareȱalsoȱconfinedȱ withinȱtheȱhousehold,ȱtoȱwomen).ȱ ȱ Thisȱcanȱmakeȱtheȱreviewȱprocessȱmoreȱcomplicatedȱandȱitȱmayȱ requireȱmoreȱtimeȱandȱpublicȱeducationȱtoȱcompleteȱsatisfactorily.ȱ Throughout,ȱtheȱreviewȱprocessȱshouldȱmaintainȱtheȱprincipleȱthatȱallȱ humanȱrightsȱareȱuniversalȱandȱindivisibleȱƺȱtheyȱapplyȱtoȱeveryoneȱ equallyȱandȱrecognitionȱofȱoneȱrightȱentailsȱrecognitionȱofȱall.ȱThisȱisȱ theȱcaseȱbecauseȱrightsȱareȱinherentȱinȱeachȱhumanȱbeing.ȱJustȱasȱeachȱ rightȱappliesȱtoȱallȱpeopleȱequally,ȱinȱaccordanceȱwithȱtheȱprincipleȱofȱ nonȬdiscrimination,ȱsoȱtooȱdoȱallȱrightsȱapplyȱequallyȱtoȱeachȱ individual.ȱForȱthisȱreason,ȱtheȱopportunityȱforȱpublicȱeducationȱaboutȱ childrenȇsȱrightsȱprovidedȱbyȱaȱdebateȱaboutȱtheȱapplicationȱofȱrightsȱ inȱdifferentȱsocietiesȱmayȱbeȱoneȱofȱtheȱmoreȱsignificantȱbenefitsȱofȱtheȱ reviewȱprocessȱitself.ȱ
129 Haiti, p. 8-9.
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ȱ 2.2.10ȱ UsingȱCRCȱandȱCEDAWȱ ȱ Whateverȱtheȱreasonȱforȱundertakingȱaȱreviewȱofȱlegislationȱwithȱ regardȱtoȱchildrenȇsȱrights,ȱtheȱConventionȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChildȱ (CRC)ȱandȱtheȱConventionȱonȱtheȱEliminationȱofȱallȱFormsȱofȱ DiscriminationȱAgainstȱWomenȱ(CEDAW)ȱwillȱnaturallyȱbeȱaȱfocusȱforȱ theȱexaminationȱofȱexistingȱlegislationȱandȱpractice.ȱThereȱareȱtwoȱ complementaryȱwaysȱofȱusingȱCRC/CEDAWȱinȱthisȱprocess.ȱȱ ȱ Onȱtheȱoneȱhand,ȱtheȱConventionsȱcanȱbeȱusedȱasȱaȱȈchecklist,Ȉȱtakingȱ eachȱarticleȱindividuallyȱandȱlookingȱtoȱseeȱifȱthereȱisȱexistingȱ legislationȱthatȱrelatesȱtoȱtheȱrightsȱspecificallyȱmentionedȱinȱthatȱ articleȱand,ȱifȱtheȱlegislationȱdoesȱexist,ȱdeterminingȱwhetherȱitȱsatisfiesȱ theȱobligationsȱunderȱthatȱarticle,ȱbothȱinȱitsȱformalȱexpressionȱandȱtheȱ wayȱinȱwhichȱitȱisȱenforcedȱandȱimplemented.ȱȱ ȱ Onȱtheȱotherȱhand,ȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAWȱcanȱbeȱusedȱasȱaȱstandardȱ againstȱwhichȱallȱexistingȱlegislation,ȱprogrammes,ȱpoliciesȱandȱ institutionsȱareȱmeasured.ȱThisȱapproachȱinvolvesȱstartingȱwithȱtheȱ legislationȱandȱpracticeȱandȱassessingȱtheirȱappropriatenessȱagainstȱtheȱ twoȱConventionsȱasȱaȱwhole.ȱ ȱ Withȱtheȱfirstȱapproach,ȱthereȱwillȱbeȱaȱclearȱlinkȱbetweenȱtheȱ CRC/CEDAWȱandȱspecificȱmeasuresȱinȱplaceȱsoȱthatȱaȱStateȱwillȱbeȱ ableȱtoȱdemonstrate,ȱifȱrequired,ȱtheȱextentȱtoȱwhichȱobligationsȱunderȱ theȱConventionsȱhaveȱbeenȱmet.ȱHowever,ȱthisȱapproachȱdoesȱnotȱ easilyȱtakeȱintoȱaccountȱanyȱlegislation,ȱpoliciesȱorȱprogrammesȱthatȱ mayȱnotȱdirectlyȱrelateȱtoȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱtheȱConventionsȱbutȱwhich,ȱ nevertheless,ȱhaveȱanȱeffectȱonȱtheȱfulfilmentȱofȱcertainȱrights.ȱThatȱ needȱisȱsatisfiedȱbyȱusingȱtheȱȈstandardȱofȱcomparisonȈȱapproach.ȱ ȱ Aȱnumberȱofȱusefulȱresourcesȱareȱavailableȱtoȱhelpȱwithȱtheȱanalysisȱofȱ theȱlegislationȱonȱtheȱbasisȱofȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAW.ȱForȱeachȱ Convention,ȱtheȱObservationsȱofȱtheirȱrespectiveȱCommitteesȱonȱtheȱ reportsȱofȱtheȱStateȱPartyȱcanȱprovideȱguidanceȱasȱtoȱtheȱintentionȱandȱ meaningȱofȱvariousȱarticles.ȱForȱtheȱCRC,ȱtheȱImplementationȱHandbookȱ forȱtheȱConventionȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChildȱisȱanȱextremelyȱvaluableȱ reference.ȱItȱexplainsȱeachȱofȱtheȱarticlesȱinȱclearȱandȱreadilyȱaccessibleȱ language,ȱwithȱcopiousȱreferencesȱtoȱtheȱObservationsȱofȱtheȱ
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CommitteeȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChildȱtoȱdemonstrateȱhowȱtheȱ provisionsȱofȱtheȱCRCȱcanȱbeȱrealisedȱinȱpracticalȱterms,ȱincludingȱ throughȱlegislativeȱaction.ȱTheȱGeneralȱCommentȱNumberȱ5ȱofȱtheȱ CommitteeȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChildȱisȱalsoȱaȱusefulȱreference,ȱ addressingȱinȱsomeȱdetailȱtheȱGeneralȱMeasuresȱofȱImplementationȱofȱ theȱConvention.ȱ ȱ TheȱeasiestȱwayȱtoȱuseȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAWȱasȱaȱchecklistȱforȱtheȱ analysisȱofȱlegislationȱrelatingȱtoȱchildrenȱisȱtoȱbreakȱtheȱConventionsȱ downȱnotȱjustȱbyȱarticleȱbutȱalsoȱbyȱtheȱindividualȱprovisionsȱwithinȱ eachȱarticle.ȱForȱexample,ȱArticleȱ18ȱofȱtheȱCRCȱ(whichȱdescribesȱtheȱ responsibilitiesȱofȱparentsȱforȱbringingȱupȱtheirȱchildrenȱandȱtheȱ responsibilityȱofȱtheȱStateȱtoȱsupportȱtheȱparentsȱbyȱprovidingȱ institutions,ȱfacilitiesȱandȱservicesȱforȱtheȱcareȱofȱchildren)ȱcouldȱbeȱ addressedȱbyȱlookingȱforȱlegislationȱthat:ȱ ȱ x Providesȱmeasuresȱtoȱensureȱthatȱbothȱparentsȱareȱinvolvedȱinȱ bringingȱupȱandȱcaringȱforȱtheirȱchild(ren);ȱthisȱcouldȱincludeȱ legislationȱonȱrecognitionȱofȱpaternity,ȱchildȱcustodyȱandȱ supportȱinȱcasesȱofȱseparationȱorȱdivorce,ȱandȱparentalȱleaveȱatȱ theȱbirthȱorȱadoptionȱofȱaȱchild;ȱ x Providesȱstandardsȱagainstȱwhichȱtoȱdetermineȱwhetherȱ parentsȱhaveȱtheȱbestȱinterestsȱofȱtheirȱchild(ren)ȱasȱtheirȱbasicȱ concernȱinȱtheȱtreatmentȱtheyȱaccordȱtoȱtheirȱchildren;ȱthisȱ couldȱincludeȱlegislationȱdealingȱwithȱparentalȱfailureȱtoȱ provideȱtheȱnecessitiesȱofȱlife,ȱwithȱexploitationȱofȱtheȱchildȱinȱ familyȱbusinessesȱ(includingȱfarming)ȱatȱtheȱexpenseȱofȱotherȱ activitiesȱsuchȱasȱeducation,ȱandȱwithȱchildȱabuseȱinȱvariousȱ forms;ȱ x ProvidesȱforȱgovernmentȬsupportedȱprogrammesȱofȱassistanceȱ toȱparentsȱandȱlegalȱguardians;ȱthisȱcanȱincludeȱsuchȱmattersȱasȱ accessȱtoȱsubsidizedȱfoodȱandȱhousing,ȱfinancialȱsupportȱforȱ families,ȱfreeȱaccessȱtoȱbasicȱservicesȱsuchȱasȱhealthȱcareȱandȱ education,ȱandȱanyȱspecialȱprogrammesȱtoȱhelpȱparentsȱofȱ disabledȱchildrenȱobtainȱtheȱservicesȱtheyȱneedȱforȱtheirȱ children;ȱ x Providesȱforȱtheȱestablishmentȱandȱadequateȱfundingȱofȱ institutions,ȱfacilitiesȱandȱservicesȱforȱtheȱcareȱofȱchildren;ȱtheseȱ includeȱregulatedȱchildȱcare,ȱearlyȱchildhoodȱdevelopment,ȱ programmesȱforȱdisabledȱandȱdisadvantagedȱchildren,ȱandȱ
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rulesȱgoverningȱtheȱoperationȱofȱboardingȱschools,ȱrecreationȱ programmesȱandȱȈsummerȱcampsȈȱthatȱhaveȱtheȱcareȱofȱ childrenȱforȱextendedȱperiodsȱofȱtimeȱawayȱfromȱtheirȱparents.ȱ ȱ Itȱisȱtemptingȱtoȱstopȱtheȱcheckingȱprocessȱafterȱoneȱkeyȱpieceȱofȱ legislationȱhasȱbeenȱidentifiedȱandȱsoȱneglectȱothersȱthatȱmightȱhaveȱ importantȱrelationshipsȱtoȱtheȱConventionȱprovisionȱbeingȱaddressed.ȱ Itȱisȱalsoȱtemptingȱtoȱstopȱwithȱtheȱstatementȱofȱtheȱlegislationȱandȱnotȱ takeȱintoȱaccountȱitsȱeffectivenessȱinȱpractice.ȱInȱthisȱway,ȱtheȱ relationshipȱbetweenȱcertainȱrightsȱandȱaȱrangeȱofȱlegislationȱandȱ relatedȱmeasuresȱcanȱbeȱlost.ȱInȱparticular,ȱsuchȱaȱcurtailedȱreviewȱmayȱ notȱcatchȱcontradictionsȱwithinȱtheȱtotalȱbodyȱofȱlegislation,ȱorȱbetweenȱ legislationȱandȱpoliciesȱorȱcustomaryȱpractices,ȱwhichȱwouldȱhaveȱtheȱ effectȱofȱundercuttingȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱtheȱCRC/CEDAW.ȱForȱ example,ȱanalysisȱusingȱtheȱCRC/CEDAWȱasȱaȱȈchecklistȈȱmayȱfind,ȱinȱ relationȱtoȱArticleȱ16ȱofȱCEDAW,ȱthatȱwrittenȱlegislationȱsetsȱaȱ minimumȱageȱforȱmarriageȱatȱ16ȱyearsȱforȱbothȱgirlsȱandȱboys.ȱButȱifȱ theȱanalysisȱstopsȱthere,ȱitȱcouldȱfailȱtoȱtakeȱaccountȱofȱtheȱfactȱthat,ȱ underȱcustomaryȱlaw,ȱgirlsȱasȱyoungȱasȱ12ȱyearsȱofȱageȱareȱroutinelyȱ marriedȱtoȱmenȱthreeȱorȱfourȱtimesȱtheirȱageȱinȱcertainȱregions,ȱaȱ situationȱwhichȱcertainlyȱviolatesȱtheȱrightsȱofȱthoseȱchildren.ȱ ȱ Allȱtheȱlegislationȱthatȱappliesȱtoȱaȱspecificȱprovisionȱofȱtheȱ CRC/CEDAWȱshouldȱbeȱtakenȱintoȱconsideration.ȱInȱcountriesȱwithȱ commonȱlawȱandȱIslamicȱlegalȱsystems,ȱjudicialȱdecisionsȱandȱotherȱ relevantȱauthoritiesȱshouldȱalsoȱbeȱincluded.ȱCustomaryȱpracticesȱmayȱ beȱgivenȱequalȱweightȱtoȱwrittenȱlegislationȱifȱthoseȱpracticesȱareȱ consideredȱtoȱbeȱequivalentȱtoȱstatutoryȱlawȱinȱdeterminingȱpeopleȇsȱ actions.ȱIfȱtheȱlegislationȱdealingȱwithȱchildrenȱisȱconsolidatedȱintoȱaȱ comprehensiveȱlaw,ȱsuchȱasȱaȱChildrenȇsȱCode,ȱtheȱanalysisȱshouldȱ drawȱoutȱthoseȱsectionsȱofȱtheȱCodeȱthatȱrelateȱtoȱtheȱspecificȱ Conventionȱprovisions,ȱandȱtreatȱthoseȱsections,ȱforȱpurposesȱofȱtheȱ analysis,ȱasȱifȱtheyȱwereȱtoȱsomeȱextentȱindependent.ȱTheyȱmayȱthenȱbeȱ assessed,ȱnotȱinȱrelationȱtoȱtheȱrestȱofȱtheȱChildrenȇsȱCode,ȱbutȱbyȱtheȱ wayȱinȱwhichȱtheyȱrelateȱtoȱandȱaffectȱtheȱimplementationȱofȱotherȱ legislativeȱmeasures,ȱjurisprudenceȱandȱcustomaryȱlawsȱthatȱareȱ connectedȱtoȱtheȱsameȱConventionȱprovision.ȱ ȱ Whereȱthereȱisȱaȱconflictȱbetweenȱpiecesȱofȱlegislation,ȱorȱbetweenȱlawsȱ andȱjurisprudence,ȱIslamicȱlawȱprinciplesȱorȱcustomaryȱpractice,ȱtheȱ
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reviewȱshouldȱdetermineȱwhichȱone(s)ȱtakesȱprecedence.ȱTheȱ constitutionsȱofȱcountriesȱwithȱpluralȱlegalȱsystemsȱgenerallyȱcontainȱ provisionsȱwhichȱclarifyȱtheȱrelationshipȱbetweenȱtheȱdifferentȱlegalȱ systems.ȱInȱZambia,ȱforȱexample,ȱitȱisȱmadeȱclearȱthatȱtheȱcommonȱlawȱ andȱtheȱformalȱsystemȱofȱlawȱcourtsȱandȱjudgesȱwillȱoverruleȱanyȱ decisionȱmadeȱunderȱtheȱcustomaryȱlaw. 130 ȱConstitutionalȱstricturesȱ andȱactualȱpracticeȱmayȱdiffer,ȱhowever,ȱandȱtheȱcommonȱlawȱsystemȱ mayȱnotȱbeȱableȱtoȱoverruleȱdecisionsȱofȱtheȱcustomaryȱlawȱifȱpeopleȱ affectedȱbyȱthoseȱdecisionsȱareȱdeterredȱbyȱsocialȱpressureȱorȱlackȱofȱ resourcesȱfromȱtakingȱtheirȱcasesȱtoȱcourt.ȱCircumstancesȱthatȱpreventȱ childrenȱfromȱclaimingȱtheirȱrightsȱinȱcountriesȱwithȱpluralȱlegalȱ systemsȱshouldȱbeȱtakenȱintoȱfullȱaccountȱbyȱtheȱreview.ȱ ȱ Theȱanalysisȱshouldȱidentifyȱanyȱdivergencesȱbetweenȱtheȱ Conventionsȇȱprovisionsȱandȱtheȱlegislationȱandȱpracticesȱwithinȱtheȱ country.ȱForȱexample,ȱtheȱreviewȱofȱlegislationȱmightȱconsiderȱArticleȱ 28(a)ȱofȱtheȱCRC,ȱwhichȱrequiresȱthatȱeducationȱbeȱȈcompulsoryȱandȱ availableȱfreeȱtoȱall,”ȱbyȱnotingȱtheȱexistenceȱofȱlegislationȱrequiringȱ thatȱeveryȱchildȱgoȱtoȱschoolȱuntilȱtheȱageȱofȱ12,ȱandȱthatȱthereȱshouldȱ beȱnoȱchargeȱforȱtoȱattend.ȱTheȱStateȱmightȱclaimȱthatȱArticleȱ28(a)ȱhadȱ beenȱsatisfied.ȱButȱifȱtheȱfreeȱschoolsȱareȱovercrowdedȱandȱstaffedȱwithȱ unqualifiedȱteachers,ȱtheyȱmayȱmeetȱtheȱletterȱofȱtheȱCRCȱwhileȱfailingȱ toȱprovideȱtheȱsortȱofȱeducationȱchildrenȱneed.ȱTheȱeducationȱofferedȱ mayȱnotȱbeȱsufficientȱtoȱfulfilȱtheȱrightsȱofȱtheȱchildrenȱandȱtheirȱ community.ȱThus,ȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱtheȱCRCȱshouldȱbeȱseenȱasȱmerelyȱ theȱstartingȱpointȱforȱaȱcountryȇsȱeffortsȱtoȱdeliverȱtheȱbestȱeducationȱ possibleȱforȱitsȱchildren.ȱ ȱ Theȱanalysisȱmayȱidentifyȱlegislationȱthatȱseemsȱtoȱdemonstrateȱ complianceȱwithȱtheȱCRC/CEDAW,ȱbutȱomitsȱcertainȱgroupsȱorȱ categoriesȱofȱchildren.ȱForȱexample,ȱaȱlawȱonȱchildȱlabourȱmayȱbeȱ examinedȱinȱrelationȱtoȱArticleȱ32.1(a)ȱofȱtheȱCRC,ȱwhichȱrequiresȱ StatesȱPartiesȱtoȱȈ[p]rovideȱforȱaȱminimumȱageȱorȱagesȱforȱadmissionȱtoȱ employment.ȈȱTheȱlegislationȱmightȱbeȱfoundȱtoȱallowȱpaidȱ employmentȱinȱagricultureȱonlyȱforȱchildrenȱoverȱ14ȱyearsȱofȱage.ȱThisȱ wouldȱcertainlyȱcomplyȱwithȱtheȱwordsȱofȱtheȱCRC,ȱwithoutȱtakingȱ intoȱaccountȱtheȱsituationȱofȱchildrenȱworkingȱwithoutȱpayȱonȱtheirȱ
130 Information acquired by author while preparing training manuals on CRC for use in Zambia, 1996.
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familiesȇȱfarmsȱorȱchildrenȱolderȱthanȱ14ȱworkingȱonȱfarmsȱtoȱtheȱ detrimentȱofȱtheirȱeducation.ȱThus,ȱtheȱlawȱwouldȱnotȱnecessarilyȱbeȱ theȱbestȱpossibleȱexpressionȱofȱsupportȱforȱchildrenȇsȱrights.ȱAȱmeasureȱ whichȱwentȱbeyondȱtheȱlimitedȱtermsȱofȱtheȱCRC,ȱforȱexampleȱbyȱ providingȱprotectionȱforȱchildrenȱworkingȱwithoutȱpayȱandȱchildrenȱ caughtȱbetweenȱtheȱneedȱtoȱworkȱandȱtheȱneedȱtoȱattendȱschool,ȱwouldȱ beȱmoreȱdesirable.ȱ ȱ Itȱisȱofȱinterestȱtoȱknowȱwhetherȱtheȱlawsȱand/orȱpracticeȱfallȱbelowȱtheȱ standardȱsetȱbyȱtheȱConventionsȱorȱifȱtheyȱexceedȱtheȱstandard.ȱForȱ purposesȱofȱlegislationȱreview,ȱtheȱstandardȱofȱcomparisonȱwillȱbeȱtheȱ mostȱstringentȱinstrumentȱratifiedȱbyȱtheȱStateȱParty.ȱForȱexample,ȱaȱ StateȱPartyȱwhichȱhasȱratifiedȱtheȱOptionalȱProtocolȱtoȱtheȱConventionȱ onȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChildȱonȱInvolvementȱofȱChildrenȱinȱArmedȱ Conflictȱshouldȱreviewȱitsȱlegislationȱonȱtheȱbasisȱofȱtheȱstandardȱofȱtheȱ OptionalȱProtocol,ȱnotȱArticleȱ38ȱofȱtheȱCRC,ȱwhichȱsetsȱaȱlowerȱ minimumȱageȱforȱmilitaryȱserviceȱandȱisȱlessȱstringentȱinȱtheȱ restrictionsȱimposedȱonȱmilitaryȱactivityȱforȱthoseȱunderȱtheȱageȱofȱ18.ȱ Theȱstandardsȱsetȱinȱinternationalȱagreementsȱshouldȱbeȱconsideredȱasȱ theȱminimumȱgoalȱforȱrecognising,ȱprotectingȱandȱpromotingȱtheȱ rightsȱofȱchildren.ȱAnyȱStateȱPartyȱwhichȱcanȱexceedȱthoseȱstandardsȱinȱ theȱwayȱitȱtreatsȱitsȱchildrenȱshouldȱbeȱcommended.ȱ ȱ ThisȱraisesȱtheȱconcernȱthatȱrelianceȱonȱtheȱCRC/CEDAWȱexclusivelyȱ asȱaȱchecklistȱforȱassessingȱlegislationȱcanȱresultȱinȱturningȱtheȱ minimumȱstandardsȱsetȱoutȱinȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAWȱintoȱmaximumȱ standardsȱforȱtheȱpurposesȱofȱnationalȱlegislation.ȱIfȱtheȱreviewȱ assumesȱthatȱtheȱStateȇsȱobligationsȱunderȱtheȱCRC/CEDAWȱwillȱbeȱ fullyȱsatisfiedȱbyȱcomplyingȱwithȱtheȱspecificȱprovisionsȱofȱeachȱ Conventionȱarticle,ȱratherȱthanȱusingȱtheȱprinciplesȱofȱchildrenȇsȱandȱ womenȇsȱrightsȱasȱguidanceȱforȱallȱgovernmentȱaction,ȱfulfillingȱtheȱ letterȱofȱtheȱConventionsȱcanȱactuallyȱstifleȱtheirȱspirit.ȱTheȱ Conventionsȱareȱstatementsȱofȱtheȱglobalȱconsensusȱonȱtheȱrightsȱofȱ childrenȱandȱwomenȱatȱtheȱtimeȱtheyȱwereȱadopted.ȱBothȱtheȱCRCȱandȱ CEDAWȱmakeȱitȱclearȱthatȱStatesȱareȱinvitedȱtoȱexceedȱtheȱstandardsȱ setȱoutȱinȱeachȱConvention,ȱandȱtoȱadoptȱlegislationȱandȱpoliciesȱwhichȱ provideȱmoreȱprotectionȱforȱtheȱrightsȱofȱchildrenȱandȱwomenȱandȱ offerȱmoreȱopportunityȱforȱtheȱfullestȱpossibleȱexpressionȱofȱthoseȱ rights.ȱȱ ȱ
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Theȱsituationȱmayȱariseȱinȱwhichȱnoȱlegislationȱisȱfoundȱthatȱrelatesȱ directlyȱtoȱaȱspecificȱprovisionȱofȱtheȱCRC/CEDAW.ȱForȱexample,ȱtheȱ constitutionȱofȱBosniaȱandȱHerzegovinaȱhasȱnoȱspecificȱprovisionȱ dealingȱwithȱsocialȱprotectionȱ(theȱthemeȱofȱArticlesȱ26ȱandȱ27ȱofȱtheȱ CRC),ȱalthoughȱsomeȱmeasuresȱexistȱatȱtheȱlevelȱofȱtheȱtwoȱentitiesȱthatȱ composeȱtheȱcountryȱ(theȱFederationȱofȱBosniaȱandȱHerzegovinaȱandȱ RepublikaȱSrpska). 131 ȱInȱsuchȱaȱcase,ȱtheȱlackȱofȱnationalȱlegislationȱ wouldȱbeȱnotedȱbyȱtheȱreview,ȱandȱtheȱmeasuresȱinȱplaceȱwithȱtheȱ lowerȱlevelsȱofȱgovernmentȱwouldȱbeȱtakenȱintoȱconsideration.ȱȱ ȱ Similarly,ȱanȱanalysisȱofȱtheȱCodeȱCivilȱofȱGabonȱidentifiedȱlinksȱ betweenȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱtheȱCodeȱandȱaȱrangeȱofȱrightsȱdrawnȱfromȱ provisionsȱinȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAW.ȱTheȱassessmentȱgivenȱinȱtheȱ reportȱonȱthisȱanalysisȱwasȱthatȱthereȱwereȱnoȱsignificantȱdivergencesȱ betweenȱtheȱCodeȱCivilȱandȱtheȱConventions.ȱHowever,ȱthereȱisȱnoȱ mentionȱinȱtheȱanalysisȱofȱlimitsȱtoȱmilitaryȱserviceȱbyȱchildrenȱorȱofȱ servicesȱforȱchildrenȱwithȱdisabilities,ȱsoȱtheseȱwouldȱseemȱnotȱtoȱbeȱ coveredȱbyȱwhatȱisȱpresentedȱasȱcomprehensiveȱlegislationȱforȱ children. 132 ȱSuchȱomissionsȱbecomeȱobviousȱwhenȱtheȱchecklistȱ methodȱisȱapplied.ȱȱ ȱ TheȱlegalȱanalysisȱinȱGabonȱalsoȱfoundȱthat,ȱunderȱcustomaryȱlaw,ȱ childrenȱdidȱnotȱhaveȱfreedomȱofȱexpressionȱorȱfreedomȱofȱreligion,ȱ whileȱunderȱtheȱcivilȱlawȱthereȱwasȱnoȱprotectionȱforȱchildrenȇsȱ privacy. 133 ȱTheȱcategoryȱofȱparticipationȱrightsȱisȱlikelyȱtoȱbeȱtheȱoneȱ mostȱoftenȱneglectedȱinȱnationalȱlegislation,ȱbecauseȱofȱtheȱprevalenceȱ ofȱtraditionalȱattitudesȱtoȱchildrenȱasȱobjectsȱratherȱthanȱsubjectsȱofȱ rights.ȱTheȱreviewȱshouldȱpayȱspecialȱattentionȱtoȱtheseȱrightsȱinȱ assessingȱlegislation.ȱMeasuresȱthatȱaffectȱchildrenȇsȱparticipationȱ rightsȱmayȱbeȱfoundȱinȱaȱwideȱrangeȱofȱlegislation,ȱincludingȱthatȱ whichȱdealsȱwithȱhealthȱcareȱ(consentȱtoȱtreatment),ȱeducation,ȱfamilyȱ status,ȱemployment,ȱpublicȱinformation,ȱlibraries,ȱtheȱInternet,ȱandȱ massȱmedia,ȱamongȱotherȱthemes.ȱ ȱ Ifȱnoȱlegislationȱexistsȱthatȱfallsȱdirectlyȱunderȱaȱcertainȱprovisionȱofȱ CRC/CEDAW,ȱtheȱanalysisȱshouldȱlookȱforȱmeasuresȱwhichȱ
131 UNICEF, Legal Aspects of Social Protection for Children in Bosnia and Herzegovina, UNICEF Bosnia and Herzegovina, undated, p. 9. 132 Gabon, p. 83-92. 133 Gabon, p. 81-2.
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approximateȱthatȱprovision.ȱForȱexample,ȱifȱnoȱlawsȱareȱfoundȱwhichȱ coverȱtheȱconditionsȱunderȱwhichȱchildrenȱmayȱwork,ȱtheȱgeneralȱ conditionsȱofȱworkȱasȱsetȱoutȱinȱaȱLabourȱCodeȱmayȱbeȱconsideredȱinȱ theȱreview.ȱ ȱ Inevitably,ȱsomeȱlegislationȱwillȱcomeȱupȱagainȱandȱagainȱinȱrelationȱtoȱ differentȱprovisionsȱofȱtheȱConventions,ȱespeciallyȱifȱthereȱisȱaȱ ChildrenȇsȱCodeȱwhichȱconsolidatesȱaȱnumberȱofȱdifferentȱmeasuresȱ forȱchildren.ȱThereȱmayȱalsoȱbeȱsomeȱlegislationȱwhichȱhasȱaȱbearingȱ onȱtheȱlivesȱofȱchildrenȱbutȱwhichȱisȱnotȱidentifiedȱinȱtheȱcourseȱofȱtheȱ checklistȱanalysis.ȱLegislationȱgoverningȱfoodȱquality,ȱforȱinstance,ȱhasȱ anȱimportantȱimpactȱonȱchildȱnutritionȱbut,ȱsinceȱchildrenȱareȱprobablyȱ notȱmentionedȱspecifically,ȱthatȱlegislationȱmayȱnotȱbeȱbroughtȱtoȱ attentionȱbasedȱmerelyȱonȱtheȱanalysisȱofȱArticleȱ24ȱ(c)ȱofȱtheȱCRCȱ (whichȱamongȱotherȱthings,ȱrequiresȱStatesȱtoȱassureȱtheȱprovisionȱofȱ adequateȱnutritiousȱfoodȱtoȱcombatȱdiseaseȱandȱmalnutrition).ȱ ȱ Toȱcaptureȱthoseȱaspectsȱofȱtheȱsituationȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱthatȱmayȱ beȱmissedȱwithȱtheȱchecklistȱapproach,ȱaȱmoreȱextensiveȱsurveyȱofȱlawsȱ canȱbeȱundertaken,ȱtakingȱeachȱelementȱofȱtheȱentireȱbodyȱofȱ legislationȱandȱcomparingȱitȱtoȱtheȱCRC/CEDAWȱasȱaȱwhole.ȱAsȱaȱfirstȱ step,ȱtheȱreverseȱcomparisonȱmethodȱmayȱbeȱanȱilluminatingȱwayȱtoȱ lookȱatȱthoseȱlawsȱwhichȱmayȱalreadyȱhaveȱbeenȱidentifiedȱthroughȱtheȱ checklist.ȱȱ ȱ Consider,ȱforȱexample,ȱaȱhypotheticalȱChildrenȇsȱCodeȱwhichȱdealsȱ extensivelyȱwithȱtheȱrequirementsȱofȱbirthȱregistration,ȱnationalityȱandȱ namingȱofȱtheȱchildȱbasedȱonȱpaternity,ȱtheȱresponsibilitiesȱofȱparentsȱ toȱcareȱforȱtheirȱchildren,ȱprotectionȱofȱtheȱchildȱfromȱabuseȱorȱneglect,ȱ andȱfosterȱcareȱandȱadoptionȱarrangementsȱforȱchildrenȱwhoȱareȱ orphaned,ȱabandonedȱorȱremovedȱfromȱtheirȱfamilyȱforȱtheirȱownȱ protection.ȱTheȱchecklistȱmethodȱmayȱidentifyȱlinksȱbetweenȱtheȱ hypotheticalȱChildrenȇsȱCodeȱandȱArticlesȱ5,ȱ7,ȱ8,ȱ9,ȱ10,ȱ11,ȱ18,ȱ19,ȱ20ȱ andȱ21ȱofȱtheȱCRCȱtakenȱindividually.ȱHowever,ȱaȱcomparisonȱofȱtheȱ CodeȱagainstȱtheȱstandardsȱofȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAWȱmightȱrevealȱthatȱ nameȱandȱnationalityȱcannotȱbeȱconferredȱonȱtheȱchildȱbyȱitsȱmother.ȱ Theȱchildȱwouldȱstillȱhaveȱaȱguaranteeȱofȱnameȱandȱnationality,ȱsoȱtheȱ letterȱofȱtheȱCRCȱmightȱbeȱconsideredȱtoȱbeȱfulfilled,ȱbutȱthereȱwouldȱ beȱaȱsignificantȱshortfallȱinȱrelationȱtoȱtheȱfullȱrightsȱofȱbothȱtheȱchildȱ andȱtheȱmother.ȱTherefore,ȱtheȱCodeȱcouldȱbeȱdeemedȱnotȱtoȱfulfilȱ
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Articlesȱ7ȱofȱtheȱCRCȱandȱArticlesȱ5ȱandȱ16ȱofȱCEDAWȱtakenȱtogether.ȱ Comparingȱeachȱlegislativeȱmeasureȱ(asȱwellȱasȱpolicies,ȱprogrammesȱ andȱgovernmentȱbudgets)ȱtoȱtheȱConventionsȱasȱaȱwhole,ȱratherȱthanȱ toȱeachȱindividualȱarticleȱseparately,ȱhelpsȱtoȱclarifyȱtheȱrealȱextentȱtoȱ whichȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱtheȱConventionsȱareȱbeingȱimplemented.ȱ ȱ Inȱanotherȱexample,ȱthereȱmayȱbeȱaȱprovisionȱinȱtheȱChildrenȇsȱCodeȱ dealingȱwithȱtheȱoperationȱofȱchildȱcareȱinstitutionsȱunderȱtheȱ responsibilityȱofȱtheȱState.ȱAnalysisȱwouldȱthenȱrelateȱthatȱsectionȱofȱ theȱCodeȱbackȱdirectlyȱtoȱtheȱCRCȱprovisionsȱinȱArticleȱ25ȱ(onȱperiodicȱ reviewȱofȱtreatment),ȱArticleȱ20ȱ(onȱprotectionȱofȱchildrenȱremovedȱ fromȱtheirȱparentsȱinȱtheirȱownȱbestȱinterests)ȱandȱotherȱarticlesȱ dealingȱwithȱprovisionȱtoȱchildrenȱofȱtheȱbasicȱnecessitiesȱofȱlifeȱ (shelter,ȱhealthȱcare,ȱfoodȱandȱeducation).ȱTheȱassessmentȱofȱallȱthoseȱ connectionsȱwouldȱshowȱtheȱextentȱtoȱwhichȱtheȱlegislationȱwasȱ fulfillingȱchildrenȇsȱrights.ȱ ȱ AfterȱtheȱlegislationȱwithȱtheȱmostȱselfȬevidentȱconnectionȱtoȱtheȱCRCȱ andȱCEDAWȱhasȱbeenȱassessed,ȱtheȱreviewȱcanȱconsiderȱotherȱ legislationȱ(suchȱasȱtheȱfoodȱqualityȱlegislationȱreferredȱtoȱabove)ȱ whichȱcanȱbeȱunderstoodȱtoȱbeȱofȱimportanceȱtoȱtheȱfulfilmentȱofȱ childrenȇsȱrights.ȱForȱexample,ȱlegislationȱrelatingȱtoȱroads,ȱrailwaysȱ andȱairȱtravel,ȱasȱwellȱasȱlegislationȱgoverningȱtheȱissuanceȱofȱ passportsȱandȱotherȱtravelȱdocumentsȱcanȱaffectȱaȱchildȇsȱmobilityȱ rights.ȱLegislationȱdealingȱwithȱpublicȱadministrationȱ(asȱwithȱtheȱLawȱ onȱLocalȱAdministrationȱinȱYemen)ȱcanȱdetermineȱtheȱkindȱandȱqualityȱ ofȱinstitutionsȱandȱstructuresȱthatȱareȱavailableȱtoȱmeetȱobligationsȱofȱ careȱforȱallȱchildren.ȱȱ ȱ IfȱstrictlyȱfollowingȱtheȱCRC/CEDAWȱasȱaȱchecklistȱcarriesȱtheȱriskȱofȱ becomingȱtooȱnarrowlyȱfocussedȱonȱtheȱspecificȱprovisionsȱofȱthoseȱ Conventions,ȱtheȱsecondȱapproachȱofȱusingȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAWȱasȱ standardsȱofȱcomparisonȱforȱallȱlegislation,ȱrunsȱtheȱriskȱofȱbecomingȱaȱ diffuseȱandȱacademicȱexercise.ȱItȱisȱpossible,ȱfollowingȱthisȱapproachȱ exclusively,ȱtoȱbuildȱupȱaȱmassiveȱamountȱofȱinformationȱaboutȱaȱ wholeȱbodyȱofȱlegislationȱwithoutȱhavingȱtheȱanalyticalȱtoolsȱtoȱ determineȱwhatȱinformationȱisȱmostȱrelevantȱandȱhelpfulȱforȱtheȱ planningȱofȱactionȱtoȱimproveȱtheȱsituationȱofȱchildrenȱandȱwomenȱinȱ regardȱtoȱtheirȱrights.ȱȱ ȱ
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UsingȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAWȱasȱstandardsȱofȱcomparisonȱforȱaȱbroadȱ reviewȱofȱlegislationȱhasȱtheȱvirtueȱofȱcomprehensiveness,ȱbutȱbenefitsȱ fromȱpriorityȬsetting,ȱwithȱtheȱfirstȱpriorityȱbeingȱtheȱlegislationȱwhichȱ isȱseenȱasȱhavingȱtheȱmostȱdirectȱrelationshipȱtoȱchildrenȇsȱrights.ȱThisȱ approach,ȱbyȱstartingȱwithȱtheȱlegislationȱitself,ȱwillȱfindȱthatȱmanyȱ lawsȱmayȱrelateȱtoȱandȱreflectȱtheȱsameȱConventionȱprovisions.ȱItȱcanȱ alsoȱtakeȱintoȱaccountȱotherȱaspectsȱofȱimplementationȱofȱtheȱCRCȱandȱ CEDAWȱmoreȱeasily,ȱsuchȱasȱgovernmentȱpolicies,ȱprogrammes,ȱandȱ administrativeȱmeasuresȱthatȱmayȱfallȱoutsideȱevenȱtheȱbroadȱ definitionȱofȱlegislation.ȱAsȱaȱresult,ȱaȱnetworkȱofȱconnectionsȱamongȱ allȱgovernmentȱmeasuresȱandȱtheȱCRC/CEDAWȱcanȱbeȱcreated,ȱratherȱ thanȱtheȱoneȬtoȬoneȱcorrespondenceȱthatȱisȱmostȱlikelyȱtoȱresultȱfromȱ theȱchecklistȱapproach.ȱHowever,ȱitȱisȱpossibleȱthat,ȱifȱcertainȱrightsȱareȱ notȱreflectedȱatȱallȱinȱlegislation,ȱthisȱapproachȱwillȱmissȱsomeȱ importantȱobligations.ȱ ȱ Inȱpractice,ȱaȱblendȱofȱtheȱtwoȱapproachesȱseemsȱtheȱmostȱeffectiveȱandȱ useful.ȱUsingȱCRC/CEDAWȱasȱaȱchecklistȱensuresȱthatȱallȱtheȱrightsȱofȱ childrenȱareȱtakenȱintoȱaccount;ȱusingȱtheȱConventionsȱasȱaȱstandardȱ forȱassessingȱallȱlegislation,ȱpolicyȱandȱadministrativeȱactionȱmeansȱ thatȱtheȱimportantȱconnectionsȱamongȱthoseȱmeasuresȱandȱbetweenȱtheȱ legislationȱandȱvariousȱrightsȱsetȱoutȱinȱtheȱConventionsȱwillȱbeȱgivenȱ theirȱdueȱrecognition.ȱChildrenȱandȱtheirȱrightsȱcannotȱbeȱseparatedȱ fromȱtheȱsocietyȱofȱwhichȱtheyȱareȱanȱintegralȱpart.ȱInȱaȱveryȱrealȱsense,ȱ everythingȱthatȱaȱgovernmentȱdoes,ȱincludingȱtheȱlegislation,ȱpoliciesȱ andȱregulationsȱitȱadopts,ȱwillȱaffectȱchildrenȱinȱsomeȱwayȱandȱsoȱ shouldȱbeȱtestedȱagainstȱtheȱguaranteesȱinȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAW.ȱ ȱ 2.2.11ȱ OtherȱSourcesȱofȱGuidanceȱforȱReviewȱandȱReformȱ ȱ Regionalȱagreementsȱonȱchildrenȇsȱrights,ȱdevelopedȱinȱtheȱcontextȱofȱ similarȱculturalȱandȱtraditionalȱattitudesȱbutȱwithȱprinciplesȱandȱ commitmentsȱbasedȱonȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAW,ȱmayȱprovideȱinsightsȱ andȱmeasuresȱthatȱwillȱsupportȱtheȱlegislationȱreviewȱinȱitsȱeffortsȱtoȱ makeȱrecommendationsȱaboutȱwaysȱtoȱchangeȱattitudesȱandȱ behavioursȱthatȱareȱunfavourableȱtoȱchildrenȇsȱrights.ȱRegionalȱhumanȱ rightsȱinstruments,ȱsuchȱasȱtheȱAfricanȱCharterȱonȱtheȱRightsȱandȱ WelfareȱofȱChildren,ȱprovideȱaȱregionallyȬfocusedȱamplificationȱofȱtheȱ CRC.ȱInȱaddition,ȱactionȱplansȱbasedȱonȱtheȱCRC,ȱsuchȱasȱtheȱBelizeȱ CommitmentȱtoȱActionȱforȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChild,ȱmayȱofferȱideasȱ
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whichȱcanȱbeȱincorporatedȱintoȱrecommendationsȱforȱnationalȱ measures.ȱ ȱ Additionally,ȱtheȱlegislationȱreviewȱshouldȱtakeȱintoȱaccountȱtheȱfullȱ rangeȱofȱinternationalȱinstrumentsȱwhichȱcomplementȱandȱamplifyȱ certainȱaspectsȱofȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAW,ȱifȱtheȱStateȱisȱpartyȱtoȱthem.ȱ TheseȱmightȱincludeȱtheȱcoreȱUnitedȱNationsȱCovenants,ȱonȱCivilȱandȱ PoliticalȱRightsȱandȱonȱEconomic,ȱSocialȱandȱCulturalȱRights,ȱwhich,ȱ togetherȱwithȱtheȱUniversalȱDeclarationȱofȱHumanȱRights,ȱconstituteȱ theȱȈInternationalȱBillȱofȱRightsȈȱandȱareȱtheȱfoundationȱforȱallȱUnitedȱ Nationsȱhumanȱrightsȱagreements.ȱInternationalȱLabourȱOrganizationȱ (ILO)ȱConventionsȱthatȱdealȱwithȱchildȱlabourȱandȱworkingȱwomenȱ willȱbeȱhelpfulȱinȱidentifyingȱspecificȱmeasuresȱwhichȱcanȱbeȱtakenȱtoȱ protectȱchildrenȱfromȱexploitationȱandȱneglect.ȱTheȱHagueȱConventionȱ onȱtheȱProtectionȱofȱChildrenȱandȱCooperationȱinȱRespectȱofȱ IntercountryȱAdoptionȱamplifiesȱtheȱCRCȇsȱprotectionsȱforȱchildrenȱ withoutȱparents.ȱUNESCOȱresolutionsȱandȱagreementsȱrelatingȱtoȱbothȱ protectionȱofȱcultureȱandȱeducationȱprovideȱaddedȱdimensionsȱtoȱthatȱ aspectȱofȱchildȱdevelopment.ȱThreeȱkeyȱUnitedȱNationsȱinstrumentsȱ provideȱextremelyȱhelpfulȱrecommendationsȱforȱtheȱtreatmentȱofȱ childrenȱinȱconflictȱwithȱtheȱlaw:ȱtheȱUnitedȱNationsȱMinimumȱ StandardȱRulesȱforȱtheȱAdministrationȱofȱJuvenileȱJusticeȱ(theȱȈBeijingȱ RulesȈ),ȱtheȱUnitedȱNationsȱGuidelinesȱforȱtheȱPreventionȱofȱJuvenileȱ Delinquencyȱ(theȱȈRiyadhȱGuidelinesȈ)ȱandȱtheȱUnitedȱNationsȱRulesȱ forȱtheȱProtectionȱofȱJuvenilesȱDeprivedȱofȱtheirȱLiberty.ȱȱ ȱ Theȱreviewȱofȱlegislationȱmayȱalsoȱbeȱguidedȱbyȱtheȱcommentsȱandȱ recommendationsȱmadeȱbyȱtheȱCommitteeȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChildȱ inȱresponseȱtoȱtheȱperiodicȱreportsȱsubmittedȱbyȱtheȱStateȱParty,ȱasȱwellȱ asȱbyȱtheȱGeneralȱCommentsȱissuedȱbyȱtheȱCommitteeȱtoȱprovideȱ interpretationsȱofȱspecificȱarticlesȱinȱtheȱConventionȱorȱtoȱguideȱStatesȱ PartiesȱinȱtheirȱimplementationȱofȱtheȱConvention’sȱprovisions.ȱTheȱ Committeeȇsȱownȱanalysisȱofȱtheȱinformationȱpresentedȱtoȱitȱcanȱ provideȱideasȱandȱinspirationȱforȱbothȱtheȱdirectionȱofȱtheȱreviewȱandȱ itsȱeventualȱconclusions.ȱInȱparticular,ȱtheȱCommitteeȇsȱObservationsȱ shouldȱserveȱtoȱdirectȱattentionȱtoȱtheȱareasȱinȱwhichȱtheȱmostȱ immediateȱactionȱinȱfavourȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱisȱneeded,ȱincludingȱ legislation.ȱFromȱthis,ȱtheȱreviewȱcanȱdevelopȱitsȱownȱ recommendations,ȱbasedȱonȱaȱstudyȱofȱtheȱexistingȱlegislationȱinȱ
79 Handbook on Legislative Reform theoryȱandȱinȱpractice,ȱforȱrevisionsȱandȱnewȱlegislationȱneededȱtoȱ fulfilȱtheȱStateȇsȱobligationsȱunderȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAW.ȱ ȱ 2.2.12ȱ GeneralȱPrinciplesȱ ȱ Atȱeachȱstageȱofȱtheȱanalysisȱofȱlegislation,ȱnoȱmatterȱwhatȱtheȱspecificȱ rightȱorȱrightsȱbeingȱaddressed,ȱitȱisȱextremelyȱimportantȱtoȱbearȱinȱ mindȱtheȱfourȱgeneralȱprinciplesȱthatȱtheȱCommitteeȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱ theȱChildȱhasȱidentifiedȱasȱbeingȱcrucialȱtoȱtheȱimplementationȱofȱeveryȱ elementȱofȱtheȱCRC:ȱȱ ȱ x NonȬdiscriminationȱisȱtheȱprincipleȱthatȱtheȱCRCȱappliesȱtoȱ everyȱchild,ȱnoȱmatterȱwhatȱthatȱȈtheȱchildȇsȱorȱhisȱorȱherȱ parentȇsȱorȱlegalȱguardianȇsȱrace,ȱcolour,ȱsex,ȱlanguage,ȱreligion,ȱ politicalȱorȱotherȱopinion,ȱnational,ȱethnicȱorȱsocialȱorigin,ȱ property,ȱdisability,ȱbirthȱorȱotherȱstatusȈȱ(Articleȱ2).ȱTheȱ“otherȱ status”ȱisȱimportant;ȱitȱmeansȱthatȱtheȱlistȱofȱtheȱcharacteristicsȱ onȱtheȱbasisȱofȱwhichȱitȱisȱnotȱpermittedȱtoȱdiscriminateȱagainstȱ childrenȱisȱnotȱlimited.ȱItȱcanȱbeȱexpandedȱasȱcircumstancesȱ dictate.ȱAsȱanȱexampleȱofȱthis,ȱdiscriminationȱonȱtheȱbasisȱofȱ healthȱstatus,ȱwouldȱbeȱaȱcategoryȱofȱnonȬdiscriminationȱ coveredȱbyȱthisȱprincipleȱinȱcountriesȱwhereȱHIV/AIDSȱisȱaȱ significantȱissue.ȱȱ ȱ x TheȱBestȱInterestsȱofȱtheȱChildȱisȱtoȱbeȱȈaȱprimaryȱconsiderationȈȱ Ȉinȱallȱactionȱconcerningȱchildren,ȱwhetherȱundertakenȱbyȱ publicȱorȱprivateȱsocialȱwelfareȱinstitutions,ȱcourtsȱofȱlaw,ȱ administrativeȱauthoritiesȱorȱlegislativeȱbodies,Ȉȱaccordingȱtoȱ Articleȱ3.ȱTherefore,ȱaȱjudgementȱaboutȱtheȱextentȱtoȱwhichȱ legislationȱgivesȱappropriateȱweightȱtoȱtheȱbestȱinterestsȱofȱtheȱ childȱisȱanȱessentialȱpartȱofȱtheȱanalysisȱofȱeachȱlawȱexaminedȱinȱ theȱcourseȱofȱtheȱreview.ȱTheȱphraseȱȈprimaryȱconsiderationȈȱ meansȱthatȱtheȱbestȱinterestȱofȱtheȱchildȱwouldȱnotȱnecessarilyȱ determineȱtheȱactionȱtoȱbeȱtaken,ȱsinceȱotherȱconsiderationsȱ wouldȱnaturallyȱbeȱtakenȱintoȱaccount.ȱHowever,ȱdecisionsȱ shouldȱatȱleastȱincorporateȱanȱunderstandingȱofȱtheirȱeffectȱonȱ childrenȇsȱbestȱinterests.ȱ ȱ x TheȱRightȱtoȱLife,ȱSurvivalȱandȱDevelopmentȱrepresentsȱaȱ significantȱextensionȱofȱtheȱcommonlyȱacceptedȱhumanȱrightȱ
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notȱtoȱbeȱkilledȱarbitrarily.ȱInȱArticleȱ6ȱofȱtheȱCRC,ȱitȱisȱrecastȱasȱ anȱactiveȱcommitmentȱonȱtheȱpartȱofȱtheȱStateȱtoȱtakeȱtheȱ measuresȱneededȱtoȱensureȱthatȱchildrenȱwillȱbeȱableȱtoȱsurviveȱ andȱdevelopȱtheirȱfullȱpotential.ȱLaterȱinȱtheȱCRC,ȱthereȱareȱ severalȱreferencesȱtoȱȈphysical,ȱmental,ȱspiritual,ȱmoralȱandȱ socialȱdevelopmentȈȱ(asȱinȱArticleȱ27),ȱsoȱthisȱfundamentalȱ principleȱappliesȱnotȱonlyȱtoȱtheȱnecessitiesȱforȱbareȱsurvivalȱ (food,ȱshelterȱandȱhealthȱcare)ȱbutȱtoȱeveryȱaspectȱofȱaȱchildȇsȱ lifeȱand,ȱconsequently,ȱtoȱallȱlegislationȱaffectingȱtheȱchild.ȱ ȱ x TheȱRightȱtoȱbeȱHeardȱforȱallȱchildrenȱisȱtheȱfundamentalȱȈrightȱ toȱexpress.ȱ.ȱ.ȱviewsȱfreelyȱinȱallȱmattersȱaffectingȱtheȱchildȈȱ (Articleȱ12).ȱThisȱisȱtheȱprincipleȱwhichȱliftsȱtheȱchildȱfromȱaȱ positionȱofȱsubservienceȱandȱpowerlessnessȱinȱsocietyȱtoȱbeingȱ aȱfullȱparticipantȱinȱallȱaspectsȱofȱtheȱpolitical,ȱsocialȱandȱ culturalȱlifeȱofȱhisȱorȱherȱcommunity.ȱAlthoughȱtheȱrightȱisȱ temperedȱbyȱtheȱqualificationȱthatȱtheȱchildȇsȱviewsȱshouldȱbeȱ Ȉgivenȱdueȱweightȱinȱaccordanceȱwithȱtheȱageȱandȱmaturityȱofȱ theȱchild,Ȉȱitȱisȱnecessary,ȱespeciallyȱforȱthoseȱlawsȱthatȱleadȱtoȱ decisionsȱthatȱdirectlyȱaffectȱaȱchildȇsȱlife,ȱtoȱprovideȱtheȱ opportunityȱforȱallȱchildrenȱtoȱexpressȱtheirȱviews.ȱ ȱ Everyȱpieceȱofȱlegislationȱreviewedȱforȱitsȱapplicationȱtoȱtheȱrightsȱofȱ childrenȱcanȱbeȱassessedȱinȱtermsȱofȱtheȱextentȱtoȱwhichȱitȱrespectsȱ theseȱfourȱfundamentalȱprinciples.ȱArticleȱ3ȱofȱtheȱCRCȱmakesȱitȱclearȱ thatȱtheȱprimaryȱimportanceȱofȱtheȱbestȱinterestsȱofȱtheȱchildȱappliesȱtoȱ theȱworkȱofȱlegislativeȱbodies,ȱwhichȱincludesȱtheȱapprovalȱandȱ adoptionȱofȱlegislation,ȱandȱArticleȱ12ȱrefersȱtoȱȈallȱmattersȱaffectingȱ theȱchild,Ȉȱandȱasȱsuchȱitȱshouldȱbeȱtakenȱintoȱaccountȱinȱallȱlegislationȱ affectingȱchildren,ȱtheȱdevelopmentȱofȱgovernmentȱpolicies,ȱtheȱactionsȱ ofȱStateȱagenciesȱandȱjudicialȱdeliberations.ȱ ȱ TheȱprincipleȱofȱnonȬdiscriminationȱisȱfundamentalȱnotȱonlyȱtoȱtheȱCRCȱ butȱtoȱeverythingȱtoȱdoȱwithȱhumanȱrights.ȱSinceȱrightsȱareȱinherentȱinȱ allȱhumanȱbeings,ȱtheyȱmustȱbeȱappliedȱwithoutȱanyȱdiscrimination.ȱ TheȱrecognitionȱofȱthisȱprincipleȱisȱtheȱbasisȱforȱCEDAW,ȱwhichȱhasȱasȱ itsȱgoalȱtheȱeliminationȱofȱdiscriminationȱagainstȱwomen.ȱInȱmanyȱ partsȱofȱtheȱworld,ȱwomenȱandȱgirlsȱcontinueȱtoȱbeȱtheȱvictimsȱofȱ persistent,ȱsometimesȱsubtle,ȱbutȱalwaysȱpresentȱdiscriminationȱbasedȱ solelyȱonȱtheirȱgender,ȱdenyingȱtheirȱcapacityȱasȱindividualsȱandȱtheirȱ
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statusȱasȱhumanȱbeings.ȱAȱreviewȱofȱnationalȱlegislationȱbasedȱonȱtheȱ CRCȱandȱCEDAWȱconsideredȱtogether,ȱasȱtwoȱdimensionsȱofȱtheȱsameȱ objective,ȱwillȱnaturallyȱtakeȱtheȱpositionȱthatȱthereȱshouldȱbeȱnoȱ discriminationȱagainstȱwomenȱandȱgirls.ȱItȱisȱimportant,ȱinȱthisȱ connection,ȱthatȱtheȱreviewȱconsiderȱwomenȱnotȱonlyȱinȱtheirȱcapacityȱ asȱmothersȱ(althoughȱthisȱisȱclearlyȱimportant)ȱbutȱalsoȱasȱroleȬmodelsȱ forȱgirls,ȱwhoseȱrightsȱguaranteeȱthatȱtheyȱshouldȱbeȱableȱtoȱdevelopȱ theirȱfullestȱpotentialȱasȱmembersȱofȱsocietyȱinȱwhateverȱtheyȱchoseȱtoȱ doȱwithȱtheirȱlives.ȱ ȱ Theȱbestȱinterestsȱofȱtheȱchildȱisȱaȱconceptȱthatȱhasȱgenerallyȱbeenȱappliedȱ inȱmattersȱconcerningȱchildȱcareȱandȱcustody,ȱforȱexampleȱwhenȱ parentsȱseparateȱandȱtheȱdecisionȱmustȱbeȱmadeȱaboutȱhowȱtheȱ childrenȱwillȱbeȱcaredȱforȱandȱwhereȱ(withȱwhom)ȱtheyȱwillȱlive.ȱItȱhasȱ beenȱextended,ȱinȱsomeȱcountries,ȱtoȱdecisionsȱmadeȱaboutȱwhoȱwillȱbeȱ responsibleȱforȱaȱchildȇsȱcareȱinȱsituationsȱofȱconflictȱbetweenȱmedicallyȱ necessaryȱproceduresȱandȱreligiousȱorȱethicalȱprinciplesȱofȱtheȱchildȱ andȱhisȱorȱherȱparents.ȱThisȱhappens,ȱforȱinstance,ȱwhenȱchildrenȱwhoȱ areȱJehovahȇsȱWitnesses,ȱorȱtheirȱparentsȱonȱtheirȱbehalf,ȱrefuseȱlifeȬ savingȱbloodȱtransfusionsȱonȱreligiousȱgrounds.ȱInȱsuchȱcases,ȱtheȱ childrenȱareȱmadeȱwardsȱofȱtheȱStateȱforȱpurposesȱofȱauthorizingȱtheȱ treatmentȱthatȱisȱobjectionable,ȱonȱtheȱbasisȱthatȱthisȱisȱinȱtheȱbestȱ interestsȱofȱtheȱchild,ȱwhetherȱorȱnotȱtheȱchildȱagrees.ȱȱ ȱ Evenȱinȱtheȱrestrictedȱsphereȱofȱfamilyȱlaw,ȱtheȱconceptȱofȱtheȱbestȱ interestsȱofȱtheȱchildȱisȱoftenȱaȱdifficultȱoneȱtoȱdealȱwith.ȱDeterminationȱ ofȱbestȱinterestȱisȱgenerallyȱmadeȱbyȱadults,ȱonȱtheȱbasisȱofȱtheirȱownȱ experienceȱandȱsocietalȱexpectations.ȱThus,ȱweȱcanȱsometimesȱfindȱaȱ situationȱinȱwhichȱadultsȱmayȱargueȱinȱfavourȱofȱaȱpracticeȱsuchȱasȱ femaleȱgenitalȱmutilation,ȱwhichȱisȱclearlyȱprohibitedȱinȱtheȱCRC,ȱonȱ theȱbasisȱthatȱitȱisȱinȱtheȱbestȱinterestsȱofȱtheȱchildȱtoȱfollowȱtraditionalȱ practiceȱsoȱthatȱsheȱwillȱbeȱacceptedȱasȱpartȱofȱtheȱcommunity,ȱ whateverȱtheȱdangerȱtoȱherȱpresentȱandȱfutureȱhealth.ȱ ȱ TheȱCRC,ȱhowever,ȱextendsȱtheȱprincipleȱofȱbestȱinterestsȱofȱtheȱchildȱ farȱbeyondȱtheȱrealmȱofȱfamilyȱlaw.ȱItȱisȱnowȱtoȱbeȱappliedȱȈ[to]ȱallȱ actionsȱconcerningȱchildren.ȈȱThisȱcanȱbeȱtakenȱtoȱmeanȱallȱactionsȱ takenȱbyȱaȱgovernment,ȱsinceȱvirtuallyȱeverythingȱaȱgovernmentȱdoesȱ willȱconcernȱchildrenȱinȱsomeȱway.ȱThisȱprincipleȱaffectsȱnotȱjustȱ
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legislation,ȱbutȱalsoȱgovernmentȱpolicies,ȱadministrativeȱarrangementsȱ andȱbudgetaryȱprovisions.ȱȱ ȱ Theȱquestionȱofȱwhatȱconstitutesȱtheȱbestȱinterestsȱofȱtheȱchildȱcanȱbeȱaȱ challengeȱforȱthoseȱundertakingȱaȱreviewȱofȱlegislationȱinȱtheȱlightȱofȱ theȱCRCȱandȱCEDAW.ȱTheȱsolutionȱtoȱthisȱquandaryȱisȱsimple:ȱtheȱbestȱ interestsȱofȱtheȱchildȱareȱdefinedȱthroughoutȱtheȱCRCȱbyȱtheȱspecificȱ provisionsȱwhichȱidentifyȱtheȱconditionsȱunderȱwhichȱaȱchildȱwillȱbeȱ ableȱtoȱdevelopȱasȱfullyȱasȱpossible.ȱThus,ȱitȱisȱinȱtheȱbestȱinterestsȱofȱ theȱchildȱtoȱhaveȱaȱnameȱandȱnationality,ȱtoȱknowȱhisȱorȱherȱparents,ȱtoȱ haveȱasȱstableȱaȱhomeȱasȱpossible,ȱtoȱbeȱcaredȱforȱinȱaȱwayȱthatȱmeetsȱ allȱofȱhisȱorȱherȱbasicȱneeds,ȱtoȱhaveȱanȱopportunityȱtoȱparticipateȱinȱ societyȱtoȱtheȱmaximumȱofȱhisȱorȱherȱcapacity,ȱtoȱreceiveȱaȱwellȬ roundedȱeducation,ȱtoȱbeȱprotectedȱfromȱallȱformsȱofȱexploitation,ȱ abuseȱorȱviolence,ȱtoȱbeȱtreatedȱfairlyȱbyȱtheȱpoliceȱandȱjusticeȱsystem,ȱ toȱbeȱableȱtoȱplay.ȱIfȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱtheȱCRCȱ(andȱrelatedȱprovisionsȱ inȱCEDAW)ȱareȱallȱfulfilled,ȱthenȱtheȱbestȱinterestsȱofȱtheȱchildȱwillȱbeȱ satisfied. 134ȱ ȱ Theȱrightȱtoȱlife,ȱsurvivalȱandȱdevelopmentȱconnectsȱtheȱCRCȱtoȱotherȱ majorȱinternationalȱhumanȱrightsȱinstruments,ȱsuchȱasȱtheȱCovenantȱ onȱCivilȱandȱPoliticalȱRightsȱ(forȱtheȱrightȱtoȱlife)ȱandȱtheȱCovenantȱonȱ Economic,ȱSocialȱandȱCulturalȱRightsȱ(forȱsurvivalȱandȱdevelopment).ȱ Theȱextentȱtoȱwhichȱthisȱrightȱisȱrespectedȱandȱputȱintoȱpracticeȱinȱ regardȱtoȱtheȱCRCȱwillȱalsoȱaffectȱtheȱfulfilmentȱofȱtheȱrelatedȱ provisionsȱinȱtheȱotherȱinstruments.ȱThisȱisȱaȱrightȱwhichȱrequiresȱnotȱ justȱthatȱStatesȱrefrainȱfromȱnegativeȱactionsȱthatȱwouldȱcauseȱinjuryȱ andȱdeathȱtoȱchildren.ȱItȱalsoȱrequiresȱthatȱagentsȱofȱtheȱState,ȱnotablyȱ theȱgovernment,ȱputȱinȱplaceȱpositiveȱmeasuresȱwhichȱwillȱactivelyȱ promoteȱtheȱfullestȱpossibleȱdevelopmentȱofȱtheirȱchildren,ȱasȱwellȱasȱ ensureȱtheirȱcontinuedȱsurvival.ȱAsȱaȱdirectȱresultȱofȱthisȱprinciple,ȱtheȱ publicȱserviceȱsectorsȱofȱhealthȱandȱeducationȱhaveȱanȱimportantȱroleȱ toȱplayȱinȱfulfillingȱcommitmentsȱtoȱchildrenȇsȱrights.ȱȱ ȱ InȱtheȱCRC,ȱtheȱrightȱtoȱsurvivalȱandȱdevelopmentȱisȱgivenȱspecificȱ definitionȱfromȱArticleȱ23ȱtoȱArticleȱ29.ȱTheseȱareȱtheȱarticlesȱthatȱ outlineȱtheȱresponsibilitiesȱofȱtheȱStateȱforȱtheȱphysicalȱwellȬbeingȱandȱ
134 Christine Lundy, An Introduction to the Convention on the Rights of the Child, St. Thomas, Full Circle Press, 1998, p. 51-4.
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developmentȱandȱtheȱintellectualȱdevelopmentȱofȱtheȱchild.ȱInȱ analysingȱlegislationȱfromȱtheȱperspectiveȱofȱtheȱrightȱtoȱsurvivalȱandȱ development,ȱitȱisȱimportantȱtoȱbearȱinȱmindȱtheȱfullȱspectrumȱofȱ Ȉphysical,ȱmental,ȱspiritual,ȱmoralȱandȱsocialȱdevelopmentȈȱwhichȱisȱ referredȱtoȱexplicitlyȱinȱArticleȱ27.ȱ ȱ Referenceȱhasȱalreadyȱbeenȱmadeȱtoȱtheȱchallengesȱinherentȱinȱcreatingȱ adequateȱmechanismsȱforȱchildrenȱtoȱȈexpressȱ[their]ȱviewsȱfreelyȱinȱallȱ mattersȱaffectingȱtheȱchildȈȱinȱrelationȱtoȱtheȱprocessȱofȱlegislationȱ review.ȱHowever,ȱtheȱprincipleȱofȱhearingȱtheȱviewsȱofȱtheȱchildȱshouldȱ alsoȱbeȱtakenȱintoȱaccountȱinȱtheȱanalysisȱofȱtheȱextentȱtoȱwhichȱ legislationȱmeetsȱtheȱstandardsȱsetȱbyȱtheȱCRC.ȱTheȱcontentȱofȱlawsȱ andȱregulations,ȱtheȱinstitutionsȱsetȱupȱtoȱprovideȱforȱchildrenȱandȱtheȱ actualȱpracticesȱthatȱdealȱwithȱchildrenȱinȱallȱcontextsȱneedȱtoȱbeȱ assessedȱnotȱonlyȱinȱtermsȱofȱtheȱwayȱinȱwhichȱtheyȱserveȱorȱpromoteȱ theȱrightȱtoȱlife,ȱsurvivalȱandȱdevelopmentȱinȱtheȱbestȱinterestsȱofȱtheȱ child,ȱwithoutȱdiscrimination,ȱbutȱalsoȱonȱtheȱbasisȱofȱtheȱwaysȱinȱ whichȱchildrenȱthemselvesȱareȱableȱtoȱparticipateȱinȱbothȱtheȱ developmentȱofȱtheȱlawsȱandȱregulationsȱandȱtheirȱimplementation,ȱtoȱ theȱextentȱthatȱthisȱisȱreasonableȱandȱappropriate.ȱSomeȱsubjectiveȱ judgementȱwillȱlikelyȱbeȱinvolvedȱinȱassessingȱtheȱextentȱofȱ participationȱbyȱchildren,ȱbutȱtheȱeffortȱshouldȱbeȱmadeȱnevertheless.ȱ ȱ 2.2.13ȱ ResultsȱofȱtheȱReviewȱ ȱ Toȱbeȱeffective,ȱtheȱreviewȱprocessȱshouldȱnotȱbeȱmerelyȱanȱabstractȱ exerciseȱinȱlegalȱanalysis.ȱTheȱconclusionsȱofȱtheȱreviewȱshouldȱleadȱtoȱ specificȱactionȱonȱbehalfȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrights,ȱandȱtheseȱshouldȱbeȱ outlinedȱclearlyȱinȱtheȱrecommendationsȱthatȱresultȱfromȱbothȱtheȱ analysisȱandȱtheȱpublicȱconsultationȱdimensionsȱofȱtheȱreview.ȱTheȱ recommendationsȱshouldȱbeȱasȱspecificȱasȱpossible,ȱsoȱasȱtoȱguideȱ subsequentȱgovernmentalȱactions,ȱincludingȱtheȱdraftingȱofȱanyȱnewȱorȱ revisedȱlegislationȱasȱwellȱasȱanyȱpolicies,ȱadministrativeȱarrangementsȱ orȱbudgetaryȱprovisionsȱthatȱmayȱbeȱneededȱtoȱgiveȱeffectȱtoȱtheȱnewȱ orȱexistingȱlegislation.ȱTheȱrecommendationsȱshouldȱalsoȱprovideȱaȱ directionȱforȱcontinuedȱpublicȱdiscussionȱofȱtheȱprinciplesȱofȱchildrenȇsȱ rightsȱandȱtheirȱdirectȱapplication.ȱForȱexample,ȱtheȱinitialȱreviewȱinȱ
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JamaicaȱrecommendedȱtheȱcreationȱandȱadoptionȱofȱaȱChildȱCareȱandȱ ProtectionȱAct,ȱsomethingȱthatȱeventuallyȱcameȱtoȱpass. 135ȱ ȱ IfȱinadequaciesȱinȱtermsȱofȱimplementationȱofȱtheȱCRC/CEDAWȱhaveȱ beenȱidentifiedȱinȱtheȱcourseȱofȱtheȱreviewȱ(andȱthereȱisȱnoȱcountryȱinȱ theȱworldȱinȱwhichȱsomeȱinadequaciesȱwouldȱnotȱbeȱidentifiedȱbyȱaȱ thoroughȱreview,ȱgivenȱtheȱaspirationalȱnaturesȱofȱtheȱCRCȱandȱ CEDAW),ȱitȱisȱnotȱenoughȱmerelyȱtoȱidentifyȱthem.ȱTheȱconclusionsȱofȱ theȱreviewȱshouldȱtryȱtoȱdirectȱtheȱresponseȱtoȱthoseȱinadequaciesȱbyȱ suggestingȱpossibleȱlegislativeȱandȱadministrativeȱmeasuresȱthatȱcouldȱ beȱtaken,ȱinȱtheȱspiritȱofȱArticleȱ4ȱofȱtheȱCRC.ȱBeyondȱchangesȱinȱ legislationȱandȱtheȱadoptionȱofȱnewȱlaws,ȱremedyingȱinadequaciesȱ mightȱinvolve,ȱforȱexample,ȱidentifyingȱareasȱofȱtheȱcountryȇsȱbudgetȱ whereȱgreaterȱresourcesȱcouldȱbeȱallocatedȱtoȱinstitutionsȱandȱ programmesȱwhichȱserveȱtoȱmakeȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱaȱreality.ȱ Recommendationsȱaboutȱeducation,ȱinformationȱandȱtrainingȱinȱ childrenȇsȱrightsȱforȱbothȱtheȱgeneralȱpublicȱandȱtheȱstaffȱofȱ governmentalȱandȱnonȬgovernmentalȱagenciesȱworkingȱwithȱchildrenȱ wouldȱalsoȱbeȱappropriate.ȱ ȱ Theȱconclusionsȱmayȱtakeȱintoȱaccountȱanyȱlimitationsȱthatȱmayȱexistȱ onȱaȱStateȇsȱabilityȱtoȱimplementȱtheȱmeasuresȱsuggested,ȱbutȱthisȱ shouldȱnotȱbeȱusedȱasȱanȱexcuseȱforȱinaction.ȱTheȱrecommendationsȱ mayȱoutlineȱaȱphasedȱprocessȱofȱimplementationȱforȱtheȱConventionsȱ butȱitȱshouldȱbeȱclearȱatȱallȱtimesȱthatȱtheȱcompleteȱfulfilmentȱofȱ commitmentsȱunderȱCRC/CEDAWȱisȱaȱminimallyȱacceptableȱresponseȱ toȱtheȱsituationȱofȱchildrenȱandȱthatȱtheȱgoal,ȱwithȱclearlyȱdefinedȱtimeȱ linesȱforȱachievement,ȱisȱtoȱmeetȱallȱobligationsȱasȱquicklyȱasȱpossible.ȱ ȱ Inȱmakingȱtheseȱrecommendations,ȱthoseȱconductingȱtheȱreviewȱ shouldȱalsoȱindicateȱwhoȱwillȱbeȱresponsibleȱforȱensuringȱthatȱtheȱ recommendationsȱareȱrealised.ȱResponsibilityȱmayȱbeȱvestedȱinȱoneȱ institutionȱ(suchȱasȱtheȱnationalȱcoordinatingȱbodyȱforȱchildrenȇsȱrights,ȱ aȱspecificȱgovernmentȱministryȱwithȱauthorityȱinȱtheȱareaȱofȱtheȱ recommendationȱorȱaȱlegislativeȱcommitteeȱorȱappointee)ȱorȱitȱmayȱbeȱ apportionedȱdependingȱonȱtheȱactionȱrecommended.ȱWithoutȱaȱclearlyȱ identifiedȱagentȱtoȱcarryȱtheȱrecommendationsȱforward,ȱtheyȱmayȱ
135 Jamaica, p. 13.
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languishȱunfulfilled,ȱneglectedȱforȱlackȱofȱaȱdedicatedȱadvocateȱonȱ theirȱbehalf.ȱ ȱ Throughoutȱtheȱreviewȱprocess,ȱandȱinȱtheȱpreparationȱandȱpublicationȱ ofȱtheȱconclusionsȱreached,ȱtheȱprimacyȱofȱtheȱinternationalȱstandardsȱ forȱhumanȱrightsȱshouldȱbeȱmaintainedȱatȱallȱtimes.ȱWhereȱthereȱareȱ divergencesȱbetweenȱtheȱinternationallyȱagreedȱstandardsȱandȱnationalȱ orȱlocalȱpractice,ȱthereȱmayȱbeȱaȱtemptationȱtoȱargueȱspecialȱ circumstancesȱwhichȱwouldȱobviateȱanyȱneedȱtoȱchangeȱthoseȱpracticesȱ toȱmetȱtheȱstandardsȱset.ȱOneȱresultȱofȱtheȱreviewȱprocessȱmayȱbeȱtoȱ enableȱaȱStateȱtoȱwithdrawȱreservationsȱwhichȱmayȱhaveȱbeenȱenteredȱ uponȱratificationȱofȱtheȱCRCȱorȱCEDAW,ȱonceȱtheȱrelationshipȱofȱ nationalȱlegislationȱtoȱobligationsȱunderȱtheȱConvention(s)ȱhasȱbeenȱ clarified.ȱThisȱwouldȱhelpȱtoȱsatisfyȱtheȱunwaveringȱcontentionsȱofȱȱtheȱ CommitteeȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChildȱthatȱreservationsȱareȱ undesirable,ȱȱurgingȱallȱcountriesȱwhichȱhaveȱenteredȱreservationsȱtoȱ withdrawȱthem,ȱinȱtheȱbestȱinterestsȱofȱchildren. 136 ȱȱ ȱ Thereȱcanȱbeȱnoȱexceptionsȱtoȱtheȱuniversalityȱofȱhumanȱrightsȱ principles,ȱespeciallyȱonesȱwhichȱhaveȱbeenȱasȱwidelyȱadoptedȱasȱthoseȱ containedȱinȱtheȱCRC.ȱEverydayȱpracticesȱwhichȱcontradictȱtheȱ CRC/CEDAWȱareȱjustȱasȱmuchȱsubjectȱtoȱreview,ȱcriticism,ȱandȱreform,ȱ ifȱrequired,ȱasȱformalȱlaws.ȱTheȱreviewȱprocessȱshouldȱbeȱundertakenȱ withȱthisȱprincipleȱinȱmind.ȱAnyȱactionȱorȱattitudeȱwhichȱcompromisesȱ theȱrightsȱofȱchildren,ȱespeciallyȱasȱidentifiedȱinȱtheȱfourȱfundamentalȱ principlesȱofȱnonȬdiscrimination,ȱtheȱbestȱinterestsȱofȱtheȱchildȱ(theȱ rightȱtoȱlife,ȱsurvivalȱandȱdevelopment,ȱandȱtheȱrightȱofȱtheȱchildȱtoȱbeȱ heard)ȱshouldȱbeȱdealtȱwithȱinȱtheȱsameȱwayȱasȱlegislation.ȱTheȱ conclusionsȱofȱtheȱreviewȱofȱlegislationȱmayȱequallyȱassessȱthoseȱ attitudesȱandȱproposeȱmeasuresȱtoȱchangeȱthem. 137ȱ ȱ Theȱroleȱofȱlegislationȱinȱinfluencingȱbehaviourȱisȱanȱimportantȱ explanationȱforȱtheȱCRCȇsȱattentionȱtoȱlegislativeȱmeasuresȱinȱArticleȱ4ȱ
136 The Committee on the Rights of the Child, General Guidelines Regarding the Form and Contents of Periodic Reports to Be Submitted by States Parties Under Article 44, Paragraph 1(B) of the Convention [henceforth: Guidelines], paragraph 11 under General Measures of Implementation. 137 The whole challenge of "cultural relativism" remains one of the major restrictions on full implementation of the CRC and CEDAW. This was clear from comments in the Haitian study. By contrast, the Gabon study makes the point that cultural attitudes can and should be changed.
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andȱforȱtheȱentireȱlegislationȱreviewȱprocessȱadvocatedȱsoȱstronglyȱbyȱ theȱCommitteeȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChild. 138 ȱTheȱpurposeȱofȱlegislationȱ reformȱisȱnotȱonlyȱtoȱachieveȱStateȱPartyȱcomplianceȱonȱpaperȱwithȱitsȱ obligationsȱunderȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAW,ȱbutȱalsoȱtoȱgenerateȱanyȱ neededȱtransformationȱinȱpublicȱattitudesȱandȱbehavioursȱwithȱregardȱ toȱchildrenȱthatȱtendȱinȱanyȱwayȱtoȱundercutȱtheȱrightsȱofȱchildren.ȱInȱ theȱcourseȱofȱtheȱreviewȱofȱlegislation,ȱtheȱidentificationȱofȱcustoms,ȱ traditionalȱpracticesȱandȱattitudesȱwhichȱcontradictȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱ theȱCRCȱandȱCEDAWȱshouldȱnotȱbeȱusedȱtoȱquestionȱtheȱinternationalȱ standardsȱbutȱtoȱguideȱrecommendationsȱforȱmeasuresȱ(legislative,ȱ administrativeȱandȱothers)ȱwhichȱcouldȱbeȱtakenȱbyȱtheȱgovernmentȱinȱ orderȱtoȱadvanceȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱbyȱchangingȱthoseȱpracticesȱandȱ attitudes.ȱ ȱ 2.3ȱ ReformȱofȱLegislationȱ ȱ 2.3.1ȱ FromȱReviewȱtoȱReformȱ ȱ Onceȱtheȱlegislationȱreviewȱisȱcompletedȱandȱtheȱrecommendationsȱforȱ improvementsȱtoȱlegislationȱdealingȱwithȱchildrenȱareȱinȱhand,ȱtheȱ processȱbecomesȱmoreȱpreciselyȱfocusedȱonȱtheȱdetailsȱofȱreformȱofȱ legislationȱtoȱincorporateȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱtheȱCRC/CEDAWȱdirectlyȱ inȱnationalȱlaw,ȱsoȱthatȱtheȱrightsȱguaranteedȱtoȱchildrenȱwillȱbeȱ justiciableȱ–ȱsubjectȱtoȱdueȱprocessȱinȱaȱcourtȱofȱlaw.ȱ ȱ Theȱvarietyȱofȱlegislativeȱandȱadministrativeȱsystemsȱcurrentlyȱ operatingȱinȱtheȱworldȱmeansȱthatȱthereȱareȱmanyȱdifferentȱmethodsȱ byȱwhichȱcountriesȱcanȱensureȱthatȱtheȱrightsȱofȱchildrenȱasȱsetȱoutȱinȱ theȱCRCȱandȱCEDAWȱwillȱbeȱenforceableȱbyȱlaw.ȱTheȱpreciseȱnatureȱofȱ specificȱlegislationȱwillȱdependȱonȱtheȱsituationȱofȱanȱindividualȱ countryȱandȱitsȱtraditions,ȱexpectationsȱandȱpoliticalȱrealities.ȱ However,ȱthereȱareȱcertainȱcommonȱobjectivesȱwhichȱshouldȱbeȱ achievedȱbyȱeveryȱStateȱPartyȱandȱsomeȱcommonȱapproachesȱwhichȱ mayȱbeȱusedȱevenȱinȱcountriesȱwithȱdifferentȱlegalȱsystems.ȱTogether,ȱ theseȱcanȱhelpȱinȱtheȱcreationȱofȱlegislationȱwhichȱbenefitsȱchildrenȱandȱ theirȱfamiliesȱbyȱputtingȱintoȱlegalȱeffectȱtheȱrightsȱandȱobligationsȱ definedȱinȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAW.ȱ ȱ
138 Guidelines, paragraphs 12-4, 18 and 20.
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Inȱidentifyingȱtheȱelementsȱofȱreformȱwhichȱareȱimportantȱforȱeveryȱ countryȱtoȱincorporateȱintoȱtheirȱlegislativeȱprocess,ȱtheȱguidanceȱofȱ theȱCommitteeȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChildȱisȱparticularlyȱhelpful.ȱBothȱ inȱtermsȱofȱindividualȱcountries,ȱforȱwhichȱtheȱCommitteeȱprovidesȱ specificȱdirectionȱinȱtheȱConcludingȱObservationsȱonȱeveryȱreportȱ receivedȱfromȱtheȱStatesȱParties,ȱandȱinȱtheȱgeneralȱguidelinesȱtheȱ CommitteeȱhasȱprovidedȱforȱtheȱuseȱofȱallȱStatesȱParties,ȱtheȱ Committeeȱoffersȱinsightsȱintoȱbothȱtheȱpracticalitiesȱofȱandȱtheȱ philosophyȱbehindȱtheȱlegislationȱneededȱtoȱmakeȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱaȱ realityȱthroughoutȱtheȱworld.ȱThisȱsectionȱofȱtheȱHandbookȱwill,ȱ therefore,ȱdrawȱheavilyȱonȱtheȱrichȱresourceȱofȱcommentsȱandȱ recommendationsȱfromȱtheȱCommitteeȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChildȱtoȱ informȱconsiderationȱofȱtheȱprocessȱandȱtheȱgeneralȱcontentȱofȱ legislationȱreformȱmeasuresȱinȱfavourȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrights.ȱ ȱ EvenȱinȱcountriesȱwhereȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAWȱareȱ selfȬexecutingȱ–ȱbecomingȱpartȱofȱdomesticȱlawȱasȱaȱconsequenceȱofȱ ratificationȱorȱaccessionȱ–ȱthereȱareȱvariationsȱinȱtheȱwaysȱthatȱtheȱ provisionsȱofȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAWȱareȱappliedȱinȱjudicialȱ proceedings.ȱThereȱareȱalsoȱmanyȱinstancesȱofȱconflictȱinȱbothȱactionȱ andȱintentionȱbetweenȱtheȱCRC/CEDAW,ȱincorporatedȱintoȱnationalȱ law,ȱandȱotherȱlegislationȱstillȱinȱforceȱwhichȱmayȱworkȱagainstȱtheȱ rightsȱofȱchildren.ȱThus,ȱthereȱmayȱbeȱconfusionȱaboutȱtheȱrelativeȱ weightȱthatȱcanȱbeȱbroughtȱtoȱbearȱinȱtheȱmakingȱofȱaȱdecisionȱinȱcourtȱ betweenȱtheȱstandardsȱofȱdomesticȱlegislationȱandȱtheȱinternationalȱ obligations.ȱThisȱsituationȱcanȱonlyȱbeȱresolvedȱbyȱclarifyingȱtheȱ domesticȱlegislationȱtoȱbringȱitȱintoȱharmonyȱwithȱtheȱConventions.ȱȱ ȱ ForȱcountriesȱinȱwhichȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAWȱareȱnotȱautomaticallyȱ justiciable,ȱitȱisȱequallyȱimportantȱtoȱtakeȱtheȱnecessaryȱstepsȱtoȱ enshrineȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱthoseȱConventionsȱinȱdomesticȱlegislation.ȱ Withoutȱthisȱcrucialȱmeasure,ȱtheȱstandardsȱsetȱbyȱtheȱCRCȱandȱ CEDAWȱwouldȱbeȱusedȱbyȱjudgesȱconsideringȱcasesȱrelevantȱtoȱtheȱ Conventionsȱmerelyȱasȱaȱreferenceȱforȱpurposesȱofȱinterpretingȱ domesticȱlegislation,ȱandȱnoȱlegalȱargumentsȱcouldȱbeȱbroughtȱtoȱbearȱ specificallyȱinȱregardȱtoȱtheȱStateȱPartyȇsȱobligationsȱunderȱtheȱ Conventions.ȱAsȱaȱresult,ȱoneȱofȱtheȱmostȱconsistentȱthemesȱinȱtheȱ ConcludingȱObservationsȱofȱtheȱCommitteeȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChildȱ forȱeveryȱcountryȱreportingȱonȱtheȱimplementationȱofȱtheȱCRCȱisȱaȱ
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strongȱrecommendationȱthatȱdomesticȱlegislationȱbeȱharmonisedȱwithȱ theȱprovisionsȱofȱtheȱCRC.ȱ ȱ Especiallyȱimportant,ȱforȱtheȱCommitteeȱandȱforȱtheȱpromotionȱandȱ protectionȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱinȱgeneral,ȱisȱtheȱneedȱtoȱensureȱthatȱtheȱ fourȱgeneralȱprinciplesȱareȱincorporatedȱintoȱandȱreflectedȱbyȱallȱ legislationȱthatȱdealsȱwithȱchildren.ȱParticularȱstressȱisȱplacedȱonȱ freedomȱfromȱdiscrimination,ȱmakingȱtheȱbestȱinterestsȱofȱtheȱchildȱaȱ primaryȱconsideration,ȱandȱrespectingȱtheȱviewsȱofȱtheȱchild.ȱTheȱ ConcludingȱObservationsȱonȱtheȱInitialȱReportȱofȱtheȱUnitedȱKingdomȱ areȱtypical:ȱȱ ȱ “TheȱCommitteeȱwouldȱlikeȱtoȱsuggestȱthatȱgreaterȱpriorityȱbeȱgivenȱtoȱ incorporatingȱtheȱgeneralȱprinciplesȱofȱtheȱConvention,ȱespeciallyȱtheȱ provisionsȱofȱitsȱarticleȱ3,ȱrelatingȱtoȱtheȱbestȱinterestsȱofȱtheȱchild,ȱandȱ articleȱ12,ȱconcerningȱtheȱchild’sȱrightȱtoȱmakeȱtheirȱviewsȱknownȱandȱ toȱhaveȱthoseȱviewsȱgivenȱdueȱweight,ȱinȱtheȱlegislativeȱandȱ administrativeȱmeasuresȱandȱinȱpoliciesȱundertakenȱtoȱimplementȱtheȱ rightsȱofȱtheȱchild.”ȱ(UnitedȱKingdomȱInitialȱReportȱConcludingȱ Observations,ȱAdd.ȱ34,ȱpara.ȱ27.) 139ȱ ȱ Theseȱthreeȱfundamentalȱprinciplesȱareȱsoȱimportantȱthatȱtheyȱshouldȱ beȱtakenȱintoȱaccountȱinȱanyȱandȱallȱlegislationȱdealingȱwithȱchildren.ȱ ȱ Theȱrightȱtoȱlife,ȱsurvivalȱandȱdevelopmentȱisȱtreatedȱsomewhatȱ differentlyȱfromȱtheȱotherȱthreeȱfundamentalȱprinciplesȱwhenȱitȱcomesȱ toȱtheȱexpectationsȱofȱtheȱCommitteeȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChildȱforȱ implementation.ȱTheȱrightȱtoȱsurvivalȱandȱdevelopmentȱisȱaȱsuccinctȱ expressionȱofȱtheȱeconomic,ȱsocialȱandȱculturalȱrightsȱofȱchildren.ȱTheȱ fulfilmentȱofȱtheȱsurvivalȱandȱdevelopmentȱrightsȱofȱchildrenȱrequiresȱ Stateȱinvestmentȱinȱservicesȱsuchȱasȱeducation,ȱprimaryȱandȱadvancedȱ healthȱcareȱandȱaȱrangeȱofȱsocialȱservices,ȱforȱwhichȱmanyȱcountriesȱ lackȱtheȱeconomicȱorȱhumanȱresources.ȱItȱisȱnotȱexpectedȱthatȱStatesȱ withȱlimitedȱresourcesȱwillȱbeȱableȱtoȱachieveȱtheȱfullȱimplementationȱ ofȱtheseȱrightsȱeasilyȱorȱquickly.ȱTheȱCommitteeȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱ Childȱtends,ȱtherefore,ȱtoȱtakeȱaȱlessȱstringentȱviewȱofȱlegislationȱandȱ otherȱactionsȱStatesȱmayȱundertakeȱinȱorderȱtoȱfulfilȱtheȱrightȱtoȱ
139 Implementation Handbook, p. 65.
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survivalȱandȱdevelopment. 140 ȱHowever,ȱthereȱisȱalwaysȱtheȱexpectationȱ thatȱStates,ȱwhateverȱtheirȱmeans,ȱwillȱbeȱsteadilyȱmovingȱtowardȱtheȱ fullȱimplementationȱofȱtheseȱrights,ȱbyȱgraduallyȱintroducingȱtheȱ measuresȱnecessaryȱtoȱprovideȱtheȱservicesȱchildrenȱareȱentitledȱto.ȱInȱ this,ȱtheȱCRCȱalsoȱprovidesȱtheȱrequirementȱthatȱcountriesȱthatȱofferȱ internationalȱassistanceȱshouldȱbeȱtailoringȱtheirȱprogrammesȱtoȱ supportȱfulfilmentȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱtoȱsurvivalȱandȱdevelopmentȱ elsewhereȱinȱtheȱworld. 141 ȱ(Aspectsȱofȱthisȱwillȱbeȱdiscussedȱlaterȱinȱ thisȱHandbook,ȱunderȱtheȱheadingȱofȱȈFollowȬupȱandȱ Implementation.Ȉ)ȱ ȱ Theȱlegislationȱreviewȱprocessȱwillȱhaveȱidentifiedȱthoseȱaspectsȱofȱ legislationȱwhichȱneedȱtoȱbeȱclarifiedȱorȱexpandedȱorȱamended,ȱasȱwellȱ asȱlegislationȱthatȱneedsȱtoȱbeȱrepealedȱ(suchȱasȱdiscriminatoryȱ legislation).ȱInȱaddition,ȱtheȱprocessȱshouldȱoutlineȱanyȱnewȱlegislationȱ thatȱmayȱbeȱneededȱinȱorderȱtoȱensureȱthatȱallȱlegislationȱisȱcompatibleȱ withȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAWȱandȱthatȱallȱofȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱtheȱ Conventionsȱareȱfullyȱaddressed.ȱTheȱconclusionsȱofȱtheȱreviewȱmayȱ provideȱrecommendationsȱaboutȱspecificȱmeasuresȱtoȱbeȱrevisedȱorȱ newȱlegislationȱtoȱbeȱadopted,ȱasȱhappenedȱinȱGhana 142 ȱandȱJamaica. 143 ȱ Draftȱbillsȱmayȱalsoȱbeȱprovidedȱasȱaȱstartingȱpointȱforȱreformȱofȱ legislation.ȱ ȱ Otherȱfactorsȱmayȱalsoȱenterȱintoȱtheȱlegislationȱreformȱprocess.ȱInȱfact,ȱ reformsȱofȱlegislationȱmayȱbeȱproposedȱandȱundertakenȱbeforeȱaȱ reviewȱisȱstarted.ȱTheȱdecisionȱthatȱreformȱisȱneededȱmayȱbeȱtheȱ impulseȱforȱreview.ȱHowever,ȱtheȱimpulseȱtoȱreformȱlegislationȱisȱnotȱ selfȬgenerating.ȱChangingȱlawsȱtoȱreflectȱchangedȱsocialȱconditionsȱandȱ evolvingȱpublicȱattitudesȱusuallyȱhappensȱasȱaȱresultȱofȱsomeȱpressureȱ fromȱoutsideȱtheȱlegalȱsystem.ȱThisȱcanȱbeȱtheȱresultȱofȱtheȱadoptionȱofȱ aȱnewȱpoliticalȱdirectionȱinȱtheȱcountry,ȱorȱitȱcanȱrespondȱtoȱpressureȱ fromȱcivilȱsocietyȱbasedȱonȱincreasedȱawarenessȱofȱbothȱtheȱexistingȱ situationȱandȱtheȱpossibilityȱofȱcreatingȱchange,ȱinȱwhichȱtheȱmediaȱ mayȱplayȱaȱsignificantȱrole.ȱȱ ȱ
140 Guidelines, paragraph 20. 141 Guidelines, paragraph 21. 142 Ghana, p. 14-6. 143 Jamaica, p. 13-5.
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InȱVenezuela,ȱtheȱfirstȱstepȱtowardȱcomprehensiveȱreformȱofȱnationalȱ legislationȱwithȱregardȱtoȱchildrenȱtookȱtheȱformȱofȱaȱdraftȱbillȱ introducedȱintoȱtheȱlegislatureȱbyȱaȱpoliticalȱpartyȱinȱopposition.ȱThisȱ ledȱtoȱtheȱcreationȱofȱaȱSpecialȱCongressionalȱCommissionȱtoȱreviewȱ theȱproposedȱlegislation.ȱWhenȱthatȱlostȱmomentum,ȱtheȱNationalȱ InstituteȱforȱChildrenȱ(aȱgovernmentȱagency)ȱassumedȱleadershipȱofȱ theȱprocess.ȱInȱtheȱfinalȱstages,ȱtheȱprimaryȱforceȱforȱreformȱofȱ legislationȱbecameȱaȱcoalitionȱofȱ25ȱNGOs,ȱȈUnitedȱforȱaȱLawȱforȱ ChildrenȱandȱAdolescents.ȈȱAlongȱtheȱway,ȱelementsȱofȱaȱreviewȱofȱ existingȱlegislationȱwereȱemployed,ȱprimarilyȱtoȱserveȱasȱwayȱofȱ generatingȱsupportȱforȱtheȱproposedȱnewȱlaw.ȱAtȱtheȱsameȱtime,ȱtheȱ debateȱandȱdiscussionȱaboutȱtheȱproposedȱlegislationȱgeneratedȱaȱ participatoryȱanalysisȱofȱexistingȱlegislationȱandȱledȱtoȱaȱseriesȱofȱ revisionsȱofȱtheȱproposedȱlegislationȱthatȱbroughtȱitȱcloserȱtoȱtheȱfullȱ realisationȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrights.ȱThus,ȱreviewȱandȱreformȱproceededȱ togetherȱandȱsupportedȱeachȱother,ȱresultingȱinȱgreaterȱpublicȱ understandingȱofȱandȱsupportȱforȱtheȱnewȱmeasure,ȱandȱstrongerȱ governmentȱcommitmentȱtoȱenforcingȱtheȱlegislation. 144ȱ ȱ 2.3.2ȱ DevelopingȱNewȱorȱAmendedȱLegislationȱ ȱ Dependingȱonȱtheȱwaysȱinȱwhichȱdifferentȱlegalȱsystemsȱframeȱtheirȱ legislation,ȱthereȱareȱessentiallyȱtwoȱpracticalȱmethodsȱbyȱwhichȱ reformȱofȱlegislationȱrelatingȱtoȱchildrenȱisȱundertaken.ȱForȱmanyȱ States,ȱtheȱmostȱefficientȱwayȱtoȱachieveȱtheȱgoalȱofȱharmonisingȱ legislationȱwithȱtheȱCRC/CEDAWȱtakesȱtheȱformȱofȱaȱcomprehensiveȱ overhaulȱofȱallȱrelevantȱlegislationȱbyȱmeansȱofȱaȱsingleȱomnibusȱbillȱorȱ ChildrenȇsȱCodeȱor,ȱmoreȱpractically,ȱoneȱcodeȱforȱtheȱlegalȱregimeȱ relatingȱtoȱchildȱprotectionȱandȱfamilyȱrelationshipsȱandȱanotherȱ dealingȱwithȱcriminalȱlawȱandȱjuvenileȱjustice.ȱThisȱmethodȱisȱoftenȱ usedȱinȱcountriesȱwithȱcivilȱlawȱsystems,ȱwhereȱthereȱisȱaȱwellȬ establishedȱtraditionȱofȱcodifiedȱlaw.ȱElsewhere,ȱespeciallyȱinȱsomeȱ commonȱlawȱcountries,ȱtheȱpreferenceȱhasȱbeenȱforȱlawȱbyȱlawȱreviewȱ andȱrevision,ȱwithȱeachȱpieceȱofȱlegislationȱamendedȱindividuallyȱorȱinȱ smallȱrelatedȱclusters.ȱCountriesȱwithȱanȱIslamicȱlawȱsystemȱorȱpluralȱ legalȱsystemȱmayȱtakeȱeitherȱapproach,ȱdependingȱonȱtheȱstructureȱofȱ theirȱlegalȱandȱjusticeȱsystem.ȱ ȱ
144 Garate, p. 14-20.
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ȱ ȱ 1.ȱChildrenȇsȱCodeȱ ȱ Approachingȱlegislationȱreformȱbyȱmeansȱofȱaȱcomprehensiveȱ ChildrenȇsȱCodeȱhasȱtheȱadvantageȱofȱimmediatelyȱcreatingȱaȱ substantialȱbodyȱofȱlegislationȱdealingȱwithȱvirtuallyȱallȱaspectsȱofȱ childrenȇsȱlives.ȱThereȱisȱaȱclearȱcomplementaryȱrelationshipȱamongȱallȱ partsȱofȱtheȱlegislationȱandȱtheȱdifferentȱcomponentsȱshouldȱbeȱ mutuallyȱsupportive.ȱTheȱCommitteeȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChildȱhasȱ shownȱaȱstrongȱpreferenceȱforȱthisȱmeansȱofȱincorporatingȱtheȱCRCȱ intoȱdomesticȱlegislation.ȱInȱtheȱConcludingȱObservationsȱonȱtheȱInitialȱ CountryȱReportȱofȱtheȱLaoȱPeople’sȱDemocraticȱRepublic,ȱforȱinstance,ȱ theȱCommitteeȇsȱattitudeȱ wasȱexplicit.ȱ ȱ ȈTheȱ Committeeȱ alsoȱ suggestsȱ thatȱ theȱ Stateȱ Partyȱ envisageȱtheȱadoptionȱofȱaȱspecificȱcodeȱorȱlegislationȱforȱ children,ȱwithȱaȱseparateȱsectionȱonȱchildrenȱwhoȱneedȱaȱ specialȱprotection.Ȉȱ(LaoȱPeople’sȱDemocraticȱRepublicȱInitialȱ ReportȱConcludingȱObservations,ȱAdd.ȱ78,ȱpara.ȱ30.) 145ȱ ȱ AlthoughȱaȱcomprehensiveȱChildren’sȱCodeȱdoesȱmakeȱitȱeasierȱtoȱ implementȱtheȱCRCȱasȱaȱwhole,ȱtheȱveryȱbreadthȱofȱcoverageȱmayȱ presentȱchallenges.ȱInȱGuatemala,ȱforȱexample,ȱtheȱdifficultyȱofȱ includingȱallȱaspectsȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱ(notablyȱtheȱprovisionsȱ relatingȱtoȱadoption)ȱintoȱoneȱcomprehensiveȱpieceȱofȱlegislationȱmeantȱ thatȱtheȱGuatemalaȱChildrenȇsȱCode,ȱasȱitȱwasȱfinallyȱpassed,ȱdidȱnotȱ includeȱsomeȱimportantȱelements;ȱAȱseparateȱlawȱonȱadoptionȱwasȱ approvedȱlater. 146ȱ ȱ ThisȱsituationȱdemonstratesȱthatȱtheȱveryȱcomplexityȱofȱsuchȱanȱallȬ encompassingȱlawȱcanȱmakeȱitȱdifficultȱtoȱadopt.ȱThereȱisȱalwaysȱtheȱ riskȱthatȱsomeȱsegmentsȱofȱsocietyȱmayȱopposeȱcertainȱpartsȱofȱtheȱ Codeȱandȱsoȱendȱupȱderailingȱitȱinȱitsȱentirety,ȱorȱsucceedȱinȱdilutingȱ thusȱminimisingȱitsȱeffectiveness.ȱȱ ȱ
145 Implementation Handbook, p. 66. 146 Garate, p. 23-8.
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TheȱexperienceȱinȱNicaraguaȱwasȱmoreȱpositive,ȱwithȱtheȱadoptionȱofȱaȱ comprehensiveȱChildrenȇsȱLegalȱCodeȱinȱ1998.ȱTheȱCodeȱreplacedȱaȱ numberȱofȱobsoleteȱlawsȱwhichȱdidȱnotȱfitȱwithȱtheȱprinciplesȱofȱtheȱ CRC,ȱandȱitȱcreatedȱaȱnewȱlegalȱframeworkȱforȱallȱaspectsȱofȱtheȱStateȇsȱ dealingsȱwithȱchildren.ȱTheȱCode,ȱwhichȱdealsȱwithȱfamilyȱlaw,ȱ childrenȱinȱsocietyȱandȱtheȱtreatmentȱofȱchildrenȱbyȱtheȱjusticeȱsystem,ȱ coversȱmostȱofȱtheȱbasicȱelementsȱofȱtheȱCRCȱandȱchildrenȇsȱrights,ȱ including:ȱ ȱ x theȱregulationȱofȱfullȱprotectionȱofȱchildrenȱbyȱfamilies,ȱsociety,ȱ theȱgovernmentȱandȱprivateȱinstitutions;ȱ x theȱdefinitionȱofȱchildrenȱasȱthoseȱlessȱthanȱ13ȱyearsȱoldȱandȱ adolescentsȱasȱthoseȱbetweenȱ13ȱandȱ18;ȱ x theȱdefinitionȱofȱchildrenȱandȱadolescentsȱasȱsocialȱindividualsȱ withȱrights;ȱ x provisionȱforȱequalityȱofȱconditionȱandȱopportunity,ȱfreeȱfromȱ discrimination,ȱexploitation,ȱviolenceȱorȱotherȱfactorsȱthatȱ violateȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱandȱliberties;ȱ x theȱdefinitionȱofȱtheȱfamilyȱasȱtheȱfundamentalȱandȱnaturalȱ entityȱtoȱguaranteeȱtheȱgrowth,ȱdevelopmentȱandȱwellbeingȱofȱ childrenȱandȱadolescents;ȱ x establishmentȱofȱtheȱbestȱinterestsȱofȱchildrenȱandȱadolescentsȱ asȱaȱnationalȱconcern,ȱwithȱfullȱentitlementȱofȱallȱtoȱfullȱ physical,ȱpsychological,ȱmoral,ȱculturalȱandȱsocialȱ development;ȱ x specialȱattentionȱtoȱchildrenȱwhoȱbelongȱtoȱindigenousȱ communitiesȱorȱminorityȱethnic,ȱreligiousȱorȱlinguisticȱgroups;ȱ andȱ x identificationȱofȱtheȱroleȱofȱtheȱStateȱinȱallȱofȱitsȱformsȱasȱtheȱ guarantorȱofȱtheȱsurvivalȱandȱdevelopmentȱofȱchildren. 147ȱ ȱ TheȱcomprehensivenessȱofȱaȱChildrenȇsȱCodeȱrequiresȱaȱthoroughȱ examinationȱofȱallȱpotentialȱimplicationsȱofȱeachȱprovision,ȱbothȱ individuallyȱandȱforȱitsȱinfluenceȱonȱtheȱimplementationȱofȱotherȱpartsȱ ofȱtheȱCode.ȱItȱisȱalsoȱimportantȱtoȱdetermineȱtheȱimpactȱofȱtheȱCodeȱ onȱanyȱotherȱlegislationȱthatȱmayȱcontinueȱinȱforce,ȱatȱallȱlevelsȱofȱ
147 Vijil, Mireille and Noemi Danao Cabuslay, The Convention on the Rights of the Child Impact Study: The Study of Nicaragua, Rädda Barnen/Swedish Save the Children, Managua, (November 1998) [henceforth: Nicaragua], p. 23-4.
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government.ȱAnyȱlegislationȱwhichȱwillȱcounteractȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱ theȱnewȱChildrenȇsȱCodeȱwillȱhaveȱtoȱbeȱeitherȱrepealedȱandȱreplacedȱ byȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱtheȱCodeȱorȱrevisedȱtoȱbringȱitȱintoȱconformityȱ withȱtheȱnewȱlegislation.ȱInȱNicaragua,ȱforȱinstance,ȱtheȱreviewȱofȱotherȱ existingȱlegislationȱmeantȱcloseȱconsultationȱwithȱmunicipalȱauthoritiesȱ toȱavoidȱcontradictionsȱbetweenȱtheȱChildrenȇsȱCodeȱandȱlocalȱ legislation.ȱTheȱmultiplicityȱofȱelementsȱinȱaȱChildrenȇsȱCodeȱcanȱmakeȱ itȱmoreȱdifficultȱtoȱpredictȱtheȱlongȬtermȱeffectȱitȱwillȱhaveȱonȱtheȱlivesȱ ofȱchildrenȱandȱonȱtheȱcountryȱasȱaȱwhole.ȱȱ ȱ Itȱshouldȱalsoȱbeȱnotedȱthat,ȱevenȱwithȱaȱcomprehensiveȱChildrenȇsȱ Code,ȱthereȱwillȱinevitablyȱbeȱotherȱlegislationȱ(forȱexample,ȱtechnicalȱ legislationȱonȱmicronutrientȱdeficiencies,ȱorȱbroaderȱlegislativeȱ measuresȱdealingȱwithȱhealthȱcareȱorȱmarriageȱandȱdivorce)ȱwhich,ȱ whileȱnotȱspecificallyȱmentioningȱchildren,ȱwillȱhaveȱaȱsignificantȱ effectȱonȱtheȱrightsȱofȱchildren.ȱEvenȱwithȱaȱChildrenȇsȱCode,ȱtherefore,ȱ someȱattentionȱwillȱhaveȱtoȱbeȱpaidȱtoȱotherȱspecificȱitemsȱofȱ legislation.ȱ ȱ 2.ȱLawȬbyȬLawȱReformȱ ȱ Inȱmanyȱcountries,ȱsuchȱasȱthoseȱthatȱfollowȱtheȱcommonȱlawȱtradition,ȱ theȱoptionȱofȱadoptingȱaȱcomprehensiveȱChildrenȇsȱCodeȱwouldȱnotȱbeȱ easilyȱworkable.ȱSuchȱcountriesȱwillȱchooseȱtheȱotherȱapproachȱtoȱ incorporationȱofȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAWȱintoȱdomesticȱlegislation.ȱThisȱ isȱtoȱenshrineȱeachȱprovision,ȱorȱaȱcombinationȱofȱrelatedȱprovisions,ȱinȱ individualȱlawsȱthatȱcanȱbeȱdeveloped,ȱdebatedȱandȱadoptedȱ separately.ȱTheȱchangesȱinȱlegislationȱmayȱbeȱproposedȱnotȱonlyȱasȱaȱ resultȱofȱtheȱreviewȱofȱexistingȱlawsȱbutȱalsoȱtoȱaccommodateȱjudicialȱ decisionsȱandȱperceivedȱchangesȱinȱpublicȱattitudesȱandȱbehaviour.ȱ Separateȱmeasuresȱmayȱbeȱnecessaryȱtoȱbringȱtheȱcustomaryȱlawȱintoȱ harmonyȱwithȱtheȱprinciplesȱofȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAW.ȱȱ ȱ Withȱregardȱtoȱcommonȱlawȱcountries,ȱitȱshouldȱbeȱborneȱinȱmindȱthatȱ changesȱinȱlawȱdoȱnotȱnecessarilyȱinvolveȱchangesȱinȱlegislation.ȱ Becauseȱtheȱcommonȱlawȱisȱcreatedȱasȱmuchȱthroughȱjudicialȱdecisionȱ andȱprecedentȱasȱthroughȱlegislation,ȱitȱisȱimportantȱtoȱinvolveȱtheȱ judgesȱinȱtheȱreformȱprocess,ȱthroughȱeducationȱandȱactiveȱ engagement.ȱSimilarȱmeasuresȱmayȱbeȱnecessaryȱwithȱtraditionalȱ leadersȱwhoȱimplementȱandȱdetermineȱcustomaryȱlaw.ȱȱWhereȱbothȱ
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writtenȱstatutesȱandȱjudicialȱorȱtraditionalȱdecisionsȱhaveȱaȱroleȱtoȱplayȱ inȱtheȱdevelopmentȱofȱlawȱandȱestablishingȱtheȱbasisȱforȱlegalȱpractice,ȱ legislationȱreformȱcanȱcreateȱtheȱcontextȱinȱwhichȱtheȱcommonȱorȱ customaryȱlawȱisȱdeveloped.ȱ ȱ Jamaicaȱprovidesȱoneȱexampleȱofȱthisȱapproach.ȱTheȱprocessȱofȱ revisingȱlawsȱfollowingȱratificationȱofȱtheȱCRCȱinȱ1991ȱinvolvedȱtheȱ adoptionȱofȱaȱseriesȱofȱmeasures,ȱincluding:ȱ ȱ 1. TheȱInheritanceȱ(ProvisionȱforȱFamilyȱandȱDependants)ȱAct,ȱ 1993;ȱȱ 2. theȱDomesticȱViolenceȱAct,ȱ1994;ȱȱ 3. theȱFamilyȱPropertyȱAct,ȱ1995;ȱȱ 4. theȱLegalȱAidȱAct,ȱ1997;ȱȱ 5. theȱMaintenanceȱOrdersȱ(FacilitiesȱforȱEnforcementȱ (Amendment)ȱAct,ȱ1999;ȱandȱȱ 6. theȱCitizenshipȱ(ConstitutionalȱAmendment)ȱAct,ȱ1999. 148 ȱȱ ȱ Aȱreviewȱofȱlegislationȱconductedȱinȱ1994,ȱundertakenȱbyȱaȱlegalȱexpertȱ onȱbehalfȱofȱtheȱJamaicaȱCoalitionȱforȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChild,ȱproducedȱ aȱrecommendationȱforȱtheȱadoptionȱofȱaȱȈChildȱCareȱandȱProtectionȱ Act.ȈȱSuchȱanȱActȱwasȱadoptedȱinȱ2004,ȱrepealingȱtheȱ45ȬyearȬoldȱ JuvenileȱActȱandȱprovidingȱaȱlegalȱframeworkȱforȱtheȱcareȱandȱ protectionȱofȱchildrenȱthatȱemphasisesȱtheȱbestȱinterestsȱofȱtheȱchild. 149ȱ ȱ AlthoughȱMoroccoȱincludesȱtheȱcivilȱlawȱtraditionȱasȱpartȱofȱitsȱlegalȱ system,ȱitȱalsoȱfollowsȱIslamicȱlawȱandȱtheȱnatureȱofȱitsȱmonarchicalȱ constitutionȱmakesȱtheȱlawȬbyȬlawȱapproachȱmoreȱappropriate.ȱTheȱ adoptionȱofȱspecificȱlawsȱtoȱdealȱwithȱparticularȱsituations,ȱsuchȱasȱtheȱ AbandonedȱChildrenȱActȱandȱtheȱSocialȱProtectionȱofȱDisabledȱ ChildrenȱAct,ȱhasȱhelpedȱtoȱputȱsomeȱelementsȱofȱtheȱCRCȱintoȱeffect,ȱ andȱfurtherȱlegislativeȱchangesȱareȱplanned. 150ȱ ȱ Theȱmultipleȱlawȱoption,ȱasȱopposedȱtoȱtheȱChildrenȇsȱCodeȱapproach,ȱ providesȱforȱaȱmoreȱgradualȱchangeȱinȱtheȱexistingȱlegislation.ȱAtȱeachȱ
148 Jamaica, p. 9. 149 Jamaica, p. 14. 150 Ali, Shakeen Sarder, Implementation of Child Rights in Muslim Jurisdictions: A Comparative Perspective of the CRC and Principles of Islamic Law, UNICEF(internal document), New York, date unknown [henceforth: Shaheen Sardar Ali], p. 39-40.
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step,ȱitȱwillȱbeȱnecessaryȱtoȱdetermineȱwhichȱofȱseveralȱlawsȱorȱ interpretationsȱwillȱprevailȱinȱtheȱeventȱofȱaȱlegalȱchallengeȱinȱtheȱ courts.ȱGenerally,ȱtheȱlegislationȱshouldȱspecifyȱthatȱtheȱnewerȱlaw,ȱtheȱ oneȱmoreȱinȱlineȱwithȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAW,ȱwillȱhaveȱpriorityȱoverȱ otherȱlegislationȱwhichȱmayȱdealȱwithȱsimilarȱissues.ȱȱ ȱ Suchȱaȱprocessȱmayȱtakeȱaȱlongerȱtimeȱtoȱcompleteȱthanȱtheȱadoptionȱ ofȱaȱsingleȱChildrenȇsȱCode,ȱbutȱitȱisȱpossibleȱforȱtheȱlegislationȱthatȱisȱ ofȱmostȱurgentȱimportanceȱtoȱbeȱdealtȱwithȱmoreȱquickly,ȱatȱtheȱ beginningȱofȱtheȱprocess.ȱWhatȱthisȱprocessȱlacksȱinȱ comprehensivenessȱitȱmakesȱupȱinȱattentionȱtoȱdetail,ȱasȱeachȱpieceȱofȱ legislationȱisȱaddressedȱonȱitsȱownȱmerits.ȱItȱcanȱalsoȱbeȱmoreȱsensitiveȱ toȱtheȱchangingȱperceptionȱofȱchildrenȱthatȱshouldȱresultȱfromȱtheȱ applicationȱofȱnewerȱlawsȱbasedȱonȱtheȱCRC,ȱalongȱwithȱtheȱpublicȱ educationȱandȱinformationȱcampaignsȱthatȱaccompanyȱtheȱreviewȱandȱ reformȱofȱlegislation.ȱTheȱchangingȱperceptionȱmayȱalsoȱbeȱreflectedȱinȱ judicialȱdecisionsȱbeforeȱitȱreachesȱtheȱlevelȱofȱlegislation.ȱ ȱ Thereȱmayȱbeȱduplicationȱasȱtheȱreformȱprocessȱgoesȱon,ȱbecauseȱmanyȱ differentȱlegislativeȱmeasuresȱhaveȱoverlappingȱeffects,ȱsoȱthisȱprocessȱ isȱnotȱasȱneatlyȱcontainedȱasȱtheȱuseȱofȱaȱChildrenȇsȱCode.ȱHowever,ȱitȱ isȱusuallyȱpossible,ȱwithȱtheȱdetailedȱanalysisȱ(byȱParliamentaryȱ Committees,ȱforȱexample,ȱasȱwellȱasȱcivilȱservantsȱandȱtheȱinterestedȱ membersȱofȱtheȱpublic)ȱthatȱcomesȱwithȱeachȱpieceȱofȱlegislation,ȱtoȱ ensureȱthatȱthereȱareȱnoȱconflictsȱwithȱotherȱexistingȱorȱplannedȱ legislation.ȱȱ ȱ TheȱlawȬbyȬlawȱapproachȱmayȱalsoȱserveȱtoȱgenerateȱgreaterȱsupportȱ forȱtheȱimplementationȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrights.ȱSinceȱeachȱindividualȱpieceȱ ofȱlegislationȱdealsȱwithȱclearlyȱdefinedȱandȱoftenȱlimitedȱobjectives,ȱitȱ shouldȱbeȱpossibleȱtoȱdevelopȱaȱconstituencyȱofȱsupportȱforȱeachȱoneȱ basedȱonȱitsȱownȱmerits.ȱAlthoughȱtheȱdifferentȱmeasuresȱmayȱattractȱ differentȱconstituencies,ȱthereȱshouldȱalwaysȱbeȱaȱclearȱbaseȱofȱpublicȱ supportȱforȱeachȱone,ȱwhichȱwillȱmakeȱeventualȱimplementationȱmoreȱ effective.ȱAlso,ȱitȱisȱoftenȱeasierȱtoȱeducateȱtheȱgeneralȱpublicȱaboutȱ specificȱprovisionsȱofȱoneȱlawȱdealingȱwithȱaȱwellȬdefinedȱaspectȱofȱ childrenȇsȱrightsȱthanȱtoȱtryȱtoȱcoverȱtheȱwholeȱgamutȱofȱrightsȱatȱonce,ȱ asȱwithȱaȱChildrenȇsȱCode.ȱ ȱ ȱ
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ȱ ȱ 2.3.3ȱ LegislationȱReformȱProcessȱ ȱ Asȱhasȱbeenȱnoted,ȱtheȱLawȱReformȱCommissionsȱofȱKenyaȱandȱ Lesothoȱplayedȱkeyȱrolesȱinȱreviewingȱlegislationȱrelatingȱtoȱchildrenȱ andȱtheirȱrightsȱinȱthoseȱcountries.ȱInȱcountriesȱwithȱsuchȱbodies,ȱtheȱ roleȱofȱtheȱCommissionȱisȱtoȱreviewȱallȱlegislationȱandȱmakeȱ recommendationsȱtoȱtheȱgovernmentȱforȱrevisionȱofȱexistingȱlawsȱandȱ adoptionȱofȱnewȱonesȱ(forȱbothȱcivilȱandȱcriminalȱlaw)ȱasȱneededȱtoȱ meetȱtheȱevolvingȱnatureȱofȱsociety.ȱSpecificȱlegislationȱemergedȱfromȱ theȱreviewsȱinȱKenyaȱandȱLesothoȱtoȱgiveȱeffectȱtoȱtheȱCRCȱinȱnationalȱ legislation:ȱTheȱChildren’sȱAct,ȱ2001ȱinȱKenyaȱandȱtheȱChildren’sȱ ProtectionȱandȱWelfareȱBillȱinȱLesotho. 151 ȱȱ ȱ Otherȱcountriesȱhaveȱestablishedȱspecialisedȱbodiesȱwithȱaȱmandateȱtoȱ concentrateȱonȱreformȱofȱlegislationȱrelatingȱtoȱchildren.ȱInȱGhana,ȱtheȱ ChildȱLawȱReformȱAdvisoryȱCommitteeȱwasȱestablishedȱinȱ1996ȱtoȱ makeȱrecommendationsȱforȱlegislationȱintendedȱtoȱeffectȱtheȱ implementationȱofȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱtheȱCRC.ȱThisȱwasȱaȱmixedȱbody,ȱ withȱinstitutionalȱrepresentationȱfromȱgovernmentȱ(theȱMinistryȱofȱ Justice,ȱtheȱGhanaȱEducationȱServiceȱandȱtheȱDepartmentȱofȱSocialȱ Welfare),ȱtheȱlegalȱsystemȱ(theȱjudiciary,ȱlegalȱpractitionersȱandȱtheȱ GhanaȱPoliceȱService),ȱcivilȱsocietyȱ(theȱ31stȱDecemberȱWomenȇsȱ Movement,ȱtheȱCommissionȱonȱHumanȱRightsȱandȱAdministrativeȱ Justice)ȱandȱchildrenȱ(NationalȱYouthȱCouncil).ȱThisȱgroupȱreviewedȱ nationalȱlegislationȱinȱlightȱofȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAWȱandȱmadeȱ proposalsȱforȱseveralȱlawsȱthatȱtheyȱexpectedȱwouldȱeffectivelyȱ translateȱtheȱobligationsȱofȱtheȱConventionsȱintoȱGhanaianȱlawȱandȱ practice. 152ȱ ȱ InȱNicaragua,ȱtheȱdraftingȱofȱtheȱChildrenȇsȱLegalȱCodeȱwasȱ coordinatedȱbyȱtheȱNationalȱCommissionȱforȱtheȱPromotionȱandȱ DefenceȱofȱChildrenȇsȱRights,ȱaȱmixedȱstructureȱthatȱinvolvedȱvariousȱ ministries,ȱgovernmentȱagenciesȱdealingȱwithȱchildren,ȱchurchȱ representativesȱandȱtheȱNGOȱCoalitionȱforȱtheȱRightsȱofȱChildren.ȱAsȱ partȱofȱtheȱdraftingȱprocess,ȱtheȱCoalitionȱheldȱseveralȱconsultationsȱ
151 African Child Policy Forum, Harmonisation of Laws Relating to Children in East and Southern Africa: A Summary Report, 2006 (draft), p.17. 152 Ghana, p. 13-4.
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withȱcommunityȱleaders,ȱeducators,ȱstudents,ȱparents,ȱvolunteers,ȱ professionalȱassociations,ȱrepresentativesȱofȱNGOs,ȱpoliticiansȱandȱ MunicipalȱChildrenȇsȱCommissions.ȱInformationȱworkshopsȱonȱtheȱ proposedȱlegislationȱresultedȱinȱtheȱformationȱofȱtheȱNetworkȱofȱ PromotersȱofȱtheȱChildrenȇsȱLegalȱCode,ȱcomposedȱofȱpeopleȱwhoȱhadȱ experienceȱinȱtrainingȱandȱcommunityȱdevelopment.ȱTheyȱconductedȱ moreȱworkshopsȱatȱtheȱcommunityȱlevel,ȱtoȱspreadȱtheȱinformationȱ aboutȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱandȱtheȱnewȱlegalȱregimeȱforȱchildrenȱasȱwidelyȱ asȱpossible. 153ȱ ȱ TheȱinitialȱdraftȱofȱtheȱChildrenȇsȱLegalȱCodeȱwasȱpresentedȱinȱ1996ȱ butȱapprovalȱwasȱdelayedȱbyȱtheȱelectionȱinȱ1997ȱandȱtheȱneedȱtoȱbeginȱ lobbyingȱagainȱwithȱtheȱnewȱNationalȱAssembly.ȱTheȱadoptionȱofȱtheȱ Codeȱwas,ȱinȱlargeȱmeasure,ȱdueȱtoȱtheȱeffectivenessȱofȱtheȱnetworkȱofȱ NGOsȱandȱgovernmentȱagenciesȱthatȱsupportedȱandȱpromotedȱit.ȱTheȱ extensiveȱpublicȱinformationȱandȱeducationȱprogrammeȱundoubtedlyȱ servedȱtoȱbuildȱtheȱnecessaryȱpopularȱconsensusȱinȱfavourȱofȱtheȱ legislationȱevenȱbeforeȱitȱwasȱpassed,ȱwhichȱinȱturnȱfacilitatedȱitsȱ approvalȱbyȱtheȱnewlyȱelectedȱlegislators.ȱThisȱshowsȱtheȱimportanceȱ ofȱextendingȱtheȱlegislationȱreformȱprocessȱbeyondȱtheȱimmediateȱ confinesȱofȱtheȱlegislature,ȱtoȱengageȱtheȱgeneralȱpublicȱasȱwellȱasȱ specialȱinterestȱgroupsȱinȱmakingȱlegislationȱmoreȱrespectfulȱofȱ childrenȇsȱrights.ȱItȱsometimesȱtakesȱthisȱbaseȱofȱsupportȱtoȱconvinceȱ legislatorsȱofȱtheȱimportanceȱofȱtakingȱactionsȱwhichȱmayȱchallengeȱ establishedȱpractices. 154 ȱȱ ȱ AȱmoreȱformalȱlegislatureȬledȱreformȱprocessȱwasȱundertakenȱinȱ China.ȱTheȱInternalȱandȱJudicialȱAffairsȱCommitteeȱofȱtheȱPeople’sȱ NationalȱCongressȱbeganȱlookingȱintoȱrevisionȱofȱlegislationȱdealingȱ withȱchildrenȱinȱ2005,ȱwithȱtheȱintentionȱofȱpresentingȱtheȱrevisedȱ legislationȱinȱ2006.ȱAsȱaȱkeyȱpartȱofȱtheȱprocess,ȱhowever,ȱtheȱNPCȱ calledȱforȱproposalsȱforȱtheȱnewȱlegislationȱfromȱgovernmentȱagenciesȱ andȱsocialȱorganisations.ȱTheȱAllȱChinaȱWomen’sȱFederationȱtookȱaȱ leadingȱroleȱinȱpromotingȱcommunityȬlevelȱconsultations,ȱregionalȱ workshopsȱandȱchildren’sȱforumsȱtoȱgenerateȱcontributionsȱtoȱtheȱnewȱ legislation.ȱAsȱaȱresult,ȱtheȱproposedȱlegislationȱreflectedȱaȱbroadȬ
153 Nicaragua, p. 23. 154 Ibid.
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basedȱpublicȱunderstandingȱofȱtheȱrightsȱofȱchildrenȱasȱprovidedȱforȱinȱ theȱCRC,ȱincludingȱtheȱgeneralȱprinciples. 155ȱ ȱ Theȱimpetusȱforȱreformȱofȱlegislationȱcanȱcomeȱfromȱalmostȱanyȱsourceȱ withinȱsociety.ȱTheȱexampleȱfromȱCanada,ȱȈMakingȱtheȱGrade,Ȉȱshowsȱ howȱtheȱmediaȱandȱschoolsȱcanȱempowerȱchildrenȱthemselvesȱtoȱtakeȱ theȱinitiativeȱinȱpromotingȱnewȱandȱrevisedȱlegislationȱforȱtheirȱownȱ benefit.ȱThereȱhasȱbeenȱstrongȱpublicȱsupportȱforȱtheȱentireȱprocess,ȱ andȱstudentsȱ(withȱguidanceȱfromȱtheirȱteachersȱandȱexpertsȱinȱdealingȱ withȱpoliticalȱmatters)ȱhaveȱbeenȱsuccessfulȱinȱlobbyingȱpoliticiansȱandȱ civilȱservants.ȱAlthoughȱonȱaȱsmallȱscale,ȱthisȱisȱaȱgoodȱexampleȱofȱhowȱ toȱmakeȱitȱpossibleȱforȱchildrenȱtoȱparticipateȱdirectlyȱinȱtheȱreformȱofȱ legislationȱthatȱisȱimportantȱtoȱthem. 156 ȱȱ ȱ Inȱtheȱexperienceȱofȱmanyȱcountries,ȱtheȱinitiativeȱforȱlegislationȱ reformȱhasȱcomeȱfromȱtheȱgovernment,ȱwhichȱisȱoftenȱtheȱbestȱ organisedȱadvocateȱforȱchildrenȇsȱrights.ȱInȱMorocco,ȱtheȱinterestȱofȱtheȱ kingȱinȱpromotingȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱhasȱbeenȱaȱsignificantȱfactorȱinȱtheȱ developmentȱandȱadoptionȱofȱseveralȱnewȱlawsȱdirectlyȱinspiredȱbyȱ theȱCRC. 157 ȱHowever,ȱevenȱwithȱsuchȱstrongȱgovernmentalȱsupport,ȱ effectiveȱimplementationȱofȱtheȱCRCȱstillȱrequiresȱbroaderȱpublicȱ involvement.ȱTheȱculturalȱandȱsocialȱsensitivityȱofȱsoȱmanyȱofȱtheȱ principlesȱinȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAWȱmeanȱthatȱtheyȱareȱunlikelyȱtoȱbeȱ fullyȱimplementedȱwithoutȱbroadȬbasedȱagreementȱwithinȱtheȱgeneralȱ population.ȱThisȱhighlightsȱtheȱearlierȱassertionȱthatȱmerelyȱchangingȱaȱ lawȱwillȱnot,ȱofȱitself,ȱchangeȱtheȱsituationȱofȱchildren.ȱReformȱofȱ legislationȱisȱnotȱeffectiveȱwithoutȱadequateȱprovisionȱforȱensuringȱthatȱ theȱlawsȱareȱfullyȱenforced.ȱ ȱ 2.3.4ȱ EnsuringȱImplementationȱofȱLegislationȱReformȱ ȱ Evenȱwhenȱconsideringȱwrittenȱstatutes,ȱlawsȱareȱonlyȱasȱeffectiveȱasȱ theirȱenforcementȱallowsȱthemȱtoȱbe.ȱWhetherȱitȱisȱaȱcomprehensiveȱ ChildrenȇsȱCodeȱorȱaȱseriesȱofȱindividualȱlaws,ȱanyȱlegislationȱadoptedȱ
155 Hodges, Anthony, UNICEF support for the review and revision of China’s Law on the Protection of Minors, UNICEF China Country Office, Beijing, 2006. 156 Based on the author's correspondence with reporter Mike Wise, content of televised reports, and information available at www.cbc.ca/torontoatsix/. The government poster and other information about labour rights of children can be found at www.labour.gov.on.ca/English/site/youngworkers.html. 157 Shaheen Sardar Ali, p. 44-5.
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toȱgiveȱeffectȱtoȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAWȱinȱfavourȱofȱ childrenȇsȱrightsȱshouldȱalsoȱincludeȱadequateȱprovisionȱforȱitsȱownȱ enforcement.ȱThisȱcouldȱincludeȱbudgetaryȱallocations,ȱadministrativeȱ organisation,ȱcreationȱorȱreinforcementȱofȱinstitutionalȱstructuresȱandȱ promulgationȱofȱregulationsȱasȱneeded.ȱWhenȱlegislationȱspecifiesȱtheȱ creationȱofȱaȱparticularȱstructureȱtoȱprovideȱaȱserviceȱorȱimplementȱaȱ policy,ȱthereȱshouldȱalsoȱbeȱaȱclearȱindicationȱofȱhowȱthatȱstructureȱwillȱ beȱfundedȱandȱwhatȱresourcesȱitȱwillȱneedȱinȱorderȱtoȱoperateȱasȱ required.ȱ ȱ Forȱexample,ȱtheȱlegislationȱinȱHaitiȱthatȱdealsȱwithȱchildrenȱinȱconflictȱ withȱtheȱlawȱmandatesȱaȱspecialȱTribunalȱforȱChildrenȱtoȱbeȱcreatedȱinȱ fiveȱjurisdictionsȱdistributedȱthroughoutȱtheȱcountry.ȱInȱpractice,ȱ accordingȱtoȱtheȱstudy,ȱÉtudeȱComparativeȱentreȱlaȱConventionȱrelativeȱauxȱ droitsȱdeȱlȇenfantȱetȱLaȱlégislationȱhaïtienne,ȱonlyȱoneȱsuchȱtribunalȱisȱinȱ operation,ȱinȱtheȱcapital,ȱPortȬauȬPrince.ȱTheȱlaw,ȱtherefore,ȱisȱnotȱ beingȱfulfilled.ȱSimilarly,ȱinȱBosniaȱandȱHerzegovina,ȱtheȱlegalȱ mandateȱforȱprovisionȱofȱsocialȱservicesȱforȱchildrenȱandȱtheirȱfamiliesȱ restsȱwithȱtheȱmunicipalities,ȱthatȱprovideȱsocialȱprotectionȱservicesȱ throughȱCentresȱforȱSocialȱWork.ȱHowever,ȱtheȱlegislationȱmakesȱnoȱ provisionȱforȱtheȱfinancingȱofȱtheseȱservices,ȱandȱtheȱCSWsȱare,ȱinȱ consequence,ȱchronicallyȱunderȬfunded. 158ȱ ȱ Therefore,ȱasȱnewȱlegislationȱinȱfavourȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱisȱdrafted,ȱ debatedȱandȱapproved,ȱitȱshouldȱmakeȱprovisionȱforȱtheȱmechanismsȱ necessaryȱforȱimplementation.ȱThisȱwasȱdoneȱwithȱtheȱChildȱCareȱandȱ ProtectionȱActȱinȱJamaica.ȱAȱspecificȱgovernmentȱexecutiveȱbody,ȱtheȱ ChildȱDevelopmentȱAgency,ȱwasȱcreatedȱthroughȱaȱmergerȱofȱpreȬ existingȱbodiesȱ(theȱChildrenȱServicesȱDivision,ȱtheȱAdoptionȱBoardȱ andȱtheȱChildȱSupportȱUnit).ȱTheȱChildȱDevelopmentȱAgencyȱisȱ chargedȱwithȱimplementingȱtheȱChildȱCareȱandȱProtectionȱAct.ȱAlsoȱ givenȱclearȱresponsibilitiesȱunderȱtheȱActȱisȱtheȱChildrenȇsȱAdvocate,ȱ whoseȱofficeȱwasȱestablishedȱtoȱactȱinȱlegalȱmattersȱonȱbehalfȱofȱ children.ȱFurther,ȱtheȱActȱestablishedȱaȱCentralȱRegistryȱtoȱmaintainȱ recordsȱofȱallȱreportedȱcasesȱofȱchildȱabuse.ȱTheȱChildȱDevelopmentȱ AgencyȱsubmitsȱbudgetaryȱrequestsȱdirectlyȱtoȱtheȱMinistryȱofȱFinance,ȱ operatingȱonȱtheȱsameȱlevelȱasȱlineȱministriesȱwhenȱitȱcomesȱtoȱ considerationȱforȱtheȱgovernmentȇsȱbudget.ȱToȱtheȱextentȱpossible,ȱ
158 Haiti, 37th page.
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withinȱtheȱlimitationsȱthatȱareȱnaturallyȱimposedȱbyȱtheȱoperationȱofȱaȱ democraticȱpoliticalȱsystem,ȱtheȱChildȱCareȱandȱProtectionȱActȱ containsȱtheȱprovisionsȱwhichȱshouldȱmakeȱitsȱimplementationȱ effective. 159ȱ ȱ Legislationȱisȱmadeȱrealȱonlyȱwhenȱitȱisȱputȱintoȱpractice.ȱForȱthatȱtoȱ workȱeffectively,ȱtheȱpeopleȱresponsibleȱforȱimplementingȱtheȱnewȱorȱ revisedȱlegislationȱneedȱtoȱunderstandȱwhatȱtheȱlegislationȱsaysȱandȱtoȱ haveȱtheȱskillsȱnecessaryȱtoȱfulfilȱwhatȱtheȱlegislationȱrequires.ȱTheȱ peopleȱaffectedȱincludeȱcivilȱservantsȱworkingȱforȱtheȱministriesȱ responsibleȱforȱactionȱunderȱtheȱlegislation,ȱsocialȱserviceȱstaffȱandȱ managersȱ(particularlyȱinȱchildȱcareȱagencies),ȱteachersȱandȱschoolȱ administrators,ȱhealthȱcareȱworkersȱandȱadministrators,ȱandȱevenȱ privateȱsectorȱemployersȱandȱtheȱmediaȱwhoȱmayȱbeȱchargedȱwithȱ providingȱinformationȱaboutȱtheȱnewȱorȱrevisedȱlegislation.ȱȱ ȱ Forȱallȱtheseȱgroups,ȱtrainingȱandȱprovisionȱofȱinformationȱcanȱbeȱ criticalȱtoȱtheȱsuccessȱofȱtheȱreform.ȱTheyȱneedȱtoȱknowȱmoreȱthanȱtheȱ detailsȱofȱtheȱnewȱlegislationȱandȱtheirȱroleȱinȱitsȱimplementation.ȱItȱisȱ alsoȱimportantȱforȱthemȱtoȱgraspȱtheȱunderlyingȱprinciplesȱofȱ childrenȇsȱrightsȱwhichȱareȱreflectedȱinȱtheȱlegislation,ȱwithȱspecialȱ emphasisȱonȱnonȬdiscrimination,ȱtheȱbestȱinterestsȱofȱtheȱchild,ȱaȱ commitmentȱtoȱchildȱsurvivalȱandȱdevelopmentȱandȱtheȱimportanceȱofȱ payingȱattentionȱtoȱtheȱviewsȱofȱtheȱchild.ȱThisȱinformationȱcanȱbeȱ providedȱthroughȱaȱdedicatedȱgovernmentȱpublicityȱcampaign,ȱreportsȱ inȱtheȱnewsȱmedia,ȱstudyȱmaterialsȱpreparedȱforȱschoolsȱandȱ professionalȱtrainingȱinstitutionsȱ(includingȱlawȱschools),ȱandȱ appropriateȱpostersȱandȱadvertisements.ȱ ȱ Itȱisȱparticularlyȱimportantȱtoȱengageȱjudgesȱandȱotherȱactorsȱinȱtheȱ legalȱsystemȱ(includingȱlawyers,ȱcourtȱclerksȱandȱotherȱstaff,ȱcustodialȱ officersȱinȱbothȱprisonsȱandȱremandȱcentresȱandȱpoliceȱofficersȱatȱallȱ levels)ȱinȱtheȱfullȱimplementationȱofȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱtheȱnewȱorȱ revisedȱlegislation.ȱThisȱmayȱbeȱespeciallyȱimportantȱinȱcommonȱlawȱ countries,ȱwhereȱtheȱroleȱofȱtheȱjudiciaryȱisȱcrucialȱtoȱtheȱdefinitionȱofȱ theȱlawȱinȱallȱrespects.ȱTheȱabilityȱofȱtheȱcourtsȱtoȱpassȱjudgementȱonȱ theȱvalidityȱofȱlawsȱinȱthoseȱcountriesȱmeansȱthatȱjudges,ȱespecially,ȱ needȱtoȱbeȱfullyȱawareȱofȱtheȱcommitmentsȱmadeȱbyȱtheirȱStateȱtoȱ
159 Jamaica, p. 15-7.
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childrenȇsȱrightsȱandȱtheȱimportanceȱofȱtheȱlegislationȱinȱtheȱfulfilmentȱ ofȱthoseȱcommitments.ȱȱ ȱ Itȱisȱalsoȱimportantȱtoȱinvolveȱtheȱauthoritiesȱwhoȱareȱresponsibleȱforȱ theȱapplicationȱofȱIslamicȱlawȱinȱthoseȱcountriesȱwhereȱthisȱisȱaȱpartȱofȱ theȱlegalȱsystem,ȱwithȱparticularȱemphasisȱonȱtheȱrelationshipȱbetweenȱ theȱlegislationȱandȱtheȱprecedentsȱinȱtheȱoralȱtraditionȱandȱ commentariesȱonȱtheȱQur’an.ȱWhereȱcustomaryȱlawȱisȱpractised,ȱtheȱ practitionersȱshouldȱalsoȱbeȱgivenȱcomprehensiveȱtrainingȱinȱtheȱnewȱ legislationȱandȱitsȱrelationshipȱtoȱtraditionalȱways,ȱespeciallyȱifȱtheȱnewȱ legislationȱrunsȱcounterȱtoȱthoseȱways.ȱInȱorderȱtoȱensureȱthatȱadequateȱ trainingȱandȱinformationȱareȱprovidedȱasȱneeded,ȱitȱwouldȱbeȱbestȱifȱ provisionȱforȱsuchȱeducationalȱandȱinformationȱactivitiesȱwereȱ includedȱasȱessentialȱcomponentsȱofȱtheȱnewȱlegislationȱorȱitsȱattendantȱ regulations.ȱ ȱ 2.3.5ȱȱ MonitoringȱandȱPublicȱInformationȱ ȱ ChangesȱtoȱlawsȱorȱlongȬestablishedȱcustomsȱcanȱgenerateȱoppositionȱ andȱresistance.ȱThisȱisȱespeciallyȱtheȱcaseȱifȱthoseȱchangesȱareȱseenȱasȱ undercuttingȱwellȬestablishedȱattitudesȱorȱifȱtheyȱchallengeȱpowerȱ relationshipsȱthat,ȱforȱexample,ȱdefineȱanȱinferiorȱorȱrestrictedȱpositionȱ forȱwomenȱinȱsociety.ȱAsȱpartȱofȱtheȱlegislationȱreformȱprocess,ȱcareȱ mustȱbeȱtakenȱtoȱprovideȱforȱanȱeffectiveȱcounterȱtoȱresponsesȱthatȱmayȱ seekȱtoȱhinderȱorȱpreventȱtheȱenforcementȱofȱtheȱnewȱlegislation.ȱȱ ȱ ThisȱcanȱbeȱdoneȱbyȱundertakingȱaȱbroadȬbasedȱpublicȱinformationȱ programmeȱthatȱstressesȱtheȱpositiveȱvalueȱofȱtheȱchangesȱembodiedȱinȱ theȱreformedȱlegislation,ȱnotȱjustȱinȱtermsȱofȱinternationalȱobligationsȱ toȱbeȱmetȱbutȱalso,ȱandȱmoreȱimportantly,ȱinȱtermsȱofȱtheȱbenefitsȱthatȱ willȱaccrueȱtoȱtheȱcountryȱandȱitsȱcommunitiesȱasȱaȱresultȱofȱtheȱ legislation.ȱWhileȱnotȱnecessarilyȱpartȱofȱtheȱlegislationȱorȱitsȱ regulations,ȱsuchȱanȱextensiveȱpublicȱeducationȱprogrammeȱcouldȱbeȱ incorporatedȱintoȱtheȱplanningȱforȱtheȱlegislationȱandȱmightȱbeȱ implementedȱthroughoutȱtheȱconsiderationȱofȱtheȱbillȱbyȱtheȱ legislature.ȱSuchȱeducationȱactivitiesȱcouldȱfollowȱtheȱpatternȱofȱtheȱ publicȱinformationȱandȱeducationȱmeasuresȱemployedȱinȱbothȱ Nicaragua 160 ȱandȱVenezuela 161 ȱwhichȱaccompaniedȱandȱinformedȱtheȱ
160 Nicaragua, p. 30-1, p. 44-5 and p. 5.
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processȱofȱdebatingȱandȱadoptingȱnewȱlegislationȱdealingȱwithȱ childrenȱandȱtheirȱrights.ȱInȱthisȱendeavour,ȱtheȱengagementȱofȱcivilȱ societyȱgroupsȱthatȱsupportȱtheȱlegislationȱwouldȱbeȱextremelyȱhelpful.ȱ Theseȱgroupsȱmayȱbeȱencouragedȱtoȱexpandȱtheirȱlobbyingȱofȱ legislatorsȱinȱfavourȱofȱtheȱlegislationȱtoȱaȱbroaderȱpublicȱinformationȱ campaign,ȱpossiblyȱwithȱsupportȱfromȱtheȱgovernmentȱorȱinternationalȱ organisationsȱcommittedȱtoȱtheȱpromotionȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrights.ȱTheȱroleȱ ofȱtheȱmediaȱnotȱonlyȱinȱdisseminatingȱinformationȱbutȱalsoȱinȱshapingȱ publicȱopinionȱshouldȱnotȱbeȱoverlooked.ȱ ȱ Theȱinformationȱprovidedȱtoȱtheȱgeneralȱpublicȱasȱpartȱofȱaȱspecificȱ campaignȱtoȱpromoteȱacceptanceȱofȱnewȱorȱrevisedȱlegislationȱthatȱ incorporatesȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAWȱintoȱdomesticȱ legislationȱisȱoneȱelementȱofȱwhatȱshouldȱbeȱaȱbroaderȱeffortȱtoȱincreaseȱ overallȱawarenessȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrights.ȱThisȱcanȱcreateȱaȱfavourableȱ environmentȱforȱallȱlegislationȱreformȱinitiativesȱtakenȱtoȱfulfilȱ obligationsȱunderȱtheȱConventions,ȱperhapsȱevenȱgeneratingȱpopularȱ demandȱforȱsuchȱreforms.ȱThisȱwouldȱbeȱparticularlyȱhelpfulȱinȱ countriesȱthatȱfollowȱcustomaryȱlawȱasȱwellȱasȱstatute,ȱsinceȱtheȱ changesȱinȱpublicȱattitudeȱthatȱcouldȱbeȱprovokedȱbyȱsuchȱaȱcampaignȱ wouldȱsupportȱeffortsȱtoȱchangeȱtheȱcustomȱasȱwell.ȱ ȱ Inȱthisȱprocess,ȱasȱwithȱspecificȱreformsȱmentionedȱabove,ȱtheȱ involvementȱofȱNGOsȱandȱcivilȱsocietyȱinȱgeneralȱisȱextremelyȱ important.ȱPromotionȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱshouldȱinvolveȱnotȱonlyȱ advocacyȱorganisationsȱworkingȱonȱbehalfȱofȱchildrenȱwhichȱhaveȱ longȬstandingȱengagementȱinȱtheȱCRC/CEDAW,ȱbutȱaȱwholeȱrangeȱofȱ groups,ȱincludingȱreligiousȱbodiesȱ(especiallyȱimportantȱinȱcountriesȱ withȱIslamicȱlaw),ȱprofessionalȱassociationsȱandȱorganisationsȱwhichȱ touchȱchildrenȇsȱlivesȱinȱareasȱsuchȱasȱsports,ȱculture,ȱeducationȱandȱ familyȱlife.ȱAllȱavailableȱformsȱofȱcommunicationȱshouldȱbeȱused,ȱ includingȱ(inȱthoseȱcountriesȱwhereȱtheȱfacilitiesȱexist)ȱnewȱmediaȱsuchȱ asȱtheȱInternetȱandȱtextȱmessaging.ȱManyȱUNICEFȱNationalȱ CommitteesȱandȱorganisationsȱsuchȱasȱSaveȱtheȱChildrenȱhaveȱusedȱ theirȱInternetȱsitesȱnotȱonlyȱtoȱprovideȱinformationȱaboutȱchildrenȇsȱ rightsȱbutȱalsoȱtoȱgenerateȱactionȱonȱbehalfȱofȱchildrenȱbothȱlocallyȱandȱ internationally.ȱ ȱ
161 Garate, p. 14-8.
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Accountabilityȱandȱtheȱeffectivenessȱofȱeachȱreformȱasȱitȱisȱ implementedȱcanȱbuildȱaȱgeneralȱconsensusȱinȱfavourȱofȱchildrenȇsȱ rights,ȱwhichȱwillȱinȱturnȱsupportȱeachȱnewȱreformȱasȱitȱisȱmade.ȱ Monitoringȱtheȱeffectȱofȱreformedȱlegislationȱonȱtheȱlivesȱofȱchildrenȱ canȱserveȱnotȱonlyȱtoȱjustifyȱtheȱchangesȱmadeȱbutȱalsoȱtoȱpromoteȱ furtherȱreformsȱinȱtheȱsameȱdirection.ȱToȱprovideȱtheȱkindȱofȱobjectiveȱ analysisȱneededȱtoȱvalidateȱtheȱreforms,ȱmonitoringȱresponsibilityȱ shouldȱbeȱvestedȱinȱanȱauthorityȱwhichȱisȱindependentȱfromȱpoliticalȱ activityȱandȱidentifiedȱspecificallyȱasȱanȱadvocateȱforȱchildrenȱandȱtheirȱ rights.ȱTheȱmodelȱofȱaȱChildrenȇsȱOmbudsperson,ȱfollowingȱonȱtheȱ exampleȱofȱNorwayȱthatȱhasȱbeenȱadoptedȱinȱotherȱcountries,ȱhasȱbeenȱ aȱpreferredȱoptionȱbyȱtheȱCommitteeȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChild,ȱwhichȱ encouragesȱtheȱestablishmentȱofȱsuchȱanȱofficialȱpositionȱinȱmanyȱofȱ theȱConcludingȱObservationsȱonȱcountryȱreports.ȱȱ ȱ Oneȱexampleȱofȱsuchȱaȱmonitoringȱbodyȱforȱtheȱrightsȱofȱchildrenȱisȱtheȱ NationalȱObservatoryȱforȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChildȱinȱMorocco,ȱformedȱ underȱroyalȱpatronage. 162 ȱTheȱinterestȱofȱtheȱHeadȱofȱStateȱmeansȱthatȱ thisȱbodyȱhasȱtheȱauthorityȱtoȱmonitorȱtheȱimplementationȱofȱtheȱCRCȱ andȱtoȱmakeȱnecessaryȱandȱappropriateȱrecommendationsȱforȱ improvementsȱtoȱlegislationȱtoȱmeetȱMoroccoȇsȱobligationsȱunderȱtheȱ CRC.ȱ ȱ Aȱmonitoringȱofficialȱorȱbodyȱcanȱassessȱlegislation,ȱtrackȱtheȱstateȱofȱ childrenȇsȱrightsȱinȱrelationȱtoȱallȱaspectsȱofȱtheȱCRC/CEDAWȱandȱ produceȱreportsȱforȱtheȱpublicȱandȱtheȱgovernmentȱoutliningȱbothȱ positiveȱandȱnegativeȱconditionsȱforȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱinȱtheȱcountry.ȱ Thereȱmayȱbeȱspecialȱvalueȱforȱsuchȱaȱmonitoringȱstructureȱinȱ countriesȱwithȱpluralȱlegalȱsystems,ȱincludingȱthoseȱwithȱstrongȱ traditionsȱofȱcustomaryȱlaw.ȱTheȱinvestigationsȱconductedȱbyȱtheȱ ChildrenȇsȱOmbudspersonȱcouldȱdrawȱattentionȱnotȱonlyȱtoȱtheȱ situationȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱwithȱregardȱtoȱwrittenȱlawȱbutȱalsoȱtoȱtheȱ waysȱinȱwhichȱcustomaryȱlawȱaffectsȱchildrenȇsȱrights.ȱTheȱpublicityȱ providedȱbyȱtheȱreportsȱofȱtheȱOmbudspersonȱforȱtheȱtreatmentȱofȱ childrenȇsȱrightsȱunderȱcustomaryȱlawȱcouldȱbeȱaȱmajorȱforceȱinȱtheȱ reformȱofȱcustomaryȱlawȱinȱfavourȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrights.ȱ ȱ
162 Shaheen Sardar Ali, p. 44-5.
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Monitoringȱtheȱsituationȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱwillȱalsoȱhelpȱprovideȱ practicalȱinformationȱonȱtheȱeffectȱofȱnewȱorȱrevisedȱlegislationȱ producedȱbyȱtheȱreformȱprocessesȱweȱhaveȱbeenȱconsidering.ȱ Continuousȱfeedbackȱonȱtheȱwaysȱthatȱlegislationȱactuallyȱtouchesȱtheȱ livesȱofȱchildrenȱwillȱrevealȱcontradictionsȱandȱgapsȱbetweenȱandȱ amongȱlawsȱthatȱmayȱnotȱhaveȱbeenȱnoticedȱbeforeȱtheȱlegislationȱwasȱ adopted.ȱTheȱroleȱofȱtheȱOmbudspersonȱwouldȱnotȱbeȱtoȱcriticiseȱorȱ provokeȱcontroversy,ȱbutȱtoȱidentifyȱproblemsȱbeforeȱtheyȱreachȱaȱ crucialȱstageȱandȱrecommendȱsolutions.ȱThisȱsortȱofȱattention,ȱbroughtȱ toȱbearȱinȱregularȱpublicȱreportsȱonȱissuesȱofȱcommonȱinterestȱandȱ concern,ȱwouldȱalsoȱserveȱtoȱidentifyȱatȱanȱearlyȱstageȱtheȱopportunityȱ forȱfurtherȱreformȱofȱlegislationȱthatȱmayȱariseȱasȱaȱresultȱofȱtheȱ changingȱcircumstancesȱofȱchildrenȇsȱlives,ȱincludingȱchangesȱbroughtȱ aboutȱbyȱtheȱreformsȱinitiallyȱadoptedȱtoȱmeetȱobligationsȱunderȱtheȱ CRC/CEDAW.ȱ ȱ 2.4ȱ Conclusionȱ ȱ Asȱdemographicȱtrendsȱevolve,ȱglobalȱeconomicȱintegrationȱadvancesȱ apaceȱandȱtheȱenvironmentalȱconditionsȱinȱwhichȱchildrenȱareȱbornȱ andȱgrowȱundergoȱdramaticȱtransformation,ȱtheȱattitudesȱofȱ individuals,ȱcommunitiesȱandȱgovernmentsȱtowardȱbothȱtheirȱownȱ childrenȱandȱtheirȱinternationalȱobligationsȱcanȱalsoȱbeȱexpectedȱtoȱ change.ȱTheȱchange,ȱinȱthisȱcase,ȱisȱmediatedȱand,ȱtoȱsomeȱextent,ȱ generatedȱbyȱtheȱrealisationȱinȱpracticeȱofȱtheȱprinciplesȱenshrinedȱinȱ theȱCRCȱandȱCEDAW,ȱasȱaȱresultȱofȱaȱwellȬthoughtȬoutȱandȱbroadlyȱ participatoryȱprocessȱofȱlegislationȱreviewȱandȱreform.ȱ ȱ LegislationȱthatȱisȱadoptedȱatȱleastȱinȱpartȱtoȱmeetȱaȱStateȱPartyȇsȱ commitmentsȱtoȱchildrenȱasȱaȱresultȱofȱratificationȱofȱorȱaccessionȱtoȱtheȱ CRCȱandȱCEDAWȱshouldȱserveȱasȱmoreȱthanȱaȱtechnicalȱorȱevenȱ politicalȱmeasureȱtoȱsatisfyȱinternationalȱrequirements.ȱItȱcan,ȱandȱ should,ȱgiveȱriseȱtoȱchangesȱinȱgenerallyȱheldȱattitudesȱandȱbehaviourȱ withȱregardȱtoȱchildrenȱonȱtheȱpartȱofȱadults,ȱwhetherȱtheyȱareȱparents,ȱ teachers,ȱhealthȱworkers,ȱsocialȱserviceȱworkers,ȱpoliceȱofficers,ȱpartȱofȱ theȱlegalȱsystemȱorȱjustȱmembersȱofȱtheȱcommunityȱthatȱincludesȱ children,ȱandȱalsoȱonȱtheȱpartȱofȱchildrenȱthemselves.ȱȱ ȱ
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Becauseȱsoȱmanyȱpeopleȱareȱaffectedȱbyȱlegislationȱthatȱdealsȱwithȱ children,ȱtheȱprocessȱofȱreviewingȱandȱreformingȱthatȱlegislationȱ shouldȱreflectȱtheȱbroadestȱpossibleȱsocialȱconsensus.ȱThisȱisȱwhyȱtheȱ processȱshouldȱincorporateȱaȱsignificantȱelementȱofȱpublicȱinformationȱ andȱeducationȱaboutȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱandȱtheȱcommitmentsȱtheȱStateȱ hasȱundertakenȱinȱbecomingȱpartyȱtoȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAWȱ(whereȱ applicable).ȱTheȱprocessȱalsoȱneedsȱtoȱbeȱoneȱinȱwhichȱallȱconcernedȱ canȱexpressȱtheirȱopinionsȱandȱfeelȱthatȱtheirȱviewsȱhaveȱbeenȱheardȱ andȱtakenȱintoȱaccountȱinȱtheȱfinalȱlegalȱmeasures.ȱInȱparticular,ȱtheȱ processȱneedsȱtoȱincludeȱchildrenȱandȱtheirȱviews,ȱasȱaȱclearȱ demonstrationȱofȱtheȱimportanceȱplacedȱonȱtheȱrightsȱofȱchildrenȱtoȱ participateȱinȱdiscussionsȱaboutȱissuesȱthatȱmatterȱtoȱthem.ȱ ȱ Reformȱofȱlegislationȱcanȱtakeȱmanyȱdifferentȱforms,ȱdependingȱonȱtheȱ natureȱofȱtheȱcountryȇsȱlegalȱsystem,ȱtheȱsituationȱofȱchildrenȱandȱtheȱ politicalȱprocess.ȱTheȱcontentȱofȱtheȱlegislationȱmayȱvary,ȱbutȱitȱshouldȱ alwaysȱreflectȱtheȱprinciplesȱofȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAW.ȱTheȱfourȱ fundamentalȱprinciplesȱofȱtheȱCRCȱshouldȱunderlieȱbothȱtheȱreviewȱ andȱreformȱprocessȱandȱtheȱsubstanceȱofȱallȱlegislation.ȱTheseȱ principlesȱ–ȱnonȬdiscrimination,ȱtheȱbestȱinterestsȱofȱtheȱchild,ȱtheȱrightȱ toȱlife,ȱsurvivalȱandȱdevelopment,ȱandȱtheȱrightȱofȱtheȱchildȱtoȱhaveȱhisȱ orȱherȱviewsȱheardȱonȱallȱmattersȱaffectingȱtheȱchildȱ–ȱareȱatȱtheȱheartȱ ofȱtheȱCRCȱandȱessentialȱtoȱtheȱunderstandingȱandȱrealisationȱofȱallȱ childrenȇsȱrights.ȱTheȱprocessȱitselfȱshouldȱbeȱaȱdemonstrationȱofȱtheȱ rightsȱofȱchildren,ȱwhichȱisȱwhyȱitȱisȱsoȱimportantȱtoȱcreateȱ opportunitiesȱforȱchildrenȱtoȱparticipateȱinȱbothȱtheȱreviewȱofȱexistingȱ legislationȱandȱtheȱdevelopmentȱofȱnewȱmeasuresȱofȱwhateverȱkind,ȱ whetherȱtheyȱbeȱwrittenȱlaws,ȱgovernmentȱpolicies,ȱadministrativeȱ proceduresȱorȱpublicȱattitudesȱandȱexpectations.ȱ ȱ Theȱpublicȱconsensusȱdevelopedȱthroughȱtheȱprocessȱleadingȱupȱtoȱtheȱ adoptionȱofȱlegislationȱreformsȱisȱanȱimportantȱdeterminantȱofȱtheȱ effectivenessȱofȱtheȱlegislationȱasȱitȱisȱenforced.ȱAȱchangeȱinȱlegalȱ measuresȱdealingȱwithȱchildren,ȱmadeȱtoȱrespectȱchildrenȇsȱrights,ȱwillȱ beȱeffectiveȱonlyȱifȱthereȱisȱsufficientȱpublicȱsupportȱtoȱensureȱthatȱtheȱ legislationȱisȱrespectedȱinȱpractice.ȱEffectivenessȱalsoȱrequiresȱthatȱ provisionȱbeȱmade,ȱpreferablyȱinȱtheȱcontextȱofȱtheȱlegislationȱitself,ȱforȱ theȱnecessaryȱstructuresȱandȱresourcesȱtoȱbeȱputȱinȱplaceȱsoȱtheȱ legislationȱcanȱbeȱimplementedȱasȱintended.ȱAmongȱtheȱstructuresȱ neededȱtoȱmakeȱreformȱofȱlegislationȱasȱeffectiveȱasȱpossibleȱisȱaȱ
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systemȱforȱmonitoringȱtheȱsituationȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrights,ȱpossiblyȱ throughȱaȱChildrenȇsȱOmbudspersonȱorȱChildrenȇsȱCommissioner.ȱ ȱ Legislationȱreformȱisȱanȱongoingȱconcern.ȱAsȱsituationsȱandȱattitudesȱ change,ȱthereȱwillȱneedȱtoȱbeȱaȱreviewȱofȱtheȱwayȱinȱwhichȱnewȱ legislationȱaffectsȱchildrenȇsȱrights,ȱandȱfurtherȱreformsȱtoȱthatȱ legislationȱwillȱlikelyȱbeȱneededȱasȱtimeȱgoesȱon.ȱ
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ȱ Chapterȱ3ȱ ȱ CONSTITUTIONALȱREFORMSȱINȱ FAVOURȱOFȱCHILDRENȱ ȱ Thisȱsectionȱpresentsȱaȱsetȱofȱbroadȱguidelinesȱtoȱcountriesȱonȱpossibleȱ optionsȱforȱtheȱformulationȱandȱinterpretationȱofȱConstitutionsȱasȱ integralȱpartsȱofȱcomprehensiveȱlawȱreformȱmeasuresȱinȱfavourȱofȱ children.ȱTheȱrationaleȱbehindȱpresentingȱ“broadȱguidelines”ȱisȱtoȱ ensureȱthatȱusersȱbenefitȱfromȱaȱrangeȱofȱoptionsȱbasedȱuponȱtheirȱ specificȱneeds.ȱTheȱextentȱofȱdetail,ȱelaborationȱandȱsimplicityȱwouldȱ dependȱonȱtheȱpolitical,ȱsocial,ȱeconomicȱandȱculturalȱcircumstancesȱofȱ theȱcountryȱconcerned.ȱImportantly,ȱtheȱchapterȱacknowledgesȱthatȱ constitutionalȱreforms,ȱinȱcomparisonȱwithȱlegislativeȱreforms,ȱareȱ moreȱcomplexȱandȱrequireȱmoreȱconsensusȱbuildingȱprocesses.ȱ Whereasȱlegislativeȱreformsȱcouldȱbeȱinitiatedȱunderȱtheȱauspicesȱofȱaȱ governmentȱministryȱorȱcivilȱsociety,ȱconstitutionalȱreformsȱareȱusuallyȱ moreȱpoliticalȱinȱcharacter,ȱandȱoftenȱtriggeredȱbyȱmajorȱpoliticalȱ eventsȱorȱmilestones.ȱComparatively,ȱtheȱfinancialȱcostsȱinvolvedȱinȱtheȱ typeȱofȱreformsȱtoȱbeȱdiscussedȱareȱalsoȱpotentiallyȱhighȱandȱtheȱtimeȱ appliedȱtoȱsuchȱexercisesȱveryȱprolonged.ȱȱTheȱchapterȱdoesȱnotȱ thereforeȱintendȱtoȱurgeȱcountriesȱtoȱundertakeȱreforms.ȱOnȱtheȱ contrary,ȱitsȱpurposeȱisȱtoȱprovideȱadviceȱandȱadvocacyȱmessagesȱforȱ occasionsȱwhenȱconstitutionalȱreformȱdoesȱtakeȱplace,ȱandȱalsoȱserveȱasȱ aȱwakeȱupȱcallȱtoȱcountriesȱthatȱhaveȱyetȱtoȱconsiderȱreform.ȱ ȱ Asȱwithȱotherȱchapters,ȱthisȱchapterȱadoptsȱaȱrightsȬbasedȱapproach,ȱ byȱusingȱtheȱprinciplesȱandȱprovisionsȱofȱhumanȱrightsȱinstrumentsȱasȱ basicȱreferenceȱpointsȱforȱproposingȱconstitutionalȱreforms,ȱwhichȱ shouldȱultimatelyȱleadȱtoȱtheȱfulfilmentȱofȱhumanȱrights.ȱTheȱchapterȱ alsoȱrecognisesȱtheȱimmenseȱconstitutionalȱreformȱinterventionsȱacrossȱ theȱglobeȱandȱusesȱspecificȱcountryȱcaseȱstudiesȱtoȱillustrateȱpotentialȱ bestȱpracticeȱandȱlessons.ȱTheȱsectionȱalsoȱaddressesȱtheȱpotentialȱrolesȱ thatȱcustomȱandȱreligionȱcanȱplayȱinȱconstitutionalȱlawȱandȱpolicyȱ developmentȱwithinȱtheȱcontextȱofȱtheȱtwoȱmainȱlegalȱtraditionsȱ
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presentedȱinȱtheȱintroduction.ȱItȱcontributesȱtoȱtheȱoverallȱobjectiveȱofȱ theȱhandbookȱbyȱsupportingȱtheȱviewȱthatȱlegalȱreforms,ȱofȱwhichȱ constitutionalȱreformsȱformȱanȱessentialȱpart,ȱmustȱbeȱgearedȱtowardsȱ theȱfulfilmentȱofȱtheȱrightsȱofȱtheȱchild.ȱȱȱ ȱ ȱ Partȱ1ȱ CONSTITUTIONSȱASȱTOOLSȱOFȱ LEGISLATIVEȱANDȱPOLICYȱREFORMSȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ ȱ Thisȱpartȱbrieflyȱdiscussesȱtheȱroleȱofȱconstitutionsȱinȱtheȱoverallȱ runningȱofȱaȱStateȱandȱdemonstratesȱhowȱthisȱdovetailsȱintoȱlawȱandȱ policyȱformulationȱinȱfavourȱofȱchildren.ȱInȱessenceȱitȱshowsȱanȱ importantȱcorrelationȱbetweenȱconstitutionsȱofȱStatesȱandȱtheirȱ obligationsȱunderȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAW.ȱ ȱ 1.1ȱ TheȱRoleȱofȱConstitutionsȱinȱStateȱAffairsȱ ȱ Inȱtheȱbroadestȱsense,ȱaȱconstitutionȱrefersȱtoȱaȱcountry’sȱsupremeȱlaw,ȱ whichȱcontainsȱtheȱguidingȱprinciplesȱaccordingȱtoȱwhichȱthatȱcountryȱ isȱgoverned.ȱMoreȱspecifically,ȱitȱisȱaȱtextȱwhichȱoutlinesȱtheȱpowersȱofȱ parliament,ȱtheȱexecutive,ȱjudiciaryȱandȱotherȱnationalȱinstitutions.ȱItȱisȱ characteristicȱ ofȱ writtenȱ constitutions,ȱ especiallyȱ thoseȱ guaranteeingȱ fundamentalȱrights,ȱthatȱtheyȱalsoȱimposeȱconstraintsȱonȱtheȱpowersȱofȱ theȱlegislatureȱandȱtheȱgovernmentȱ(Barendt,ȱ1998). 163 ȱȱȱ ȱ Aȱusefulȱexampleȱofȱhowȱaȱconstitutionȱcanȱbeȱdefinedȱcomesȱfromȱtheȱ caseȱ ofȱ Botswana.ȱ Inȱ theȱ caseȱ ofȱ Unityȱ Dowȱ vs.ȱ theȱ Courtȱ ofȱ Appeal 164 ȱ (1991),ȱtheȱCourtȱofȱAppealȱ(theȱhighestȱcourtȱinȱthatȱcountry),ȱdefinedȱ aȱwrittenȱconstitutionȱinȱtheȱfollowingȱway:ȱ ȱ “Aȱ writtenȱ constitutionȱ isȱ theȱ legislationȱ orȱ compactȱ whichȱ establishesȱtheȱstateȱitself.ȱItȱpaintsȱinȱbroadȱstrokesȱonȱaȱlargeȱ canvassȱtheȱinstitutionsȱofȱtheȱstate;ȱallocatingȱpowers,ȱdefiningȱ relationshipsȱ betweenȱ suchȱ institutionsȱ andȱ theȱ peopleȱ withinȱ theȱ jurisdictionȱ ofȱ theȱ state,ȱ andȱ theȱ peopleȱ themselves.ȱ Aȱ constitutionȱoftenȱprovidesȱforȱtheȱprotectionȱofȱtheȱrightsȱandȱ
163 Barendt, E, An Introduction to Constitutional Law, Oxford University Press (1998). 164 Appeals Court, 1994 (6) BCLR 1.
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freedomsȱofȱtheȱpeople,ȱwhichȱrightsȱandȱfreedomsȱhaveȱthusȱtoȱ beȱrespectedȱinȱallȱfutureȱstateȱaction.”ȱ ȱ Whileȱ itȱ isȱ theȱ generalȱ practiceȱ ofȱ Statesȱ toȱ produceȱ theirȱ respectiveȱ Constitutionsȱ inȱ oneȱ consolidatedȱ writtenȱ text,ȱ theȱ Unitedȱ Kingdomȱ (UK)ȱ representsȱ aȱ uniqueȱ exampleȱ ofȱ aȱ Stateȱ withoutȱsuchȱ aȱ codifiedȱ writtenȱinstrument.ȱContraryȱtoȱgeneralȱpractice,ȱtheȱUKȱConstitutionȱ consistsȱ ofȱ aȱ collectionȱ ofȱ legalȱ andȱ nonȬlegalȱ rules,ȱ whichȱ defineȱ theȱ powersȱofȱtheȱarmsȱofȱtheȱStateȱandȱtheȱrelationsȱbetweenȱthem.ȱȱ ȱ Constitutionsȱ mayȱ beȱ broadlyȱ classifiedȱ intoȱ unitaryȱ andȱ federalȱ constitutionsȱdependingȱuponȱtheȱtypeȱofȱgovernmentȱinȱplace.ȱFederalȱ Statesȱ suchȱ asȱ theȱ Unitedȱ States,ȱ Canada,ȱ Australiaȱ andȱ Nigeriaȱ areȱ governedȱ byȱ federalȱ constitutions,ȱ whereasȱ unitaryȱ Statesȱ suchȱ asȱ Uganda,ȱ Theȱ Gambiaȱ andȱ Ghana,ȱ operateȱ uponȱ singleȱ unitaryȱ constitutions.ȱInȱtheȱcaseȱofȱtheȱformer,ȱstakeholdersȱshouldȱappreciateȱ theȱ interfaceȱ betweenȱ theȱ constitutionȱ ofȱ theȱ Federationȱ andȱ theȱ constitutionȱ ofȱ theȱ individualȱ federalȱ states.ȱ Theȱ generalȱ operativeȱ principleȱ isȱ thatȱ federalȱ constitutionsȱ applyȱ withȱ overridingȱ forceȱ throughoutȱ theȱ country,ȱ invalidatingȱ allȱ inconsistentȱ lawsȱ includingȱ theȱ constitutionsȱ ofȱ individualȱ federalȱ states.ȱ Subjectȱ toȱ consistencyȱ withȱtheȱfederalȱconstitution,ȱstateȱconstitutionsȱshouldȱalsoȱoperateȱasȱ theȱ supremeȱ lawȱ ofȱ theȱ region,ȱ toȱ whichȱ allȱ otherȱ localȱ lawsȱ mustȱ conformȱinȱorderȱtoȱbeȱvalid.ȱ ȱ Countriesȱwithȱelaborateȱsystemsȱofȱdecentralisationȱ(forȱexample,ȱ Uganda)ȱgenerallyȱreferȱtoȱtheirȱrespectiveȱnationalȱconstitutionsȱasȱtheȱ basisȱforȱallȱactions.ȱDecentralisedȱpoliticalȱunitsȱ(forȱexample,ȱDistrictȱ Assemblies,ȱMunicipalitiesȱorȱCouncils)ȱareȱtherebyȱgenerallyȱnotȱ permittedȱtoȱcreateȱtheirȱownȱconstitutions.ȱPowersȱofȱlawmakingȱareȱ oftenȱrestrictedȱtoȱtheȱcreationȱofȱbylawsȱforȱaddressingȱspecificȱissues,ȱ suchȱasȱsanitationȱandȱeducation.ȱSuchȱlocalȱinitiativesȱmust,ȱhowever,ȱ complyȱwithȱtheȱletterȱandȱspiritȱofȱtheȱstateȱconstitution.ȱ ȱ Inȱ additionȱ toȱ theȱ threeȱ armsȱ ofȱ theȱ State,ȱ namely,ȱ theȱ executive,ȱ legislatureȱandȱjudiciary,ȱconstitutionsȱalsoȱlayȱoutȱmandatesȱforȱotherȱ independentȱconstitutionalȱbodiesȱsuchȱasȱhumanȱrightsȱcommissions.ȱ Givenȱ theȱ increasingȱ influenceȱ ofȱ internationalȱ law,ȱ constitutionsȱ
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furtherȱserveȱasȱopportunitiesȱforȱdefiningȱtheȱrelationshipȱbetweenȱtheȱ domesticȱlawȱofȱaȱStateȱandȱitsȱtreatyȱobligations. 165 ȱȱ ȱ Inȱspecificȱrelationȱtoȱchildren,ȱconstitutionsȱalsoȱserveȱasȱframeworksȱ forȱ theȱ formulationȱ andȱ implementationȱ ofȱ nationalȱ legislationȱ andȱ policiesȱ inȱ favourȱ ofȱ children.ȱ Becauseȱ theyȱ possessȱ theȱ statusȱ ofȱ theȱ highestȱstandardsȱbyȱwhichȱallȱactsȱandȱomissionsȱareȱevaluatedȱandȱ alsoȱhaveȱtheȱbindingȱforceȱofȱtheȱlaw,ȱtheirȱroleȱasȱtoolsȱofȱchangeȱinȱ favourȱofȱchildrenȱcannotȱbeȱunderestimated.ȱWithinȱtheȱcontextȱofȱtheȱ rightsȱofȱtheȱchild,ȱtheyȱbecomeȱtheȱbasicȱstandardȱbyȱwhichȱallȱactions,ȱ “whetherȱ undertakenȱ byȱ publicȱ orȱ privateȱ socialȱ welfareȱ institutions,ȱ courtsȱofȱlaw,ȱadministrativeȱauthoritiesȱorȱlegislativeȱbodies”ȱ(articleȱ 3(1)ȱ ofȱ theȱ CRC)ȱ areȱ evaluated.ȱ Forȱ theȱ authoritativeȱ positionȱ ofȱ theȱ constitutionȱtoȱbeȱsafeguardedȱandȱsustainedȱacrossȱtimeȱandȱregimes,ȱ itȱwouldȱbeȱnecessaryȱtoȱdesignȱ“supremacyȱclauses”ȱtoȱgiveȱeffectȱtoȱ this.ȱ Withoutȱ supremacyȱ clauses,ȱ theȱ rightsȱ ofȱ childrenȱ mayȱ notȱ beȱ guaranteed.ȱ ȱ Boxȱ15:ȱSupremacyȱclauses:ȱȱ ExamplesȱfromȱIraq,ȱNigeria,ȱEastȱTimorȱandȱUkraineȱ Articleȱ 13ȱ (1)ȱ ofȱ theȱ Constitutionȱ ofȱ Iraqȱ regardsȱ theȱ Constitutionȱ asȱ theȱ “supremeȱ andȱhighestȱlaw…andȱshallȱbeȱbindingȱthroughoutȱtheȱcountryȱwithoutȱexceptions.”ȱ ȱ Articleȱ 1ȱ (3)ȱ ofȱ theȱ Constitutionȱ ofȱ Nigeria,ȱ providesȱ thatȱ “ifȱ anyȱ otherȱ lawȱ isȱ inconsistentȱwithȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱthisȱConstitution,ȱthisȱConstitutionȱshallȱprevail,ȱ andȱthatȱotherȱlawȱshallȱtoȱtheȱextentȱofȱtheȱinconsistencyȱbeȱvoid.”ȱ ȱ Sectionȱ2ȱ(3)ȱofȱtheȱConstitutionȱofȱEastȱTimorȱstatesȱthatȱ“theȱvalidityȱofȱtheȱlawsȱ andȱotherȱactionsȱofȱtheȱStateȱdependȱonȱcomplianceȱwithȱtheȱConstitution.”ȱ ȱ Articleȱ8(2)ȱofȱtheȱConstitutionȱofȱUkraineȱestablishesȱitsȱConstitutionȱasȱhavingȱtheȱ “highestȱlegalȱforce.ȱLawsȱandȱotherȱnormativeȱlegalȱactsȱareȱadoptedȱonȱtheȱbasisȱofȱ theȱConstitutionȱofȱUkraineȱandȱshallȱconformȱtoȱit.”ȱ ȱ Toȱsecureȱtheȱefficacyȱofȱanyȱconstitution,ȱremedialȱactionȱforȱpotentialȱ orȱactualȱbreachesȱshouldȱbeȱavailableȱthroughȱadministrativeȱandȱ judicialȱdueȱprocesses.ȱSuchȱrecourseȱenhancesȱtheȱstatusȱofȱ constitutionsȱasȱprotectiveȱinstrumentsȱinȱfavourȱofȱchildren.ȱȱAnȱ exampleȱofȱaȱremedialȱactionȱclauseȱcomesȱfromȱtheȱConstitutionȱofȱ TheȱGambia:ȱȱ
165 See sub-section below on the interface between international law and constitutional reforms for more details.
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ȱ “AȱpersonȱwhoȱallegesȱthatȬȱ (a) anyȱActȱofȱtheȱNationalȱAssemblyȱorȱanythingȱcontainedȱ inȱorȱdone,ȱunderȱtheȱauthorityȱofȱanȱActȱofȱtheȱNationalȱ Assembly,ȱorȱ (b) ȱanyȱ actȱ orȱ omissionȱ ofȱ anyȱ personȱ orȱ authorityȱ isȱ inconsistentȱ with,ȱ orȱ isȱ inȱ contraventionȱ ofȱ aȱ provisionȱ thisȱ Constitution,ȱ mayȱ bringȱ anȱ actionȱ inȱ aȱ courtȱ ofȱ competentȱjurisdictionȱforȱaȱdeclarationȱtoȱthatȱeffect.”ȱ ȱ 1.2ȱ ConstitutionsȱasȱFrameworksȱforȱLegislativeȱReformȱ ȱ Constitutionsȱserveȱasȱreferenceȱpointsȱforȱtheȱformulationȱofȱlawsȱandȱ regulationsȱinȱfavourȱofȱchildren.ȱTheyȱdoȱthisȱbyȱfirstȱofȱallȱdefiningȱ whatȱtheȱlawȱisȱwithinȱtheȱcontextȱofȱStateȱjurisprudence.ȱConstitutionsȱ ofȱsomeȱcommonȱlawȱjurisdictionsȱmakeȱexpressȱprovisionȱforȱwhatȱ constitutesȱtheȱscopeȱofȱlaw.ȱTheȱcommonȱlawȱexperienceȱshowsȱthatȱ whatȱconstitutesȱ‘law’ȱmayȱinclude,ȱbutȱnotȱbeȱlimitedȱto:ȱtheȱ constitution,ȱstatutoryȱlaw,ȱreceivedȱlawȱ(colonialȱlaw),ȱjudgeȬmadeȱ lawȱ(judgmentsȱofȱtheȱcourts),ȱcustomaryȱlawȱandȱIslamicȱLaw,ȱwithȱ variationsȱacrossȱjurisdictions.ȱUnderȱthisȱheading,ȱconstitutionsȱ broadlyȱspeakingȱshouldȱalsoȱprovideȱdirectionȱonȱtheȱinterȬ relationshipȱbetweenȱmodernȱlaw,ȱcustomaryȱlaw,ȱIslamicȱlawȱandȱ internationalȱlaw.ȱ ȱ AȱclearȱexampleȱofȱhowȱtheȱlawȱcanȱbeȱdefinedȱcomesȱfromȱGhana,ȱ whereȱArticleȱ11ȱ(1)ȱofȱtheȱConstitutionȱstatesȱthatȱ“[T]heȱlawsȱofȱ Ghanaȱshallȱcomprise:ȱ(a)ȱthisȱconstitution,ȱ(b)ȱenactmentsȱmadeȱbyȱorȱ underȱtheȱauthorityȱofȱtheȱParliamentȱestablishedȱbyȱthisȱConstitution;ȱ (c)ȱanyȱOrders,ȱRulesȱandȱRegulationsȱmadeȱbyȱanyȱpersonȱorȱ authorityȱunderȱaȱpowerȱconferredȱbyȱthisȱConstitution;ȱ(d)ȱtheȱ existingȱlawȱandȱ(e)ȱtheȱcommonȱlaw.”ȱ ȱ Apartȱfromȱprovidingȱtheȱgeneralȱparametersȱofȱtheȱlawȱandȱdefiningȱ theȱrelationshipȱbetweenȱtheȱconstitution,ȱcustomȱandȱreligion,ȱsomeȱ constitutionsȱalsoȱprovideȱaȱgeneralȱframeworkȱforȱfutureȱlegislativeȱ interventionsȱinȱfavourȱofȱchildrenȱandȱwomen.ȱȱWhileȱinȱsomeȱ countriesȱ(forȱexample,ȱGhana)ȱthisȱisȱprovidedȱinȱexpressȱterms,ȱinȱ othersȱ(forȱexample,ȱSouthȱAfricaȱandȱEthiopia),ȱthisȱmayȱbeȱinferred.ȱȱ
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ȱ Boxȱ16:ȱConstitutionalȱmandatesȱforȱlegislativeȱreform:ȱȱ CaseȱstudiesȱfromȱSouthȱAfrica,ȱEthiopia 166 ȱandȱGhanaȱ SouthȱAfrica:ȱArticleȱ28ȱofȱtheȱConstitutionȱoutlinesȱspecificȱrightsȱforȱchildren:ȱTheȱ rightȱ toȱ aȱ name,ȱ nationality,ȱ familyȱ care,ȱ nutrition,ȱ shelter,ȱ health,ȱ juvenileȱ care,ȱ protectionȱfromȱneglect,ȱmaltreatment,ȱexploitativeȱlabourȱandȱarmedȱconflict.ȱȱ ȱ Ethiopia:ȱArticleȱ36ȱofȱtheȱConstitutionȱaffirmsȱtheȱrightȱofȱtheȱchildȱtoȱlife,ȱaȱname,ȱ nationality,ȱ parentalȱ care,ȱ andȱ protectionȱ fromȱ economicȱ exploitationȱ andȱ corporalȱ punishment.ȱ ȱ Ghana:ȱArticleȱ22ȱofȱtheȱConstitutionȱexpresslyȱmandatesȱParliamentȱtoȱenactȱlawsȱtoȱ secureȱtheȱequalȱrightsȱofȱmenȱandȱwomenȱtoȱpropertyȱacquiredȱduringȱmarriage.ȱ ȱ Inȱ addition,ȱ Articleȱ 28ȱ ofȱ Ghana’sȱ Constitutionȱ expresslyȱ mandatesȱ Parliamentȱ toȱ enactȱsuchȱlawsȱasȱareȱnecessaryȱtoȱensureȱtheȱrealisationȱofȱtheȱrightsȱofȱchildren.ȱ Theseȱrightsȱincludeȱtheȱrightsȱto:ȱSpecialȱcare,ȱassistanceȱandȱalimony,ȱinheritance,ȱ protectionȱ fromȱ economicȱ andȱ sexualȱ exploitationȱ andȱ deprivationȱ ofȱ medicalȱ treatmentȱonȱgroundsȱofȱreligiousȱbeliefs.ȱ ȱ 1.3ȱ ConstitutionsȱasȱFrameworksȱforȱPolicyȱReformȱ ȱ Constitutionsȱ giveȱ expressionȱ toȱ Stateȱ prioritiesȱ inȱ theȱ areaȱ ofȱ policy.ȱ Manyȱ commonȱ lawȱ jurisdictionsȱ provideȱ statementsȱ ofȱ theirȱ developmentȱ prioritiesȱ throughȱ “Principlesȱ ofȱ Stateȱ Policy.”ȱ Broadȱ provisionsȱ areȱ usuallyȱ providedȱ onȱ issuesȱ thatȱ areȱ political,ȱ social,ȱ economic,ȱ educationalȱ andȱ cultural,ȱ orȱ thatȱ concernȱ foreignȱ relationsȱ andȱ budgeting.ȱ Suchȱ principlesȱ serveȱ asȱ yardsticksȱ forȱ judgingȱ andȱ criticisingȱtheȱactionsȱofȱgovernmentȱbyȱbothȱStateȱandȱnonȬStateȱactorsȱ andȱ furtherȱ provideȱ anȱ indicationȱ ofȱ theȱ principlesȱ thatȱ driveȱ aȱ government’sȱdevelopmentalȱprocess.ȱȱȱ ȱ Boxȱ17:ȱPrinciplesȱofȱStateȱPolicy:ȱȱ CaseȱExamplesȱfromȱtheȱRepublicȱofȱIreland,ȱIndia,ȱPakistan,ȱTheȱGambia,ȱ Ghana,ȱNigeriaȱandȱUgandaȱ Irelandȱ hasȱ playedȱ aȱ pioneeringȱ roleȱ inȱ constitutionalȱ incorporationȱ ofȱ theseȱ principles.ȱOthers,ȱwhichȱhaveȱfollowedȱthisȱexample,ȱincludeȱTheȱGambia,ȱGhana,ȱ India,ȱ Nigeria,ȱ Pakistanȱ andȱ Uganda.ȱ Withȱ respectȱ toȱ Ghana,ȱ introductoryȱ provisionsȱprovideȱthatȱDirectiveȱPrinciplesȱofȱStateȱPolicyȱareȱtoȱ“guideȱallȱcitizens,ȱ Parliament,ȱtheȱPresident,ȱtheȱjudiciary,ȱtheȱCouncilȱofȱState,ȱtheȱCabinet,ȱpoliticalȱ partiesȱandȱotherȱbodiesȱandȱpersonsȱinȱapplyingȱorȱinterpretingȱthisȱConstitutionȱ orȱ anyȱ otherȱ lawȱ andȱ inȱ takingȱ andȱ implementingȱ anyȱ policyȱ decisions,ȱ forȱ theȱ establishmentȱofȱaȱjustȱandȱfreeȱsociety”ȱ(articleȱ34ȱ(1)).ȱInȱgeneral,ȱtheseȱprinciplesȱ
166 All provisions have been summarised.
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moreȱorȱlessȱbindȱtogetherȱandȱelaborateȱsegmentsȱofȱtheȱInternationalȱBillȱofȱRightsȱ forȱ purposesȱ ofȱ socialȱ cohesion,ȱ resourceȱ allocationȱ andȱ development.ȱ Theseȱ principlesȱhaveȱtheȱpotentialȱtoȱserveȱasȱbroadȱframeworksȱforȱimplementationȱofȱ theȱMillenniumȱDevelopmentȱGoals.ȱȱȱȱ ȱ UnderȱtheȱSocialȱObjectivesȱofȱitsȱDirectiveȱPrinciplesȱofȱStateȱPolicy,ȱTheȱGambiaȱ hasȱ madeȱ aȱ constitutionalȱ commitmentȱ toȱ pursueȱ policiesȱ toȱ protectȱ theȱ rightsȱ ofȱ childrenȱ andȱ otherȱ vulnerableȱ groupsȱ andȱ inȱ doingȱ so,ȱ isȱ toȱ beȱ guidedȱ byȱ “internationalȱ humanȱ rightsȱ instruments…,ȱ whichȱ recognizeȱ andȱ applyȱ particularȱ categoriesȱofȱbasicȱhumanȱrightsȱtoȱdevelopmentȱprocesses.ȱUnderȱtheȱsameȱsection,ȱ theȱStateȱisȱtoȱworkȱtowardsȱtheȱprovisionȱofȱcleanȱandȱsafeȱwater,ȱadequateȱhealth,ȱ shelterȱandȱsufficientȱfoodȱandȱsecurityȱtoȱallȱpersons”ȱ(Articleȱ216).ȱ ȱ TheȱPrinciplesȱinȱpractice:ȱAȱcaseȱstudyȱfromȱGhanaȱ Directiveȱ Principlesȱ ofȱ Stateȱ Policyȱ ofȱ 1992ȱ guidedȱ theȱ Multisectoralȱ Childȱ Lawȱ ReformȱCommitteeȱinȱtheȱformulationȱofȱtheȱfirstȱChildren’sȱActȱofȱ1998ȱ(Actȱ560).ȱ Thisȱ ensuredȱ theȱ inclusionȱ ofȱ civilȱ andȱ politicalȱ rightsȱ inȱ additionȱ toȱ economic,ȱ socialȱandȱculturalȱrightsȱinȱtheȱtextȱofȱtheȱinstrument.ȱInȱtheȱareaȱofȱsocialȱpolicyȱ theyȱ haveȱ alsoȱ servedȱ asȱ aȱ frameworkȱ forȱ theȱ designȱ andȱ implementationȱ ofȱ nationalȱpolicyȱinstruments,ȱnotably,ȱallȱpostȬ1992ȱPovertyȱReductionȱStrategiesȱandȱ theȱ draftȱ Nationalȱ Socialȱ Protectionȱ Strategyȱ currentlyȱ undergoingȱ finalisationȱ byȱ theȱ Ministryȱ ofȱ Manpower,ȱ Youthȱ andȱ Employment.ȱ Significantly,ȱ articleȱ 34(2)ȱ ofȱ theȱConstitutionȱrequiresȱofȱtheȱPresidentȱtoȱreportȱtoȱParliamentȱatȱleastȱonceȱaȱyear,ȱ allȱstepsȱtakenȱtoȱensureȱtheȱrealisationȱofȱtheȱpolicyȱobjectivesȱcontainedȱunderȱtheȱ Directiveȱ Principlesȱ ofȱ Stateȱ Policy;ȱ inȱ particular,ȱ theȱ realisationȱ ofȱ basicȱ humanȱ rights,ȱaȱhealthyȱeconomy,ȱtheȱrightȱtoȱwork,ȱtheȱrightȱtoȱgoodȱhealthȱcareȱandȱtheȱ rightȱtoȱeducation.ȱTheȱPresidentialȱpresentationȱisȱopenȱtoȱallȱsectorsȱofȱtheȱpublicȱ includingȱcivilȱsociety,ȱchildrenȱandȱtheȱUN.ȱ ȱ 1.4ȱ ConstitutionsȱShouldȱReinforceȱtheȱStatusȱofȱ ChildrenȱasȱSubjectsȱofȱHumanȱRightsȱ ȱ Theȱ statusȱ ofȱ constitutionsȱ asȱ frameworksȱ forȱ legitimisingȱ lawsȱ andȱ policiesȱ inȱ favourȱ ofȱ children,ȱ presentsȱ themȱ withȱ theȱ opportunityȱ toȱ reinforceȱtheȱstatusȱofȱchildrenȱasȱsubjectsȱofȱrightsȱasȱopposedȱtoȱbeingȱ objectsȱofȱcharity.ȱByȱincorporatingȱgeneralȱprovisionsȱ(forȱexample,ȱtheȱ InternationalȱBillȱofȱRights)ȱandȱspecificȱprovisionsȱ(withȱrespectȱtoȱtheȱ CRCȱ andȱ CEDAW),ȱ Statesȱ areȱ therebyȱ admittingȱ thatȱ theȱ citizenryȱ (includingȱ children)ȱ areȱ rightsȱ holdersȱ withȱ theȱ capacityȱ toȱ makeȱ claimsȱagainstȱdutyȱbearers.ȱ ȱ ThisȱisȱanȱessentialȱcomponentȱofȱtheȱrightsȬbasedȱapproachȱandȱfallsȱ inȱ lineȱ withȱ Stateȱ obligationsȱ underȱ internationalȱ humanȱ rightsȱ law.ȱ Theȱ Constitutionȱ ofȱ Venezuelaȱ providesȱ deepȱ insightȱ intoȱ howȱ
114 Handbook on Legislative Reform countriesȱ canȱ craftȱ provisionsȱ thatȱ reinforceȱ childrenȱ asȱ subjectsȱ ofȱ rights.ȱ ȱȱ “Childrenȱareȱfullȱsubjectsȱofȱrightsȱandȱshallȱbeȱprotectedȱbyȱtheȱ lawȱandȱbyȱspecialisedȱorgansȱandȱcourts,ȱwhichȱshallȱrespect,ȱ guaranteeȱ andȱ developȱ theȱ provisionsȱ ofȱ thisȱ Constitution,ȱ theȱ Conventionȱ onȱ theȱ Rightsȱ ofȱ theȱ Childȱ andȱ otherȱ internationalȱ treatiesȱonȱthisȱsubject,ȱsignedȱandȱratifiedȱbyȱtheȱRepublic.ȱTheȱ State,ȱ familiesȱ andȱ societyȱ shallȱ giveȱ absoluteȱ priorityȱ toȱ ensuringȱholisticȱprotectionȱandȱinȱsoȱdoing,ȱshallȱtakeȱtheȱbestȱ interestsȱ ofȱ theȱ childȱ intoȱ accountȱ inȱ allȱ decisionsȱ andȱ actionsȱ thatȱ concernȱ them.ȱ Theȱ Stateȱ shallȱ promoteȱ theirȱ progressiveȱ assumptionȱ ofȱ anȱ activeȱ roleȱ inȱ societyȱ andȱ aȱ nationalȱ orientationȱsystemȱshallȱdirectȱpoliciesȱforȱtheȱholisticȱprotectionȱ ofȱchildren.ȱTheȱConventionȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChildȱisȱthusȱ incorporatedȱintoȱtheȱnationalȱlawȱatȱtheȱhighestȱlevel,ȱasȱpartȱofȱ theȱConstitution”ȱ(articleȱ78).ȱ ȱ Inȱ anȱ articleȱ onȱ theȱ rightsȱ ofȱ theȱ childȱ inȱ relationȱ toȱ theȱ finalȱ Constitutionȱ ofȱ Southȱ Africa,ȱ Mosikatsanaȱ (1998)ȱ drawsȱ outȱ howȱ ConstitutionsȱinfluenceȱholisticȱimplementationȱofȱtheȱCRC,ȱusingȱtheȱ lensȱofȱaȱrightsȬbasedȱapproach.ȱ ȱ Boxȱ18:ȱHowȱConstitutionsȱcanȱpositivelyȱinfluenceȱCRCȱimplementation:ȱ 1. Constitutionalȱprovisionsȱspecificȱtoȱchildrenȱprovideȱaȱtriggerȱandȱ springboardȱforȱlegislativeȱreform.ȱ 2. Asȱaȱminimum,ȱconstitutionalizationȱlegitimisesȱpoliticalȱdiscourseȱonȱ children’sȱrightsȱandȱprovidesȱpoliticalȱjustificationȱforȱgovernmentȱ expenditureȱonȱsocialȱprogrammesȱforȱchildren.ȱȱȱ 3. Withȱtheȱlocationȱofȱtheȱrightsȱofȱtheȱchildȱinȱtheȱsupremeȱlawȱofȱtheȱland,ȱ childrenȱcanȱbeȱlegallyȱandȱproperlyȱviewedȱasȱsubjectsȱofȱrights.ȱ 4. Itȱenablesȱtheȱrightsȱclaimants,ȱwhoȱareȱchildren,ȱtoȱmakeȱsubstantialȱclaimsȱ againstȱtheȱState,ȱusingȱtheȱlawȱasȱaȱsword.ȱ 5. Itȱenablesȱchildrenȱtoȱuseȱtheȱlawȱasȱaȱshieldȱtoȱprotectȱthemselvesȱfromȱ erosionȱofȱsocialȱbenefitsȱbyȱtheȱState.ȱ 6. ItȱcanȱcreateȱjusticiableȱrightsȱthatȱchildrenȱmayȱenforceȱagainstȱtheȱState.ȱ 7. Itȱoffersȱtheȱgovernmentȱpoliticalȱjustificationȱforȱprovidingȱsocialȱwelfareȱ benefitsȱtoȱchildrenȱasȱtheyȱcompeteȱforȱscarceȱresources.ȱ 8. Itȱprovidesȱgovernmentȱwithȱusefulȱmoralȱandȱlegalȱjustificationsȱforȱitsȱ socialȱwelfareȱexpendituresȱwhenȱconservativeȱandȱliberalsȱdemandȱfiscalȱ restraintȱthroughȱreducedȱexpendituresȱonȱsocialȱprogrammes.ȱ ȱ Source:ȱMosikatsanaȱT.Lȱ(1998);ȱChildren’sȱRightsȱandȱFamilyȱAutonomyȱinȱtheȱSouthȱAfricanȱ
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Context:ȱAȱCommentȱonȱChildren’sȱRightsȱunderȱtheȱFinalȱConstitution;ȱMichiganȱJournalȱofȱ RaceȱandȱLaw,ȱsymposiumȱarticle.ȱ ȱ 1.5ȱȱ KeyȱConsiderationsȱinȱtheȱFormulationȱofȱtheȱ SubstanceȱandȱProcessȱofȱConstitutionsȱinȱFavourȱofȱ Childrenȱ ȱ Whenȱconsideringȱtheȱformulationȱofȱaȱnewȱconstitutionȱorȱtheȱreviewȱ ofȱ anȱ existingȱ one,ȱ Statesȱ areȱ generallyȱ influencedȱ byȱ theirȱ specificȱ political,ȱ economic,ȱ socialȱ andȱ culturalȱ circumstances.ȱ Historically,ȱ politicalȱ perspectivesȱ have,ȱ however,ȱ farȱ outweighedȱ otherȱ considerationsȱinȱtheȱdevelopmentȱofȱconstitutionalȱlaw.ȱEmancipationȱ fromȱcolonialȱruleȱinȱcountriesȱsuchȱasȱIndiaȱ(1950),ȱGhanaȱ(1957)ȱandȱ Nigeriaȱ(1963)ȱprovidesȱsuchȱexamples.ȱTheȱestablishmentȱofȱprinciplesȱ ofȱaȱnewȱsystemȱofȱgovernmentȱsubsequentȱtoȱaȱrevolution,ȱasȱinȱtheȱ caseȱofȱtheȱFrenchȱconstitutionȱofȱ1791,ȱprovidesȱanotherȱpoliticalȱbasis.ȱ Fromȱ aȱ rightsȬbasedȱ perspectiveȱ however,ȱ issuesȱ ofȱ substanceȱ andȱ processȱmayȱalsoȱbeȱconsideredȱandȱintegratedȱintoȱconstitutionalȱlawȱ formulationȱandȱreviews.ȱȱ ȱ 1.5.1ȱ TheȱSubstanceȱ ȱ Boxȱ19:ȱThreeȱH’sȱtoȱConsiderȱinȱtheȱFormulationȱofȱtheȱSubstanceȱofȱ Constitutionsȱȱ Historicalȱcircumstancesȱshouldȱprovideȱmoralȱjustificationȱforȱanȱimprovementȱinȱ theȱstatusȱandȱconditionsȱofȱchildren.ȱHistoryȱwillȱaidȱaȱStateȱinȱascertainingȱwhichȱ groupsȱ haveȱ beenȱ traditionallyȱ excludedȱ fromȱ participationȱ andȱ accessȱ toȱ socialȱ services.ȱHistoricallyȱ excludedȱ groupsȱ suchȱasȱ women,ȱ children,ȱ theȱ disabledȱandȱ minoritiesȱshouldȱbeȱprotectedȱunderȱtheȱumbrellaȱofȱconstitutionalȱlaw.ȱȱȱ Humanȱ Rightsȱ treatyȱ obligationsȱ shouldȱ beȱ addressedȱ byȱ expressȱ constitutionalȱ provisions.ȱArticleȱ31ȱofȱtheȱConstitutionȱofȱCambodia,ȱforȱexample,ȱstatesȱthatȱ“theȱ Kingdomȱ ofȱ Cambodiaȱ shallȱ recognizeȱ andȱ respectȱ humanȱ rightsȱ asȱ stipulatedȱ inȱ theȱ UNȱ Charter,ȱ theȱ Universalȱ Declarationȱ ofȱ Humanȱ Rights,ȱ theȱ Covenantsȱ andȱ Conventionsȱrelatedȱtoȱhumanȱrights,ȱwomen’sȱandȱchildren’sȱrights.”ȱ Humanȱ Developmentȱ priorities,ȱ asȱ setȱ outȱ byȱ globalȱ standards,ȱ espouseȱ aȱ broadȱ arrayȱ ofȱ developmentȱ concerns.ȱ Examplesȱ includeȱ theȱ Millenniumȱ Developmentȱ GoalsȱandȱtheȱDeclarationȱonȱtheȱRightȱtoȱDevelopment. 167 ȱȱȱ ȱ
167 The emphasis here should be on the general content of these global standards and not on their time-bound specific provisions.
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1.5.2ȱ TheȱProcessȱ ȱ Legalȱreformȱwithinȱtheȱcontextȱofȱconstitutionalȱlawȱcouldȱbeȱinitiatedȱ throughȱtwoȱbroadȱprocesses:ȱ(a)ȱtheȱformulationȱofȱtheȱveryȱfirstȱ constitutionȱofȱaȱStateȱand/orȱ(b)ȱtheȱrevisionȱorȱamendmentȱofȱanȱ existingȱconstitution.ȱTheȱbindingȱandȱuniversalȱcharacterȱofȱ constitutionsȱcallsȱforȱbroadȬbasedȱparticipationȱofȱallȱsectorsȱofȱtheȱ State:ȱPoliticalȱ(includingȱtraditionalȱauthorities),ȱeconomicȱ(suchȱasȱ TradeȱUnions),ȱreligiousȱ(especiallyȱfaithȬbasedȱorganizations)ȱandȱtheȱ socialȱservicesȱsubȬsectorsȱ(whichȱoftenȱintersectȱwithȱchildren’sȱ interests)ȱandȱcivilȱsociety.ȱSuchȱaȱcrossȬsectoralȱapproachȱwouldȱ ensureȱinclusionȱofȱethnicȱandȱgeographicȱsubȬgroups,ȱconstitutionalȱ sustainabilityȱandȱstabilityȱacrossȱtime.ȱWhileȱspecificȱinterestȱgroupsȱ suchȱasȱfaithȬbasedȱorganizationsȱandȱtradeȱunionsȱhaveȱtraditionallyȱ beenȱvisibleȱduringȱsuchȱprocesses,ȱsomeȱgroups,ȱsuchȱasȱchildȬrelatedȱ institutions,ȱchildrenȱandȱyoungȱpeople,ȱhaveȱhadȱlessȱofȱaȱrole.ȱTheirȱ visibilityȱthroughoutȱtheȱprocessȱisȱaȱmeansȱofȱensuringȱthatȱtheirȱ concernsȱreceiveȱdueȱattention.ȱ ȱ Proceduresȱforȱconstitutionalȱreviewsȱwillȱdiffer,ȱbasedȱuponȱtheȱ politicalȱsystemȱinȱquestion.ȱInȱgeneral,ȱtheyȱinvolveȱmoreȱcomplexȱ proceduresȱandȱconsultationsȱasȱcomparedȱtoȱlegislativeȱreviews. 168 ȱAȱ recentȱexampleȱofȱaȱconstitutionalȱreviewȱinitiativeȱisȱfoundȱinȱKenya,ȱ whereȱTheȱConstitutionȱofȱKenyaȱReviewȱCommissionȱspearheadedȱaȱ nationwideȱconsultativeȱprocessȱforȱobtainingȱconstitutionalȱproposalsȱ onȱaȱwideȱrangeȱofȱhumanȱrightsȱandȱpolicyȱissues.ȱȱ ȱ TheȱKenyanȱreformȱbeganȱwithȱtheȱstruggleȱtoȱchangeȱtheȱpoliticalȱ systemȱfromȱoneȱpartyȱtoȱaȱmultiȬpartyȱdemocracy.ȱThisȱmovementȱ gatheredȱgreatȱmomentumȱinȱtheȱ1990s,ȱbringingȱtogetherȱindividualsȱ andȱorganizationsȱfromȱmanyȱsectorsȱofȱsocietyȱandȱmanyȱpartsȱofȱtheȱ country.ȱAtȱtheȱforefrontȱofȱtheȱmovementȱwereȱreligious,ȱgenderȱandȱ humanȱrightsȱorganizations,ȱandȱtheȱConstitutionalȱCommissionȱ chargedȱwithȱspearheadingȱtheȱprocessȱfacilitatedȱaȱbroadȱ participatoryȱprocess.ȱItȱencouragedȱnumerousȱcivilȱsocietyȱ organizationsȱtoȱprovideȱcivicȱeducationȱandȱenteredȱintoȱformalȱ
168 The United Kingdom presents an exception to this general observation. There is no difference between the review of the Constitution and an ordinary piece of legislation as both can be carried out with the same level of flexibility. See Barendt (1998).
117 Handbook on Legislative Reform arrangementsȱwithȱotherȱgroupsȱtoȱassistȱinȱprovidingȱcivicȱeducationȱ byȱprovidingȱfinancialȱandȱotherȱresources.ȱȱTheȱCommissionȱpreparedȱ aȱnationalȱcurriculumȱandȱteachingȱmaterialsȱforȱcivicȱeducation,ȱ includingȱReviewingȱtheȱConstitution,ȱallȱofȱwhichȱwereȱwidelyȱ distributed.ȱItȱalsoȱdistributedȱaȱbooklet,ȱentitledȱTheȱConstitutionalȱ ReviewȱProcessȱinȱKenya:ȱIssuesȱandȱQuestionsȱforȱPublicȱHearing,ȱtoȱ stimulateȱreflectionsȱonȱreformȱandȱtoȱelicitȱrecommendations.ȱTheȱ processȱmadeȱitȱpossibleȱforȱtheȱCommissionȱtoȱgatherȱinformationȱforȱ craftingȱspecificȱprovisionsȱonȱtheȱrightsȱofȱchildren. 169 ȱȱ ȱ Broadlyȱspeaking,ȱtwoȱtypesȱofȱconstitutionalȱreviewsȱmayȱbeȱ envisaged:ȱa)ȱaȱholisticȱreview,ȱinvolvingȱtheȱconstitutionȱinȱitsȱentiretyȱ orȱb)ȱaȱreviewȱofȱspecificȱprovisions.ȱTheȱKenyanȱexampleȱcitedȱaboveȱ fitsȱintoȱtheȱformerȱcategory,ȱwhereasȱIndiaȱandȱtheȱUnitedȱStatesȱmayȱ beȱcitedȱasȱexamplesȱofȱtheȱlatter.ȱSomeȱconstitutionsȱsetȱoutȱtheȱ circumstancesȱandȱlegalȱproceduresȱtoȱbeȱfollowedȱinȱanyȱgivenȱ constitutionalȱreviewȱandȱhaveȱevenȱdefinedȱsomeȱareasȱasȱ “entrenched,”ȱrequiringȱaȱnationalȱreferendumȱtoȱapproveȱvalidȱ amendments.ȱInȱallȱcases,ȱhowever,ȱtheȱLegislatureȱplaysȱaȱkeyȱroleȱinȱ theȱconstitutionalȱreformȱprocess.ȱ ȱ Boxȱ20:ȱAmendmentsȱtoȱentrenchedȱprovisions:ȱȱ CaseȱstudiesȱformȱtheȱUnitedȱStates,ȱCanadaȱandȱGhanaȱ UnitedȱStates:ȱArticleȱVȱofȱtheȱConstitutionȱofȱtheȱUnitedȱStatesȱsetsȱoutȱaȱcomplexȱ procedureȱforȱamendmentsȱtoȱtakeȱeffect.ȱItȱspellsȱoutȱtwoȱbroadȱmethods:ȱȱTheȱfirstȱ isȱforȱaȱBillȱtoȱpassȱbothȱhousesȱofȱtheȱlegislatureȱbyȱaȱtwoȬthirdsȱmajorityȱinȱeach.ȱ Onceȱ theȱ Billȱ hasȱ passedȱ bothȱ housesȱ itȱ isȱ thenȱ referredȱ toȱ theȱ states.ȱ Theȱ secondȱ methodȱ isȱ forȱ aȱ constitutionalȱ conventionȱ toȱ beȱ calledȱ byȱ twoȬthirdsȱ ofȱ theȱ legislaturesȱ ofȱ theȱ statesȱ andȱ forȱ thatȱ conventionȱ toȱ proposeȱ oneȱ orȱ moreȱ amendments.ȱ Theseȱ amendmentsȱ areȱ thenȱ sentȱ toȱ theȱ statesȱ toȱ beȱ approvedȱ byȱ threeȬfourthsȱ ofȱ theȱ legislatures.ȱ Thisȱ routeȱ hasȱ neverȱ beenȱ takenȱ andȱ thereȱ haveȱ beenȱdiscussionsȱinȱpoliticalȱscienceȱcirclesȱaboutȱhowȱsuchȱaȱconventionȱwouldȱbeȱ convenedȱandȱwhatȱkindȱofȱchangesȱitȱwouldȱbringȱabout.ȱRegardlessȱofȱwhichȱofȱ theȱtwoȱmethodsȱareȱchosenȱtheȱamendmentȱasȱpassedȱmustȱbeȱapprovedȱbyȱthreeȬ fourthsȱofȱstates.ȱTheȱamendmentȱasȱpassedȱmayȱspecifyȱwhetherȱtheȱBillȱmustȱbeȱ passedȱbyȱtheȱstateȱlegislatureȱorȱbyȱaȱstateȱconvention. 170 ȱȱ
169 Summarized from The People’s Choice. The Report of the Constitution of Kenya Review Commission. Short Version (2002). 170 See http://www.uscontitution.net/constam.html for more details.
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Canada:ȱ Sectionsȱ 38Ȭ49ȱ ofȱ theȱ Constitutionȱ Actȱ ofȱ 1982ȱ outlineȱ proceduresȱ forȱ amendingȱ theȱ Constitution.ȱ Amendmentsȱ canȱ onlyȱ beȱ passedȱ byȱ theȱ Canadianȱ Houseȱ ofȱ Commonsȱ theȱ Senateȱ andȱ aȱ twoȬthirdsȱ majorityȱ ofȱ theȱ provincialȱ legislaturesȱ representingȱ atȱ leastȱ 50ȱ perȱ centȱ ofȱ theȱ nationalȱ population.ȱ Thoughȱ notȱ constitutionallyȱ mandatedȱ aȱ popularȱ referendumȱ inȱ everyȱ provinceȱ isȱ alsoȱ consideredȱtoȱbeȱnecessaryȱbyȱmanyȱespeciallyȱfollowingȱtheȱprecedentȱestablishedȱ byȱ theȱ Charlottetownȱ Accord. 171 ȱ Ifȱ aȱ constitutionalȱ amendmentȱ affectsȱ onlyȱ oneȱ province,ȱ however,ȱ onlyȱ theȱ assentȱ ofȱ theȱ legislatureȱ ofȱ thatȱ provinceȱ isȱ required.ȱȱ Nonetheless,ȱthereȱareȱsomeȱpartsȱofȱtheȱConstitutionȱthatȱcanȱonlyȱbeȱmodifiedȱbyȱaȱ unanimousȱvoteȱofȱallȱtheȱprovinces.ȱThisȱmayȱincludeȱchangesȱtoȱtheȱcompositionȱ ofȱtheȱSupremeȱCourtȱchangesȱtoȱtheȱprocessȱforȱamendingȱtheȱConstitutionȱitselfȱorȱ abolitionȱofȱtheȱMonarchyȱinȱCanada.ȱ ȱ Ghana:ȱ Theȱ generalȱ responsibilityȱ forȱ initiatingȱ constitutionalȱ reformȱ liesȱ withȱ Parliament.ȱ Byȱ articleȱ289ȱParliamentȱ isȱ mandatedȱ toȱ amendȱanyȱprovisionȱ ofȱtheȱ Constitutionȱ providedȱ itȱ receivesȱ approvalȱ ofȱ twoȱ thirdsȱ ofȱ allȱ membersȱ atȱ theȱ secondȱ andȱ thirdȱ readings.ȱ Howeverȱ specificȱ clausesȱ inȱ theȱ Constitutionȱ (forȱ exampleȱ thoseȱ pertainingȱ toȱ fundamentalȱ humanȱ rightsȱ includingȱ articleȱ 28ȱ inȱ relationȱ toȱ children’sȱ rights)ȱ cannotȱ beȱ amendedȱ byȱ aȱ mereȱ Actȱ ofȱ Parliament.ȱ Articleȱ290ȱ(4)ȱrequiresȱsuchȱproposalsȱbeȱsubmittedȱtoȱaȱreferendumȱatȱwhichȱthereȱ isȱatȱleastȱaȱ40ȱperȱcentȱturnoutȱofȱthoseȱentitledȱtoȱvoteȱandȱatȱleastȱ75ȱperȱcentȱofȱ thoseȱvotingȱcastȱtheirȱvotesȱinȱfavourȱofȱpassageȱofȱtheȱBill.ȱ ȱ 1.6ȱ TheȱRelationshipȱbetweenȱConstitutions,ȱCustomaryȱ LawȱandȱIslamicȱLawȱ ȱ Inȱtheȱdesignȱofȱconstitutions,ȱcountriesȱareȱtoȱtakeȱintoȱaccountȱtheȱ valuesȱofȱtheirȱrespectiveȱsocietiesȱinȱdeterminingȱpotentialȱfactorsȱthatȱ areȱlikelyȱtoȱinfluenceȱtheȱdirectionȱofȱconstitutionalȱdebatesȱandȱtheȱ substanceȱofȱprovisions.ȱWhileȱthereȱareȱmanyȱfactorsȱthatȱhaveȱtheȱ potentialȱtoȱaffectȱconstitutionalȱreforms,ȱthisȱsectionȱisȱlimitedȱtoȱ customaryȱlawȱandȱIslamicȱlawȱasȱimportantȱkeysȱtoȱtheȱdeterminationȱ ofȱconstitutionalȱrightsȱinȱmanyȱcountries.ȱInȱthisȱregardȱitȱisȱcriticalȱtoȱ startȱfromȱtheȱunderstandingȱthatȱbothȱcustomaryȱlawȱandȱIslamicȱLawȱ offerȱpotentialȱopportunitiesȱinȱfavourȱofȱchildrenȱandȱthatȱ stakeholdersȱshouldȱthereforeȱexploreȱtheȱpositiveȱpotentialȱofȱeach.ȱ Onȱtheȱotherȱhand,ȱwhereȱcertainȱaspectsȱofȱcultureȱandȱreligionȱareȱ likelyȱtoȱnegateȱtheȱprinciplesȱofȱhumanȱrightsȱlawȱandȱevenȱtheȱ constitutionȱitself,ȱtheȱlatterȱshouldȱprovideȱguidanceȱonȱhowȱtoȱ
171 The Charlottetown Accord was a package of constitutional amendments proposed by the Canadian Federal and Provincial government in 1992. It was submitted to a public referendum on October 26 of that year and was defeated.
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handleȱconflictsȱwhich,ȱinȱallȱcases,ȱshouldȱbeȱresolvedȱinȱfavourȱofȱ children.ȱȱȱ ȱ 1.6.1ȱ CountryȱCaseȱstudiesȱonȱConstitutionsȱandȱCustomaryȱLawȱ ȱ Itȱ isȱ toȱ beȱ notedȱ that,ȱ dueȱ toȱ historical,ȱ politicalȱ andȱ culturalȱ differences,ȱ theȱ treatmentȱ ofȱ customaryȱ lawȱ inȱ relationȱ toȱ countryȱ constitutionsȱ willȱ vary.ȱ Theȱ importanceȱ ofȱ customaryȱ lawȱ withinȱ aȱ constitutionȱwouldȱdependȱuponȱwhetherȱitȱhasȱmaturedȱtoȱtheȱlevelȱofȱ law.ȱȱAsȱnotedȱabove,ȱtheȱintegrationȱofȱcustomaryȱlawȱwithinȱtheȱlegalȱ definitionȱ ofȱ “law,”ȱ isȱ uniqueȱ toȱ commonȱ lawȱ countries.ȱ Whatȱ isȱ needed,ȱinȱtheȱprocessȱofȱintegratingȱsuchȱprovisions,ȱisȱtheȱinclusionȱ ofȱ specificȱ clausesȱ toȱ resolveȱ possibleȱ conflictsȱ betweenȱ modernȱ lawȱ (includingȱtheȱconstitution)ȱandȱcustomaryȱlaw.ȱ ȱ Theȱ constitutionsȱ ofȱ Ghana,ȱ Iraq,ȱ Nigeria,ȱ Southȱ Africa,ȱ TimorȬLesteȱ andȱUgandaȱprovideȱforȱtheȱrightȱofȱtheȱindividualȱtoȱenjoy,ȱpracticeȱ andȱ professȱ anyȱ cultureȱ ofȱ hisȱ orȱ herȱ choice,ȱ providedȱ thisȱ doesȱ notȱ conflictȱ withȱ theȱ provisionsȱ ofȱ theȱ constitution,ȱ particularlyȱ thoseȱ whichȱpertainȱtoȱFundamentalȱHumanȱRightsȱandȱFreedoms.ȱȱ ȱ Boxȱ21:ȱTheȱsupremacyȱofȱtheȱconstitutionȱoverȱcustom:ȱȱ CaseȱstudiesȱfromȱGhana,ȱTimorȬLesteȱandȱUgandaȱ Ghana:ȱ“Everyȱpersonȱisȱentitledȱtoȱenjoy,ȱpractice,ȱprofess,ȱmaintainȱandȱpromoteȱ anyȱ culture,ȱ language,ȱ traditionȱ orȱ religionȱ subjectȱ toȱ theȱ provisionsȱ ofȱ thisȱ Constitution.ȱȱAllȱ customaryȱ practicesȱ whichȱ dehumanizeȱ orȱ areȱ injuriousȱ toȱ theȱ physicalȱandȱmentalȱwellȬbeingȱofȱaȱpersonȱareȱprohibited”ȱ(Articleȱ26).ȱ ȱ TimorȬLeste:ȱ“TheȱStateȱshallȱrecognizeȱcustomaryȱlawsȱofȱEastȱTimor,ȱsubjectȱtoȱtheȱ Constitutionȱandȱatȱanyȱlegislationȱ dealingȱ withȱ specificallyȱ withȱ customaryȱlaw”ȱ (Sectionȱ2ȱ(4)).ȱ ȱ Uganda:ȱ“Ifȱanyȱotherȱlawȱorȱanyȱcustomȱisȱinconsistentȱwithȱanyȱofȱtheȱprovisionsȱ ofȱ thisȱ Constitution,ȱ theȱ Constitutionȱ shallȱ prevail,ȱ andȱ thatȱ otherȱ lawȱ orȱ customȱ shallȱtoȱtheȱextentȱofȱtheȱinconsistencyȱbeȱvoid”ȱ(Articleȱ(2)ȱ(2)).ȱ ȱ Theȱapproachȱtakenȱbyȱtheseȱcountriesȱstrengthensȱtheȱfundamentalȱ positionȱofȱtheȱconstitutionȱasȱsupremeȱtoȱallȱlaw,ȱincludingȱcustomaryȱ law.ȱIndeed,ȱtheȱratificationȱofȱinternationalȱinstrumentsȱprovidesȱ furtherȱbasisȱforȱaȱStateȱtoȱsituateȱlocalȱcustomsȱandȱtraditionsȱwithinȱ theȱauthoritativeȱframeworkȱofȱtheȱconstitution.ȱȱȱ ȱ
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Articleȱ5ȱ(a)ȱofȱCEDAWȱspecificallyȱmentionsȱthatȱ“StatesȱPartiesȱshallȱ takeȱallȱappropriateȱmeasuresȱtoȱmodifyȱtheȱsocialȱandȱculturalȱ patternsȱofȱconductȱofȱmenȱandȱwomen,ȱwithȱaȱviewȱtoȱachievingȱtheȱ eliminationȱofȱprejudicesȱandȱcustomaryȱandȱallȱotherȱpracticesȱwhichȱ areȱbasedȱonȱtheȱideaȱofȱtheȱinferiorityȱorȱsuperiorityȱofȱeitherȱofȱtheȱ sexesȱorȱonȱstereotypedȱrolesȱforȱandȱmenȱandȱwomen.”ȱ ȱ Manyȱcustomsȱandȱtraditionsȱareȱbasedȱonȱpatriarchalȱprinciples,ȱ placingȱmalesȱinȱaȱsuperiorȱpositionȱtoȱfemales.ȱInȱBotswana,ȱforȱ instance,ȱcustomaryȱlawȱtreatsȱwomenȱasȱminorsȱsubjectȱtoȱtheȱ guardianshipȱofȱtheȱmaleȱheadȱofȱfamily.ȱInȱGhana,ȱpatrilinealȱ principlesȱofȱsuccessionȱinȱselectedȱpartsȱofȱtheȱcountryȱ(forȱexampleȱinȱ Eweȱcommunities)ȱsubjugateȱtheȱinheritanceȱrightsȱofȱfemalesȱtoȱthatȱofȱ malesȱevenȱwhereȱtheȱlatterȱareȱyoungerȱthanȱtheȱformer.ȱ ȱ Boxȱ 22:ȱ Howȱ judgesȱ haveȱ treatedȱ conflictsȱ betweenȱ customaryȱ lawȱ andȱ theȱ 172 constitution:ȱFromȱtheȱBotswanaȱcaseȱofȱUnityȱDowȱvs.ȱAttorneyȱGeneral “Aȱconstitutionalȱguaranteeȱcannotȱbeȱoverriddenȱbyȱcustom.ȱOfȱcourse,ȱtheȱcustomȱ willȱasȱfarȱasȱpossibleȱbeȱreadȱsoȱasȱtoȱconformȱtoȱtheȱConstitution.ȱButȱwhereȱthisȱisȱ impossible,ȱitȱisȱcustomȱnotȱtheȱConstitutionȱwhichȱmustȱgo.ȱ ȬextractedȱfromȱtheȱdecisionȱofȱJusticeȱAmissah,ȱtheȱpresidingȱjudge.ȱȱ ȱ “Customs,ȱtraditionsȱandȱcultureȱofȱaȱsocietyȱmustȱbeȱborneȱinȱmindȱandȱaffordedȱ dueȱrespect,ȱbutȱtheyȱcannotȱprevailȱwhenȱtheyȱconflictȱwithȱtheȱexpressȱprovisionsȱ ofȱtheȱConstitution.ȱInȱrelationȱtoȱtheȱprotectionȱofȱpersonalȱandȱpoliticalȱrightsȱtheȱ primaryȱinstrumentȱtoȱdetermineȱtheȱheartbeatȱofȱBotswanaȱisȱitsȱConstitution.”ȱ ȬextractedȱfromȱtheȱconcurringȱdecisionȱofȱJudgeȱBizos.ȱ ȱ Systemsȱwhichȱfailȱtoȱprovideȱequalȱopportunitiesȱforȱmenȱandȱwomenȱ areȱdiscriminatoryȱinȱcontent,ȱpurposeȱandȱeffect,ȱandȱmustȱbeȱ eliminated.ȱTheȱfollowingȱprovisionsȱfromȱCEDAWȱprovideȱampleȱ legalȱjustificationȱforȱincorporatingȱprovisionsȱagainstȱdiscriminationȱ occasionedȱbyȱcustom.ȱ ȱ Boxȱ23:ȱDefinitionȱofȱdiscriminationȱbyȱCEDAWȱ “ForȱpurposesȱofȱtheȱpresentȱConvention,ȱtheȱtermȱ‘discriminationȱagainstȱwomen’ȱ shallȱmeanȱanyȱdistinction,ȱexclusionȱorȱrestrictionȱmadeȱonȱtheȱbasisȱofȱsexȱwhichȱ hasȱtheȱeffectȱorȱpurposeȱofȱimpairingȱorȱnullifyingȱtheȱrecognition,ȱenjoymentȱorȱ exerciseȱbyȱwomen,ȱirrespectiveȱofȱtheirȱmaritalȱstatus,ȱonȱaȱbasisȱofȱequalityȱofȱmenȱ andȱwomen,ȱofȱhumanȱrightsȱandȱfundamentalȱfreedomsȱinȱtheȱpolitical,ȱeconomic,ȱ social,ȱcultural,ȱcivilȱorȱanyȱotherȱfield”ȱ(Articleȱ1).ȱ
172 Cited in Court Documents, Judgements Cases and Materials, edited by Unity Dow (1995), p20.
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ExpressȱprohibitionȱofȱdiscriminationȱthroughȱconstitutionalȱreformȱbyȱCEDAWȱ “Statesȱ Partiesȱ condemnȱ discriminationȱ againstȱ womenȱ inȱ allȱ itsȱ forms,ȱ agreeȱ toȱ pursueȱ byȱ allȱ appropriateȱ meansȱ andȱ withoutȱ delayȱ aȱ policyȱ ofȱ eliminatingȱ discriminationȱ againstȱ womenȱ and,ȱ toȱ thisȱ end,ȱ undertake:ȱ (a)ȱ toȱ embodyȱ theȱ principleȱ ofȱ equalityȱ ofȱ menȱ andȱ womenȱ inȱ theirȱ nationalȱ constitutionsȱ orȱ otherȱ appropriateȱlegislationȱifȱnotȱyetȱincorporatedȱthereinȱandȱtoȱensure,ȱthroughȱlawȱ andȱotherȱappropriateȱmeans,ȱtheȱpracticalȱrealizationȱofȱthisȱprinciple”ȱ(Articleȱ2ȱ (a)).ȱ ȱ TheȱConstitutionȱofȱTheȱGambiaȱmakesȱexpressȱprovisionsȱforȱequalityȱ beforeȱtheȱlawȱandȱnonȬdiscrimination.ȱHowever,ȱtheȱConstitutionȱ appearsȱtoȱgiveȱwithȱoneȱhandȱandȱtakeȱwithȱtheȱother:ȱInȱoneȱsectionȱ provisionsȱareȱmadeȱtoȱproscribeȱdiscriminationȱandȱatȱtheȱsameȱtimeȱ exceptionsȱareȱcreatedȱinȱrelationȱtoȱpersonalȱlawȱwhichȱnegateȱtheȱ essenceȱofȱtheȱsameȱsection.ȱ ȱ Boxȱ24:ȱTheȱeffectȱofȱambiguitiesȱinȱconstitutionalȱprovisions:ȱȱ TheȱcaseȱofȱTheȱGambiaȱ Articleȱ33ȱ(2)ȱandȱ(3)ȱofȱtheȱ1997ȱConstitutionȱstatesȱasȱfollows:ȱ “Subjectȱtoȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱsubsectionȱ(5),ȱnoȱlawȱshallȱmakeȱanyȱprovisionȱwhichȱ isȱdiscriminatoryȱeitherȱofȱitselfȱorȱinȱitsȱeffect.”ȱ ȱ “Subjectȱ toȱ theȱ provisionsȱ ofȱ subsectionȱ (5),ȱ noȱ personȱ shallȱ beȱ treatedȱ inȱ aȱ discriminatoryȱ mannerȱ byȱ anyȱ personȱ actingȱ byȱ virtueȱ ofȱ anyȱ lawȱ orȱ inȱ theȱ performanceȱofȱtheȱfunctionsȱofȱanyȱpublicȱofficeȱorȱanyȱpublicȱauthority.”ȱ ȱ Subsectionȱ5ȱstatesȱasȱfollows:ȱ “Subsectionȱ(2)ȱshallȱnotȱapplyȱtoȱanyȱlawȱinȱsoȱfarȱasȱthatȱlawȱmakesȱprovisionȬȱ(c)ȱ withȱrespectȱtoȱadoption,ȱmarriage,ȱdivorce,ȱburial,ȱdevolutionȱofȱpropertyȱonȱdeathȱ orȱotherȱmattersȱofȱpersonalȱlaw.”ȱ ȱ Theseȱprovisionsȱclearlyȱsuggestȱthatȱcustomaryȱlawȱandȱreligionȱ(asȱ theȱcaseȱmayȱbe)ȱwillȱtrumpȱtheȱConstitutionȱwhenȱtheyȱareȱinȱconflict.ȱ Thisȱisȱboundȱtoȱhaveȱaȱnegativeȱimpactȱonȱwomenȱandȱgirls,ȱwhoseȱ livesȱareȱoftenȱcompromisedȱbyȱmattersȱofȱadoption,ȱmarriage,ȱdivorce,ȱ burialȱandȱdevolutionȱofȱproperty,ȱdueȱtoȱtheȱinherentȱtendencyȱonȱtheȱ partȱofȱcustomaryȱlawȱtoȱdiscriminateȱagainstȱthem. 173 ȱHawaȱSisayȬ Saballyȱnotesȱinȱconnectionȱwithȱarticleȱ33ȱofȱtheȱConstitutionȱofȱTheȱ Gambiaȱthatȱ“thisȱconstitutionalȱprovision,ȱwhichȱisȱcontainedȱinȱtheȱ entrenchedȱfundamentalȱhumanȱrightsȱchapter,ȱimpliesȱthatȱaȱperson’sȱ
173 The UN system and counterparts operating in the country arrived at a general consensus to reform this aspect of the Constitution at a workshop on mainstreaming gender into the CCA in October 2005.
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personalȱorȱcustomaryȱlawȱmayȱdiscriminateȱagainstȱhimȱorȱherȱandȱ suchȱpersonȱshallȱhaveȱnoȱrecourseȱunderȱtheȱConstitutionȱorȱanyȱotherȱ law.” 174 ȱȱ ȱ Forȱtheȱpurposesȱofȱimplementationȱofȱcustomaryȱlaw,ȱtheȱ ConstitutionȱofȱNigeriaȱmakesȱprovisionȱforȱCustomaryȱCourtsȱofȱ AppealȱofȱaȱStateȱwithȱappellateȱandȱsupervisoryȱjurisdictionȱinȱcivilȱ proceedingsȱinvolvingȱquestionsȱofȱcustomaryȱlaw.ȱAȱjudgeȱofȱsuchȱaȱ courtȱisȱrequiredȱtoȱpossessȱconsiderableȱknowledgeȱof,ȱandȱexperienceȱ in,ȱtheȱpracticeȱofȱcustomaryȱlawȱ(articlesȱ265Ȭ269).ȱStateȱCouncilsȱofȱ Chiefsȱareȱalsoȱprovidedȱforȱunderȱtheȱthirdȱscheduleȱofȱtheȱ ConstitutionȱtoȱadviseȱtheȱGovernorȱonȱmattersȱrelatingȱtoȱcustomaryȱ law,ȱculturalȱaffairsȱandȱotherȱrelatedȱmatters.ȱSimilarȱprovisionȱhasȱ beenȱmadeȱunderȱarticleȱ272ȱofȱtheȱConstitutionȱofȱGhana,ȱwhichȱ providesȱforȱtheȱcontinuedȱexistenceȱofȱtheȱNationalȱHouseȱofȱChiefsȱ withȱtheȱmandateȱtoȱinterȱaliaȱundertakeȱtheȱ“progressiveȱstudy,ȱ interpretationȱandȱcodificationȱofȱcustomaryȱlawȱwithȱaȱviewȱtoȱ evolving,ȱinȱappropriateȱcases,ȱaȱunifiedȱsystemȱofȱrulesȱofȱcustomaryȱ lawȱandȱanȱevaluationȱofȱtraditionalȱcustomsȱandȱusagesȱwithȱaȱviewȱ toȱeliminatingȱthoseȱcustomsȱandȱusagesȱthatȱareȱoutmodedȱandȱ sociallyȱharmful.”ȱAlthoughȱtheseȱprovisionsȱcallȱforȱrepresentationȱofȱ femaleȱtraditionalȱrulersȱinȱtheȱNationalȱHouseȱofȱChiefsȱforȱeffectiveȱ reviewȱofȱcustomaryȱlaw,ȱfemaleȱparticipationȱhasȱremainedȱanȱ illusion.ȱȱȱ ȱ Theȱexistenceȱofȱsuchȱinstitutions,ȱhowever,ȱcallsȱforȱeffectiveȱtrainingȱ ofȱpersonnelȱandȱpanelȱmembersȱinȱmattersȱofȱhumanȱrightsȱandȱ constitutionalȱlawȱtoȱensureȱthatȱactivitiesȱandȱdecisionsȱresultȱinȱ improvementsȱinȱbothȱtheȱstatusȱofȱwomenȱandȱchildren,ȱgivenȱtheȱfactȱ thatȱtheseȱtwoȱgroupsȱareȱtheȱhardestȱhitȱbyȱharmfulȱtraditionalȱ practices.ȱȱȱ ȱ 1.6.2ȱ CountryȱCaseȱStudiesȱonȱConstitutionsȱandȱIslamȱ ȱ AȱdistinctionȱisȱtoȱbeȱmadeȱbetweenȱStatesȱthatȱprofessȱIslamȱasȱaȱStateȱ religionȱandȱthoseȱthatȱprovideȱforȱtheȱpracticeȱofȱotherȱreligionsȱbutȱ makeȱspecialȱprovisionsȱforȱIslamȱonȱaccountȱofȱitsȱdominanceȱamongȱ
174 Sisay-Sabally, Hawa, Women and Law in West Africa: Situational Analysis of Some Key Issues Affecting Women, ed. Akua Kuenyehia (1998), P. 123 at p. 128.
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theȱgeneralȱpopulace.ȱIraqȱrepresentsȱanȱexampleȱofȱanȱIslamicȱState,ȱ withȱspecificȱconstitutionalȱprovisionsȱonȱIslam.ȱByȱarticleȱ2ȱofȱtheȱ ConstitutionȱofȱIraq,ȱ“IslamȱisȱtheȱofficialȱreligionȱofȱtheȱStateȱandȱisȱaȱ basicȱsourceȱofȱlegislation.”ȱByȱvirtueȱofȱ2ȱ(a)ȱandȱ2ȱ(c),ȱnoȱlawȱcanȱbeȱ passedȱ“thatȱcontradictsȱtheȱundisputedȱrulesȱofȱIslamȱandȱtheȱrightsȱ andȱbasicȱfreedomsȱoutlinedȱinȱtheȱConstitution.”ȱ ȱ InȱTheȱGambia,ȱShari’aȱformsȱpartȱofȱtheȱmainȱbodyȱofȱlawȱinȱ“mattersȱ ofȱmarriage,ȱdivorceȱandȱinheritanceȱamongȱmembersȱofȱtheȱ Communitiesȱtoȱwhichȱitȱapplies”ȱ(articleȱ7ȱ(f)).ȱToȱfacilitateȱtheȱ implementationȱofȱIslamicȱprinciples,ȱIslamicȱStates,ȱinȱadditionȱtoȱ thoseȱthatȱrecogniseȱtheȱpracticeȱofȱIslam,ȱhaveȱmadeȱprovisionȱforȱ IslamicȱCourtsȱwithȱtheȱmandateȱtoȱapplyȱIslamicȱlawȱinȱallȱmattersȱ broughtȱbeforeȱthem.ȱInȱTheȱGambiaȱandȱNigeria,ȱjusticeȱ administrationȱincludesȱIslamicȱorȱCadiȱCourts.ȱInȱtheȱspecificȱcaseȱofȱ TheȱGambia,ȱtheȱindependenceȱofȱallȱcourtsȱisȱguaranteedȱand,ȱinȱtheȱ exerciseȱofȱtheirȱfunctions,ȱtheyȱareȱsubjectȱtoȱtheȱConstitution,ȱwhichȱ includesȱarticleȱ33ȱ(5)ȱcitedȱabove.ȱSpecifically,ȱaȱCadiȱCourtȱhasȱ jurisdictionȱtoȱapplyȱtheȱShari’aȱ“inȱmattersȱofȱmarriage,ȱdivorceȱandȱ inheritanceȱwhereȱtheȱpartiesȱorȱotherȱpersonsȱinterestedȱareȱMuslims.”ȱ Itȱalsoȱhasȱtheȱpowerȱtoȱreviewȱitsȱownȱdecisionsȱwhereȱanȱapplicationȱ isȱmadeȱbyȱaȱgrievingȱpartyȱ(articleȱ137ȱ(4)ȱandȱ(5)).ȱ ȱ ȱ“AnotherȱsetȱbackȱisȱthatȱSectionȱ6ȱofȱCapȱ6:04ȱ(Mohammedanȱ Recognitionȱ Act)ȱ permitsȱ aȱ Cadiȱ toȱ sitȱ aloneȱ toȱ presideȱ overȱ issuesȱ ofȱ marriage,ȱ divorceȱ andȱ inheritance.ȱ Itȱ isȱ thereforeȱ possibleȱforȱhisȱdecisionȱtoȱbeȱsubjective.ȱTheȱConstitutionȱofȱtheȱ secondȱ Republic,ȱ whichȱ isȱ nowȱ inȱ force,ȱ requiresȱ aȱ Cadiȱ toȱ sitȱ withȱ twoȱ scholarsȱ ofȱ theȱ Shari’aȱ orȱ Ulamasȱ forȱ hearingȱ atȱ firstȱ instance.ȱInȱorderȱforȱsectionȱ137ȱtoȱeffectivelyȱamendȱorȱrepealȱ sectionȱ 6ȱ ofȱ theȱ Mohammedanȱ Lawȱ Recognitionȱ Act,ȱ theȱ Constitutionȱ requiresȱ thatȱ theȱ Presidentȱ mayȱ byȱ Orderȱ publishedȱ inȱ theȱ Gazetteȱ andȱ madeȱ withȱ theȱ approvalȱ ofȱ theȱ Nationalȱ Assembly,ȱ atȱ anyȱ timeȱ withinȱ twelveȱ monthsȱ ofȱ theȱ comingȱ intoȱ forceȱ ofȱ thisȱ Constitutionȱ makeȱ suchȱ provisionȱ asȱ mayȱ appearȱ necessaryȱ forȱ repealing,ȱ modifying,ȱ addingȱ toȱ orȱ adaptingȱanyȱexistingȱlawȱforȱpurposesȱofȱbringingȱitȱinȱaccordȱ withȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱthisȱConstitution.ȱSinceȱthisȱactionȱhasȱnotȱ yetȱbeenȱtaken,ȱtheȱCadiȱcontinuesȱtoȱsitȱaloneȱthoughȱtheȱpanelȱ cameȱintoȱexistenceȱonȱ4thȱNovemberȱ1997.ȱ
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ȱ InȱtheȱcaseȱofȱHardingȱvȱHarding,ȱinȱwhichȱoneȱMohammedȱH.ȱ Hardingȱ(deceased),ȱaȱMuslimȱandȱcitizenȱofȱTheȱGambiaȱdiedȱ intestate,ȱleavingȱtwoȱsetsȱofȱissuesȱfromȱhisȱwidowȱandȱformerȱ wife.ȱAȱCadiȱCourtȱsittingȱaloneȱatȱtheȱKanifingȱMuslimȱCourt,ȱ administeredȱtheȱdeceasedȱintestateȱestate.ȱAlthoughȱallȱsetsȱofȱ childrenȱ wereȱ cateredȱ for,ȱ theȱ formerȱ wife,ȱ believingȱ thatȱ herȱ childrenȱwereȱshortȱchangedȱappliedȱforȱanȱorderȱofȱcertiorari.ȱ SheȱwantedȱtheȱproceedingsȱtoȱbeȱtransferredȱtoȱtheȱHighȱCourtȱ soȱthatȱtheyȱmightȱthereȱbeȱquashed.ȱTheȱjudgeȱruledȱthatȱthereȱ wasȱnoȱerrorȱofȱlawȱonȱtheȱfaceȱofȱtheȱrecordȱtoȱsuggestȱthatȱtheȱ Cadiȱ sittingȱ aloneȱ exceededȱ orȱ lackedȱ jurisdictionȱ forȱ whichȱ certiorariȱcanȱbeȱapplied.” 175 ȱȱ ȱ Islamicȱlawȱisȱsubjectȱtoȱvariedȱinterpretations.ȱInasmuchȱasȱitȱhasȱbeenȱ recognisedȱunderȱconstitutionsȱofȱStatesȱwhichȱprofessȱIslam,ȱanȱ opportunityȱexistsȱforȱensuringȱconsistencyȱofȱinterpretationȱwithȱtheȱ constitutionȱinȱitsȱgeneralȱformȱratherȱthanȱtheȱtreatmentȱofȱIslamicȱlawȱ asȱaȱseparateȱtext.ȱȱ ȱ 1.7ȱȱ TheȱInterfaceȱbetweenȱInternationalȱLawȱandȱ ConstitutionalȱReformsȱ ȱ Asȱstatedȱinȱtheȱintroduction,ȱtheȱultimateȱgoalȱofȱaȱconstitutionȱshouldȱ beȱtheȱfulfilmentȱofȱhumanȱrights.ȱForȱthisȱtoȱoccur,ȱconstitutionsȱmustȱ findȱethicalȱandȱsubstantiveȱexpressionȱinȱtheȱprinciplesȱandȱprovisionsȱ ofȱinternationalȱhumanȱrightsȱlaw.ȱWhileȱconstitutionsȱareȱpoliticalȱ documents,ȱtheȱfactȱthatȱtheyȱpossessȱaȱlegalȱcharacterȱalsoȱprovidesȱ considerableȱopportunityȱforȱtheȱincorporationȱofȱchildȱrightsȱ considerations.ȱȱInȱotherȱwords,ȱitȱisȱpossibleȱforȱconstitutionsȱtoȱbeȱ proȬchildrenȱbyȱreflectingȱtheȱprinciplesȱofȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAW.ȱInȱ theȱdesignȱofȱconstitutions,ȱStatesȱshouldȱobserveȱthatȱchildrenȱareȱ subjectsȱofȱbothȱgeneralȱinternationalȱlawȱandȱofȱspecificȱtreatiesȱ affectingȱthem.ȱȱȱ ȱ
175 Gaye et al. Women and Law in West Africa: Situational Analysis of Some Key Issues Affecting Women, ed. Akua Kuenyehia. P. 2 at p.7-8.
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AȱrightsȬbasedȱapproachȱtoȱconstitutionalȱformulationȱtakesȱintoȱ accountȱbothȱgeneralȱandȱspecificȱinternationalȱnormsȱinȱfavourȱofȱ children,ȱasȱchildrenȱareȱsubjectsȱofȱbothȱsetsȱofȱstandards.ȱBecauseȱitȱ wouldȱnotȱbeȱpossibleȱtoȱadoptȱaȱwholesaleȱincorporationȱofȱ internationalȱhumanȱrightsȱlaw,ȱStatesȱshouldȱbeȱguidedȱmoreȱbyȱtheȱ generalȱandȱspecificȱprinciplesȱassociatedȱwithȱtheseȱstandards.ȱ ȱ Theȱfollowingȱprovidesȱanȱoverviewȱofȱtheȱgeneralȱandȱspecificȱhumanȱ rightsȱtreatiesȱaffectingȱchildrenȱandȱtheȱprinciplesȱthatȱguideȱthem.ȱȱ Countriesȱareȱtoȱnoteȱthatȱtheȱlistȱisȱnotȱexhaustiveȱandȱthatȱmanyȱotherȱ guidelines,ȱdeclarationsȱandȱconventionsȱmayȱbeȱusedȱasȱtoolsȱduringȱ constitutionalȱreviewȱprocesses.ȱ ȱ Boxȱ25(a):ȱGeneralȱtreatyȱobligationsȱaffectingȱchildrenȱ x TheȱInternationalȱBillȱofȱRightsȱ(encompassingȱtheȱUniversalȱDeclarationȱofȱ HumanȱRights,ȱtheȱCovenantȱonȱEconomic,ȱSocialȱandȱCulturalȱRightsȱandȱ theȱCovenantȱonȱCivilȱandȱPoliticalȱRights)ȱ x TheȱConventionȱonȱtheȱEliminationȱofȱallȱFormsȱofȱRacialȱDiscriminationȱ x TheȱConventionȱonȱtheȱEliminationȱofȱAllȱformsȱofȱDiscriminationȱAgainstȱ Womenȱ x TheȱConventionȱagainstȱTortureȱandȱotherȱCruel,ȱInhumanȱorȱDegradingȱ TreatmentȱorȱPunishmentȱ ȱ Boxȱ25(b):ȱSpecificȱtreatyȱobligationsȱaffectingȱchildrenȱȱ x TheȱConventionȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChildȱȱ x TheȱOptionalȱProtocolȱtoȱtheȱConventionȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChild,ȱonȱtheȱ SaleȱofȱChildren,ȱChildȱProstitutionȱandȱChildȱPornographyȱ x TheȱOptionalȱProtocolȱtoȱtheȱConventionȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChildȱonȱtheȱ InvolvementȱofȱChildrenȱinȱArmedȱConflictȱ x ILOȱConventionȱonȱMinimumȱAgeȱ(no.ȱ138)ȱ x ILOȱConventionȱonȱtheȱWorstȱFormsȱofȱChildȱLabourȱ(no.ȱ182)ȱ x TheȱHagueȱConventionȱonȱtheȱProtectionȱofȱChildrenȱandȱCooperationȱinȱ respectȱofȱinterȬcountryȱadoptionȱ x TheȱProtocolȱtoȱPrevent,ȱSuppressȱandȱPunishȱTraffickingȱinȱPersons,ȱ EspeciallyȱWomenȱandȱChildrenȱ ȱ Theȱfollowingȱprinciplesȱapplyȱtoȱtheȱoverallȱbodyȱofȱgeneralȱandȱ humanȱrightsȱlaw:ȱ ȱ x Universalityȱ x Indivisibilityȱ x Accountabilityȱ x Participationȱ
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ȱ WhereasȱtheȱfollowingȱprinciplesȱapplyȱinȱspecificȱrelationȱtoȱchildȬ specificȱtreatyȱstandards:ȱ ȱ x NonȬdiscriminationȱ x TheȱRightȱtoȱlife,ȱsurvivalȱandȱdevelopmentȱ x Theȱbestȱinterestsȱofȱtheȱchildȱ x Respectȱforȱtheȱviewsȱofȱtheȱchild.ȱ ȱ Inȱkeepingȱwithȱtheȱunderlyingȱfactȱthatȱchildren’sȱrightsȱareȱhumanȱ rights,ȱStatesȱareȱenabledȱbyȱtheseȱbroadȱprinciplesȱtoȱdesignȱtwoȱ broadȱsetsȱofȱconstitutionalȱprovisions:ȱOneȱderivedȱfromȱtheȱ principlesȱofȱgeneralȱhumanȱrightsȱlawȱandȱtheȱotherȱfromȱtheȱ principlesȱofȱspecificȱhumanȱrightsȱlawȱaffectingȱchildren.ȱThisȱ approachȱwillȱultimatelyȱresultȱinȱtheȱformulationȱofȱconstitutionsȱthatȱ reflectȱtheȱgeneralȱcorpusȱofȱhumanȱrightsȱtreatiesȱinȱfavourȱofȱ children.ȱTheȱaforementionedȱgeneralȱandȱspecificȱprinciplesȱwillȱ thereforeȱconstituteȱtheȱfoundationȱforȱtheȱconsiderationȱofȱproposalsȱ underȱPartsȱIIȱandȱIII.ȱȱȱ ȱ Partȱ2ȱ GENERALȱCONSTITUTIONALȱ PROVISIONSȱINȱFAVOURȱOFȱCHILDRENȱȱ ȱ 2.1ȱ Principleȱ1:ȱUniversalityȱ ȱ Provisionsȱthatȱcaptureȱtheȱprincipleȱofȱuniversalityȱofȱrightsȱshouldȱbeȱ aimedȱatȱensuringȱinclusiveness,ȱespeciallyȱinȱfavourȱofȱtraditionallyȱ excludedȱgroups.ȱInȱkeepingȱwithȱhumanȱrightsȱinstrumentsȱsuchȱasȱ theȱUDHR,ȱtheȱConventionȱonȱtheȱEliminationȱofȱallȱFormsȱofȱRacialȱ DiscriminationȱandȱCEDAW,ȱprovisionsȱcouldȱbeȱcreatedȱtoȱcaptureȱ nonȬdiscriminationȱ(includingȱtheȱmeaningȱofȱdiscrimination),ȱ affirmativeȱactionȱ(forȱpurposesȱofȱcreatingȱaȱlevelȱplayingȱfieldȱforȱtheȱ excluded)ȱandȱequalȱprotectionȱ(toȱreinforceȱequalityȱbeforeȱtheȱlawȱ andȱequalȱopportunitiesȱforȱall).ȱInȱadditionȱtoȱprovisionsȱonȱ discriminationȱwithȱrespectȱtoȱCEDAWȱalreadyȱdiscussedȱabove,ȱStatesȱ areȱalsoȱtoȱtakeȱaccountȱofȱthoseȱcontainedȱinȱtheȱConventionȱonȱtheȱ EliminationȱofȱAllȱFormsȱofȱRacialȱDiscrimination.ȱBelowȱisȱtheȱfullȱtextȱ ofȱtheȱdefinitionȱcontainedȱinȱtheȱlatter.ȱ
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ȱ “Theȱ termȱ “racialȱ discrimination”ȱ shallȱ meanȱ anyȱ distinction,ȱ exclusion,ȱ restrictionȱ orȱ preferenceȱ basedȱ onȱ race,ȱ colour,ȱ descentȱ orȱ nationalȱ orȱ ethnicȱ origin,ȱ whichȱ hasȱ theȱ purposeȱorȱ effectȱ ofȱ nullifyingȱ ofȱ impairingȱ theȱ recognition,ȱ enjoymentȱ orȱ exercise,ȱonȱanȱequalȱfooting,ȱofȱhumanȱrightsȱandȱfundamentalȱ freedomsȱinȱtheȱpolitical,ȱeconomic,ȱsocial,ȱculturalȱorȱanyȱotherȱ fieldȱofȱpublicȱlife”ȱ(Articleȱ1).ȱ ȱ Aȱdefinitionȱofȱdiscriminationȱleadsȱtheȱwayȱtowardsȱidentifyingȱ specificȱgroundsȱorȱbasisȱforȱdiscriminationȱtoȱpreventȱtheȱdenialȱofȱ rightsȱofȱanyȱgroup.ȱExamplesȱofȱgroundsȱforȱdiscriminationȱareȱ expressedȱinȱtheȱdefinitionȱofȱracialȱdiscriminationȱcitedȱabove.ȱȱ However,ȱinȱdeclaringȱthatȱ“everyoneȱisȱentitledȱtoȱallȱtheȱrightsȱandȱ freedomsȱsetȱforthȱinȱthisȱdeclaration”ȱtheȱUDHRȱsetsȱmoreȱgroundsȱ forȱdiscriminationȱbyȱcitingȱtheȱfollowingȱcategoriesȱunderȱarticleȱ2:ȱ ȱ x Raceȱ x Sexȱ x Languageȱ x Religionȱ x Politicalȱorȱotherȱopinionȱ x Nationalȱorȱsocialȱoriginȱ x Birthȱ x Orȱotherȱstatusȱ ȱ Byȱ providingȱ forȱ orȱ otherȱ status,ȱ theȱ declarationȱ makesȱ itȱ possibleȱ forȱ Statesȱ toȱ deriveȱ additionalȱ categoriesȱ orȱ classificationsȱ basedȱ onȱlocalȱ circumstances.ȱ Theseȱ provisionsȱ haveȱ indeedȱ madeȱ itȱ possibleȱ forȱ statesȱtoȱcraftȱcomprehensiveȱprovisionsȱonȱnonȬdiscriminationȱbasedȱ onȱ theirȱ specificȱ needsȱ andȱ priorities.ȱ Belowȱ areȱ caseȱ examplesȱ fromȱ Ghana,ȱfollowedȱbyȱSouthȱAfrica:ȱ ȱ “Forȱpurposesȱofȱthisȱarticle,ȱ‘discriminate’ȱmeansȱgiveȱdifferentȱ treatmentȱtoȱdifferentȱpersonsȱattributableȱonlyȱmainlyȱtoȱtheirȱ respectiveȱ descriptionsȱ byȱ race,ȱ placeȱ ofȱ origin,ȱ politicalȱ opinions,ȱcolour,ȱgender,ȱoccupation,ȱreligionȱorȱcreed,ȱwherebyȱ personsȱ ofȱ oneȱ descriptionȱ areȱ subjectedȱ toȱ disabilitiesȱ orȱ restrictionsȱ toȱ whichȱ personsȱ ofȱ anotherȱ descriptionȱ areȱ notȱ
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madeȱsubjectȱorȱareȱgrantedȱprivilegesȱorȱadvantagesȱwhichȱareȱ notȱgrantedȱtoȱpersonsȱofȱanotherȱdescription”ȱ(articleȱ17ȱ(3)).ȱȱ ȱ Southȱ Africaȱ hasȱ modelȱ provisionsȱ whichȱ takeȱ holisticȱ advantageȱ ofȱ theȱ orȱ otherȱ statusȱ clauseȱ ofȱ theȱ UDHR.ȱ Articleȱ 9ȱ (3)ȱ onȱ nonȬ discriminationȱ takesȱ criticalȱ accountȱ ofȱ children,ȱ womenȱ andȱ otherȱ potentiallyȱexcludedȱgroups:ȱȱ ȱ “Theȱ stateȱ mayȱ notȱ unfairlyȱ discriminateȱ directlyȱ orȱ indirectlyȱ againstȱanyoneȱonȱoneȱorȱmoreȱgrounds,ȱincludingȱrace,ȱgender,ȱ sex,ȱ pregnancy,ȱ maritalȱ status,ȱ ethnicȱ orȱ socialȱ origin,ȱ colour,ȱ sexualȱ orientation,ȱ age,ȱ disability,ȱ religion,ȱ conscience,ȱ belief,ȱ culture,ȱlanguageȱandȱbirth.”ȱȱ ȱ TheȱinclusionȱofȱbothȱsexȱandȱgenderȱwithinȱtheȱSouthȱAfricanȱ ConstitutionȱconnotesȱtheȱdesireȱofȱtheȱStateȱtoȱeliminateȱ discriminationȱagainstȱwomenȱandȱgirlsȱonȱtheȱbasisȱofȱbothȱtheirȱ biologicalȱandȱperceivedȱstatusȱwithinȱsociety.ȱThisȱmeansȱthatȱtheȱ existenceȱofȱpervasiveȱformsȱofȱgenderȱstereotypingȱandȱtraditionalȱ rolesȱforȱtheȱsexesȱcannotȱbeȱanȱexcuseȱforȱdeprivingȱwomenȱandȱgirlsȱ ofȱequalȱprotectionȱbeforeȱtheȱlaw.ȱȱAdditionally,ȱtheȱinclusionȱofȱ pregnancy,ȱageȱandȱbirthȱasȱgroundsȱforȱnonȬdiscriminationȱfurtherȱ reflectsȱanȱattemptȱonȱtheȱpartȱofȱtheȱStateȱtoȱensureȱrespectȱforȱtheȱ reproductiveȱstatusȱofȱwomenȱandȱgirls,ȱwhereasȱthoseȱonȱageȱandȱ birthȱseekȱtoȱprotectȱallȱcategoriesȱofȱchildrenȱandȱyouth.ȱ ȱ Inȱlineȱwithȱtheȱneedȱtoȱsupportȱtraditionallyȱexcludedȱgroups,ȱ constitutionsȱcouldȱalsoȱhaveȱexpressȱclausesȱthatȱpermitȱpositiveȱ discriminationȱorȱaffirmativeȱactionȱunderȱspecialȱcircumstances.ȱInȱ India,ȱforȱexample,ȱtheȱStateȱisȱconstitutionallyȱempoweredȱtoȱmakeȱ specialȱprovisionsȱforȱwomenȱandȱchildrenȱandȱforȱtheȱadvancementȱofȱ anyȱsociallyȱandȱeducationallyȱdisadvantagedȱclassesȱofȱcitizensȱorȱforȱ theȱScheduledȱCastesȱandȱTribes 176 ȱwithinȱitsȱnonȬdiscriminationȱ clause. 177 ȱInȱGhana,ȱaȱsimilarȱclauseȱisȱbeingȱusedȱasȱtheȱconstitutionalȱ justificationȱforȱtheȱattainmentȱofȱgenderȱparityȱinȱeducation.ȱTheȱ governmentȱisȱenabledȱbyȱarticleȱ17ȱ(4)ȱ“toȱimplementȱpoliciesȱandȱ
176 Similar provisions are contained in article 22 (4) of the Constitution of Pakistan. 177 Part III, article 15 (3) and 10 (4).
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programmesȱaimedȱatȱredressingȱsocial,ȱeconomicȱorȱeducationalȱ imbalanceȱinȱtheȱGhanaianȱsociety.”ȱȱ ȱ EqualȱProtectionȱclausesȱlendȱcomplementaryȱsupportȱtoȱprovisionsȱonȱ nonȬdiscrimination.ȱEqualȱprotectionȱcanȱcoverȱequalȱaccessȱtoȱsocialȱ servicesȱandȱequalȱopportunitiesȱforȱparticipation.ȱSomeȱstatesȱalsoȱ expressȱthisȱinȱrelationȱtoȱtheȱlaw.ȱTheȱprovisionsȱofȱtheȱConstitutionȱofȱ Iraqȱstate,ȱforȱinstance,ȱthatȱ“Iraqisȱareȱequalȱbeforeȱtheȱlawȱwithoutȱ discriminationȱbecauseȱofȱsex,ȱethnicity,ȱnationality,ȱorigin,ȱcolour,ȱ religion,ȱsect,ȱbelief,ȱopinionȱorȱsocialȱorȱeconomicȱstatus.” 178ȱ ȱ 2.2ȱ Principleȱ2:ȱInalienability,ȱIndivisibilityȱandȱ Interdependencyȱ ȱ Theȱprinciplesȱofȱinalienability,ȱindivisibilityȱandȱinterdependencyȱ affordȱStatesȱtheȱopportunityȱtoȱcreateȱaȱ“basketȱofȱrights”ȱthatȱ incorporatesȱthoseȱenshrinedȱinȱhumanȱrightsȱconventions,ȱ declarationsȱandȱcommitments.ȱȱThisȱbasketȱshouldȱincludeȱtheȱbroadȱ rangeȱofȱcivilȱandȱpoliticalȱrights,ȱandȱeconomic,ȱsocialȱandȱculturalȱ rightsȱaffordedȱbyȱtheseȱtreatiesȱandȱrequiredȱforȱtheȱproperȱandȱ harmoniousȱdevelopmentȱofȱtheȱindividual.ȱAsȱsuchȱtheseȱrightsȱ immenselyȱimpactȱtheȱrightsȱofȱtheȱchild.ȱThisȱisȱmanifestȱinȱtheȱ followingȱtwoȱways:ȱ ȱ 1. Asȱaȱcollective,ȱhumanȱrightsȱtreatiesȱwhileȱuniqueȱinȱtheirȱ purposeȱandȱdirection,ȱareȱalsoȱinterrelatedȱtoȱandȱ interdependentȱonȱeachȱother.ȱForȱexample,ȱtheȱCRCȱandȱ CEDAWȱareȱseparateȱinstruments,ȱbutȱareȱnonethelessȱlinkedȱ byȱvirtueȱofȱtheȱimpactȱtheyȱbothȱhaveȱonȱspecificȱgroups,ȱsuchȱ asȱtheȱgirlȱchild,ȱpregnantȱwomenȱandȱnursingȱmothers.ȱForȱ purposesȱofȱthisȱhandbook,ȱtheȱprocessȱofȱusingȱtheȱbroadȱ spectrumȱofȱhumanȱrightsȱinstrumentsȱforȱtheȱformulationȱofȱ constitutionalȱprovisionsȱmayȱbeȱreferredȱtoȱasȱtheȱinterȬ conventionȱapproach.ȱȱ ȱ 2. Asȱseparateȱinstrumentsȱinȱthemselves,ȱtheȱprovisionsȱcontainedȱ withinȱthemȱareȱalsoȱdeeplyȱconnectedȱtoȱeachȱother,ȱtoȱtheȱ extentȱthatȱrecognisingȱandȱfulfillingȱoneȱandȱneglectingȱ
178 Article 14.
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anotherȱwouldȱresultȱinȱaȱdistortionȱofȱimplementationȱofȱthatȱ particularȱtreaty.ȱȱForȱinstance,ȱdenyingȱtheȱchildȱtheȱrightȱtoȱ birthȱregistrationȱasȱcontainedȱinȱarticleȱ7ȱofȱtheȱCRCȱcouldȱ affectȱtheȱchild’sȱrightȱtoȱeducationȱasȱsetȱoutȱunderȱarticlesȱ28ȱ andȱ29.ȱForȱpurposesȱofȱthisȱhandbook,ȱtheȱprocessȱofȱusingȱtheȱ broadȱspectrumȱofȱprovisionsȱwithinȱaȱparticularȱhumanȱrightsȱ instrumentȱforȱtheȱformulationȱofȱconstitutionalȱprovisionsȱmayȱ beȱreferredȱtoȱasȱtheȱintraȬconventionȱapproach.ȱ ȱ Theȱ combinedȱ effectȱ ofȱ bothȱ approachesȱ wouldȱ resultȱ inȱ theȱ identificationȱ ofȱ theȱ followingȱ fourȱ keyȱ areasȱ aroundȱ whichȱ constitutionalȱprovisionsȱmayȱbeȱformulated: 179ȱ ȱ x Civilȱandȱpoliticalȱrightsȱ x Economic,ȱSocialȱandȱCulturalȱRightsȱ x TheȱRightsȱofȱWomenȱ x TheȱRightsȱofȱChildrenȱȱ ȱ Theȱensuingȱwillȱfocusȱonȱtheȱfirstȱthree,ȱasȱ“children’sȱrights”ȱareȱ coveredȱseparatelyȱunderȱpartȱ3ȱofȱthisȱchapter.ȱ ȱ 2.2.1ȱ CivilȱandȱPoliticalȱRightsȱ ȱ TheȱCovenantȱonȱCivilȱandȱPoliticalȱRightsȱmakesȱprovisionȱforȱtheȱ rightȱtoȱlife,ȱprotectionȱfromȱtortureȱorȱfromȱcruel,ȱinhumanȱorȱ degradingȱtreatmentȱorȱpunishment,ȱprotectionȱfromȱslaveryȱandȱtheȱ slaveȱtrade,ȱprotectionȱofȱpersonalȱliberty,ȱtheȱrightȱtoȱfairȱtrial,ȱrespectȱ forȱhumanȱdignity,ȱandȱrespectȱforȱgeneralȱfundamentalȱfreedomsȱ (freedomsȱofȱspeech,ȱthought,ȱconscience,ȱbelief,ȱassembly,ȱassociation,ȱ informationȱandȱmovement).ȱTheȱCovenantȱallowsȱforȱderogationȱofȱ rightsȱduringȱperiodsȱofȱpublicȱemergency,ȱbutȱonlyȱunderȱveryȱ restrictedȱcircumstancesȱ(seeȱarticleȱ4).ȱItȱalsoȱmakesȱspecialȱreferenceȱ toȱchildrenȱinȱspecificȱsituations.ȱForȱexample,ȱunderȱarticleȱ6ȱ(5),ȱtheȱ deathȱpenaltyȱcannotȱbeȱimposedȱonȱchildrenȱandȱpregnantȱwomenȱ andȱunderȱarticleȱ10(2)(b),ȱ“accusedȱjuvenileȱpersonsȱshallȱbeȱseparatedȱ fromȱadultsȱandȱbroughtȱasȱspeedilyȱasȱpossibleȱforȱadjudication.”ȱAllȱ theseȱprovisionsȱareȱcriticalȱforȱensuringȱtheȱwellȬbeingȱofȱchildrenȱandȱ
179 These thematic areas have been chosen to meet the desired objectives of this Handbook. However, countries should expand or reduce based on local circumstances.
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shouldȱthereforeȱbeȱincorporatedȱintoȱcountryȱconstitutionsȱtoȱtheȱ greatestȱextentȱpossible.ȱȱȱ ȱ x Ireland,ȱonȱtheȱrightȱtoȱlife:ȱȱ“TheȱStateȱacknowledgesȱtheȱrightȱ toȱlifeȱofȱtheȱunbornȱand,ȱwithȱdueȱregardȱtoȱtheȱequalȱrightȱtoȱ lifeȱofȱtheȱmother,ȱguaranteesȱinȱitsȱlawsȱtoȱrespectȱandȱasȱfarȱasȱ practicable,ȱbyȱitsȱlawsȱtoȱdefendȱandȱvindicateȱthatȱright”ȱ (Articleȱ40ȱ(3)ȱ(iii)).ȱ x Sweden,ȱonȱtheȱdeathȱpenalty:ȱ“Thereȱshallȱbeȱnoȱcapitalȱ punishment”ȱ(Articleȱ4).ȱ x SouthȱAfrica,ȱonȱtheȱrightȱtoȱhumanȱdignity:ȱȱ“Everyoneȱhasȱtheȱ rightȱtoȱbodilyȱandȱpsychologicalȱintegrity,ȱwhichȱincludesȱ(a)ȱ theȱrightȱtoȱmakeȱdecisionsȱconcerningȱreproduction”ȱ(Articleȱ 12ȱ(2)ȱ(a)).ȱ x Pakistan,ȱonȱtheȱabolitionȱofȱslavery:ȱ“SlaveryȱisȱnonȬexistentȱ andȱforbiddenȱandȱnoȱlawȱshallȱpermitȱorȱfacilitateȱitsȱ introductionȱintoȱPakistanȱinȱanyȱform”ȱ(Articleȱ11ȱ(1)).ȱ x Ghana,ȱonȱtheȱprotectionȱofȱjuveniles:ȱ“Aȱjuvenileȱoffenderȱwhoȱ isȱkeptȱinȱlawfulȱcustodyȱorȱdetention,ȱshallȱbeȱkeptȱseparatelyȱ fromȱanȱadultȱoffender”ȱ(Articleȱ15ȱ(4)).ȱ ȱ Inȱsomeȱcases,ȱchildrenȱhaveȱtoȱbeȱprotectedȱfromȱtheȱcivilȱandȱpoliticalȱ activitiesȱofȱadults.ȱTheȱdecisionȱofȱtheȱcourtȱinȱtheȱNigerianȱcaseȱofȱ CheranciȱvȱCheranciȱpresentedȱbelowȱsuggestsȱthatȱchildrenȱcanȱbeȱ protectedȱfromȱengagementȱinȱpoliticalȱactivityȱwhereȱitȱisȱestablishedȱ thatȱtheyȱwillȱbeȱvulnerableȱtoȱabuse.ȱ ȱ Boxȱ26:ȱAȱNigerianȱjudicialȱcaseȱstudyȱonȱtheȱinterfaceȱbetweenȱconstitutionalȱ derogationȱandȱchildȬrelatedȱlegislationȱ InȱtheȱNigerianȱcaseȱofȱCheranciȱvȱCheranci,ȱ[1960],ȱNRNLRȱ24,ȱDahiruȱCherananciȱ hadȱ beenȱ prosecutedȱ forȱ incitingȱ aȱ childȱ toȱ participateȱ inȱ politicsȱ contraryȱ toȱ theȱ provisionsȱ ofȱ theȱ Northernȱ Region,ȱ Childrenȱ andȱ Youngȱ Personsȱ Law,ȱ 1958ȱ (Partȱ VIII),ȱwhichȱprohibitedȱchildrenȱagedȱ15ȱandȱbelowȱfromȱparticipatingȱinȱpoliticalȱ activity.ȱTheȱaccusedȱappliedȱtoȱtheȱHighȱCourtȱNorthernȱRegion,ȱbyȱwayȱofȱmotionȱ toȱhaveȱtheȱprovisionsȱinȱquestionȱdeclaredȱvoid,ȱonȱgroundsȱofȱbeingȱinȱderogationȱ ofȱ theȱ freedomsȱ ofȱ expression,ȱ peacefulȱ assembly,ȱ associationȱ andȱ conscienceȱ guaranteedȱbyȱtheȱConstitution.ȱȱȱ ȱ TheȱCourtȱheldȱthatȱaȱrestrictionȱuponȱaȱfundamentalȱhumanȱrightȱmust,ȱbeforeȱitȱ mayȱ beȱ consideredȱ justifiable,ȱ (a)ȱ beȱ necessaryȱ inȱ theȱ interestȱ ifȱ publicȱ defense,ȱ publicȱorder,ȱetc.ȱandȱ(b)ȱmustȱnotȱbeȱexcessiveȱorȱoutȱofȱproportionȱtoȱtheȱobjectȱ whichȱitȱsoughtȱtoȱachieve.ȱItȱheldȱthisȱlawȱtoȱhaveȱpassedȱtheȱtest.ȱIfȱjuvenilesȱareȱ
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allowedȱtoȱtakeȱpartȱinȱpolitics,ȱtheirȱreceptiveȱandȱuncriticalȱmindsȱmakeȱthemȱeasyȱ victimsȱofȱthoughtlessȱorȱunscrupulousȱpeopleȱwhoȱwishȱtoȱtakeȱadvantageȱofȱtheirȱ youthȱinȱorderȱtoȱindoctrinateȱthemȱwithȱaȱparticularȱideologyȱbeforeȱtheyȱareȱoldȱ enoughȱ toȱ formȱ theirȱ ownȱ opinionsȱ onȱ theȱ matter.ȱ Juvenilesȱ mayȱ beȱ attractedȱ toȱ ideasȱ thatȱ areȱ presentedȱ inȱ anȱ interestingȱ form;ȱ Theyȱ haveȱ neitherȱ theȱ experienceȱ norȱ theȱ standardsȱ ofȱ comparisonȱ toȱ enableȱ themȱ toȱ fullyȱ discriminate.ȱ Theirȱ enthusiasmsȱ areȱ easilyȱ arousedȱ andȱ theirȱ naturalȱ highȱ spiritsȱ leadȱ themȱ toȱ thoughtlessȱexcesses.ȱȱȱ ȱ 1.ȱTheȱRightȱtoȱIdentityȱȱ ȱ Theȱ rightȱ toȱ identityȱ throughȱ birthȱ registrationȱ andȱ citizenshipȱ isȱ anȱ importantȱcomponentȱofȱcivilȱandȱpoliticalȱrightsȱandȱveryȱpertinentȱtoȱ childrenȱ becauseȱ itȱ ensuresȱ accessȱ toȱ basicȱ socialȱ servicesȱ andȱ minimisesȱsocialȱexclusion.ȱȱ ȱȱ BirthȱRegistrationȱ ȱ Boxȱ27:ȱȱ Articleȱ24ȱofȱtheȱCovenantȱonȱCivilȱandȱPoliticalȱRightsȱnotesȱthat:ȱ “(1)ȱEveryȱchildȱshallȱhave,ȱwithoutȱanyȱdistinctionȱasȱtoȱrace,ȱcolour,ȱsex,ȱlanguage,ȱ religion,ȱnationalȱorȱsocialȱorigin,ȱpropertyȱorȱbirth,ȱtheȱrightȱtoȱsuchȱmeasuresȱofȱ protectionȱasȱareȱrequiredȱbyȱhisȱstatusȱasȱaȱminor,ȱonȱtheȱpartȱofȱhisȱfamily,ȱsocietyȱ andȱtheȱState;ȱ(2)ȱEveryȱchildȱshallȱbeȱregisteredȱimmediatelyȱafterȱbirthȱandȱshallȱ haveȱaȱname;ȱ(3)ȱEveryȱchildȱhasȱtheȱrightȱtoȱacquireȱaȱnationality.Ȉȱ ȱ Articleȱ7ȱofȱtheȱCRCȱstatesȱthat:ȱ “[T]heȱ childȱ shallȱ beȱ registeredȱ immediatelyȱ afterȱ birthȱ andȱ shallȱ haveȱ theȱ rightȱ fromȱbirthȱtoȱaȱname,ȱtheȱrightȱtoȱacquireȱaȱnationalityȱandȱasȱfarȱasȱpossible,ȱtheȱ rightȱtoȱknowȱandȱbeȱcaredȱforȱbyȱhisȱorȱherȱparents.”ȱ ȱ Constitutionalȱprovisionsȱonȱbirthȱregistrationȱwouldȱpositivelyȱimpactȱ aȱ State’sȱ provisionȱ ofȱ registrationȱ servicesȱ byȱ compellingȱ relevantȱ agenciesȱ toȱ accelerateȱ attainmentȱ ofȱ universalȱ registration.ȱ Generalȱ constitutionalȱ provisionsȱ withȱ respectȱ toȱ discriminationȱ asȱ alreadyȱ discussed,ȱwouldȱfacilitateȱtheȱreviewȱofȱlegislationȱwithȱclausesȱwhichȱ discriminateȱ againstȱ womenȱ andȱ girlsȱ inȱ theȱ registrationȱ process.ȱȱ Brazilȱ andȱ Ugandaȱ areȱ amongȱ veryȱ fewȱcountriesȱ withȱ constitutionalȱ provisionsȱonȱbirthȱregistration.ȱȱEachȱofȱthemȱplacesȱanȱobligationȱonȱ theȱ Stateȱ toȱ fulfillȱ thisȱ rightȱ andȱ inȱ theȱ caseȱ ofȱ Brazil,ȱ toȱ provideȱ thisȱ freeȱofȱchargeȱwhereȱnecessary.ȱTheȱConstitutionȱofȱUgandaȱstatesȱthatȱ “[t]heȱStateȱshallȱregisterȱeveryȱbirth,ȱmarriageȱandȱdeathȱoccurringȱinȱ Uganda”ȱ(Articleȱ18).ȱSimilarly,ȱtheȱConstitutionȱofȱBrazilȱcontainsȱtheȱ
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followingȱprovision:ȱ“TheȱStateȱprovidesȱfreeȱbirthȱregistrationȱtoȱthoseȱ whoȱareȱacknowledgedȱtoȱbeȱpoor”ȱ(SectionȱLXXVI).ȱ ȱ Citizenshipȱ ȱ Basedȱonȱglobalȱexperience,ȱtheȱfollowingȱsectionȱpresentsȱtheȱpossibleȱ waysȱbyȱwhichȱcitizenshipȱorȱnationalityȱmayȱbeȱacquired:ȱȱȱȱ ȱ Citizenshipȱbyȱbirth:ȱChildrenȱbornȱwithinȱorȱoutsideȱtheȱcountryȱmayȱ becomeȱ aȱ citizenȱ whereȱ eitherȱ parentsȱ orȱ grandparentsȱ isȱ orȱ wasȱ aȱ citizen. 180 ȱȱ ȱ Citizenshipȱbyȱregistration:ȱTheȱRegistrationȱofȱdifferentȱcategoriesȱofȱ personsȱasȱcitizens:ȱ(i)ȱaȱmarriedȱpartnerȱofȱaȱcitizenȱmayȱregisterȱasȱaȱ citizenȱuponȱfulfillmentȱofȱspecificȱlegalȱrequirements,ȱ(ii)ȱpersonsȱbornȱ withinȱtheȱState,ȱneitherȱofȱwhoseȱparentsȱorȱgrandparentsȱisȱaȱcitizenȱ andȱ(iii)ȱaȱmigrant,ȱwhoȱhasȱspentȱaȱspecifiedȱnumberȱofȱyearsȱwithinȱ theȱState.ȱ ȱ Presumptionȱ ofȱ citizenship:ȱ Aȱ childȱ foundȱ withinȱ theȱ jurisdictionȱ ofȱ unknownȱparentageȱcanȱbeȱpresumedȱtoȱbeȱaȱcitizen.ȱȱ ȱ Citizenshipȱ byȱ adoption:ȱȱAȱ child, 181 ȱ neitherȱ ofȱ whoseȱ parentsȱ isȱ aȱ citizenȱ ofȱ theȱ State,ȱ butȱ isȱ adoptedȱ byȱ aȱ citizenȱ ofȱ theȱ Stateȱ can,ȱ byȱ virtueȱofȱthatȱadoption,ȱbecomeȱaȱcitizen.ȱ ȱ Citizenshipȱbyȱnaturalization:ȱAȱnonȬcitizenȱmayȱapplyȱtoȱbeȱaȱcitizenȱ throughȱ naturalizationȱ uponȱ meetingȱ specificȱ requirementsȱ (forȱ example,ȱresidenceȱoverȱaȱperiodȱofȱtimeȱandȱgoodȱbehaviour).ȱȱȱ ȱ Foreignersȱandȱstatelessȱpersons:ȱForeignersȱandȱstatelessȱpersonsȱwhoȱ areȱ inȱ theȱ countryȱ onȱ legalȱ groundsȱ canȱ enjoyȱ theȱ sameȱ rightsȱ andȱ freedomsȱandȱalsoȱbearȱtheȱsameȱdutiesȱasȱcitizens.ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ ȱ Theȱpresumptionȱofȱcitizenshipȱisȱaȱuniqueȱchildȱprotectionȱprovision,ȱ whichȱ servesȱ toȱ supportȱ childrenȱ affectedȱ byȱ conflicts.ȱ Statesȱ are,ȱ
180 In Brazil, citizenship by birth to foreign parents is also possible, provided they are not in the service of their country of origin. 181 Limited to children below 16 years of age in the case of Ghana (article 6 (4)) and below 18 years of age in Uganda (article 11 (2).
134 Handbook on Legislative Reform however,ȱencouragedȱtoȱintegrateȱtheȱfullȱrangeȱofȱoptionsȱprovidedȱtoȱ minimiseȱ opportunitiesȱ forȱ exclusionȱ ofȱ marginalizedȱ children.ȱ Theȱ Botswanaȱ caseȱ ofȱ Unityȱ Dowȱ vs.ȱ Attorneyȱ General,ȱ alreadyȱ cited,ȱ demonstratesȱtheȱrealityȱpertainingȱinȱsomeȱcountries,ȱofȱoverlookingȱ constitutionalȱ provisionsȱ inȱ theȱ formulationȱ ofȱ legislationȱ onȱ citizenship.ȱ Itȱ presentsȱ aȱ classicȱ testȱ caseȱ onȱ theȱ interfaceȱ betweenȱ constitutions,ȱgender,ȱchildren’sȱrightsȱandȱcitizenshipȱlegislation.ȱ ȱ Boxȱ28:ȱInȱthisȱcase,ȱUnityȱDowȱchallengedȱtheȱCitizenshipȱ(Amendment)ȱActȱofȱ 182 1984ȱwhichȱprovidedȱamongȱotherȱthingsȱthat: “4.ȱ (1)ȱ Aȱ personȱ bornȱ inȱ Botswanaȱ shallȱ beȱ aȱ citizenȱ ofȱ Botswanaȱ byȱ birthȱ andȱ descentȱif,ȱatȱtheȱtimeȱofȱhisȱbirth:ȱ a.ȱhisȱfatherȱwasȱaȱcitizenȱofȱBotswana;ȱorȱ b.ȱinȱtheȱcaseȱofȱaȱpersonȱbornȱoutȱofȱwedlock,ȱhisȱmotherȱwasȱaȱcitizenȱofȱBotswanaȱ (2)ȱ Aȱ personȱ bornȱ beforeȱ theȱ commencementȱ ofȱ thisȱ Actȱ shallȱ notȱ beȱ aȱ citizenȱ byȱ virtueȱofȱthisȱsectionȱunlessȱheȱwasȱaȱcitizenȱatȱtheȱtimeȱofȱsuchȱcommencement.ȱ a)ȱhisȱfatherȱwasȱaȱcitizenȱofȱBotswana;ȱ b)ȱinȱtheȱcaseȱofȱaȱpersonȱbornȱoutȱofȱwedlock,ȱhisȱmotherȱwasȱaȱcitizenȱofȱBotswana.ȱ ȱ 5.ȱ(1)ȱAȱpersonȱbornȱoutsideȱBotswanaȱshallȱbeȱaȱcitizenȱofȱBotswanaȱbyȱdescent,ȱifȱ atȱtheȱtimeȱofȱhisȱbirth;ȱ hisȱfatherȱwasȱaȱcitizenȱofȱBotswanaȱ inȱtheȱcaseȱofȱaȱpersonȱbornȱoutsideȱwedlock,ȱthisȱmotherȱwasȱaȱcitizenȱofȱBotswana.ȱ (2)ȱ Aȱ personȱ bornȱ beforeȱ theȱ commencementȱ ofȱ thisȱ Actȱ shallȱ notȱ beȱ aȱ citizenȱ byȱ virtueȱofȱthisȱsectionȱunlessȱheȱwasȱaȱcitizenȱatȱtheȱtimeȱofȱsuchȱcommencement.”ȱ ȱ Amongȱ otherȱ things,ȱ Unityȱ Dowȱ questionedȱ theȱ constitutionalityȱ ofȱ theȱ aboveȱ provisionsȱbyȱadvancingȱtheȱfollowingȱarguments,ȱamongȱothers:ȱ x Thatȱsectionȱ4ȱ(1)ȱofȱtheȱCitizenshipȱActȱprecludedȱherȱfromȱpassingȱ citizenshipȱtoȱherȱtwoȱchildrenȱonȱgroundsȱofȱsex.ȱȱȱ x Thatȱsheȱwasȱprejudicedȱbyȱtheȱdiscriminatoryȱeffectȱofȱtheȱlawȱgivenȱthatȱ herȱchildrenȱwereȱaliensȱthoughȱbornȱinȱherȱnativeȱcountryȱ(Botswana)ȱandȱ thusȱenjoyedȱlimitedȱrightsȱandȱlegalȱprotections.ȱȱȱ x TheȱdiscriminatoryȱeffectȱofȱSectionsȱ4ȱandȱ5ȱisȱinȱconflictȱwithȱSectionȱ3ȱ(a)ȱ ofȱtheȱConstitutionȱofȱtheȱRepublicȱofȱBotswana.ȱȱ x Sectionȱ13ȱofȱtheȱCitizenshipȱActȱonlyȱmakesȱspecialȱprovisionȱforȱ applicationȱforȱnaturalizationȱbyȱaȱwomanȱmarriedȱtoȱBotswanaȱcitizenȱ menȱandȱnoȱsuchȱspecialȱprovisionȱexistsȱforȱforeignȱhusbandsȱofȱBotswanaȱ citizenȱwomen.ȱȱ x Thatȱsheȱwasȱdesirousȱofȱbeingȱaffordedȱtheȱsameȱprotectionȱofȱlawȱasȱaȱ maleȱBotswanaȱcitizenȱandȱinȱthisȱregard,ȱdesirousȱthatȱherȱchildrenȱbeȱ accordedȱBotswanaȱcitizenshipȱandȱthatȱherȱspouseȱbeȱinȱaȱpositionȱtoȱ
182 Summarised from Unity Dow v. Attorney General of the Republic of Botswana; found in Court Documents, Judgements Cases and Materials, edited by Unity Dow (1995).
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makeȱapplicationȱforȱBotswanaȱcitizenship,ȱshouldȱheȱsoȱwishȱasȱprovidedȱ forȱunderȱSectionȱ13ȱofȱtheȱCitizenshipȱAct.ȱȱ x FurthermoreȱSectionsȱ4ȱandȱ5ȱ[andȱ13]ȱrelegatedȱher,ȱbyȱreasonȱofȱbeingȱ femaleȱtoȱtheȱstatusȱofȱaȱchildȱorȱanȱidiotȱandȱthatȱtheȱcitedȱsectionsȱareȱinȱ contradictionȱofȱsectionȱ7ȱofȱtheȱConstitutionȱofȱtheȱRepublicȱofȱBotswanaȱ insofarȱasȱtheyȱsubjectȱherȱtoȱdegradingȱtreatment.”ȱ ȱ Byȱ referringȱ toȱ bothȱ localȱ statutesȱ andȱ internationalȱ treatiesȱ (forȱ example,ȱCEDAW,ȱtheȱCRC,ȱtheȱUNDHRȱandȱtheȱAfricanȱCharterȱonȱ HumanȱandȱPeoplesȱRights),ȱbothȱtheȱHighȱCourtȱandȱCourtȱofȱAppealȱ (theȱ highestȱ court)ȱ foundȱ amongȱ otherȱ thingsȱ thatȱ theȱ Actȱ discriminatedȱagainstȱwomenȱandȱthereforeȱwasȱinconsistentȱwithȱtheȱ Constitution.ȱȱ ȱ 2.2.2ȱ Economic,ȱSocialȱandȱCulturalȱRightsȱ ȱ Closelyȱ linkedȱ toȱ civilȱ andȱ politicalȱ rightsȱ areȱ economic,ȱ socialȱ andȱ culturalȱrights,ȱwhichȱareȱcriticalȱforȱtheȱsurvivalȱandȱdevelopmentȱofȱ theȱ child.ȱ Theȱ Covenantȱ onȱ Economic,ȱ Socialȱ andȱ Culturalȱ Rightsȱ providesȱ generalȱ guidanceȱ toȱ Statesȱ onȱ materialȱ issuesȱ toȱ considerȱ inȱ theȱformulationȱofȱprovisionsȱonȱeconomic,ȱsocialȱandȱculturalȱrights.ȱȱȱ ȱ Boxȱ29:ȱCriticalȱareasȱofȱconcernȱexpressedȱinȱtheȱCESCRȱinclude:ȱ x Protectionȱandȱassistanceȱtoȱtheȱfamilyȱasȱtheȱbasicȱunitȱofȱsocietyȱandȱ responsibilityȱforȱtheȱcareȱandȱeducationȱofȱtheȱchildȱ(Articleȱ10ȱ(1)).ȱ x Socialȱprotectionȱmeasuresȱforȱmothersȱduring,ȱbeforeȱandȱafterȱpregnancyȱ (Articleȱ10ȱ(2)).ȱ x Protectionȱofȱchildrenȱandȱyoungȱpersonsȱfromȱeconomicȱandȱsocialȱ exploitationȱ(Articleȱ10ȱ(3)).ȱ x Provisionȱofȱsocialȱprotectionȱinȱtheȱareasȱofȱadequateȱstandardȱofȱlivingȱ (includingȱfood,ȱhousingȱandȱclothing)ȱ(Articleȱ11(1)),ȱtheȱrightȱtoȱtheȱ highestȱattainableȱstandardȱofȱphysicalȱandȱmentalȱhealthȱ(Articleȱ12),ȱandȱ theȱrightȱtoȱeducationȱ(Articleȱ13).ȱ ȱ Brazil’sȱ constitutionalȱ provisionsȱ onȱ economic,ȱ socialȱ andȱ culturalȱ rightsȱ haveȱ beenȱ formulatedȱ withinȱ theȱ contextȱ ofȱ socialȱ protection.ȱ Withinȱtheȱpublicȱsector,ȱsocialȱ protectionȱ isȱaȱpolicyȱframeworkȱthatȱ fostersȱ supportȱ forȱ vulnerableȱ andȱ excludedȱ groupsȱ suchȱ asȱ ethnicȱ minorities,ȱtheȱdisabledȱandȱruralȱcommunities.ȱThisȱensuresȱinclusion,ȱ andȱ makesȱ exclusionȱ ofȱ specialȱ groupsȱ ofȱ childrenȱ aȱ constitutionalȱ violation,ȱtherebyȱstrengtheningȱtheȱprincipleȱofȱuniversalityȱandȱnonȬ discrimination.ȱ Socialȱ protectionȱ isȱ increasinglyȱ becomingȱ theȱ mostȱ
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effectiveȱ wayȱ ofȱ protectingȱ vulnerableȱ groupsȱ fromȱ shocksȱ andȱ risksȱ (forȱexample,ȱillnessȱandȱnaturalȱdisasters).ȱ ȱ Brazilȱ servesȱ asȱ anȱ exampleȱ ofȱ aȱ countryȱ withȱ anȱ elaborateȱ socialȱ protectionȱprogrammeȱfoundedȱonȱtheȱConstitution.ȱFromȱitsȱchapterȱ onȱSocialȱRightsȱ(chapterȱII),ȱ“education,ȱhealth,ȱwork,ȱleisure,ȱsecurity,ȱ socialȱsecurity,ȱprotectionȱofȱmotherhoodȱandȱchildhoodȱandȱassistanceȱ toȱ theȱ destitute,ȱ areȱ socialȱ rights,ȱ asȱ setȱ forthȱ byȱ thisȱ Constitution.”ȱ Someȱofȱtheȱsocialȱprotectionȱclausesȱincludeȱmaternityȱandȱpaternityȱ leave,ȱ freeȱ assistanceȱ forȱ childrenȱ andȱ dependantsȱ fromȱ birthȱ toȱ sixȱ yearsȱofȱage,ȱdayȱcareȱcentresȱandȱpreȬschoolȱfacilities,ȱprohibitionȱofȱ night,ȱdangerousȱorȱunhealthyȱworkȱforȱminorsȱunderȱ18ȱyearsȱofȱageȱ andȱ ofȱ anyȱ workȱ forȱ minorsȱ underȱ 14ȱ yearsȱ ofȱ ageȱ exceptȱ asȱ anȱ apprentice.ȱUnderȱaȱspecialȱchapterȱonȱtheȱFamily,ȱAdolescentsȱandȱtheȱ Elderly,ȱ theȱ Brazilianȱ Constitutionȱ alsoȱ placesȱ anȱ obligationȱ onȱ theȱ family,ȱ societyȱ andȱ theȱ Stateȱ toȱ ensureȱ childrenȱ andȱ adolescentsȱ areȱ givenȱ priority:ȱ “theȱ rightȱ toȱ life,ȱ health,ȱ nourishment,ȱ education,ȱ leisure,ȱ professionalȱ training,ȱ culture,ȱ dignity,ȱ respect,ȱ freedomȱ andȱ familyȱandȱcommunityȱlife,ȱasȱwellȱasȱtoȱguardȱthemȱfromȱallȱformsȱofȱ negligence,ȱ discrimination,ȱ exploitation,ȱ violence,ȱ crueltyȱ andȱ oppression”ȱ(articleȱ227).ȱ ȱ Theȱ Covenantȱ alsoȱ setsȱ outȱ provisionsȱ onȱ culturalȱ rightsȱ withinȱ theȱ broadȱ contextȱ ofȱ culturalȱ lifeȱ andȱ scientificȱ progressȱ (articleȱ 15).ȱ Countriesȱ besetȱ byȱ problemsȱ ofȱ harmfulȱ traditionalȱ practicesȱ shouldȱ notȱ feelȱ restrictedȱ fromȱ providingȱ appropriateȱ constitutionalȱ provisionsȱtoȱdeterȱsuchȱpracticesȱunderȱthisȱumbrella.ȱ ȱȱȱ 2.2.3ȱ Women’sȱRightsȱ ȱ Specificȱ provisionsȱ onȱ nonȬdiscriminationȱ onȱ theȱ basisȱ ofȱ genderȱ asȱ alreadyȱ discussed,ȱ wouldȱ paveȱ theȱ wayȱ forȱ specificȱ legislativeȱ andȱ policyȱ reformsȱ inȱ lineȱ withȱ CEDAW.ȱ Inȱ accordȱ withȱ theȱ principleȱ ofȱ interdependencyȱ ofȱ humanȱ rightsȱ treaties,ȱ theȱ linkagesȱ betweenȱ womenȱandȱchildrenȱcanȱbeȱunderscoredȱthroughȱrelevantȱprovisionsȱ suchȱ asȱ thoseȱ pertainingȱ toȱ theȱ rightȱ toȱ health.ȱ However,ȱ whileȱ upholdingȱ theȱ principleȱ ofȱ interdependencyȱ willȱ beȱ necessary,ȱ ensuringȱthatȱspecificȱprovisionsȱareȱincludedȱtoȱadvanceȱtheȱpolitical,ȱ economic,ȱsocialȱandȱculturalȱrightsȱofȱwomenȱasȱaȱdistinctȱgroupȱwillȱ beȱimperative.ȱThisȱapproachȱwouldȱresultȱinȱaȱholisticȱexpressionȱofȱ
137 Handbook on Legislative Reform women’sȱ rightsȱ asȱ theȱ letterȱ andȱ spiritȱ ofȱ CEDAWȱ demand.ȱ Inȱ itsȱ preamble,ȱCEDAWȱgivesȱexpressionȱtoȱtheȱimportantȱroleȱofȱwomenȱinȱ “theȱ welfareȱ ofȱ theȱ family”ȱ andȱ inȱ particular,ȱ theȱ “theȱ socialȱ significanceȱofȱmaternity.”ȱInȱsoȱdoing,ȱhowever,ȱitȱacknowledgesȱthatȱ “aȱchangeȱinȱtheȱtraditionalȱroleȱofȱmenȱasȱwellȱasȱtheȱroleȱofȱwomenȱinȱ societyȱ andȱ inȱ theȱ familyȱ isȱ neededȱ toȱ achieveȱ fullȱ equalityȱ betweenȱ menȱ andȱ women.”ȱ Thisȱ suggestsȱ thatȱ constitutionalȱ provisionsȱ reinforcingȱtheȱmaternalȱrolesȱofȱwomenȱaloneȱwillȱnotȱsufficeȱandȱthatȱ States,ȱ mustȱ moveȱ towardsȱ aȱ moreȱ holisticȱ approachȱ toȱ addressingȱ women’sȱrightsȱwithinȱtheirȱrespectiveȱConstitutions.ȱ ȱ Boxȱ30(a):ȱExamplesȱofȱprovisionsȱwhichȱdemonstrateȱtheȱcomplementarityȱ betweenȱCEDAWȱandȱtheȱCRCȱ x Ghana:ȱ“Specialȱcareȱshallȱbeȱaccordedȱtoȱmothersȱduringȱaȱreasonableȱ periodȱbeforeȱandȱafterȱchildbirth;ȱandȱduringȱthoseȱperiods,ȱworkingȱ mothersȱshallȱbeȱaccordedȱpaidȱleave.”ȱ x Ghana:ȱ“FacilitiesȱshallȱbeȱprovidedȱforȱtheȱcareȱofȱchildrenȱbelowȱschoolȬ goingȱageȱtoȱenableȱwomen,ȱwhoȱhaveȱtheȱtraditionalȱcareȱofȱchildren,ȱ realiseȱtheirȱfullȱpotential”ȱ(Articleȱ27ȱ(1)ȱandȱ(2)). 183 ȱ ȱ Boxȱ30(b):ȱExamplesȱofȱSpecificȱProvisionsȱonȱWomen’sȱRightsȱwithoutȱReferenceȱ toȱChildrenȱ x Uganda:ȱ“Womenȱshallȱhaveȱtheȱrightȱtoȱequalȱtreatmentȱwithȱmenȱinȱallȱ aspectsȱofȱpolitical,ȱeconomicȱandȱsocialȱlife”ȱ(Articleȱ33ȱ(4)).ȱ x Ghana:ȱȱ“[T]heȱStateȱshallȱtakeȱstepsȱsoȱasȱtoȱensureȱtheȱfullȱintegrationȱofȱ womenȱintoȱtheȱmainstreamȱofȱeconomicȱdevelopment”ȱ(Articleȱ36(6)).ȱȱ x Kenyaȱhasȱalsoȱtakenȱadvantageȱofȱitsȱrecentȱconstitutionalȱreviewȱtoȱ accordȱmoreȱeconomicȱ(forȱexample,ȱaccessȱtoȱland)ȱandȱpoliticalȱrightsȱtoȱ women. 184 ȱ ȱ Clausesȱ thatȱ mayȱ resultȱ inȱ theȱ perpetuationȱ ofȱ discriminationȱ orȱ uncertaintyȱinȱinterpretation,ȱasȱtheȱcaseȱmayȱbe,ȱshouldȱbeȱremovedȱorȱ excluded.ȱInȱPakistan,ȱforȱinstance,ȱsexȱdiscriminationȱinȱappointmentsȱ inȱ theȱ serviceȱ ofȱ theȱ countryȱ isȱ notȱ permissible.ȱ However,ȱ “specifiedȱ postsȱ orȱ servicesȱ mayȱ beȱ reservedȱ forȱ aȱmemberȱ ofȱ eitherȱ sexȱ ifȱsuchȱ
183 Duncan has criticized the inclusion of the phrase “women, who have the traditional care of children,” in a study on Women and Agriculture (2004, sponsored by Freidricht Erbert and Stiftung and the Federation of International Women Lawyers), suggesting that the provision perpetuates the perception that childcare is a role strictly reserved for women. This is contrary to commitments made at the 1994 Cairo conference on population and development, during which childcare was categorized as a joint responsibility between men and women. 184 For instance, the draft constitution introduced a Mixed Member Proportional system, requiring that 50% of “top-up” members be women and also ensures fair representation of women in the second legislative chamber and in district and local councils. See the Report of the Constitution of Kenya Review Commission (short version, p. 16, 2002).
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postsȱorȱservicesȱentailȱtheȱperformanceȱofȱdutiesȱandȱfunctionsȱwhichȱ cannotȱbeȱadequatelyȱperformedȱbyȱmembersȱofȱtheȱotherȱsex”ȱ(Articleȱ 27ȱ (1)).ȱ Suchȱ aȱ provisionȱ mayȱ resultȱ inȱ actsȱ ofȱ directȱ orȱ indirectȱ discriminationȱagainstȱwomen.ȱ ȱ 2.2.4ȱ ConstitutionalȱRedressȱinȱCasesȱofȱViolationsȱofȱFundamentalȱ HumanȱRightsȱ ȱ 1.ȱRedressȱinȱmattersȱofȱaȱcivilȱandȱpoliticalȱnatureȱ ȱ TheȱcaseȱofȱUnityȱDow,ȱcitedȱabove,ȱdemonstratesȱthatȱitȱisȱpossibleȱtoȱ addressȱ constitutionalȱ violationsȱ ofȱ rightsȱ throughȱ dueȱ process.ȱ Remediesȱ canȱ beȱ madeȱ availableȱ toȱ victimsȱ ofȱ suchȱ violationsȱ andȱ additionalȱprovisionsȱmadeȱforȱexpeditiousȱexecutionȱofȱdueȱprocessȱtoȱ preventȱ furtherȱ violations.ȱ Theȱ followingȱ constituteȱ examplesȱ ofȱ remediesȱappropriateȱinȱconstitutionalȱcases:ȱ ȱȱ 1. Habeasȱcorpus:ȱtoȱproduceȱtheȱbodyȱofȱaȱvictimȱ 2. Certiorari:ȱtoȱoverturnȱtheȱdecisionsȱofȱaȱpersonȱorȱbodyȱ 3. Mandamus:ȱtoȱcompelȱaȱpersonȱorȱbodyȱtoȱperformȱitsȱfunctionsȱ 4. Prohibition:ȱtoȱpreventȱaȱpersonȱorȱbodyȱfromȱbreakingȱtheȱlawȱ 5. Quoȱwarranto:ȱtoȱmaintainȱtheȱstatusȱquoȱ 6. Declaration:ȱanȱexplicitȱformalȱpronouncementȱbyȱtheȱcourtȱonȱ theȱissueȱinȱquestionȱ ȱ Ghana,ȱIndia,ȱIreland,ȱNigeria,ȱSouthȱAfrica,ȱTimorȬLeste,ȱUgandaȱandȱ UkraineȱareȱexamplesȱofȱStatesȱwithȱspecificȱconstitutionalȱprovisionsȱ thatȱ allowȱ individualsȱ orȱ groupȱ ofȱ personsȱ (forȱ example,ȱ interestȱ groups)ȱ toȱ seekȱ redressȱ inȱ aȱ courtȱ ofȱ competentȱ jurisdictionȱ onȱ theȱ groundȱofȱactualȱorȱpotentialȱviolationȱofȱaȱfundamentalȱhumanȱright.ȱ InȱSouthȱAfrica,ȱforȱinstance,ȱitȱisȱpossibleȱunderȱarticleȱ38ȱfor:ȱ ȱ 1. anyoneȱactingȱinȱtheirȱownȱinterest;ȱ 2. anyoneȱactingȱonȱbehalfȱofȱanotherȱpersonȱwhoȱcannotȱactȱinȱ theirȱownȱname;ȱ 3. anyoneȱactingȱasȱaȱmemberȱof,ȱorȱinȱtheȱinterestȱof,ȱaȱgroupȱorȱ classȱofȱpersons;ȱ 4. anyoneȱactingȱinȱtheȱpublicȱinterest;ȱandȱ 5. anȱassociationȱactingȱinȱtheȱinterestȱifȱitsȱmembers.ȱ ȱ
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FundamentalȱHumanȱRightsȱareȱtoȱbeȱinterpretedȱinȱaccordanceȱwithȱ theȱUniversalȱDeclarationȱofȱHumanȱRightsȱ(TimorȬLeste,ȱsectionȱ23).ȱ Inȱseekingȱjudicialȱredress,ȱinsufficientȱeconomicȱmeansȱcannotȱbeȱusedȱ asȱanȱexcuseȱorȱtheȱdenialȱofȱjusticeȱ(SeeȱConstitutionȱofȱTimorȬLeste,ȱ sectionȱ26ȱ(2)).ȱ ȱ Theseȱprovisionsȱmakeȱitȱpossibleȱforȱindividualsȱorȱgroupsȱofȱpersonsȱ toȱinitiateȱactionȱwithinȱanȱappropriateȱlegalȱforumȱforȱtheȱpurposesȱofȱ correctingȱanȱabuseȱofȱtheȱconstitution.ȱItȱmustȱbeȱnoted,ȱhowever,ȱthatȱ constitutionalȱcasesȱinȱrelationȱtoȱtheȱrightsȱofȱchildrenȱhaveȱgenerallyȱ notȱbeenȱcommon.ȱSouthȱAfricaȱappearsȱtoȱbeȱanȱexampleȱofȱaȱcountryȱ withȱprogressiveȱconstitutionalȱjudicialȱreformsȱinȱfavourȱofȱchildren.ȱ Itȱ isȱ hopedȱ thatȱ thisȱ Handbookȱ andȱ otherȱ materialsȱ onȱ humanȱ rightsȱ lawȱwouldȱcontributeȱtoȱchangingȱthisȱstateȱofȱaffairs.ȱȱȱ ȱ 2.ȱRedressȱinȱmattersȱofȱaȱsocial,ȱeconomicȱandȱculturalȱnatureȱ ȱ AlthoughȱmanyȱStatesȱhaveȱincorporatedȱsocial,ȱeconomicȱandȱculturalȱ rightsȱ inȱ theirȱ constitutions’ȱ Billsȱ ofȱ Rightsȱ orȱ separateȱ sectionsȱ onȱ Fundamentalȱ Humanȱ Rights,ȱ issuesȱ ofȱ justiciabilityȱ andȱ enforcementȱ haveȱbeenȱlessȱclear.ȱThisȱmayȱhaveȱbeenȱtheȱreasoningȱbehindȱarticleȱ2ȱ (1)ȱ ofȱ theȱ Internationalȱ Covenantȱ onȱ Economic,ȱ Socialȱ andȱ Culturalȱ Rightsȱwhichȱstatesȱthatȱ“[e]achȱStateȱParty…undertakesȱtoȱtakeȱsteps,ȱ individuallyȱ andȱ throughȱ internationalȱ assistanceȱ andȱ coȬoperation,ȱ especiallyȱ economicȱ andȱ technical,ȱ toȱ theȱ maximumȱ ofȱ itsȱ availableȱ resourcesȱwithȱaȱviewȱtoȱachievingȱprogressivelyȱtheȱfullȱrealizationȱofȱ theȱrightsȱrecognizedȱinȱtheȱpresentȱCovenant.” 185 ȱȱ ȱ However,ȱ afterȱ 40ȱ yearsȱ ofȱ globalȱ operationȱ ofȱ thisȱ Covenantȱ andȱ anȱ almostȱ equalȱ periodȱ ofȱ internationalȱ assistanceȱ andȱ cooperation,ȱ anȱ evolutionȱofȱtheȱapplicationȱofȱthisȱprincipleȱappearsȱtoȱbeȱtakingȱplaceȱ underȱ theȱ auspicesȱ ofȱ theȱ UNȱ Committeeȱ onȱ theȱ Covenantȱ ofȱ Economic,ȱ Socialȱ andȱ Culturalȱ Rights. 186 ȱ Theȱ Committeeȱ hasȱ consideredȱtheȱquestionȱofȱjusticiabilityȱinȱconnectionȱwithȱtheȱroleȱofȱ
185 See article 4 of the CRC for similar provisions. 186 The beginning of this analysis, including the extract in Box 3, is to be credited to Human Rights in the Administration of Justice: A Manual on Human Rights for Judges, Prosecutors, and Lawyers, produced by the Office of the High Commissioner for Human rights in collaboration with the International Bar Association, Professional Training Series No. 9 (2003).
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legalȱ remediesȱ inȱ itsȱ Generalȱ Commentȱ No.ȱ 9.ȱ Althoughȱ itȱ considersȱ thatȱ“theȱrightȱtoȱanȱeffectiveȱremedyȱneedȱnotȱbeȱinterpretedȱasȱalwaysȱ requiringȱaȱjudicialȱremedy”ȱandȱthatȱ“administrativeȱremediesȱwill,ȱinȱ manyȱ cases,ȱ beȱ adequate,”ȱ itȱ isȱ alsoȱ ofȱ theȱ viewȱ thatȱ “wheneverȱ aȱ Covenantȱ rightȱ cannotȱ beȱ madeȱ fullyȱ effectiveȱ withoutȱ someȱ roleȱ forȱ theȱjudiciary,ȱjudicialȱremediesȱareȱnecessary.”ȱ ȱ Inȱ thisȱ Generalȱ Comment,ȱ theȱ Committeeȱ regretsȱ that,ȱ inȱ contrastȱ toȱ civilȱ andȱ politicalȱ rights,ȱ theȱ “assumptionȱ isȱ tooȱ oftenȱ made”ȱ thatȱ judicialȱ remediesȱ areȱ notȱ essentialȱ withȱ regardȱ toȱ violationsȱ ofȱ economic,ȱsocialȱandȱculturalȱrights,ȱalthoughȱ“thisȱdiscrepancyȱisȱnotȱ warrantedȱ eitherȱ byȱ theȱ natureȱ ofȱ theȱ rightsȱ orȱ byȱ theȱ relevantȱ Covenantȱprovisions.”ȱTheȱCommitteeȱnotesȱthatȱitȱhasȱalreadyȱmadeȱ clearȱ“thatȱitȱconsidersȱmanyȱofȱtheȱprovisionsȱinȱtheȱCovenantȱtoȱbeȱ capableȱofȱimmediateȱimplementation,”ȱforȱinstance,ȱarticlesȱ3,ȱ7(a)(i),ȱ 8,ȱ 10(3),ȱ 13(2)(a),ȱ 13(3),ȱ 13(4)ȱ andȱ 15(3).ȱ Theseȱ provisions,ȱ whichȱ theȱ Committeeȱ citesȱ byȱ wayȱ ofȱ example,ȱ containȱ rightsȱ inȱ relationȱ toȱ children:ȱ ȱ 1. 1.ȱTheȱrightȱofȱchildrenȱandȱyoungȱpeopleȱtoȱspecialȱmeasureȱofȱ protectionȱandȱassistance,ȱtoȱbeȱtakenȱwithoutȱdiscriminationȱ (articleȱ10ȱ(3));ȱ 2. 2.ȱTheȱrightȱtoȱfreeȱcompulsoryȱprimaryȱeducationȱforȱallȱ (articleȱ13ȱ(2)ȱ(a))ȱand;ȱ 3. 3.ȱTheȱrightȱofȱparentsȱorȱlegalȱguardiansȱtoȱchooseȱforȱtheirȱ children,ȱschoolsȱotherȱthanȱpublicȱschoolsȱtoȱensureȱreligiousȱ andȱmoralȱeducationȱinȱconformityȱwithȱtheirȱconvictionsȱ (articleȱ13ȱ(3)).ȱ ȱ TheȱCommitteeȱconsidersȱthatȱ“itȱisȱimportantȱtoȱdistinguishȱbetweenȱ justiciabilityȱ (whichȱ refersȱ toȱ thoseȱ mattersȱ whichȱ areȱ appropriatelyȱ resolvedȱbyȱtheȱcourts)ȱandȱnormsȱwhichȱareȱselfȬexecutingȱ(capableȱofȱ beingȱ appliedȱ byȱ theȱ courtsȱ withoutȱ furtherȱ elaboration).ȱ Whileȱ theȱ generalȱapproachȱofȱeachȱlegalȱsystemȱneedsȱtoȱbeȱtakenȱintoȱaccount,ȱ thereȱ isȱ noȱ Covenantȱ right,ȱ whichȱ couldȱ not,ȱ inȱ theȱ greatȱ majorityȱ ofȱ systems,ȱ beȱ consideredȱtoȱ possessȱ atȱ leastȱsomeȱ significantȱ justiciableȱ dimensions.ȱ Itȱ isȱ sometimesȱ suggestedȱ thatȱ mattersȱ involvingȱ theȱ allocationȱofȱresourcesȱshouldȱbeȱleftȱtoȱtheȱpoliticalȱauthoritiesȱratherȱ thanȱ theȱ courts.ȱ Whileȱ theȱ respectiveȱ competenciesȱ ofȱ theȱ variousȱ branchesȱ ofȱ governmentȱ mustȱ beȱ respected,ȱ itȱ isȱ appropriateȱ toȱ
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acknowledgeȱ thatȱ courtsȱ areȱ generallyȱ alreadyȱ involvedȱ inȱ aȱ considerableȱ rangeȱ ofȱ matters,ȱ whichȱ haveȱ importantȱ resourceȱ applications.ȱTheȱadoptionȱofȱaȱrigidȱclassificationȱofȱeconomic,ȱsocialȱ andȱculturalȱrightsȱwhichȱputsȱthem,ȱbyȱdefinition,ȱbeyondȱtheȱreachȱofȱ theȱcourtsȱwouldȱthusȱbeȱarbitraryȱandȱincompatibleȱwithȱtheȱprincipleȱ thatȱtheȱtwoȱsetsȱofȱhumanȱrightsȱareȱindivisibleȱandȱinterdependent.ȱItȱ wouldȱalsoȱdrasticallyȱcurtailȱtheȱcapacityȱofȱtheȱcourtsȱtoȱprotectȱtheȱ rightsȱofȱtheȱmostȱvulnerableȱandȱdisadvantagedȱgroupsȱinȱsociety.” 187 ȱȱ ȱ Theseȱ importantȱ observationsȱ demonstrateȱ thatȱ interpretationȱ ofȱ theȱ enforcementȱ ofȱ social,ȱ economicȱ andȱ culturalȱ rightsȱ isȱ evolvingȱ andȱ thatȱ countriesȱ needȱ toȱ takeȱ noteȱ ofȱ emergingȱ internationalȱ guidelines. 188 ȱKenyaȱtookȱadvantageȱofȱitsȱrecentȱconstitutionalȱreviewȱ toȱ removeȱ theȱ perceivedȱ riftȱ betweenȱ civilȱ andȱ politicalȱ rightsȱ andȱ economic,ȱ socialȱ andȱ culturalȱ rightsȱ withinȱ itsȱ formerȱ constitutionalȱ provisions.ȱByȱmakingȱextensiveȱreferenceȱtoȱtheȱGeneralȱCommentȱofȱ theȱ Committee,ȱ theȱ Constitutionalȱ Commissionȱ expressedȱ theȱ viewȱ thatȱthereȱwasȱnoȱhierarchyȱofȱrightsȱwithȱsomeȱbeingȱmoreȱimportantȱ thanȱ others. 189 ȱ Kenyaȱ alsoȱ recognisedȱ theȱ existenceȱ ofȱ newȱ internationalȱproceduresȱforȱenforcingȱhumanȱrightsȱthatȱwouldȱneedȱ toȱ beȱ reflectedȱ inȱ theȱ newȱ Constitutionȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ correspondingȱ institutionsȱtoȱoverseeȱtheirȱenforcement. 190ȱ ȱ 2.3ȱ Principleȱ3:ȱAccountabilityȱ ȱ Duringȱconstitutionalȱformulationsȱandȱreviewsȱitȱisȱimportantȱforȱ stakeholdersȱtoȱagreeȱonȱwhatȱmechanismsȱwillȱbeȱusedȱtoȱholdȱ governmentsȱaccountableȱtoȱtheirȱconstitutionalȱobligations.ȱInȱ additionȱtoȱotherȱcriteria,ȱcountriesȱcouldȱconsiderȱtheȱfollowing:ȱ ȱ x Commitmentȱtoȱinternationalȱlawȱ x Commitmentȱtoȱgoodȱgovernanceȱ x Dutiesȱandȱresponsibilitiesȱofȱtheȱindividual,ȱfamilyȱandȱsocietyȱ
187 Human Rights in the Administration of Justice: A Manual on Human Rights for Judges, Prosecutors, and Lawyers, produced by the Office of the High Commissioner for Human rights in collaboration with the International Bar Association, Professional Training Series No. 9 (2003), p. 707-710. 188 Mosikatsana (supra) asserts that judicial constitutional developments in South Africa may not rule out such a possibility in South Africa (see footnote 63). 189 Report on the Constitution of Kenya Review Commission (short version), (2002), p. 30. 190 Ibid. p. 29.
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ȱ 2.3.1ȱ CommitmentȱtoȱInternationalȱLawȱȱ ȱ Constitutionsȱ shouldȱ indicateȱ theȱ relationshipȱ betweenȱ internationalȱ lawȱ andȱ domesticȱ lawȱ andȱ atȱ whichȱ stageȱ ofȱ theȱ legalȱ processȱ theȱ formerȱ becomesȱ integratedȱ intoȱ theȱ latter.ȱ Theȱ introductionȱ toȱ thisȱ Handbookȱhasȱshownȱthatȱtheȱmonistȱandȱdualistȱapproachesȱareȱtheȱ principleȱmeansȱbyȱwhichȱStatesȱwithȱcivilȱandȱcommonȱlawȱtraditionsȱ haveȱexpressedȱtheȱinterfaceȱbetweenȱinternationalȱlawȱandȱdomesticȱ law.ȱ Inȱ additionȱ toȱ theseȱ broadȱ distinctions,ȱ itȱ isȱ alsoȱ importantȱ toȱ recogniseȱhowȱconstitutionalȱmonarchiesȱincorporateȱinternationalȱlawȱ intoȱ domesticȱ law,ȱ whenȱ suchȱ anȱ approachȱ differsȱ fromȱ theȱ twoȱ thatȱ haveȱalreadyȱbeenȱoutlined.ȱBelowȱisȱanȱoverviewȱofȱtheȱconstitutionalȱ provisionsȱofȱsomeȱcountries:ȱ ȱ 1.ȱExamplesȱofȱtheȱmonistȱapproachȱ ȱ Ukraine:ȱ“Internationalȱtreatiesȱthatȱareȱinȱforce,ȱagreedȱtoȱbeȱbindingȱ byȱtheȱVekhovnaȱRadaȱofȱUkraine,ȱareȱpartȱofȱtheȱnationalȱlegislationȱofȱ Ukraine.ȱ Theȱ conclusionȱ ofȱ internationalȱ treatiesȱ thatȱ contraveneȱ theȱ Constitutionȱ ofȱ Ukraineȱ isȱ possibleȱ onlyȱ afterȱ introducingȱ relevantȱ amendmentsȱtoȱtheȱConstitutionȱofȱUkraine”ȱ(Articleȱ9).ȱ ȱ TimorȬLeste:ȱ“TheȱlegalȱsystemȱofȱTimorȬLesteȱshallȱadoptȱtheȱgeneralȱ orȱ customaryȱ principlesȱ ofȱ internationalȱ law.ȱ Rulesȱ providedȱ forȱ inȱ internationalȱ conventions,ȱ treatiesȱ andȱ agreementsȱ shallȱ applyȱ inȱ theȱ internalȱ legalȱ systemȱ ofȱ TimorȬLesteȱ followingȱ theirȱ approval,ȱ ratificationȱorȱaccessionȱbyȱtheȱrespectiveȱcompetentȱorgansȱandȱafterȱ publicationȱ inȱ theȱ officialȱ gazette.ȱ Allȱ rulesȱ thatȱ areȱ contraryȱ toȱ theȱ provisionsȱ ofȱ internationalȱ conventions,ȱ treatiesȱ andȱ agreementsȱ appliedȱ inȱ theȱ internalȱ legalȱ systemȱ shallȱ beȱ invalid.ȱ Theȱ stateȱ alsoȱ recognizesȱtheȱapplicationȱofȱcustomaryȱinternationalȱlawȱinȱmattersȱofȱ childȱprotection”ȱ(Sectionȱ18ȱ(2)).ȱ ȱ Venezuela:ȱ “Theȱ Conventionȱ onȱ theȱ Rightsȱ ofȱ theȱ Childȱ isȱ thusȱ incorporatedȱ intoȱ theȱ nationalȱ lawȱ atȱ theȱ highestȱ level,ȱ asȱ partȱ ofȱtheȱ Constitution”ȱ(Articleȱ78). 191ȱ 2.ȱExamplesȱofȱtheȱdualistȱapproachȱ
191 This is contained under its special provisions for children.
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ȱ Ghana:ȱ“Aȱtreaty,ȱagreementȱorȱconventionȱexecutedȱbyȱorȱunderȱtheȱ authorityȱofȱtheȱPresidentȱshallȱbeȱsubjectȱtoȱratificationȱbyȱ(a)ȱActȱofȱ Parliament;ȱorȱ(b)ȱAȱresolutionȱofȱParliamentȱsupportedȱbyȱtheȱvotesȱofȱ notȱmoreȱthatȱoneȬhalfȱofȱtheȱallȱtheȱmembersȱofȱParliament”ȱ(Articleȱ 75ȱ(2)).ȱ ȱ Ireland:ȱ“(1)ȱEveryȱInternationalȱagreementȱtoȱwhichȱtheȱStateȱbecomesȱ partyȱshallȱbeȱlaidȱbeforeȱDailȱEireann.ȱ(2)ȱTheȱStateȱshallȱnotȱbeȱboundȱ byȱanyȱinternationalȱagreementȱinvolvingȱaȱchargeȱuponȱpublicȱfundsȱ unlessȱ theȱ termsȱ ofȱ theȱ agreementȱ shallȱ haveȱ beenȱ approvedȱ byȱ Dailȱ Eireann.ȱNoȱinternationalȱagreementȱshallȱbeȱpartȱofȱtheȱdomesticȱlawȱ ofȱtheȱStateȱsaveȱasȱmayȱbeȱdeterminedȱbyȱtheȱOireachtas”ȱ(Articleȱ29ȱ (5)ȱ andȱ (6))ȱ (Similarly,ȱ inȱ theȱ Russianȱ Federation,ȱ beforeȱ anȱ internationalȱtreatyȱisȱratifiedȱbyȱtheȱStateȱDuma,ȱtheȱconstitutionalityȱ ofȱtheȱtreatyȱmustȱbeȱdeterminedȱbyȱtheȱConstitutionalȱCourt.)ȱȱ ȱ ForȱcountriesȱsuchȱasȱTimorȬLeste,ȱUkraineȱandȱVenezuelaȱtheȱmonistȱ approachȱ representsȱ anȱ opportunityȱ toȱ beginȱ enforcementȱ ofȱ internationalȱ humanȱ rightsȱ lawȱ onceȱ ratified.ȱ Furtherȱ parliamentaryȱ andȱlegislativeȱinterventionsȱwouldȱbeȱimportantȱbutȱnotȱaȱsineȱquaȱnonȱ toȱ CRCȱ implementation.ȱ Venezuela’sȱ explicitȱ referenceȱ toȱ theȱ CRCȱ isȱ particularlyȱ uniqueȱ andȱ worthyȱ ofȱ considerationȱ duringȱ futureȱ constitutionalȱreformȱinitiatives.ȱ ȱ 3.ȱConstitutionalȱMonarchiesȱ ȱ Anȱ analysisȱ ofȱ theȱ considerationsȱ thatȱ pertainȱ toȱ constitutionalȱ monarchicalȱjurisdictionsȱgenerallyȱresultsȱinȱaȱblendȱofȱtheȱdualistȱandȱ monistȱapproaches.ȱTheȱgeneralȱpracticeȱisȱthatȱaȱtreatyȱobligationȱonceȱ ratifiedȱbecomesȱpartȱofȱtheȱdomesticȱlawȱofȱtheȱState,ȱunlessȱtheȱtreatyȱ inȱ questionȱ requiresȱ theȱ passageȱ ofȱ domesticȱ lawȱ forȱ purposesȱ ofȱ givingȱeffectȱtoȱtheȱtreaty.ȱ
Theȱ generalȱ ruleȱ inȱ mostȱ constitutionalȱ monarchies,ȱ suchȱ asȱ theȱ Canada,ȱ Monacoȱ andȱ theȱ Unitedȱ Kingdom,ȱ isȱ thatȱ treatyȬmakingȱ powerȱisȱvestedȱinȱtheȱCrown.ȱInȱCanada, 192 ȱthisȱisȱexecutedȱthroughȱ
192 An explanation of the Canadian example was extracted from Dupras, Daniel, Government of Canada, Law and Government Division, Depository Services Programme (2006) in an article entitled: “International Treaties Canadian Practice.”
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theȱ federalȱ executiveȱ branchȱ ofȱ governmentȱ asȱ theȱ Crown’sȱ representative.ȱ Althoughȱ theȱ Governorȱ inȱ Councilȱ (Cabinet)ȱ retainsȱ finalȱ effectiveȱ controlȱ overȱ theȱ ratificationȱ ofȱ treaties,ȱ itȱ mayȱ appointȱ anyȱpersonȱitȱwishesȱtoȱnegotiateȱandȱsignȱthem.ȱApartȱfromȱtheȱPrimeȱ Minister,ȱ theseȱ personsȱ areȱ usuallyȱ theȱ ministers,ȱ deputyȱ ministers,ȱ diplomaticȱrepresentativesȱorȱnegotiatorsȱofȱtheȱCanadianȱgovernment.ȱ Aȱ treatyȱ enteredȱ intoȱ andȱ signedȱ forȱ andȱ onȱ behalfȱ ofȱ Canadaȱ byȱ aȱ representativeȱ ofȱ theȱ Governmentȱ ofȱ Canadaȱ andȱ subsequentlyȱ approvedȱbyȱtheȱGovernorȱinȱCouncilȱisȱbindingȱonȱCanada.ȱȱApprovalȱ usuallyȱ takesȱ theȱ formȱ ofȱ anȱ orderȱ inȱ council.ȱ Furthermore,ȱ theȱ Governorȱ inȱ Councilȱ mayȱ approveȱ theȱ textȱ ofȱ anȱ internationalȱ treatyȱ thatȱ hasȱ notȱ yetȱ beenȱ signedȱ andȱ designateȱ aȱ representativeȱ ofȱ theȱ Governmentȱ ofȱ Canadaȱ toȱ signȱ itȱ onȱ behalfȱ ofȱ Canada.ȱȱ However,ȱ whereȱamendmentsȱmustȱbeȱmadeȱtoȱCanadianȱlegislationȱinȱorderȱforȱ aȱtreatyȱtoȱbeȱimplemented,ȱtheȱministersȱconcernedȱgiveȱinstructionsȱ forȱ anȱ implementationȱ billȱ toȱ beȱ drafted.ȱ Afterȱ receivingȱ Cabinetȱ approval,ȱ theȱ billȱ isȱ tabledȱ inȱ Parliamentȱ andȱ goesȱ throughȱ theȱ parliamentaryȱlegislativeȱprocess.ȱ
Inȱ theȱ caseȱ ofȱ Attorneyȱ Generalȱ forȱ Canadaȱ vs.ȱ Attorneyȱ Generalȱ forȱ Ontarioȱ [1937]ȱ ACȱ 326,ȱ theȱ courtȱ madeȱ theȱ followingȱ importantȱ observationȱ aboutȱ theȱ linkageȱ betweenȱ internationalȱ treatiesȱ andȱ domesticȱlaw:ȱ“WithinȱtheȱBritishȱEmpire,ȱthereȱisȱwellȬestablishedȱruleȱ thatȱtheȱmakingȱofȱaȱtreatyȱisȱanȱExecutiveȱact,ȱwhileȱtheȱperformanceȱ ofȱitsȱobligations,ȱifȱtheyȱentailȱalterationȱofȱtheȱexistingȱdomesticȱlawȱ requiresȱlegislativeȱaction.ȱȱRatificationȱofȱaȱtreatyȱaloneȱdoesȱnotȱgiveȱ itȱtheȱforceȱofȱlaw.” 193 ȱȱ ȱ 2.3.2ȱ CommitmentȱtoȱGoodȱGovernanceȱ ȱ TheȱofficeȱofȱtheȱUNȱHighȱCommissionȱforȱHumanȱRightsȱhasȱ establishedȱanȱinseparableȱlinkȱbetweenȱgoodȱgovernanceȱandȱtheȱ enforcementȱofȱhumanȱrights.ȱItȱdefinesȱgovernanceȱasȱ“theȱprocessȱbyȱ whichȱpublicȱinstitutionsȱconductȱpublicȱaffairs,ȱmanageȱpublicȱ resourcesȱandȱguaranteeȱtheȱrealizationȱofȱhumanȱrights.ȱGoodȱ governanceȱaccomplishesȱthisȱinȱaȱmannerȱessentiallyȱfreeȱofȱabuseȱandȱ corruption,ȱandȱwithȱdueȱregardȱforȱtheȱruleȱofȱlaw.ȱTheȱtrueȱtestȱofȱ
193 For the full text, see the judgment of Lord Atkin. p. 347.
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‘good’ȱgovernanceȱisȱtheȱdegreeȱtoȱwhichȱitȱdeliversȱonȱtheȱpromiseȱofȱ humanȱrights:ȱcivil,ȱcultural,ȱeconomic,ȱpoliticalȱandȱsocialȱrights.” 194 ȱȱȱ ȱ Thereȱoughtȱtoȱbeȱcommitmentȱtoȱgoodȱgovernanceȱifȱconstitutionsȱareȱ toȱbeȱeffectiveȱframeworksȱforȱtheȱimplementationȱofȱhumanȱrights,ȱ includingȱtheȱrightsȱofȱchildren.ȱThisȱcanȱbeȱexpressedȱthroughȱtheȱ effectiveȱandȱefficientȱrunningȱofȱtheȱthreeȱarmsȱofȱgovernment,ȱ namelyȱtheȱexecutive,ȱlegislatureȱandȱjudiciary.ȱTheȱexecutiveȱhasȱtheȱ responsibilityȱforȱallȱactionsȱofȱgovernmentȱthroughȱMinistries,ȱ DepartmentsȱandȱAgencies.ȱItȱalsoȱhasȱtheȱfunctionȱofȱdraftingȱandȱ proposingȱlegislationȱandȱsettingȱtheȱbudgetȱandȱimplementationȱofȱ activities,ȱonceȱtheȱbudgetȱhasȱbeenȱapproved.ȱInȱadditionȱtoȱ approvingȱtheȱbudget,ȱtheȱmainȱfunctionȱofȱtheȱLegislatureȱisȱtoȱ considerȱlegislationȱproposedȱbyȱtheȱexecutiveȱbranchȱandȱtoȱpassȱitȱ intoȱlaw.ȱTheȱmainȱfunctionȱofȱtheȱJudiciaryȱisȱtoȱadministerȱtheȱlaw.ȱ Whileȱeachȱbranchȱofȱgovernmentȱhasȱitsȱspecificȱfunction,ȱinȱmostȱ democraciesȱtheseȱfunctionsȱoftenȱoverlap.ȱForȱinstance,ȱasȱtheȱ Handbookȱasȱalreadyȱshown,ȱunderȱcommonȱlawȱjurisdictions,ȱtheȱ judiciaryȱplaysȱaȱkeyȱroleȱinȱtheȱdevelopmentȱofȱtheȱlawȱthroughȱ interpretation.ȱThereȱareȱalsoȱoverlapsȱbetweenȱtheȱexecutiveȱandȱ legislativeȱbranchesȱinȱtheȱParliamentaryȱsystem,ȱbecauseȱtheȱchiefȱ Executiveȱ(theȱPrimeȱMinister)ȱisȱalsoȱpartȱofȱtheȱlegislature.ȱ ȱ Inȱadditionȱtoȱtheȱkeyȱorgansȱofȱgovernment,ȱsomeȱcountriesȱhaveȱ establishedȱspecialisedȱindependentȱinstitutionsȱunderȱtheirȱrespectiveȱ constitutionsȱthatȱareȱresponsibleȱforȱmonitoringȱtheȱoverallȱ implementationȱofȱtheȱconstitutionȱinȱfavourȱofȱchildren.ȱSuchȱbodiesȱ areȱalsoȱneededȱtoȱensureȱimplementationȱofȱhumanȱrightsȱtreatiesȱandȱ timelyȱsubmissionȱofȱcountryȱreportsȱtoȱrelevantȱtreatyȱcommittees.ȱ Countryȱconstitutionalȱprovisionsȱdemonstrateȱtheȱexistenceȱofȱaȱbroadȱ arrayȱofȱsuchȱbodies.ȱȱ ȱ x CouncilsȱofȱState:ȱȱAvailableȱinȱGhana,ȱIrelandȱandȱNigeriaȱ withȱtheȱmandateȱtoȱadviseȱtheȱPresidentȱinȱtheȱperformanceȱofȱ hisȱorȱherȱfunctions.ȱ x CommissionsȱonȱHumanȱRightsȱandȱAdministrativeȱ Justice: 195 ȱȱAvailableȱinȱGhana,ȱSouthȱAfrica,ȱTimorȬLesteȱandȱ
194 UNOHCHR (1996-2002) Human Rights in Development. 195 Function summarized from article 52 of the Constitution of Uganda. The provisions of the South African Constitution permit its Human Rights Commission to require relevant organs
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Uganda,ȱwithȱtheȱmandateȱtoȱinvestigate,ȱatȱitsȱownȱinitiativeȱorȱ inȱresponseȱtoȱaȱcomplaintȱmadeȱbyȱanyȱpersonȱorȱgroupȱofȱ personsȱaȱviolationȱofȱanyȱhumanȱright;ȱvisitȱjails,ȱprisonsȱandȱ placesȱofȱdetentionȱtoȱassessȱconditionsȱofȱinmates;ȱrecommendȱ toȱParliamentȱeffectiveȱmeasuresȱtoȱpromoteȱhumanȱrights;ȱ humanȱrightsȱeducationȱamongȱtheȱgeneralȱpopulaceȱandȱ monitoringȱofȱoverallȱGovernmentȱcomplianceȱwithȱ internationalȱtreatyȱobligations.ȱ x NationalȱPrimaryȱEducationȱCommission:ȱAvailableȱinȱ Nigeria,ȱwithȱtheȱmandateȱtoȱprescribeȱtheȱminimumȱstandardsȱ ofȱprimaryȱeducation,ȱadviseȱFederalȱgovernmentȱonȱtheȱ financingȱofȱprimaryȱeducationȱandȱintegrateȱmasterȱplansȱforȱaȱ balancedȱandȱcoordinatedȱdevelopmentȱofȱprimaryȱeducationȱ inȱNigeriaȱ(ArticleȱJȱ(24)).ȱ x NationalȱCommissionȱonȱCivicȱEducation:ȱPeculiarȱtoȱGhana,ȱ withȱtheȱmandateȱtoȱcreateȱawarenessȱonȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱtheȱ Constitutionȱandȱrightsȱandȱdutiesȱofȱtheȱcitizenryȱ(articleȱ 233). 196 ȱȱȱ x CommissionȱforȱGenderȱEquality:ȱPeculiarȱtoȱSouthȱAfrica,ȱ withȱtheȱmandateȱtoȱpromoteȱrespectȱforȱgenderȱequalityȱandȱ theȱprotection,ȱdevelopmentȱandȱattainmentȱofȱgenderȱequalityȱ (Articleȱ187).ȱThisȱservesȱasȱanȱadditionalȱinstitutionalȱ frameworkȱforȱtheȱmonitoringȱandȱimplementationȱofȱtheȱ MDGs.ȱ ȱ 2.3.3ȱ DutiesȱandȱResponsibilitiesȱofȱtheȱIndividual,ȱFamilyȱandȱ Societyȱ ȱ Individuals,ȱ theȱ family,ȱ societyȱ andȱ theȱ Stateȱ shouldȱ beȱ madeȱ responsibleȱforȱtheȱfullȱimplementationȱofȱtheirȱconstitutionsȱinȱfavourȱ ofȱchildren.ȱExpressȱprovisionsȱareȱthereforeȱ toȱbeȱmadeȱwichh ȱ placeȱ anȱ obligationȱ onȱ allȱ dutyȱ bearersȱ toȱ performȱ theirȱ rolesȱ andȱ responsibilitiesȱ asȱ outlinedȱ inȱ theȱ supremeȱ law.ȱ Theȱ Constitutionȱ ofȱ Nigeriaȱ(Articleȱ24)ȱandȱtheȱConstitutionȱofȱIndiaȱ(Articleȱ51)ȱpossessȱ
of State “to provide the Commission with information on the measures that they have taken towards the realization of the rights in the Bill of Rights concerning housing, healthcare, food, water, social security, education and the environment” on an annual basis (Article 184 (3)). 196 The Commission has created civic clubs in several second cycle institutions in Ghana, with a view to inculcating a sense of responsibility among children and awareness of their rights, including those enshrined in the CRC.
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elaborateȱ provisionsȱ onȱ allȱ aspectsȱ ofȱ nationalȱ life.ȱ Broadlyȱ speaking,ȱ theyȱcanȱbeȱclassifiedȱunderȱtheȱcategoriesȱofȱdutiesȱtowardsȱself,ȱtheȱ environment,ȱStateȱandȱsociety.ȱTheȱeleventhȱfundamentalȱdutyȱofȱtheȱ Indianȱ Constitutionȱ statesȱ thatȱ aȱ parentȱ orȱ guardianȱ isȱ “toȱ provideȱ opportunitiesȱ forȱ theȱ educationȱ ofȱ hisȱ childȱ or,ȱ asȱ theȱ caseȱ mayȱ be,ȱ wardȱ betweenȱ theȱ ageȱ ofȱ sixȱ andȱ fourteenȱ years”ȱ (addedȱ byȱ theȱ 86thȱ constitutionalȱamendmentȱinȱ2002).ȱTheȱConstitutionsȱofȱUkraineȱandȱ Cambodiaȱcontainȱfurtherȱprovisionsȱonȱtheȱdutyȱofȱchildrenȱtowardsȱ societyȱ andȱ theirȱ parents.ȱ Ukraine,ȱ however,ȱ limitsȱ thisȱ toȱ adultsȱ towardsȱ childrenȱ whereasȱ noȱ ageȱ limitȱ isȱ setȱ inȱ theȱ caseȱ ofȱ Cambodia. 197 ȱȱȱ ȱ 2.4ȱ Principleȱ4:ȱȱParticipationȱ ȱ Forȱprposesuionȱofȱthisȱsection,ȱparticipat ȱisȱdefinedȱasȱtheȱprocessȱbyȱ whichȱindividualsȱandȱgroupsȱareȱprovidedȱwithȱtheȱnecessaryȱtoolsȱtoȱ takeȱpartȱinȱtheȱpolitical,ȱeconomic,ȱsocialȱandȱculturalȱaffairsȱandȱ activitiesȱofȱtheȱState.ȱAllȱofȱtheȱissuesȱdiscussedȱunderȱtheȱprinciplesȱ ofȱuniversality,ȱindivisibilityȱandȱaccountabilityȱareȱessentialȱtoȱ creatingȱanȱenablingȱenvironmentȱforȱeffectiveȱparticipationȱtoȱtakeȱ place.ȱTheȱrightȱtoȱvoteȱ(essentialȱforȱgoodȱgovernance,ȱasȱdiscussedȱ above)ȱisȱkeyȱtoȱparticipation.ȱMentionȱcouldȱbeȱmadeȱofȱtheȱrightȱofȱ associationȱ(forȱexample,ȱtheȱrightȱtoȱjoinȱaȱtradeȱunion)ȱandȱtheȱrightȱ toȱmoveȱfreely.ȱTheȱCovenantȱonȱCivilȱandȱPoliticalȱRightsȱcontainsȱ essentialȱprovisionsȱlinkedȱtoȱtheȱrightȱtoȱparticipation.ȱ ȱ Boxȱ31:ȱRelevantȱprovisionsȱonȱtheȱrightȱtoȱparticipationȱinȱtheȱCCPRȱ Articleȱ19:ȱTheȱrightȱtoȱholdȱopinionsȱwithoutȱinterference,ȱfreedomȱofȱexpressionȱ (includingȱfreedomȱtoȱseek,ȱreceiveȱandȱimpartȱinformation)ȱ Articleȱ21:ȱTheȱrightȱtoȱpeacefulȱassemblyȱ Articleȱ 22:ȱ Theȱ rightȱ toȱ freedomȱ ofȱ associationȱ withȱ others,ȱ includingȱ theȱ rightȱ toȱ formȱandȱjoinȱtradeȱunionsȱ Articleȱ25:ȱTheȱrightȱtoȱtakeȱpartȱinȱtheȱconductȱofȱpublicȱaffairs,ȱtoȱvoteȱandȱtoȱbeȱ electedȱandȱtoȱhaveȱaccessȱonȱgeneralȱtermsȱofȱequality,ȱtoȱpublicȱserviceȱ ȱ ȱ
197 Leaving such provisions open-ended could result in the perpetuation of exploitation within the domestic environment.
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Partȱ3ȱ SPECIFICȱCONSTITUTIONALȱ PROVISIONSȱINȱFAVOURȱOFȱCHILDRENȱ ȱ AccordingȱtoȱUNICEF,ȱwellȱoverȱ20ȱnationalȱconstitutionsȱpossessȱtheȱ characteristicȱofȱ“childȱrights”ȱconstitutions,ȱwithȱprovisionsȱdedicatedȱ toȱtheȱprotectionȱofȱtheȱrightsȱofȱtheȱchild. 198 ȱItȱwouldȱbeȱreasonableȱtoȱ assumeȱthatȱtheȱexistenceȱofȱaȱreferenceȱtoȱtheȱrightsȱofȱtheȱchildȱisȱanȱ indicationȱthatȱtheȱCRCȱhasȱhadȱatȱleastȱsomeȱimpact,ȱespeciallyȱinȱ constitutionsȱadoptedȱsinceȱ1989.ȱHowever,ȱtheȱdegreeȱofȱpenetrationȱ byȱtheȱCRCȱinȱtheȱtextȱofȱeachȱprovisionȱdealingȱwithȱtheȱrightsȱofȱtheȱ childȱdiffersȱforȱeachȱconstitution.ȱWhileȱsomeȱconstitutions,ȱsuchȱasȱ thatȱofȱBrazil,ȱhaveȱelaborateȱprovisionsȱonȱtheȱrightsȱofȱtheȱchild,ȱ others,ȱsuchȱasȱthatȱofȱThailand,ȱhaveȱrelativelyȱbriefȱprovisions. 199ȱ ȱ Theȱincorporationȱofȱspecialȱprovisionsȱonȱtheȱrightsȱofȱtheȱchildȱwillȱ followsȱtheȱevolutionȱofȱhumanȱrightsȱlaw,ȱstartingȱwithȱtheȱmoreȱ generalȱ(theȱInternationalȱBillȱofȱRights)ȱandȱlaterȱconsideringȱtheȱmoreȱ specificȱ(forȱexample,ȱCEDAWȱinȱrelationȱtoȱwomenȱandȱtheȱCRCȱinȱ relationȱtoȱchildren).ȱStatesȱshouldȱthereforeȱbeȱencouragedȱtoȱconsiderȱ specialȱclausesȱorȱchaptersȱonȱchildrenȱduringȱfutureȱconstitutionalȱ reforms.ȱForȱguidance,ȱreferenceȱisȱtoȱbeȱmadeȱtoȱtheȱprinciplesȱandȱ keyȱthematicȱareasȱofȱspecificȱchildȬrelatedȱinternationalȱnormsȱalreadyȱ cited.ȱȱȱ ȱ 3.1ȱ TheȱRelationshipȱbetweenȱSpecificȱandȱGeneralȱ Provisionsȱ ȱ Theȱrelationshipȱbetweenȱspecificȱandȱgeneralȱprovisionsȱshouldȱbeȱ governedȱbyȱtheȱprinciplesȱofȱtheȱinterdependencyȱandȱindivisibilityȱofȱ rights.ȱTheȱtwoȱbroadȱprovisionsȱshouldȱbeȱseenȱasȱcomplementaryȱ andȱmutuallyȱsupportiveȱofȱeachȱotherȱthroughȱanȱapplicationȱandȱ
198 UNICEF, ‘Laying the Foundation for Children’s Rights’, Innocenti Insight (2005), p. 25. The report cites Andorra, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Brazil, Bulgaria, China, Congo, Croatia, Ecuador, Eritrea, Estonia, Germany, Ghana, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Kyrgyz Republic, Lithuania, Macedonia, Mexico, Moldova, Mongolia, Mozambique, Paraguay, Peru, Portugal, Romania, Russian Federation, Rwanda, Senegal, Slovenia, South Korea, Spain, Uganda and Ukraine as examples of jurisdictions with such constitutional provisions on children; See p. 26. 199 Ibid. p. 25-6.
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interpretationȱthatȱwouldȱensureȱthatȱchildrenȱreceiveȱtheȱmaximumȱ protection.ȱWhereȱaȱprovisionȱinȱoneȱareaȱaffordsȱgreaterȱprotection,ȱ suchȱprovisionȱshouldȱbeȱusedȱtoȱcorrectȱtheȱviolationȱinȱquestion.ȱ Specificȱprovisionsȱonȱchildrenȱshouldȱpreferablyȱbeȱcitedȱwithinȱtheȱ moreȱgeneralȱprovisionsȱonȱhumanȱrights.ȱȱThisȱapproachȱwouldȱ underscoreȱtheȱfactȱthatȱchildren’sȱrightsȱareȱhumanȱrights,ȱandȱcanȱ thereforeȱdrawȱonȱtheȱremediesȱavailableȱforȱhumanȱrightsȱviolations.ȱ Whereȱaȱcountryȱchoosesȱtoȱplaceȱitsȱprovisionsȱregardingȱchildren’sȱ rightsȱwithinȱanotherȱsectionȱorȱasȱaȱseparateȱsection,ȱcareȱmustȱbeȱ takenȱtoȱuseȱwordsȱandȱphrasesȱthatȱwouldȱreadilyȱplaceȱthemȱwithinȱ theȱcontextȱofȱhumanȱrightsȱandȱfullyȱintegrateȱthemȱintoȱtheȱlargerȱ document.ȱThisȱwouldȱensureȱthatȱspecificȱprovisionsȱareȱnotȱ perceivedȱasȱmereȱappendagesȱtoȱtheȱconstitution.ȱ ȱ TheȱfollowingȱchecklistȱmustȱbeȱusedȱwhenȱformulatingȱaȱChildren’sȱ BillȱofȱRightsȱorȱCharter:ȱ ȱ x DoesȱitȱfollowȱtheȱkeyȱprinciplesȱofȱtheȱCRC?ȱ x Canȱitȱserveȱasȱtheȱbasisȱforȱfutureȱlegislativeȱreform?ȱ x Isȱitȱconsistentȱwithȱtheȱgeneralȱcontentȱofȱtheȱconstitution?ȱ x Didȱchildrenȱparticipateȱinȱitsȱformulation?ȱ ȱ 3.2ȱ DefinitionȱandȱLegalȱStatusȱofȱtheȱChildȱ ȱ TheȱCRCȱprovidesȱStatesȱPartiesȱwithȱanȱopportunityȱtoȱdefineȱ“child”ȱ withinȱ theirȱ respectiveȱ Constitutions.ȱ Articleȱ 1ȱ statesȱ thatȱ “Forȱ theȱ purposesȱofȱthisȱpresentȱConvention,ȱaȱchildȱmeansȱeveryȱhumanȱbeingȱ belowȱtheȱageȱofȱ18ȱyearsȱunlessȱunderȱtheȱlawȱapplicableȱtoȱtheȱchild,ȱ majorityȱisȱattainedȱearlier.”ȱȱInȱapplyingȱthisȱprovision,ȱStatesȱshouldȱ notȱpegȱtheȱlegalȱageȱatȱtooȱlowȱaȱlevelȱasȱthisȱcouldȱexposeȱchildrenȱtoȱ situationsȱofȱvulnerabilityȱorȱharm,ȱsuchȱasȱearlyȱmarriageȱandȱundueȱ exposureȱtoȱtheȱcriminalȱjusticeȱsystem.ȱȱForȱthisȱreason,ȱtheȱageȱofȱ18ȱisȱ toȱbeȱpreferredȱinȱlineȱwithȱotherȱinternationalȱstandardsȱsuchȱasȱtheȱ Optionalȱ Protocolȱ toȱ theȱ CRCȱ onȱ Childrenȱ inȱ Armedȱ Conflict.ȱ Thisȱ shouldȱ not,ȱ however,ȱ preventȱ aȱ countryȱ fromȱ stipulatingȱ lowerȱ agesȱ withȱrespectȱtoȱemploymentȱandȱdefinitionȱofȱaȱjuvenile,ȱinȱlineȱwithȱ internationalȱtreatyȱobligations.ȱBelowȱisȱaȱbriefȱanalysisȱofȱhowȱsomeȱ countriesȱ haveȱ treatedȱ definitionȱ ofȱ childȱ withinȱ theirȱ respectiveȱ constitutions.ȱ
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ȱ x SouthȱAfricaȱandȱGhanaȱdefineȱ‘child’ȱtoȱmeanȱ“aȱpersonȱ underȱtheȱageȱofȱ18ȱyears”ȱ(Articleȱ28ȱ(3)ȱinȱtheȱcaseȱofȱtheȱ ConstitutionȱofȱSouthȱAfrica;ȱandȱArticleȱ28ȱ(5)ȱinȱtheȱcaseȱofȱtheȱ ConstitutionȱofȱGhana).ȱ x Forȱpurposesȱofȱprotectionȱfromȱchildȱlabour,ȱUganda,ȱdefinesȱaȱ ‘child’ȱtoȱmeanȱ“personsȱunderȱtheȱageȱofȱsixteenȱyears”ȱ (Articleȱ34ȱ(4)ȱandȱ(5)).ȱȱ x TheȱinterpretationȱsectionȱofȱtheȱConstitutionȱofȱNigeria,ȱ however,ȱmovesȱbeyondȱageȱasȱaȱcriterionȱforȱdefiningȱaȱchildȱ toȱcategoriesȱofȱchildren.ȱ‘Child,’ȱtherefore,ȱ“includesȱaȱstepȬ child,ȱaȱlawfullyȱadoptedȱchild,ȱaȱchildȱbornȱoutȱofȱwedlockȱandȱ anyȱchildȱtoȱwhomȱanyȱindividualȱstandsȱinȱplaceȱofȱaȱparent”ȱ (seeȱSectionȱ19ȱofȱtheȱfifthȱSchedule).ȱTheȱNigerianȱexampleȱisȱaȱ reflectionȱofȱvaluesȱandȱtraditionsȱaccordedȱtoȱchildrenȱofȱ differentȱcategoriesȱandȱtheȱallȬinclusiveȱnatureȱofȱtheȱAfricanȱ conceptȱofȱchildhood.ȱȱȱ ȱ 3.3ȱ ApplicationȱofȱtheȱPrinciplesȱofȱtheȱCRCȱ ȱ Thisȱsubsectionȱdealsȱwithȱtheȱapplicationȱofȱtheȱprincipl esȱofȱtheȱCRCȱ alreadyȱoutlinedȱaboveȱtoȱtheȱformulationȱofȱconstitutionalȱprovisions.ȱȱ ȱ 3.3.1ȱ Principleȱ1:ȱNonȬdiscriminationȱ ȱ AsȱitȱisȱlikelyȱthatȱaȱnonȬdiscriminationȱclauseȱwouldȱhaveȱalreadyȱ beenȱincorporatedȱintoȱtheȱgeneralȱprovisions,ȱspecificȱprovisionsȱmayȱ focusȱonȱaȱlimitedȱrangeȱofȱsituationsȱorȱcategoriesȱofȱexclusion.ȱ Stakeholdersȱareȱtoȱagreeȱonȱtheȱcategoryȱofȱchildrenȱtoȱbeȱprovidedȱ for.ȱGivenȱtheȱhighȱpotentialȱforȱexclusionȱresultingȱfromȱtheȱimpactȱofȱ HIV/AIDSȱandȱwar,ȱcountriesȱmayȱconsiderȱspecialȱprotectionȱforȱ orphans.ȱAdditionally,ȱtheȱstigmaȱaccordedȱtoȱchildrenȱbornȱoutȱofȱ wedlockȱleavesȱroomȱforȱconsiderationȱofȱprovisionȱforȱsuchȱchildren.ȱ Childrenȱofȱminoritiesȱareȱanotherȱexample.ȱTheȱHandbookȱprovidesȱ caseȱstudiesȱonȱprovisionsȱmadeȱwithȱrespectȱtoȱorphans.ȱ ȱ ȱȱȱȱ ȱ Boxȱ32:ȱSpecialȱprovisionȱonȱorphans:ȱCaseȱstudiesȱfromȱUganda,ȱIreland,ȱ UkraineȱandȱBrazilȱ
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x Uganda:ȱ“Theȱlawȱshallȱaccordȱspecialȱprotectionȱtoȱorphansȱandȱotherȱ vulnerableȱchildren”ȱ(Articleȱ34ȱ(7)).ȱȱ x Ireland:ȱ“[Theȱlawȱshall]ȱsafeguardȱspecialȱcare,ȱtheȱeconomicȱinterestsȱofȱ theȱweakerȱsectionsȱofȱtheȱcommunity,ȱandȱwhereȱnecessary,ȱtoȱcontributeȱ toȱtheȱsupportȱofȱtheȱinfirm,ȱtheȱwidow,ȱtheȱorphanȱandȱtheȱaged.”ȱȱȱ ȱ Brazilȱprovidesȱforȱaȱprocessȱbyȱwhichȱfamiliesȱareȱencouragedȱtoȱ fosterȱchildrenȱthroughȱvariousȱformsȱofȱincentivesȱsuchȱasȱtaxȱreb atesȱ andȱsubsidies.ȱItsȱrelevantȱprovisionȱstatesȱthatȱ“governmentȱfostering,ȱ byȱmeansȱofȱlegalȱassistance,ȱtaxȱincentivesȱandȱsubsidies,ȱasȱprovidedȱ byȱlaw,ȱofȱtheȱprotection,ȱthroughȱguardianship,ȱofȱorphanedȱorȱ abandonedȱchildrenȱorȱadolescents”ȱ(Articleȱ227ȱ(V)).ȱTheseȱincentivesȱ asȱstipulated,ȱserveȱasȱaȱdisincentiveȱtoȱinstitutionalizationȱofȱchildrenȱ inȱneedȱofȱspecialȱcareȱandȱprotectionȱandȱaȱpromotionȱofȱfamilyȱ environmentȱplacements.ȱȱ ȱ Theȱfollowingȱareȱcaseȱstudiesȱonȱtheȱconstitutionalȱtreatmentȱofȱ childrenȱbornȱoutsideȱwedlock.ȱ ȱ Expressȱprovisionsȱinȱfavourȱofȱchildrenȱbornȱoutsideȱwedlockȱexistȱinȱ someȱtexts.ȱThisȱhasȱbeenȱinspiredȱbyȱarticleȱ25ȱ(2)ȱofȱtheȱUDHR,ȱwhichȱ statesȱthatȱ“allȱchildren,ȱwhetherȱbornȱinȱorȱoutȱofȱwedlock,ȱshallȱenjoyȱ theȱsameȱprotection.”ȱThisȱprovisionȱseeksȱtoȱremoveȱdiscriminatoryȱ tendenciesȱagainstȱchildrenȱdueȱtoȱtheȱcircumstancesȱofȱtheirȱbirthȱorȱ socialȱorigin. 200 ȱBelowȱisȱaȱsummaryȱofȱfiveȱcountryȱcaseȱstudiesȱonȱtheȱ treatmentȱofȱchildrenȱbornȱoutsideȱwedlockȱwithinȱtheȱcontextȱofȱ constitutionalȱlawȱdevelopmentȱinȱfavourȱofȱchildren.ȱȱȱ ȱ Ethiopia:ȱ “Childrenȱ bornȱ outȱ ofȱ wedlockȱ shallȱ haveȱ theȱ sameȱ statusȱ andȱrightsȱasȱchildrenȱbornȱinȱwedlock”ȱ(Sectionȱ36ȱ(4)).ȱ ȱ TimorȬLeste:ȱ“Everyȱchildȱbornȱinȱorȱoutsideȱwedlockȱshallȱenjoyȱtheȱ sameȱrightsȱandȱsocialȱprotection”ȱ(Sectionȱ18ȱ(3)).ȱ ȱ Brazil:ȱ“Childrenȱbornȱinsideȱorȱoutsideȱwedlockȱorȱadoptedȱshallȱhaveȱ theȱ sameȱ rightsȱ andȱ qualifications,ȱ anyȱ discriminatoryȱ designationȱ ofȱ theirȱfiliationȱbeingȱforbidden”ȱ(Sectionȱ227ȱ(VIIȱ(6)).ȱ
200 In the case of Fraser v Children’s Court, the Constitutional Court of South Africa had occasion to rule that the legislative command in section 8 establishing equality between children born in wedlock and those born extramaritally, was binding and required the lawmaker to comply (Mosikatsana (supra), 60).
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ȱ Ukraine:ȱ“Childrenȱareȱequalȱinȱtheirȱrightsȱregardlessȱofȱtheirȱoriginȱ andȱwhetherȱtheyȱareȱbornȱinȱorȱoutȱofȱwedlock”ȱ(52ȱ(a)).ȱ ȱ Ghana:ȱ“Everyȱchild,ȱwhetherȱorȱnotȱbornȱinȱwedlock,ȱshallȱbeȱentitledȱ toȱreasonableȱprovisionȱoutȱofȱtheȱestateȱofȱitsȱparents”ȱ(Articleȱ28ȱ(1)ȱ (b)).ȱ ȱ 3.3.2ȱ Principleȱ2:ȱTheȱBestȱInterestsȱofȱtheȱChildȱ ȱ Articleȱ 3ȱ ofȱ theȱ CRCȱ onȱ theȱ bestȱ interestsȱ ofȱ theȱ childȱ isȱ keyȱ toȱ allȱ aspectsȱofȱconstitutionalȱlawȱdevelopmentȱandȱinterpretationȱinȱfavourȱ ofȱtheȱchild.ȱȱTheȱexistenceȱofȱsuchȱaȱprovisionȱprovidesȱaȱyardstickȱforȱ allȱ stakeholdersȱ toȱ measureȱ theȱ appropriatenessȱ ofȱ theirȱ actionsȱ inȱ favourȱofȱchildren.ȱȱThereforeȱembodyingȱthisȱasȱaȱconstitutionalȱrightȱ isȱ indispensable.ȱȱCountriesȱ withȱ specificȱ chaptersȱ orȱ clausesȱ onȱ theȱ rightsȱofȱtheȱchildȱtendȱtoȱincorporateȱprovisionsȱonȱtheȱbestȱinterestsȱ ofȱtheȱchild.ȱNotableȱexamplesȱincludeȱSouthȱAfricaȱandȱEthiopia.ȱ ȱ x SouthȱAfrica:ȱ“Aȱchild’sȱbestȱinterestsȱareȱofȱparamountȱ importanceȱinȱeveryȱmatterȱconcerningȱtheȱchild”ȱ(Articleȱ28ȱ (2)).ȱ x Ethiopia:ȱ“Inȱallȱactionsȱconcerningȱchildrenȱundertakenȱbyȱ publicȱorȱprivateȱinstitutionsȱofȱsocialȱwelfare,ȱcourtsȱofȱlaw,ȱ andȱadministrativeȱbodies,ȱtheȱprimaryȱconsiderationȱshallȱbeȱ theȱbestȱinterestsȱofȱtheȱchild”ȱ(Articleȱ36ȱ(2)).ȱȱ ȱ 3.3.3ȱ Principleȱ3:ȱTheȱRightȱtoȱLife,ȱSurvival,ȱDevelopmentȱandȱ Protectionȱ ȱ Thisȱ principleȱ coversȱ aȱ broadȱ rangeȱ ofȱ rights,ȱ suchȱ asȱ theȱ rightȱ toȱ education,ȱ health,ȱ adequateȱ nutritionȱ andȱ protectionȱ fromȱ violence.ȱ Inherentȱ inȱ theȱ principleȱ isȱ theȱ importantȱ roleȱ ofȱ theȱ familyȱ inȱ theȱ provisionȱ ofȱ basicȱ servicesȱ andȱ theȱ protectionȱ ofȱ children.ȱ Theȱ subsectionȱisȱtherebyȱstructuredȱasȱfollows:ȱ ȱȱ x Accessȱtoȱbasicȱsocialȱservicesȱandȱsocialȱprotectionȱ x Theȱroleȱofȱtheȱfamilyȱ x Protectionȱfromȱviolence,ȱabuse,ȱneglectȱandȱexploitationȱ ȱ
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1.ȱAccessȱtoȱbasicȱsocialȱservicesȱandȱsocialȱprotectionȱ ȱ Toȱ ensureȱ theȱ rightȱ ofȱ theȱ childȱ toȱ survivalȱ andȱ development,ȱ provisionsȱareȱtoȱbeȱmadeȱtoȱguaranteeȱaccessȱtoȱbasicȱservice s.ȱGivenȱ thatȱ detailedȱ provisionsȱ wouldȱ haveȱ beenȱ createdȱ underȱ generalȱ provisionsȱ inȱ re lationȱ toȱ servicesȱ suchȱ asȱ education,ȱ healthȱ andȱ nutrition,ȱspecialȱprovisionsȱareȱtoȱbeȱbrief,ȱspecificȱandȱfocusedȱonȱtheȱ specialȱneedsȱofȱchildrenȱinȱtheȱcountry.ȱ ȱ Forȱ instance,ȱ underȱ articleȱ 53ȱ ofȱ itsȱ provisionsȱ onȱ education,ȱ theȱ Constitutionȱ ofȱ Ukraineȱ providesȱ forȱ freeȱ preȬschoolȱ education,ȱ althoughȱ thisȱ isȱ notȱ providedȱ forȱ underȱ theȱ CRC.ȱ Theȱ implicationȱ ofȱ guaranteeingȱpreȬschoolȱeducationȱasȱaȱconstitutionalȱrightȱisȱtoȱsecureȱ anȱearlyȱstartȱinȱlifeȱforȱallȱchildren.ȱInȱadd ition,ȱwhereȱcountriesȱhaveȱ lowȱschoolȱenrolment,ȱconstitutionallyȱguaranteeingȱpreȬschoolȱwouldȱ alsoȱassistȱinȱacceleratingȱimplementationȱofȱEducationȱForȱAllȱ(EFA)ȱ goalsȱasȱwellȱasȱgenderȱparityȱinȱeducationȱinȱfavourȱofȱgirls.ȱȱȱ ȱȱ Boxȱ33:ȱTheȱConstitutionȱofȱSouthȱAfricaȱȱ TheȱConstitutionȱofȱSouthȱAfricaȱspellsȱoutȱitsȱsocialȱservicesȱprogrammeȱtoȱincludeȱ basicȱnutritionȱshelterȱbasicȱhealthȱcareȱservices 201 ȱandȱsocialȱservicesȱ(Articleȱ28ȱ(1)ȱ (c)).ȱ Someȱ Constitutionsȱ prohibitȱ deprivingȱ anyȱ childȱ ofȱ “medicalȱ treatment,ȱ educationȱandȱotherȱsocialȱeconomicȱbenefitȱbyȱreasonsȱofȱreligiousȱofȱotherȱbeliefs”.ȱ Thisȱ isȱ statedȱ inȱ theseȱ termsȱ byȱ Ugandaȱ (Articleȱ 34ȱ (3)).ȱ Similarȱ provisionsȱ haveȱ beenȱ framedȱ byȱ Ghanaȱ (Articleȱ 28ȱ (4))ȱ andȱ areȱ inȱ responseȱ toȱ bottlenecksȱ encounteredȱbyȱStatesȱinȱtheȱdeliveryȱofȱprimaryȱhealthȱcareȱandȱformalȱeducationȱ amongȱspecificȱcommunitiesȱandȱgroups.ȱ ȱ 2.ȱTheȱroleȱofȱtheȱfamilyȱ ȱ Inȱallȱcountries,ȱtheȱfamily,ȱasȱvariouslyȱdefined,ȱservesȱasȱtheȱfrontȱlineȱ forȱprotectionȱofȱtheȱchild.ȱYetȱinȱmanyȱcountries,ȱtheȱbreakdownȱofȱtheȱ familyȱ hasȱ eitherȱ takenȱ placeȱ orȱ isȱ imminent.ȱ Givenȱ itsȱ roleȱ inȱ childȱ protection,ȱ survivalȱ andȱ development,ȱ theȱ institutionȱ ofȱ theȱ familyȱ mustȱ beȱ safeguardedȱ byȱ specificȱ provisions.ȱ Whereȱ possible,ȱ whileȱ emphasizingȱtheȱroleȱofȱtheȱfamily,ȱstepsȱmustȱalsoȱbeȱtakenȱtoȱincludeȱ provisionsȱ onȱ theȱ responsibilityȱ ofȱ parentsȱ andȱ theȱ communityȱ asȱ buildingȱblocksȱforȱtheȱcreationȱofȱaȱprotectiveȱenvironment.ȱBelowȱareȱ
201 Kenya defines the right to health to include reproductive health care (Article 61(1) of the 2004 Draft Constitution).
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countryȱexamplesȱofȱconstitutionalȱprovisionsȱonȱtheȱprotectionȱofȱtheȱ family.ȱ ȱ x Azerbaijan:ȱ“Theȱfamilyȱasȱtheȱfoundationȱofȱsocietyȱshallȱbeȱ underȱtheȱspecialȱprotectionȱofȱtheȱState.ȱToȱtakeȱcareȱofȱtheȱ childrenȱandȱtheirȱupbringingȱshallȱbeȱtheȱobligationȱofȱparents.ȱȱ TheȱStateȱshallȱseeȱtoȱitȱthatȱthisȱobligationȱisȱfollowed”ȱ(Articleȱ 17).ȱȱȱ x Ireland:ȱ“TheȱStateȱrecognisesȱtheȱFamilyȱasȱtheȱnaturalȱ primaryȱandȱfundamentalȱunitȱgroupȱofȱSocietyȱandȱasȱaȱmoralȱ institutionȱpossessingȱinalienableȱandȱimprescriptibleȱrights,ȱ antecedentȱandȱsuperiorȱtoȱallȱpositiveȱlawȱ(Articleȱ41ȱ(1)).ȱTheȱ primaryȱandȱnaturalȱeducatorȱofȱtheȱchildȱisȱtheȱfamilyȱandȱ guaranteesȱtoȱrespectȱtheȱinalienableȱrightȱandȱdutyȱofȱparentsȱ toȱprovide,ȱaccordingȱtoȱtheirȱmeans,ȱforȱtheȱreligiousȱandȱ moral,ȱintellectual,ȱphysicalȱandȱsocialȱeducationȱforȱtheirȱ children”ȱ(Articleȱ42ȱ(1)).ȱȱȱ x Uganda:ȱ“Childrenȱpossessȱaȱconstitutionalȱrightȱtoȱknow,ȱandȱ beȱcaredȱforȱbyȱtheirȱnaturalȱparentsȱorȱthoseȱentitledȱbyȱlawȱtoȱ bringȱthemȱup”ȱ(Articleȱ34ȱ(1)).ȱ x TimorȬLeste:ȱ“recognisesȱtheȱspecialȱprotectionȱaffordedȱtoȱ childrenȱbyȱtheȱfamily,ȱcommunityȱandȱStateȱagainstȱallȱformsȱ ofȱabandonment,ȱviolence,ȱoppression,ȱsexualȱabuseȱandȱ exploitation”ȱ(Sectionȱ18ȱ(1)).ȱȱ x Ukraine:ȱ“Parentsȱareȱobligedȱtoȱsupportȱtheirȱchildrenȱuntilȱ theyȱattainȱtheȱageȱofȱmajority.ȱTheȱfamily,ȱchildhood,ȱ motherhoodȱandȱfatherhoodȱareȱunderȱtheȱprotectionȱofȱtheȱ State”ȱ(Articleȱ51).ȱȱ ȱ 3.ȱProtectionȱfromȱviolence,ȱabuse,ȱneglectȱandȱexploitationȱ ȱ Theȱ CedRC,ȱ itsȱ twoȱ optionalȱ protocolsȱ andȱ theȱ ILOȱ conventionsȱ list ȱ aboveȱ constituteȱ compellingȱ normativeȱ groundsȱ forȱ theȱ inclusionȱ ofȱ clausesȱ onȱ violence,ȱ abuse,ȱ neglectȱ andȱ exploitationȱ withinȱ childȬ specificȱprovisionsȱofȱconstitutions.ȱTheȱgrowingȱincidenceȱofȱtheȱuseȱ ofȱ childrenȱ inȱ armedȱ conflictȱ alsoȱ requiresȱ definitiveȱ constitutionalȱ prohibitionȱacrossȱallȱjurisdictions.ȱȱ ȱ Broadlyȱspeaking,ȱspecificȱclausesȱcouldȱcoverȱtheȱfollowing:ȱ ȱ
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x Sexualȱandȱeconomicȱexploitationȱ x Involvementȱofȱchildrenȱinȱarmedȱconflictȱ x Juvenileȱjusticeȱadministration.ȱ ȱ 4.ȱSexualȱandȱeconomicȱexploitation:ȱCaseȱstudiesȱfromȱSouthȱ Africa,ȱGhana,ȱEthiopia,ȱUkraineȱandȱIraqȱ ȱ Articleȱ28ȱ(1)ȱ(d))Ȭ(f)ȱofȱtheȱConstitutionȱofȱSouthȱAfricaȱprovidesȱthat:ȱȱ “Everyȱchildȱhasȱtheȱrightȱ...(d)ȱtoȱbeȱprotectedȱfromȱmaltreatment,ȱ neglect,ȱabuseȱorȱdegradation;ȱ(e)ȱtoȱbeȱprotectedȱfromȱexploitativeȱ labourȱpractices;ȱ(f)ȱnotȱtoȱbeȱrequiredȱorȱpermittedȱtoȱperformȱworkȱorȱ provideȱservicesȱthatȱ(i)ȱȱareȱappropriateȱforȱaȱpersonsȱofȱtheȱchild’sȱageȱ orȱ(ii)ȱplaceȱatȱriskȱtheȱchild’sȱwellȬbeing,ȱeducation,ȱphysicalȱorȱmentalȱ healthȱorȱspiritual,ȱmoralȱorȱsocialȱdevelopment.”ȱ ȱ Ghanaȱ(Articleȱ28ȱ(2))ȱandȱEthiopiaȱ(Articleȱ36ȱ(d))ȱalsoȱincludeȱ referencesȱtoȱwork,ȱwhichȱisȱhazardousȱorȱharmfulȱtoȱhisȱorȱherȱ education,ȱhealthȱorȱwellȬbeing.ȱInȱtheȱcaseȱofȱUkraine,ȱhowever,ȱ provisionsȱonȱchildȱlabourȱhaveȱbeenȱintegratedȱintoȱconstitutionalȱ provisionsȱrelatedȱtoȱemployment.ȱThisȱprovisionȱisȱuniqueȱinȱtheȱ senseȱthatȱitȱlinksȱchildȱandȱmaternalȱlabourȱtogether:ȱ“Theȱ employmentȱofȱwomenȱandȱminorsȱforȱworkȱthatȱisȱhazardousȱtoȱtheirȱ healthȱisȱprohibited”ȱ(Articleȱ43ȱ(e)).ȱUnderȱitsȱspecialȱclauseȱonȱ children,ȱhowever,ȱUkraineȱhasȱaȱmuchȱbroaderȱsubȱarticle,ȱwhichȱ statesȱthatȱ“anyȱviolenceȱagainstȱaȱchild,ȱorȱhisȱorȱherȱexploitation,ȱshallȱ beȱprosecutedȱbyȱlaw”ȱ(Articleȱ52ȱ(b)).ȱȱȱ ȱ TheȱIraqiȱConstitutionȱbroadensȱtheȱscopeȱofȱlocationȱofȱviolenceȱtoȱ includeȱ“theȱfamily,ȱschoolȱandȱsociety”ȱ(Articleȱ29ȱ(4))ȱandȱpossessesȱaȱ moreȱcategoricalȱprovisionȱwhichȱproscribesȱ“forcedȱlabour,ȱslavery,ȱ commerceȱinȱslaves,ȱtheȱtradingȱinȱwomenȱorȱchildrenȱofȱtheȱsexȱtrade”ȱ (Articleȱ35ȱ(c)).ȱȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ 5.ȱInvolvementȱofȱchildrenȱinȱarmedȱconflict:ȱCaseȱstudiesȱ fromȱSouthȱAfrica,ȱKenyaȱandȱCambodiaȱ ȱ
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Constitutionalȱ provisionsȱ onȱ childrenȱ inȱ armedȱ conflictȱ areȱ limi ted.ȱ SouthȱȱAfricaȱ currentlyȱ servesȱ asȱ oneȱ ofȱ theȱ best examplesȱ ofȱ aȱ Stateȱ withȱconstitutionalȱprovisionsȱonȱchildrenȱinvolvedȱinȱarmedȱconflict.ȱȱ AccordingȱtoȱArticleȱ28ȱ(1)ȱ(i),ȱ“everyȱchildȱhasȱtheȱrightȱnotȱtoȱbeȱusedȱ directlyȱ inȱ armedȱ conflict,ȱ andȱ toȱ beȱ protectedȱ inȱ timesȱ ofȱ armedȱ conflict.”ȱȱThroughȱitsȱrecentȱconstitutionalȱreview,ȱtheȱConstitutionȱofȱ Kenyaȱ Reviewȱ Commissionȱ tookȱ fullȱ advantageȱ ofȱ theȱ Optionalȱ Protocolȱ toȱ theȱ Conventionȱ onȱ theȱ Rightsȱ ofȱ theȱ Childȱ onȱ theȱ InvolvementȱofȱChildrenȱinȱArmedȱConflictȱbyȱincludingȱaȱprohibitionȱ withinȱitsȱDraftȱBillȱofȱRightsȱagainstȱ“theȱparticipationȱofȱchildrenȱinȱ hostilitiesȱorȱtheirȱrecruitmentȱintoȱarmedȱconflictsȱandȱtheirȱprotectionȱ inȱsuchȱsituations”ȱ(Articleȱ40ȱ(onȱchildren)ȱ(6)ȱ(h)).ȱȱCambodiaȱhasȱalsoȱ integratedȱaȱprovisionȱonȱthisȱwithinȱitsȱspecialȱclauseȱonȱchildren,ȱbyȱ stipulatingȱ theirȱ protectionȱ duringȱ wartimeȱ (Articleȱ 48).ȱ Otherȱ constitutionalȱ provisions,ȱ suchȱ asȱ thoseȱ thatȱ dealȱ withȱ abuse,ȱ exploitation,ȱneglect,ȱdetentionȱandȱtheȱbestȱinterestsȱofȱtheȱchild,ȱmayȱ alsoȱbeȱusedȱasȱreferencesȱforȱtpnhheȱprotectionȱandȱ reventio ȱofȱteȱuseȱ ofȱchildrenȱinȱarmedȱconflict.ȱ ȱ 6.ȱJuvenileȱjusticeȱadministration:ȱCaseȱstudiesȱfromȱNigeria,ȱ Fiji,ȱTheȱGambia,ȱUganda,ȱEthiopia,ȱGhana,ȱSouthȱAfricaȱandȱ Brazilȱ ȱ Childrenȱ areȱ entitledȱ toȱ protectionȱ underȱ generalȱ provisionsȱ dealingȱ withȱpersonsȱdeprivedȱofȱtheirȱliberty.ȱSpecificȱprovisionsȱonȱjuvenileȱ justiceȱȱadministration mustȱhoweverȱconformȱtoȱtheȱbroadȱprovisionsȱ ofȱ articleȱ 37ȱ ofȱ theȱ CRCȱ onȱ theȱ subjectȱ ofȱ theȱ treatmentȱ ofȱ juveniles.ȱ Moreȱ specificȱ standardsȱ suchȱ asȱ theȱ Unitedȱ Nationsȱ Minimumȱ StandardȱRulesȱforȱtheȱAdministrationȱofȱJuvenileȱJusticeȱ(theȱȈBeijingȱ RulesȈ),ȱtheȱUnitedȱNationsȱGuidelinesȱforȱtheȱPreventionȱofȱJuvenileȱ Delinquencyȱ(theȱȈRiyadhȱGuidelinesȈ)ȱandȱtheȱUnitedȱNationsȱRulesȱ forȱ theȱ Protectionȱ ofȱ Juvenilesȱ Deprivedȱ ofȱ theirȱ Libertyȱ canȱ beȱ providedȱforȱunderȱspecificȱlegislation.ȱCaseȱstudiesȱofȱvariousȱlevelsȱ ofȱjuvenileȱjusticeȱprovisionsȱareȱpresentedȱbelow:ȱȱ ȱ x Nigeria:ȱprotectsȱjuvenilesȱaccusedȱorȱconvictedȱofȱoffencesȱbyȱ ensuringȱthatȱtheyȱareȱ“keptȱinȱremandȱhomesȱorȱreformatoryȱ centresȱandȱtheirȱtreatment,ȱincludingȱrehabilitationȱshallȱbeȱtheȱ underlyingȱprincipleȱofȱtheirȱcustody”ȱ(Articleȱ34ȱ(8)).ȱȱȱ
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x Fiji,ȱTheȱGambia,ȱUganda,ȱEthiopiaȱandȱGhana:ȱhaveȱcommonȱ constitutionalȱprovisionsȱonȱtheȱseparationȱofȱdetainedȱchildrenȱ fromȱdetainedȱadultsȱ(Sectionȱ26ȱ(6),ȱArticleȱ29ȱ(3)),ȱArticleȱ34ȱ (6),ȱArticleȱ36ȱ(3)ȱandȱArticleȱ15ȱ(4)ȱrespectively).ȱȱȱȱ x SouthȱAfrica:ȱprovidesȱdirectionȱonȱtheȱsignificantȱroleȱofȱ diversionȱinȱtheȱsystemȱofȱjuvenileȱjusticeȱadministration,ȱbyȱ makingȱexpressȱreferenceȱtoȱdetentionȱasȱaȱ“measureȱofȱlastȱ resort”ȱ(Articleȱ28ȱ(1)ȱ(g)).ȱȱ x Brazil:ȱalsoȱhasȱinȱplaceȱtheȱfollowingȱforȱconsideration:ȱ - provisionsȱwhichȱensureȱthatȱfemaleȱprisonersȱareȱassuredȱofȱ “adequateȱconditionsȱtoȱstayȱwithȱtheirȱchildrenȱduringȱtheȱ nursingȱperiod”ȱ(Articleȱ5ȱ(L)).ȱȱ - provisionsȱ onȱ theȱ “preventionȱ andȱ specialisedȱ treatmentȱ programmesȱ forȱ childrenȱ andȱ adolescentsȱ addictedȱ toȱ narcotics”ȱ(Articleȱ227ȱVII).ȱȱȱȱȱȱ - Stipulationȱ onȱ theȱ minimumȱ ageȱ ofȱ criminalȱ responsibility,ȱ statingȱ thatȱ “[m]inorsȱ underȱ eightȱ yearsȱ ofȱ ageȱ mayȱ notȱ beȱ heldȱ criminallyȱ liable,ȱ subjectȱ toȱ theȱ rulesȱ ofȱ specialȱ legislation”ȱ(Articleȱ228).ȱȱ ȱ Ethiopiaȱ isȱ amongȱ theȱ fewȱ toȱ haveȱ madeȱ expressȱ provisionsȱ againstȱ corporalȱpunishmentȱ(Articleȱ36ȱ(1)ȱ(e))ȱwithinȱtheȱcontextȱofȱtheȱrightsȱ ofȱ theȱ childȱ andȱ extendsȱ thisȱ toȱ “schoolsȱ andȱ otherȱ institutionsȱ responsibleȱforȱtheȱcareȱofȱchildren.”ȱOtherȱStatesȱ(forȱexample,ȱGhana,ȱ Articleȱ28ȱ(3))ȱfocusȱonȱ“torture,ȱorȱotherȱcruel,ȱinhumanȱorȱdegradingȱ treatmentȱ orȱ punishment.”ȱ Inȱ theȱ Southȱ Africanȱ caseȱ ofȱ Stateȱ vȱ Williams,ȱtheȱConstitutionalȱCourtȱofȱSouthȱAfricaȱcontributedȱtoȱtheȱ effortȱ ofȱ bringingȱ juvenileȱ penalȱ lawsȱ intoȱ conformityȱ withȱ internationalȱ jurisprudenceȱ byȱ declaringȱ corporalȱ punishmentȱ unconstitutionalȱ onȱ theȱ groundsȱ thatȱ itȱ isȱ cruel,ȱ inhumanȱ andȱ degradingȱ(Mosikatsana,ȱ363).ȱ ȱ 3.3.4ȱ Principleȱ4:ȱRespectȱforȱtC heȱViewsȱofȱtheȱ hildȱ ȱ Allowingȱ childrenȱ toȱ makeȱ theirȱ viewsȱ knownȱ andȱ heardȱ inȱ mattersȱ affectingȱthemȱhasȱyetȱtoȱgainȱfullȱacceptanceȱacrossȱtheȱglobe.ȱGivenȱ thisȱgeneralȱculturalȱandȱsocialȱlimitation,ȱconstitutionsȱcouldȱadvanceȱ theȱcauseȱofȱparticipationȱofȱchildrenȱbyȱincludingȱexpressȱprovisionsȱ thatȱrequireȱchildȱparticipation.ȱChildrenȱshouldȱbeȱcoveredȱunderȱtheȱ generalȱprovisionsȱofȱcivilȱandȱpoliticalȱrights,ȱwhichȱexpresslyȱprovideȱ
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forȱ theȱ rightsȱ toȱ freeȱ expression,ȱ associationȱ andȱ information.ȱ However,ȱaȱprovisionȱonȱchildȱparticipationȱinȱlineȱwithȱArticleȱ12ȱofȱ theȱCRCȱwouldȱprovideȱStatesȱwithȱtheȱimpetusȱtoȱplaceȱthisȱculturallyȱ sensitiveȱissueȱinȱconstitutionalȱperspective.ȱArticleȱ12ȱ(1)ȱofȱtheȱCRCȱ statesȱasȱfollows:ȱ“StatesȱPartiesȱshallȱassureȱtoȱtheȱchildȱwhoȱisȱcapableȱ ofȱformingȱhisȱorȱownȱviewsȱtheȱrightȱtoȱexpressȱthoseȱviewsȱfreelyȱinȱ allȱmattersȱaffectingȱtheȱchild,ȱtheȱviewsȱofȱtheȱchildȱbeingȱgivenȱdueȱ weightȱinȱaccordanceȱwithȱtheȱageȱandȱmaturityȱofȱtheȱchild.”ȱ ȱ Expressionsȱofȱtheȱrightȱtoȱparticipationȱareȱrareȱwithinȱchildȱspecificȱ provisionsȱ acrossȱ countries.ȱ However,ȱ itȱ wouldȱ beȱ worthȱ mentioningȱ howȱ Statesȱ haveȱ treatedȱ theȱ issueȱ underȱ otherȱ provisions.ȱ Examplesȱ includeȱcaseȱstudiesȱfromȱBrazilȱandȱUganda:ȱ ȱȱȱ Brazil:ȱ underȱ itsȱ provisionsȱ onȱ “Politicalȱ Rights,”ȱ hasȱ madeȱ anȱ importantȱinroadȱbyȱincludingȱaȱconstitutionalȱprovisionȱwhichȱmakesȱ itȱ possibleȱ forȱ childrenȱ agedȱ betweenȱ 16ȱ andȱ 18ȱ yearsȱ toȱ exerciseȱ theȱ constitutionalȱoptionȱtoȱvoteȱ(Articleȱ14ȱIIȱ(c)).ȱȱȱ ȱ Uganda:ȱalsoȱmakesȱspecialȱreferencesȱtoȱallȬinclusiveȱparticipationȱinȱ nationalȱaffairsȱbyȱstipulatingȱthatȱ“everyȱUgandaȱcitizenȱhasȱtheȱrightȱ toȱparticipateȱinȱtheȱaffairsȱofȱgovernment,ȱindividuallyȱorȱthroughȱhisȱ orȱ herȱ representativesȱ inȱ accordanceȱ withȱ law”ȱ (Articleȱ 38ȱ (1)).ȱ Minoritiesȱ alsoȱ haveȱ “aȱ rightȱ toȱ participateȱ inȱ decisionȬmakingȱ processesȱandȱtheirȱviewsȱandȱinterestsȱshallȱbeȱtakenȱintoȱaccountȱinȱ theȱmakingȱofȱnationalȱplansȱandȱprogrammes”ȱ(Articleȱ36).ȱȱȱ ȱ Constitution alȱ provisionsȱ inȱ Nigeriaȱ (Articleȱ 55),ȱ whichȱ requireȱ thatȱ “theȱbusinessȱofȱtheȱNationalȱAssemblyȱshallȱbeȱconductedȱinȱEnglish,ȱ Hausa,ȱ Igboȱ andȱ Yoruba,”ȱ couldȱ beȱ extendedȱ toȱ theȱ country’sȱ Children’sȱParliamentȱtoȱensureȱeffectiveȱandȱinclusiveȱparticipationȱofȱ theȱbroadȱmassȱofȱchildrenȱinȱnationalȱaffairs.ȱȱ ȱ Opportunitiesȱ forȱ childȱ participationȱ areȱ alsoȱ presentedȱ byȱ constitutionalȱ reviews.ȱ Beingȱ theȱ supremeȱ lawȱ ofȱ theȱ State,ȱ constitutionsȱareȱgenerallyȱperceivedȱofȱasȱseriousȱdocumentsȱandȱtheȱ constitutionalȱ reviewsȱ precedingȱ theirȱ promulgationȱ asȱ seriousȱ processesȱwhichȱcannotȱinvo lveȱtheȱparticipationȱ ofȱchildren.ȱTheȱ2020 ȱ Specialȱ Sessionȱ onȱ Childrenȱ andȱ otherȱ eventsȱ haveȱ shown,ȱ however,ȱ thatȱchildrenȱhaveȱtheȱcapacityȱtoȱmakeȱeffectiveȱcontributionsȱtowardsȱ
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mattersȱaffectingȱtheirȱwelfare,ȱprovidedȱappropriateȱmechanismsȱareȱ putȱinȱplace.ȱȱAnotherȱsuccessfulȱexampleȱofȱchildȱparticipationȱcomesȱ fromȱ TimorȬLeste.ȱ Childrenȱ inȱ thatȱ countryȱ madeȱ historyȱ when,ȱ inȱ Novemberȱ 2001,ȱ overȱ oneȱ hundredȱ ofȱ themȱ appearedȱ beforeȱ theirȱ country’sȱConstituentȱAssemblyȱwithȱaȱrequestȱtoȱpayȱattentionȱtoȱtheirȱ rights.ȱ Theȱ childrenȱ deliveredȱ aȱ letterȱ fromȱ theȱ Workingȱ Groupȱ forȱ Childȱ Rightsȱ toȱ theȱ membersȱ ofȱ theȱ Assembly,ȱ askingȱ thatȱ theȱ Constitutionȱ specificallyȱ referȱ toȱ “theȱ coreȱ rightsȱ ofȱ children,”ȱ includingȱtheȱadditionȱofȱguaranteesȱofȱbasicȱeducationȱandȱhealthcare,ȱ andȱ specialȱ assistanceȱ forȱ vulnerableȱ children.ȱ Thisȱ resultedȱ inȱ theȱ promulgationȱofȱaȱ rightsȬbasedȱandȱchildȬcentredȱConstitution. 202ȱ ȱ Toȱfacilitateȱtheȱeffectiveȱparticipationȱofȱchildrenȱinȱsuchȱreviews,ȱ StatesȱcouldȱmakeȱuseȱofȱexistingȱchildȱparticipationȬrelatedȱstructuresȱ suchȱasȱChildren’sȱParliamentsȱ(forȱexample,ȱCameroon,ȱNigeriaȱandȱ TheȱGambia),ȱinȬschoolȱclubsȱ(forȱexample,ȱGhana)ȱorȱalternatively,ȱ throughȱtheȱcreationȱofȱallȱinclusiveȱNationalȱChildren’sȱConstitutionalȱ ReviewȱCommissions.ȱ ȱ ȱ Partȱ4ȱ POSTȬCONSTITUTIONALȱ REFORMS:ȱTHEȱNEXTȱSTEPSȱ ȱ Theȱ subsectionsȱ aboveȱ provideȱ toolsȱ toȱ considerȱ theȱ formulationȱ ofȱ constitutionsȱinȱaȱmannerȱthatȱreflectsȱtheȱconcernsȱofȱchildren.ȱOnceȱ constitutionsȱhaveȱbeenȱformulated,ȱtheȱprimaryȱchallengeȱbecomesȱforȱ Statesȱ toȱ ensureȱ thatȱ theseȱ documentsȱ doȱ notȱ becomeȱ symbolicȱ gesturesȱ towardsȱ theȱ citizenryȱ butȱ ratherȱ livingȱ toolsȱ towardsȱ theȱ realisationȱofȱhumanȱrights.ȱ ȱ Amongȱ postȬconstitutionalȱ reformȱ measuresȱ toȱ considerȱ areȱ 1)ȱ wideȱ disseminationȱ throughȱ appropriateȱ means,ȱ 2)ȱ constitutionalȱ litigationȱ andȱinterpretationȱbyȱtheȱcourtsȱandȱ3)ȱmonitoringȱofȱimplementationȱ ofȱ constitutionalȱ provisions.ȱ Theseȱ processesȱ wouldȱ involveȱ aȱ wideȱ rangeȱofȱstakeholdersȱwithȱwhomȱtheseȱmilestonesȱmustȱbeȱmet.ȱ ȱ
202 South Africa and the Philippines provide additional examples.
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4.1ȱ WhoȱAreȱtheȱStakeholdersȱandȱWhatȱShouldȱTheyȱ DoȱforȱChildren?ȱ ȱ x Judges:ȱJudgesȱdevelopȱandȱinterpretȱtheȱlawȱinȱfavourȱofȱ children,ȱmindfulȱofȱinternationalȱtreatyȱobligations.ȱInȱtheȱcaseȱ ofȱtheȱUnitedȱStatesȱasȱwithȱmanyȱotherȱcommonȬlawȱ jurisdictions,ȱtheȱcourtsȱareȱtheȱcentralȱpointsȱforȱtheȱ interpretationȱofȱtheȱconstitution.ȱInȱtheȱcaseȱofȱMarburyȱvs.ȱ Madison, 203 ȱtheȱUSȱSupremeȱCourtȱmadeȱtheȱfollowingȱ fundamentalȱobservation:ȱ“Itȱisȱemphaticallyȱtheȱprovinceȱandȱ dutyȱofȱtheȱjudicialȱdepartmentȱtoȱsayȱwhatȱtheȱlawȱis.” 204 ȱȱ x Lawyers:ȱLawyersȱcanȱprovideȱconstitutionalȱandȱpublicȱ interestȱlitigationȱinȱfavourȱofȱchildren,ȱincludingȱlegalȱaidȱinȱ constitutionalȱcases.ȱ x Parliament:ȱParliamentȱensuresȱthatȱresourcesȱareȱmadeȱ availableȱforȱtheȱpreventionȱofȱconstitutionalȱviolationsȱandȱ protectionȱandȱredressesȱwhenȱtheyȱdoȱoccur.ȱTheȱlegislatureȱisȱ alsoȱtoȱbeȱproactiveȱinȱtheȱidentificationȱofȱlawsȱneededȱtoȱgiveȱ effectȱtoȱconstitutionalȱprovisions.ȱParliamentaryȱsubȬ committeesȱandȱprivateȱmembersȱareȱencouragedȱtoȱspearheadȱ passageȱofȱlegislationȱandȱregulationsȱtoȱcorrectȱsocialȱ anomaliesȱaffectingȱimplementationȱofȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAW.ȱ x Legislativeȱdrafters:ȱDraftersȱensureȱthatȱlegislationȱisȱwordedȱ inȱaȱmannerȱthatȱisȱfaithfulȱtoȱtheȱintentȱofȱconstitutionalȱ provisions.ȱ x Governmentalȱagenciesȱworkingȱforȱchildren:ȱSectorsȱworkingȱ forȱchildrenȱareȱtoȱfamiliarizeȱthemselvesȱwithȱconstitutionalȱ provisionsȱandȱensureȱthatȱobligationsȱoutlinedȱwithȱrespectȱtoȱ theirȱfunctionsȱareȱfullyȱmet.ȱ x CivilȱSocietyȱOrganizations:ȱTheseȱgroupsȱhaveȱaȱroleȱinȱ initiatingȱdialogueȱforȱconstitutionalȱreforms.ȱ x Children:ȱȱChildrenȱshouldȱappreciateȱtheȱconstitutionalȱ provisionsȱaffectingȱtheirȱrightsȱandȱmakeȱtheirȱviewsȱheardȱinȱ mattersȱaffectingȱthemȱasȱpartȱofȱtheȱconstitutionalȱprocess.ȱ x Teachers:ȱTeachersȱcanȱinstructȱonȱissuesȱofȱcivicȱeducationȱandȱ ensureȱthatȱpupilsȱandȱstudentsȱbecomeȱfamiliarȱwithȱ constitutionalȱprovisions.ȱ
203 Cited supra. 204 Ibid. p. 175.
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x InternationalȱOrganisations:ȱUsingȱnationalȱconstitutionsȱasȱ frameworksȱforȱtheȱprovisionȱofȱtechnicalȱandȱfinancialȱ support,ȱinternationalȱorganisationsȱcanȱsupportȱtheȱdesignȱandȱ implementationȱofȱkeyȱnationalȱinstrumentsȱ(forȱexample,ȱ UNDAF,ȱPRSP’s,ȱSocialȱProtectionȱStrategiesȱandȱlegislation).ȱ ȱ 4.2ȱ WideȱDisseminationȱofȱtheȱConstitutionȱthroughȱ AppropriateȱMeansȱ ȱ Givenȱ theȱ statusȱ ofȱ theȱ constitutionȱ asȱ theȱ supremeȱ lawȱ andȱ theȱ standardȱ byȱ whichȱ allȱ actionsȱ ofȱ Stateȱ andȱ nonȬStateȱ actorsȱ areȱ toȱ beȱ judged,ȱ itȱ isȱ criticalȱ toȱ ensureȱ thatȱ theȱ documentȱ isȱ disseminatedȱ byȱ appropriateȱ means.ȱȱWidespreadȱ knowledgeȱ ofȱ theȱ contentsȱ ofȱ constitutionsȱandȱotherȱlegalȱframeworksȱincreasesȱtheirȱeffectiveness.ȱ UgandaȱandȱUkraineȱbothȱhaveȱconstitutionalȱprovisionsȱthatȱindicateȱ thatȱknowledgeȱofȱtheȱlawȱisȱkeyȱtoȱeffectiveȱfulfillmentȱofȱdutiesȱandȱ responsibilities:ȱ ȱ Uganda:ȱ “Theȱ Stateȱ shallȱ promoteȱ publicȱ awarenessȱ ofȱ thisȱ Constitutionȱby:ȱ (a) translatingȱ itȱ intoȱ Ugandanȱ languagesȱ andȱ disseminatingȱ itȱ asȱ widelyȱasȱpeossibl ;ȱandȱ (b) providingȱforȱtheȱteachingȱofȱtheȱConstitutionȱinȱallȱeducationalȱ institutionsȱandȱarmedȱforcesȱtrainingȱinstitutionsȱandȱregularlyȱ transmittingȱ andȱ publishingȱ programmesȱ throughȱ theȱ mediaȱ generally”ȱ(Articleȱ4).ȱ ȱ Ukraine:ȱ “Lawsȱ andȱ otherȱ normativeȱ legalȱ actsȱ thatȱ determineȱ theȱ rightsȱandȱdutiesȱofȱcitizens,ȱbutȱthatȱareȱnotȱbroughtȱtoȱtheȱnoticeȱofȱ theȱpopulationȱbyȱtheȱprocedureȱestablishedȱbyȱlaw,ȱareȱnotȱinȱforce”ȱ (Articleȱ57ȱ(3)).ȱ ȱ Thisȱsuggestsȱtheȱneedȱforȱaȱdisseminationȱstrategyȱthatȱwouldȱensureȱ thatȱ theȱ constitutionȱ isȱ packagedȱ toȱ suitȱ specificȱ audiences. 205 ȱ Inȱ theȱ caseȱ ofȱ ruralȱ communities,ȱ forȱ instance,ȱ translatingȱ theȱ constitutionȱ intoȱlocalȱlanguagesȱwouldȱserveȱtheirȱpurpose,ȱwhereasȱinȱtheȱcaseȱofȱ
205 As an example, Ghana has succeeded in reducing its 1992 Constitution into a simplified pocket-sized version, being sold at vantage points (e.g. book shops and news paper stalls) at a subsidised price and is suitable for use by adults and children above 11 years.
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children,ȱ countriesȱ couldȱ considerȱ simplifiedȱ orȱ illustratedȱ versions.ȱ Effectiveȱdisseminationȱofȱcountryȱconstitutionsȱwouldȱbeȱinȱlineȱwithȱ theȱspiritȱofȱArticleȱ42ȱofȱtheȱCRCȱonȱtheȱissueȱofȱStateȱresponsibilityȱ “toȱ makeȱ theȱ principlesȱ andȱ provisionsȱ ofȱ theȱ Conventionȱ widelyȱ known,ȱbyȱappropriateȱandȱactiveȱmeans,ȱtoȱadultsȱandȱchildrenȱalike.”ȱȱ ȱ 4.3ȱ ConstitutionalȱLitigationȱandȱInterpretationȱȱȱ ȱ Publicȱ andȱ privateȱ organisationsȱ andȱ individualsȱ areȱ encouragedȱ toȱ pursueȱ constitutionalȱ litigationȱ inȱ favourȱ ofȱ women’sȱ andȱ children’sȱ rights.ȱȱThisȱwouldȱpromoteȱtheȱgrowthȱofȱtheȱlawȱandȱaffirmȱtheȱveryȱ existenceȱ ofȱ theȱ constitutionȱ asȱ aȱ livingȱ document.ȱȱConstitutionalȱ litigationȱwithinȱmanyȱjurisdictionsȱcommencesȱinȱspeciallyȱdesignatedȱ Constitutionalȱ Courtsȱ (forȱ example,ȱ Southȱ Africaȱ andȱ theȱ Russianȱ Federation)ȱ orȱ inȱ regularȱ Superiorȱ Courtsȱ ofȱ Judicatureȱ (usuallyȱ assignedȱ toȱ aȱ designatedȱ Highȱ Court,ȱ Courtȱ ofȱ Appealȱ orȱ Supremeȱ Court,ȱasȱtheȱcaseȱmayȱbeȱ(asȱinȱGhana,ȱwhereȱtheȱSupremeȱCourtȱhasȱ soleȱjurisdictionȱforȱdeterminingȱconstitutionalȱissues)).ȱȱȱ ȱ Proceduresȱ adoptedȱ forȱ filingȱ constitutionalȱ casesȱ willȱ differȱ amongȱ States.ȱ Interestedȱ personsȱ shouldȱ examineȱ theȱ proceduralȱ rulesȱ applicableȱ toȱ ensureȱ thatȱ theirȱ respectiveȱ courtsȱ doȱ notȱ dismissȱ anyȱ caseȱevenȱbeforeȱtheȱsubstantiveȱissuesȱareȱheard.ȱLawyersȱ(especiallyȱ thoseȱ wellȱ versedȱ inȱ constitutionalȱ litigationȱ andȱ humanȱ rights)ȱ areȱ encouragedȱ toȱ provideȱ legalȱ aid,ȱ whileȱ theȱ Stateȱ shouldȱ considerȱ waivingȱ filingȱ fees,ȱ especiallyȱ inȱ casesȱ whichȱ relateȱ toȱ causesȱ ofȱ theȱ indigentȱandȱotherȱvulnerableȱgroupsȱsuchȱasȱchildren.ȱ ȱ ChildȬrelatedȱ constitutionalȱ litigationȱ shouldȱ leadȱ toȱ theȱ growthȱ ofȱ constitutionalȱ lawȱ inȱ theirȱ favour.ȱ Theȱ Courtsȱ (whetherȱ designatedȱ Constitutionalȱ Courtsȱ orȱ not)ȱ playȱ aȱ primaryȱ roleȱ inȱ interpretation,ȱ enforcementȱandȱimplementation.ȱProvisionsȱfromȱtheȱConstitutionsȱofȱ theȱRussianȱFederationȱandȱMadagascarȱdemonstrateȱtheȱpotentȱforceȱ ofȱConstitutionalȱCourtsȱinȱensuringȱconstitutionalȱcompliance:ȱ ȱ Russianȱ Federation:ȱ Articleȱ 125ȱ empowersȱ theȱ Constitutionalȱ Courtȱtoȱdeclareȱlawsȱ(bothȱfederalȱandȱstate)ȱandȱpresidentialȱ andȱ governmentalȱ decreesȱ inconsistentȱ withȱ theȱ Constitutionȱ (i.e.ȱ theyȱ violateȱ certainȱ rightsȱ andȱ freedomsȱ ofȱ citizensȱ
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enumeratedȱ inȱ andȱ protectedȱ byȱ theȱ Constitution).ȱ Inȱ suchȱ situationsȱ theȱ lawȱ becomesȱ unenforceableȱ andȱ implementingȱ agenciesȱ areȱ therebyȱ barredȱ fromȱ applyingȱ it.ȱ Theȱ lawȱ mayȱbeȱ submittedȱ toȱ theȱ Constitutionalȱ Courtȱ byȱ theȱ Presidentȱ ofȱ Russia,ȱ theȱ governmentȱ ofȱ Russia,ȱ theȱ Stateȱ Duma,ȱ theȱ FederationȱCouncilȱofȱRussia,ȱoneȬfifthȱofȱmembersȱofȱtheȱStateȱ Dumaȱ orȱ theȱ Federationȱ Council,ȱ theȱ Supremeȱ Courtȱ ofȱ theȱ Russianȱ Federationȱ orȱ theȱ Supremeȱ Arbitrationȱ Courtȱ ofȱ theȱ Russianȱ Federation.ȱ Inȱ aȱ similarȱ vein,ȱ anyȱ Federalȱ Courtȱ mayȱ requestȱ thatȱ theȱ Constitutionalȱ Courtȱ determineȱ theȱ constitutionalityȱofȱaȱlaw.ȱAdditionally,ȱanyȱprivateȱcitizenȱmayȱ submitȱ aȱ claimȱ toȱ theȱ Constitutionalȱ Court,ȱ challengingȱ theȱ constitutionalityȱofȱaȱparticularȱlaw.ȱ ȱ Madagascar:ȱȱArticleȱ 118ȱ grantsȱ jurisdictionȱ toȱ theȱ ConstitutionalȱHighȱCourtȱtoȱdetermineȱtheȱconstitutionalityȱofȱ treaties,ȱ lawsȱ (centralȱ andȱ provincial)ȱ andȱ ordinances.ȱ Inȱ theȱ process,ȱtheȱCourtȱisȱtoȱmanageȱconstitutionalȱconflictsȱbetweenȱ twoȱorȱseveralȱInstitutionsȱofȱtheȱStateȱorȱbetweenȱtheȱStateȱandȱ oneȱorȱmoreȱautonomousȱprovincesȱorȱbetweenȱtwoȱorȱseveralȱ autonomousȱprovinces.ȱ ȱ Theȱ independenceȱ ofȱ theȱ judiciaryȱ mustȱ beȱ expresslyȱ stipulatedȱ inȱ constitutionsȱinȱorderȱtoȱensureȱthatȱtheȱcourtsȱdoȱnotȱfeelȱimpededȱbyȱ politicalȱorȱotherȱfactorsȱinȱtheȱexerciseȱofȱtheirȱfunctions.ȱJudgesȱareȱtoȱ facilitateȱtheȱrealisationȱofȱhumanȱrightsȱbyȱreferringȱtoȱandȱapplyingȱ relevantȱtreatiesȱonȱtheȱsubjectȱinȱquestion.ȱInȱotherȱwords,ȱforȱjudgesȱ toȱgiveȱeffectȱtoȱgeneralȱandȱspecificȱconstitutionalȱprovisionsȱaffectingȱ children,ȱ theyȱ mustȱ becomeȱ familiarȱ withȱ theȱ internationalȱ humanȱ rightsȱinstrumentsȱandȱprinciplesȱoutlinedȱabove.ȱ ȱ Judgesȱcouldȱalsoȱreferȱtoȱtheȱfollowingȱadditionalȱtools:ȱ ȱ x ConstitutionalȱCommissionȱProposalsȱ(inȱrelationȱtoȱpastȱandȱ presentȱConstitutions);ȱ x UNȱCommitteeȱconcludingȱobservationsȱandȱrecommendationsȱ toȱStatesȱParties;ȱ x UNȱCommitteeȱGeneralȱComments;ȱandȱ
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x Localȱandȱinternationalȱjudicialȱprecedent. 206ȱ ȱ 4.4ȱ MonitoringȱofȱImplementationȱofȱConstitutionalȱProvisionsȱȱȱ ȱ Monitoringȱ ofȱ constitutionalȱ implementationȱ isȱ neededȱ forȱ twoȱ reasons:ȱ firstly,ȱ Statesȱ needȱ toȱ ensureȱ thatȱ theȱ provisionsȱ areȱ beingȱ applied.ȱ Secondly,ȱ itȱ willȱ provideȱ stakeholdersȱ withȱ aȱ bodyȱ ofȱ evidenceȬbasedȱ informationȱ toȱ justifyȱ futureȱ constitutionalȱ amendments.ȱItȱwouldȱbeȱadvisableȱtoȱproceedȱwithȱthisȱinȱaȱholisticȱ fashion,ȱasȱpartȱofȱaȱbroadȱframeworkȱforȱmonitoringȱimplementationȱ ofȱ allȱ legalȱ standardsȱ andȱ notȱ justȱ theȱ constitution.ȱ Thisȱ couldȱ beȱ spearheadedȱbyȱaȱgover nmentȱagency,ȱwithȱtheȱmandateȱtoȱundertakeȱ periodicȱ reviewsȱ o fȱ laws,ȱ suchȱ am sȱ Lawȱ Refor ȱ Commissionsȱ orȱ theirȱ equivalent.ȱȱ ȱ IndicatorsȱforȱmeasuringȱtheȱeffectivenessȱofȱConstitutionsȱwouldȱhaveȱ toȱbeȱagreedȱuponȱbyȱstakeholders.ȱȱTheȱfollowingȱmayȱbeȱconsideredȱ keyȱmeasurementȱpoints:ȱ ȱ 1. TheȱnumberȱofȱtimesȱtheȱConstitutionȱisȱusedȱasȱaȱreferenceȱ pointȱforȱissuesȱaffectingȱchildrenȱby:ȱParliamentȱ(inȱdebates,ȱ statements,ȱcomments,ȱquestionsȱandȱproposals);ȱJudiciaryȱ(inȱ judgmentsȱ(concurringȱandȱdissenting),ȱobiterȱdictaȱandȱ practiceȱnotes);ȱTheȱExecutiveȱ(throughȱCabinet,ȱMinistries,ȱ AgenciesȱandȱDepartments);ȱLawyersȱ(constitutionalȱcasesȱ initiatedȱinȱfavourȱofȱchildren;ȱSchoolsȱ(inȱcurriculumȱ development,ȱteaching,ȱdebatesȱandȱcivicȱeducation)ȱandȱ teacherȱtrainingȱinstitutions;ȱMediaȱ(inȱreportage,ȱdisseminationȱ andȱfollowȱup);ȱChildrenȱ(forȱinȬschoolȱandȱoutȱofȱschoolȱ activities);ȱCivilȱSocietyȱOrganizationsȱ(inȱmonitoringȱandȱ publicȱinterestȱlitigation);ȱTheȱUNȱsystemȱ(inȱtheȱdesignȱof,ȱ CountryȱAssistanceȱStrategies,ȱCommonȱCountryȱAssessmentsȱ andȱUNDAF)ȱ 2. TheȱnumberȱofȱreferencesȱmadeȱtoȱtheȱconstitutionȱinȱStateȱ reportsȱtoȱtheȱUNȱCRCȱCommitteeȱandȱotherȱUNȱCommitteeȱ Reportsȱ
206 The case of Unity Dow already used in text, presents a good example. Reference could also be made to the judgment of Lord Wright in the case of James v Commonwealth of Australia, [1936] AC 578, p. 613-614.
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3. TheȱnumberȱofȱcapacityȬbuildingȱprogrammesȱonȱtheȱ constitutionȱconductedȱ 4. TheȱnumberȱofȱprofessionalȱandȱnonȬprofessionalȱgroupsȱwithȱ knowledgeȱofȱtheȱconstitutionȱ 5. TheȱnumberȱofȱfirstȬ,ȱsecondȬȱandȱthirdȬcycleȱinstitutionsȱwithȱ aspectsȱofȱtheȱconstitutionȱintegratedȱintoȱtheirȱcurriculaȱ 6. Theȱexistence,ȱnumberȱandȱtypesȱofȱsimplifiedȱversionsȱofȱtheȱ Constitutionȱandȱforȱwhichȱaudiencesȱ ȱ ȱ Partȱ5ȱ CONCLUSIONSȱANDȱLESSONSȱ LEARNEDȱFROMȱCONSTITUTIONALȱ REFORMȱEXPERIENCESȱ ȱ Theȱfollowingȱconclusionsȱandȱlessonsȱmayȱbeȱdrawnȱfromȱtheȱabove:ȱȱ ȱ 1. Constitutionsȱ areȱ potentȱ toolsȱ forȱ theȱ enforcementȱ ofȱ humanȱ rightsȱ inȱ favourȱ ofȱ children.ȱ Theyȱ setȱ theȱ tone,ȱ directionȱ andȱ prioritiesȱ ofȱ governmentȱ policy,ȱ statutoryȱ reformȱ andȱ budgetingȱ requiredȱ forȱ CRCȱ andȱ CEDAWȱ implementation.ȱ Theyȱ serveȱ asȱ sustainableȱ frameworksȱ forȱ theȱ continuationȱ ofȱ policiesȱ andȱ programmesȱ inȱ favourȱ ofȱ children,ȱ regardlessȱ ofȱ whichȱ partyȱ isȱ inȱ power.ȱ Shortȱ ofȱ militaryȱ interventionsȱ andȱ politicalȱexpediency,ȱcivilianȱgovernmentsȱareȱgenerallyȱboundȱ toȱ continueȱ withȱ theȱ policiesȱ andȱ programmesȱ ofȱ previousȱ regimes.ȱ Inȱ otherȱ words,ȱ constitutionsȱ doȱ notȱ changeȱ withȱ changeȱ ofȱ governmentsȱ unlessȱ accompaniedȱ byȱ aȱ legitimateȱ constitutionalȱ reviewȱ process.ȱ Thisȱ allowsȱ forȱ continuityȱ andȱ sustainabilityȱofȱmajorȱinterventionsȱandȱinvestmentsȱthatȱhaveȱ beenȱmadeȱinȱfavourȱofȱchildren.ȱ ȱ 2. Supremacyȱclausesȱinȱmostȱconstitutionsȱcreateȱanȱopportunityȱ toȱ testȱ theȱ constitutionalityȱ ofȱ variousȱ actsȱ andȱ omissionsȱ spanningȱ acrossȱ politicalȱ andȱ civilȱ rights,ȱ onȱ theȱ oneȱ hand,ȱ toȱ economic,ȱsocialȱandȱculturalȱrightsȱonȱtheȱother.ȱStatesȱareȱtoȱ reviewȱclausesȱandȱpolicyȱdirectivesȱonȱtheȱnonȬjusticiabilityȱofȱ theȱsecondȱcategoryȱofȱrightsȱinȱlineȱwithȱRecommendationȱNo.ȱ
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9ȱ ofȱ theȱ UNȱ Committeeȱ onȱ theȱ Covenantȱ onȱ Economic,ȱ Socialȱ andȱCulturalȱRights.ȱ ȱ 3. Opportunitiesȱ areȱ presentedȱ byȱ globalȱ humanȱ rightsȱ frameworksȱ toȱ makeȱ childrenȱ theȱ centralȱ subjectsȱ ofȱ bothȱ generalȱhumanȱrightsȱlawȱandȱspecificȱnormsȱaffectingȱchildren.ȱ Thisȱisȱtoȱbeȱdoneȱwithȱtheȱobjectiveȱofȱlocatingȱtheȱrightsȱofȱtheȱ childrenȱwithinȱtheȱcontextȱofȱhumanȱrightsȱandȱensuringȱthatȱ theyȱareȱguaranteedȱholisticȱprotection.ȱ ȱ 4. Bestȱpracticesȱcouldȱbeȱlearnedȱacrossȱjurisdictions.ȱȱExamplesȱ areȱinȱrelationȱto:ȱ ȱ - Recognisingȱ childrenȱ asȱ subjectsȱ ofȱ rightsȱ (forȱ example,ȱ Venezuela);ȱ - Expandingȱtheȱdefinitionȱofȱtheȱchildȱtoȱincludeȱorphansȱandȱ childrenȱbornȱoutȱofȱwedlockȱ(forȱexample,ȱNigeria);ȱ - Protectingȱtheȱfamilyȱandȱkeepingȱitȱsacrosanctȱinȱfavourȱofȱ childrenȱ(forȱexample,ȱIreland);ȱ - Providingȱforȱanȱarrayȱofȱbasicȱservicesȱ(forȱexample,ȱBrazil);ȱ - Recognisingȱ preȬschoolȱ asȱ aȱ constitutionalȱ rightȱ (forȱ example,ȱUkraine);ȱ - Protectingȱ childrenȱ fromȱ slaveryȱ andȱ institutionsȱ similarȱ toȱ slaveryȱ(forȱexample,ȱTheȱGambia);ȱȱ - Protectingȱ childrenȱ bornȱ outȱ ofȱ wedlockȱ (forȱ example,ȱ Eastȱ Timor);ȱ - Protectingȱchildrenȱfromȱparticipationȱinȱarmedȱconflictȱandȱ thoseȱaffectedȱbyȱitȱ(forȱexample,ȱSouthȱAfrica);ȱ - Ensuringȱbirthȱregistrationȱ(Brazil);ȱ - Protectingȱ childrenȱ inȱ conflictȱ withȱ theȱ lawȱ (forȱ example,ȱ Ethiopia);ȱandȱ - Protectingȱorphansȱ(forȱexample,ȱUganda).ȱ ȱ 5. Statesȱareȱtoȱinvestȱinȱconstitutionalȱbodiesȱwhichȱhaveȱbeenȱsetȱ upȱtoȱprotectȱtheȱrightsȱofȱchildren,ȱwithȱaȱviewȱtoȱmakingȱthemȱ effectiveȱtoolsȱofȱchangeȱinȱfavourȱofȱchildren.ȱThisȱisȱtoȱbeȱdoneȱ byȱenhancingȱtheirȱfinancial,ȱtechnicalȱandȱhumanȱresourceȱ capacities.ȱ ȱ
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6. Theȱexistenceȱofȱaȱnationalȱconstitutionȱinȱanyȱcountryȱwillȱ requireȱaȱpragmaticȱprogrammeȱofȱsocialȱmobilizationȱandȱ sensitisationȱasȱwouldȱensureȱwidespreadȱappreciationȱandȱ understandingȱofȱitsȱcontents.ȱAȱnationalȱinterventionȱofȱthisȱ kindȱcreatesȱaȱwindowȱofȱopportunityȱforȱchildren,ȱasȱcitizens,ȱ toȱappreciateȱtheirȱrightsȱandȱresponsibilitiesȱunderȱtheirȱ respectiveȱconstitutions.ȱInȱsomeȱcountries,ȱforȱexampleȱGhana,ȱ thisȱhasȱworkedȱthroughȱexistingȱinȬschoolȱconstitutionȱclubs,ȱ theȱcreationȱofȱconstitutionalȱgames,ȱtheȱpublicationȱandȱ disseminationȱofȱabridgedȱversionsȱofȱtheȱconstitutionȱandȱtheȱ celebrationȱofȱnationalȱconstitutionalȱweek.ȱ ȱ 7. Constitutionalȱreviewȱinitiativesȱserveȱasȱopportunitiesȱforȱchildȱ participationȱinȱtheȱlawȱreformȱprocessȱthroughȱexistingȱchildȱ participationȱstructuresȱorȱtheȱcreationȱofȱChildȱConstitutionȱ ReviewȱCommissions.ȱTheȱexperienceȱofȱTimorȬLesteȱhasȱ shownȱthatȱchildȱparticipationȱcanȱmakeȱaȱdifferenceȱinȱ ensuringȱthatȱchildȬspecificȱconcernsȱareȱaddressedȱduringȱtheȱ reviewȱprocess.ȱȱExperienceȱinȱKenyaȱhasȱdemonstratedȱthatȱ constitutionalȱreviewsȱalsoȱserveȱasȱopportunitiesȱtoȱaffectȱ changeȱinȱtheȱcontentȱofȱpreviousȱframeworksȱforȱtheȱpurposeȱ ofȱgivingȱeffectȱtoȱinternationalȱtreatyȱobligationsȱthroughȱ broadȱparticipation.ȱTheȱconstitutionalȱreviewȱofȱthatȱcountryȱ witnessedȱtheȱconsiderationȱofȱmoreȱelaborateȱprovisionsȱonȱ humanȱrightsȱ(BillȱofȱRights),ȱcitizenship 207 ȱandȱtheȱcreationȱofȱaȱ CommissionȱonȱHumanȱRightsȱandȱAdministrativeȱJusticeȱtoȱ monitorȱimplementationȱofȱhumanȱrightsȱtreaties.ȱȱ
207 Among the defects in the previous constitutional provisions on citizenship was the fact that it was gender discriminatory. A wife of a Kenyan man had the right to be a Kenyan, but not the husband of a Kenyan woman. Moreover, a child born of a Kenyan father outside the country automatically became a citizen, but the child of a Kenyan mother in the same situation did not (Constitution of Kenya Review Commission (2002), p. 26).
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Constitutionsȱusedȱinȱtheȱtext:ȱ ȱ ȱ 1. ConstitutionȱActȱofȱCanadaȱ(1982)ȱ 2. ConstitutionȱofȱAzerbaijanȱ(1995)ȱ 3. ConstitutionȱofȱCambodiaȱ(1993)ȱ 4. ConstitutionȱofȱFijiȱ(1998)ȱȱ 5. ConstitutionȱofȱFranceȱ(1958,ȱasȱamended)ȱ 6. ConstitutionȱofȱIndiaȱ(1950ȱasȱamended)ȱȱ 7. ConstitutionȱofȱIraqȱ(2005)ȱȱ 8. ConstitutionȱofȱMadagascarȱ(1960)ȱ 9. ConstitutionȱofȱtheȱFederalȱRepublicȱofȱNigeriaȱ(1999)ȱȱ 10. ConstitutionȱofȱtheȱIslamicȱRepublicȱofȱPakistanȱ(1973ȱasȱ amended)ȱ 11. ConstitutionȱofȱtheȱRepublicȱofȱBrazilȱ(1988)ȱ 12. ConstitutionȱofȱtheȱRepublicȱofȱGhanaȱ(1992)ȱȱ 13. ConstitutionȱofȱtheȱRepublicȱofȱIrelandȱ(1937,ȱasȱamended)ȱ 14. ConstitutionȱofȱtheȱRepublicȱofȱKenyaȱ(proposed,ȱ2005)ȱȱ 15. ConstitutionȱofȱtheȱRepublicȱofȱSouthȱAfricaȱ(1996)ȱȱ 16. ConstitutionȱofȱtheȱRepublicȱofȱTheȱGambiaȱ(1997)ȱȱ 17. ConstitutionȱofȱtheȱRepublicȱofȱUkraineȱ(1996)ȱȱ 18. ConstitutionȱofȱtheȱRussianȱFederationȱ(1993)ȱ 19. ConstitutionȱofȱtheȱUnitedȱStatesȱofȱAmericaȱ(1787,ȱasȱamended)ȱ 20. ConstitutionȱofȱVenezuelaȱ(1999)ȱ ȱȱ ȱȱ ȱ
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Chapterȱ4ȱ ȱ LEGISLATIVEȱREFORMȱFORȱTHEȱ PROTECTIONȱOFȱTHEȱRIGHTSȱOFȱ CHILDȱVICTIMSȱOFȱ TRAFFICKINGȱ ȱ Legislativeȱreformȱinȱtheȱareaȱofȱtraffickingȱisȱparticularlyȱcomplexȱ becauseȱtraffickingȱitselfȱconstitutesȱanȱelusiveȱnotion.ȱTheȱdefinitionȱofȱ traffickingȱrevolvesȱaroundȱmultipleȱconcepts,ȱandȱtheirȱinterpretationȱ remainsȱpoorlyȱdefinedȱandȱproneȱtoȱconfusion.ȱFirst,ȱtraffickingȱ activitiesȱareȱveryȱdiverse.ȱTraffickedȱchildrenȱmostlyȱendȱupȱinȱ unregulatedȱsectorsȱsuchȱasȱdomesticȱlabourȱorȱprostitution.ȱTheyȱcanȱ beȱsoldȱforȱadoptionȱorȱmarriage.ȱAsȱaȱconsequence,ȱitsȱcomponentsȱ mayȱoverlapȱwithȱotherȱelements.ȱHowȱcanȱtraffickingȱbeȱ differentiatedȱfromȱsmuggling?ȱWhatȱisȱtheȱboundaryȱbetweenȱworkȱ andȱexploitation?ȱTheȱconstantlyȱchangingȱnatureȱandȱdynamicsȱofȱ traffickingȱaddȱtoȱtheȱdifficultyȱofȱgraspingȱthisȱreality.ȱItȱisȱbothȱanȱ internationalȱandȱdomesticȱphenomenon.ȱWhileȱtraffickingȱhasȱbeenȱ mostȱvisibleȱatȱaȱglobalȱlevelȱwhenȱitȱinvolvesȱtheȱcrossingȱofȱaȱborder,ȱ itȱalsoȱoccursȱwithinȱaȱcountry’sȱboundaries,ȱmakingȱitȱevenȱmoreȱ difficultȱtoȱdetect.ȱItȱaffectsȱdevelopedȱandȱdevelopingȱcountries.ȱ Traffickingȱtrendsȱrepresentȱaȱveryȱcomplexȱwebȱofȱcountriesȱofȱorigin,ȱ transit,ȱandȱdestination,ȱinȱwhichȱtheȱsameȱcountryȱcanȱbelongȱtoȱallȱ threeȱcategoriesȱandȱoneȱcountryȱcanȱeasilyȱswitchȱfromȱoneȱcategoryȱ toȱanotherȱoverȱtime.ȱLikewise,ȱnewȱformsȱofȱtraffickingȱkeepȱ emerging,ȱrequiringȱconstantȱadaptationȱofȱresponses.ȱYet,ȱtraffickingȱ canȱandȱshouldȱbeȱaddressedȱthroughȱcomprehensiveȱlegislativeȱ reform.ȱ ȱ Legislativeȱreformȱaimingȱtoȱaddressȱchildȱtraffickingȱmustȱencompassȱ theȱmanyȱdimensionsȱofȱthisȱphenomenonȱandȱtakeȱintoȱaccountȱtheȱ existenceȱofȱchildȱspecificȱformsȱofȱtrafficking.ȱWhileȱmostȱactors,ȱ especiallyȱgovernments,ȱtendȱtoȱfocusȱonȱtheȱeliminationȱofȱtrafficking,ȱ inȱparticularȱthroughȱitsȱcriminalization,ȱwhatȱmattersȱfromȱaȱchildȱ
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rightsȱperspectiveȱisȱprimarilyȱpreventionȱasȱwellȱasȱtheȱprotectionȱofȱ theȱrightsȱofȱvictims.ȱTherefore,ȱlegislativeȱreformȱmustȱconcentrateȱonȱ theȱchild’sȱexperiencesȱandȱgiveȱprimaryȱconsiderationȱtoȱtheȱbestȱ interestsȱofȱtheȱchild.ȱȱ ȱ Thisȱmayȱnotȱnecessarilyȱrequireȱtheȱcreationȱofȱnewȱlaws.ȱReformȱofȱ existingȱlawsȱmayȱensureȱadequateȱprotectionȱforȱchildȱvictims,ȱandȱ alsoȱavoidȱdifferentiatedȱtreatmentȱbetweenȱchildȱvictimsȱofȱ exploitationȱandȱchildȱvictimsȱofȱtrafficking.ȱLawsȱandȱinstitutionsȱmayȱ alreadyȱexistȱwithȱrespectȱtoȱspecificȱissuesȱrelatedȱtoȱtraffickingȱsuchȱ asȱguardianshipȱwhenȱtheȱchildȱisȱunaccompanied,ȱrefugeeȱstatus,ȱlawsȱ andȱenforcementȱmechanismsȱtoȱaddressȱchildȱlabour,ȱetc.ȱHowever,ȱitȱ isȱimportantȱthatȱtheȱlegalȱframeworkȱbeȱproperlyȱequippedȱtoȱaddressȱ allȱsituationsȱofȱtrafficking.ȱȱ ȱ Theȱapproachȱtoȱlegislativeȱreformȱinȱtheȱareaȱofȱtraffickingȱvariesȱfromȱ countryȱtoȱcountry.ȱProvisionsȱrelatedȱtoȱchildȱtraffickingȱmayȱbeȱ includedȱinȱoneȱspecialȱlawȱonȱtraffickingȱorȱincorporatedȱinȱotherȱ relevantȱcodesȱorȱlaws.ȱForȱinstance,ȱtheȱprotectionȱofȱvictimsȱasȱ witnessesȱinȱaȱtrialȱmayȱbeȱincludedȱinȱtheȱcriminalȱprocedureȱcode,ȱ andȱissuesȱrelatedȱtoȱtheȱvictims’ȱstatusȱaddressedȱinȱimmigrationȱ laws.ȱCivilȱlawsuits,ȱonȱtheȱotherȱhand,ȱusuallyȱbelongȱtoȱcivilȱlaw.ȱ ManyȱStatesȱhaveȱconsideredȱitȱuseful,ȱforȱtheȱsakeȱofȱsimplicityȱandȱ consistency,ȱtoȱgatherȱinȱoneȱActȱallȱtheȱprovisionsȱrelatedȱtoȱvictims,ȱ evenȱifȱthisȱActȱmodifiesȱseveralȱotherȱlaws.ȱ ȱ Regardlessȱofȱtheȱapproachȱtaken,ȱlegislativeȱreformȱshouldȱfocusȱnotȱ onlyȱonȱtheȱdraftingȱofȱtheȱlaw,ȱbutȱalsoȱonȱmeasuresȱtoȱensureȱ effectiveȱimplementationȱthroughȱtheȱestablishmentȱofȱadequateȱ structures,ȱincludingȱtheȱattributionȱofȱpreciseȱresponsibilitiesȱtoȱ relevantȱactorsȱandȱinstitutions.ȱ ȱ Thisȱchapterȱwillȱfocusȱthereforeȱonȱtheȱrightsȱofȱchildȱvictimsȱandȱtheȱ legislativeȱprocessesȱforȱprotectingȱtheseȱrights,ȱratherȱthanȱonȱ criminal/prosecutionȱissues.ȱItȱshouldȱbeȱreadȱinȱconjunctionȱwithȱ UNICEF’sȱGuidelinesȱonȱtheȱProtectionȱofȱChildȱVictimsȱofȱ Trafficking. 208 ȱLikeȱotherȱchaptersȱofȱtheȱHandbook,ȱthisȱchapterȱ indicatesȱtheȱstandardsȱtowardsȱwhichȱoneȱshouldȱaspire.ȱDependingȱ
208 Forthcoming.
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onȱtheȱlevelȱofȱdevelopmentȱofȱaȱgivenȱcountryȱandȱtheȱstateȱofȱtheȱruleȱ ofȱlaw,ȱsomeȱrecommendationsȱpresentedȱhereȱmayȱbeȱmoreȱdifficultȱ toȱimplementȱthanȱothers.ȱExamplesȱfeaturedȱwereȱchosenȱbecauseȱ theyȱconstituteȱgoodȱpracticesȱonȱaȱspecificȱissue.ȱȱ ȱ Whileȱinternationalȱtreaties,ȱdueȱtoȱtheirȱveryȱnature,ȱtendȱtoȱfocusȱonȱ internationalȱaspectsȱof,ȱandȱresponsesȱto,ȱchildȱtrafficking,ȱtheyȱdrawȱ lessȱattentionȱtoȱtraffickingȱwithinȱStateȱborders,ȱisȱaȱseriousȱproblemȱ inȱmanyȱcountries.ȱThisȱtypeȱofȱtraffickingȱisȱlikelyȱtoȱbeȱlessȱvisibleȱ thanȱinternationalȱtraffickingȱandȱisȱsometimesȱsociallyȱacceptedȱasȱaȱ necessity,ȱdueȱtoȱpoverty.ȱHowever,ȱtheȱlegalȱframeworkȱofȱtheȱStateȱ needsȱtoȱaddressȱtheseȱsituationsȱandȱnotȱlimitȱitselfȱtoȱaddressingȱ crossȬborderȱtrafficking.ȱDefinitions,ȱguidingȱprinciples,ȱrightsȱofȱ victimsȱandȱpreventionȱstrategiesȱareȱsimilarȱforȱbothȱcrossȬborderȱandȱ internalȱtrafficking,ȱwithȱtheȱnecessaryȱadaptationsȱtoȱbeȱmadeȱ dependingȱonȱtheȱcontext.ȱWhereverȱrelevant,ȱtheȱchapterȱwillȱalludeȱ toȱtheȱspecificityȱofȱinternalȱtrafficking.ȱ ȱ Partȱ1ȱ DEFINITIONSȱ ȱ Theȱ definitionȱ ofȱ traffickingȱ containsȱ severalȱ elementsȱ thatȱ mustȱ beȱ exploredȱ inȱ orderȱ toȱ ensureȱ thatȱ lawȱ isȱ comprehensiveȱ enough.ȱ Aȱ properȱdefinitionȱisȱimportant,ȱasȱitȱmayȱdetermineȱtheȱstatusȱofȱaȱchildȱ asȱaȱvictimȱandȱensureȱaȱsetȱofȱprotectionȱmeasures.ȱItȱisȱalsoȱimportantȱ fromȱaȱcriminalȱlawȱperspective,ȱasȱitȱformsȱtheȱbasisȱforȱprosecutingȱ andȱsentencingȱtraffickers.ȱConsistentȱdefinitionsȱinȱvariousȱcountries,ȱ inȱparticularȱwithinȱtheȱsameȱregion,ȱareȱcrucialȱtoȱensureȱaȱcommonȱ understandingȱofȱchildȱtraffickingȱandȱcoordinateȱresponses.ȱ ȱ Inȱ manyȱ countries,ȱ lawsȱ intendedȱ toȱ combatȱ traffickingȱ onlyȱ tackleȱ traffickingȱforȱtheȱpurposeȱofȱsexualȱexploitation.ȱAȱbroaderȱdefinitionȱ isȱneededȱinȱorderȱtoȱensureȱthatȱallȱformsȱofȱtraffickingȱareȱprevented.ȱ Whileȱ internationalȱ treatiesȱ thatȱ provideȱ theȱ basisȱ forȱ antiȬtraffickingȱ lawsȱ dealȱ primarilyȱ withȱ internationalȱ traffickingȱ –ȱ involvingȱ theȱ crossingȱofȱaȱborderȱȬȱnationalȱlawsȱshouldȱalsoȱencompassȱtraffickingȱ withinȱtheȱState’sȱterritory.ȱ ȱ
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1.1ȱȱ GeneralȱDefinitionȱ ȱ Whileȱ manyȱ internationalȱ treatiesȱ haveȱ tackledȱ variousȱ aspectsȱ ofȱ trafficking,ȱ theȱ firstȱ internationallyȱ agreedȱ definitionȱ ofȱ traffickingȱ isȱ includedȱinȱtheȱProtocolȱtoȱPrevent,ȱSuppress,ȱandȱPunishȱTraffickingȱ inȱPersons,ȱEspeciallyȱWomenȱandȱChildren,ȱadoptedȱinȱ2000ȱ(Palermoȱ Protocol),ȱ supplementingȱ theȱ UNȱ Conventionȱ againstȱ Transnationalȱ Organizedȱ Crime.ȱ Sinceȱ itȱ isȱ aȱ bindingȱ instrumentȱ forȱ governmentsȱ whichȱ haveȱ ratifiedȱ it,ȱ andȱ containsȱ anȱ extensiveȱ definitionȱ ofȱ traffickingȱinȱpersons,ȱitȱcanȱbeȱusedȱforȱadvocacyȱandȱguidance.ȱItȱhasȱ toȱbeȱhighlighted,ȱhowever,ȱthatȱtheȱPalermoȱProtocolȱisȱnotȱaȱhumanȱ rightsȱtreatyȱasȱsuch;ȱitȱwasȱadoptedȱwithinȱtheȱframeworkȱofȱtheȱfightȱ againstȱ organizedȱ crime.ȱ Asȱ aȱ result,ȱ itȱ shouldȱ beȱ consideredȱ alongȱ withȱhumanȱrightsȱtreatiesȱtoȱensureȱtheȱfullȱprotectionȱofȱvictims.ȱItsȱ definitionȱofȱtraffickingȱinȱpersonsȱisȱasȱfollows:ȱ ȱ a) “Traffickingȱ inȱ personsȈȱ shallȱ meanȱ theȱ recruitment,ȱ transportation,ȱ transfer,ȱ harbouringȱ orȱ receiptȱ ofȱ persons,ȱ byȱ meansȱofȱtheȱthreatȱorȱuseȱofȱforceȱorȱotherȱformsȱofȱcoercion,ȱofȱ abduction,ȱofȱfraud,ȱofȱdeception,ȱofȱtheȱabuseȱofȱpowerȱorȱofȱaȱ positionȱ ofȱ vulnerabilityȱ orȱ ofȱ theȱ givingȱ orȱ receivingȱ ofȱ paymentsȱorȱbenefitsȱtoȱachieveȱtheȱconsentȱofȱaȱpersonȱhavingȱ controlȱ overȱ anotherȱ person,ȱ forȱ theȱ purposeȱ ofȱ exploitation.ȱ Exploitationȱshallȱinclude,ȱatȱaȱminimum,ȱtheȱexploitationȱofȱtheȱ prostitutionȱ ofȱ othersȱ orȱ otherȱ formsȱ ofȱ sexualȱ exploitation,ȱ forcedȱlabourȱorȱservices,ȱslaveryȱorȱpracticesȱsimilarȱtoȱslavery,ȱ servitudeȱorȱtheȱremovalȱofȱorgans;ȱ b) Theȱconsentȱofȱaȱvictimȱofȱtraffickingȱinȱpersonsȱtoȱtheȱintendedȱ exploitationȱsetȱforthȱinȱsubparagraphȱ(a)ȱofȱthisȱarticleȱshallȱbeȱ irrelevantȱwhereȱanyȱofȱtheȱmeansȱsetȱforthȱinȱsubparagraphȱ(a)ȱ haveȱbeenȱused.ȱ ȱ TheȱProtocolȱaddsȱaȱspecificȱdefinitionȱofȱtraffickingȱinȱchildren,ȱwhichȱ isȱevenȱbroader.ȱWhileȱtheȱgeneralȱdefinitionȱofȱtraffickingȱrequiresȱtheȱ existenceȱ ofȱ aȱ threat,ȱ useȱ ofȱ force,ȱ otherȱ formsȱ ofȱ coercion,ȱ includingȱ abuseȱofȱpower,ȱorȱaȱpayment,ȱtheȱdefinitionȱofȱtraffickingȱinȱchildrenȱ suppressesȱthisȱcondition:ȱ ȱ c) Theȱrecruitment,ȱtransportation,ȱtransfer,ȱharbouringȱorȱreceiptȱ ofȱ aȱ childȱ forȱ theȱ purposeȱ ofȱ exploitationȱ shallȱ beȱ consideredȱ
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ȈtraffickingȱinȱpersonsȈȱevenȱifȱthisȱdoesȱnotȱinvolveȱanyȱofȱtheȱ meansȱsetȱforthȱinȱsubparagraphȱ(a)ȱofȱthisȱarticle.ȱ ȱ Theȱ rationaleȱ isȱ twofold.ȱ Onȱ theȱ oneȱ hand,ȱ itȱ recognisesȱ theȱ specificȱ vulnerabilityȱ ofȱ children.ȱ Onȱ theȱ otherȱ hand,ȱ itȱ ensuresȱ thatȱ noȱ childȱ victimȱ isȱ excludedȱ fromȱ theȱ protectionȱ frameworkȱ offeredȱ byȱ theȱ Protocol.ȱ ȱ Boxȱ34:ȱTheȱAntiȬTraffickingȱinȱPersonsȱActȱinȱtheȱPhilippinesȱȱ TheȱAntiȬTraffickingȱinȱPersonsȱActȱofȱ2003ȱinȱtheȱPhilippinesȱ(RepublicȱActȱ9208)ȱ containsȱ aȱ definitionȱ ofȱ traffickingȱ inȱ personsȱ andȱ childȱ traffickingȱ thatȱ reflectsȱ virtuallyȱwordȱforȱwordȱtheȱdefinitionȱadoptedȱinȱtheȱPalermoȱProtocol.ȱItȱgoesȱevenȱ furtherȱbyȱincludingȱpersonsȱoverȱ18ȱwhoȱcannotȱfullyȱprotectȱthemselvesȱdueȱtoȱaȱ physicalȱ orȱ mentalȱ disabilityȱ orȱ conditionȱ inȱ theȱ definitionȱ ofȱ aȱ child,ȱ thusȱ givingȱ accessȱtoȱincreasedȱprotection.ȱȱ ȱ Whileȱ adoptedȱ inȱ theȱ contextȱ ofȱ theȱ Conventionȱ onȱ Transnationalȱ OrganizedȱCrime,ȱtheȱdefinitionȱofȱtheȱPalermoȱProtocolȱcanȱapplyȱtoȱ bothȱ internalȱ andȱ internationalȱ trafficking.ȱ Theȱ adoptionȱ ofȱ aȱ similarȱ definitionȱinȱtheȱnationalȱlegalȱframeworkȱshouldȱincludeȱtheȱinternalȱ dimensionȱandȱnotȱbeȱconditionalȱonȱtheȱcrossingȱofȱaȱborder.ȱ ȱ Yet,ȱthisȱdefinitionȱraisesȱseveralȱquestions.ȱItȱfocusesȱonȱtheȱcrimeȱofȱ traffickingȱ ratherȱ thanȱ onȱ theȱ situationȱ ofȱ theȱ child.ȱ Therefore,ȱ oneȱ wouldȱ haveȱ toȱ proveȱ theȱ intentionȱ ofȱ exploitationȱ ifȱ aȱ childȱ isȱ foundȱ whileȱtransitingȱfromȱoneȱcountryȱtoȱanother.ȱOtherwise,ȱtheȱtransferȱ mayȱbeȱqualifiedȱasȱmigrationȱorȱsmuggling,ȱandȱtheȱchildȱwillȱnotȱbeȱ affordedȱprotectionȱunderȱtheȱPalermoȱProtocol.ȱAnotherȱsetȱofȱissuesȱ relateȱ toȱ theȱ definitionȱ ofȱ aȱ childȱ andȱ ofȱ exploitation,ȱ whichȱ willȱ beȱ exploredȱbelow.ȱ ȱ 1.2ȱ RegionalȱInstrumentsȱ ȱ Someȱregionalȱinstrumentsȱalsoȱcontainȱaȱdefinitionȱofȱtraffickingȱthatȱ differsȱ fromȱ theȱ definitionȱ providedȱ inȱ theȱ Palermoȱ Protocol.ȱ Thisȱ isȱ dueȱtoȱtheȱfactȱthatȱregionalȱdefinitionsȱtendȱtoȱbeȱadjustedȱtoȱtheȱmostȱ pressingȱissuesȱinȱtheȱregion.ȱ ȱ Theȱ InterȬAmericanȱ Conventionȱ onȱ Internationalȱ Trafficȱ inȱ Minors,ȱ adoptedȱbyȱtheȱOrganizationȱofȱAmericanȱStatesȱinȱ1994ȱandȱenteredȱ intoȱforceȱinȱ1997,ȱdefinesȱtraffickingȱas:ȱ
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ȱ [T]heȱabduction,ȱremovalȱorȱretention,ȱorȱattemptedȱabduction,ȱ removalȱ orȱ retention,ȱ ofȱ aȱ minorȱ forȱ unlawfulȱ purposesȱ orȱ byȱ unlawfulȱmeansȱ(Articleȱ2).ȱ ȱ Thisȱdefinitionȱimpliesȱthatȱtraffickingȱmayȱhaveȱaȱlawfulȱpurposeȱbutȱ beȱ carriedȱ outȱ byȱ unlawfulȱ means,ȱ forȱ instanceȱ inȱ adoptionȱ cases,ȱ orȱ haveȱanȱunlawfulȱpurposeȱcarriedȱoutȱbyȱlawfulȱmeans,ȱasȱwouldȱbeȱ theȱ caseȱ ofȱ aȱ minorȱ transportedȱ byȱ aȱ legalȱ guardianȱ toȱ beȱ exploited.ȱ Oneȱ concernȱ isȱ thatȱ thisȱ definitionȱ leavesȱ aȱ wideȱ marginȱ ofȱ appreciationȱ toȱ nationalȱ lawsȱ ofȱ participatingȱ States,ȱ sinceȱ whatȱ isȱ consideredȱ lawfulȱ orȱ unlawfulȱ variesȱ fromȱ oneȱ countryȱ toȱ another.ȱ Proactiveȱ measuresȱ wouldȱ thereforeȱ needȱ toȱ beȱ takenȱ toȱ ensureȱ harmonisationȱofȱlawsȱinȱtheȱregionȱtoȱensureȱconsistency.ȱ ȱ TheȱAfricanȱCharterȱonȱtheȱRightsȱandȱWelfareȱofȱtheȱChild,ȱadoptedȱ byȱtheȱOrganizationȱofȱAfricanȱUnityȱinȱ1990ȱandȱenteredȱintoȱforceȱinȱ 1999,ȱrequiresȱStatesȱPartiesȱtoȱprevent:ȱ ȱ a) theȱabduction,ȱtheȱsaleȱof,ȱorȱtrafficȱinȱchildrenȱforȱanyȱpurposeȱ orȱ inȱ anyȱ form,ȱ byȱ anyȱ personȱ includingȱ parentsȱ orȱ legalȱ guardiansȱofȱtheȱchild;ȱ b) theȱuseȱofȱchildrenȱinȱallȱformsȱofȱbeggingȱ(Articleȱ29).ȱ ȱ 1.3ȱ DefinitionȱofȱaȱChildȱ ȱ AsȱstatedȱbyȱtheȱProtocol,ȱtheȱdefinitionȱofȱaȱchildȱisȱanyoneȱunderȱ18ȱ yearsȱold.ȱWhileȱtheȱConventionȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChildȱcontainsȱtheȱ sameȱ definition,ȱ itȱ addsȱ aȱ limitingȱ condition:ȱ “unlessȱ underȱ theȱ lawȱ applicableȱtoȱtheȱchild,ȱmajorityȱisȱattainedȱearlier”ȱ(Articleȱ1).ȱInȱotherȱ words,ȱinȱsomeȱareas,ȱsuchȱasȱminimumȱageȱforȱmarriage,ȱvotingȱrightsȱ orȱcriminalȱresponsibility,ȱtheȱageȱofȱmajorityȱcanȱbeȱlower.ȱHowever,ȱ givenȱ theȱ definitionȱ ofȱ theȱ Palermoȱ Protocol,ȱ theȱ possibilityȱ toȱ lowerȱ theȱageȱofȱmajorityȱofferedȱbyȱtheȱCRCȱdoesȱnotȱapplyȱtoȱtrafficking.ȱ Concretely,ȱ anyȱ antiȬtraffickingȱ legislationȱ shouldȱ provideȱ forȱ theȱ protectionȱ ofȱ everyȱ humanȱ beingȱ underȱ 18ȱ yearsȱ old,ȱ withoutȱ exception.ȱForȱinstance,ȱprovisionsȱforȱchildȱprotectionȱshouldȱapplyȱtoȱ aȱgirlȱvictimȱofȱtraffickingȱwhoȱisȱmarried,ȱevenȱthoughȱdomesticȱlawȱ mayȱregardȱherȱasȱanȱadultȱdueȱtoȱherȱmaritalȱstatus.ȱ ȱ
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However,ȱ aȱ practicalȱ problemȱ mayȱ ariseȱ whenȱ childȱ victimsȱ ofȱ traffickingȱdoȱnotȱhaveȱproperȱdocumentsȱsuchȱasȱbirthȱcertificatesȱ–ȱorȱ theȱ documentsȱ theyȱ doȱ haveȱ areȱ notȱ reliable,ȱ asȱ isȱ oftenȱ theȱ case.ȱ Inȱ suchȱcasesȱtheȱageȱmayȱbeȱdifficultȱtoȱascertain.ȱInȱcaseȱthereȱisȱaȱdoubtȱ asȱtoȱtheȱageȱofȱtheȱvictim,ȱtheȱlawȱshouldȱestablishȱaȱpresumptionȱthatȱ theȱ personȱ isȱ aȱ childȱ andȱ entitledȱ toȱ correspondingȱ protectiveȱ measures,ȱunlessȱprovedȱotherwise. 209ȱ ȱ 1.4ȱ TheȱNotionȱofȱExploitationȱ ȱ WhileȱtheȱPalermoȱProtocolȱprovidesȱsomeȱexamplesȱofȱpossibleȱformsȱ ofȱ exploitation,ȱ itȱ doesȱ notȱ giveȱ aȱ definitionȱ ofȱ thisȱ termȱ andȱ neitherȱ doesȱ theȱ CRC.ȱ Asȱ aȱ consequence,ȱ oneȱ needsȱ toȱ lookȱ atȱ aȱ numberȱ ofȱ treatiesȱdealingȱwithȱrelatedȱissuesȱtoȱconstructȱaȱspectrumȱofȱtheȱmanyȱ formsȱ childȱ exploitationȱ canȱ take.ȱ Fromȱ aȱ legislativeȱ reformȱ perspective,ȱitȱisȱessentialȱthatȱnotȱonlyȱallȱtheseȱelementsȱbeȱincludedȱ inȱtheȱlaw,ȱbutȱalsoȱthatȱtheȱlawȱbeȱbroadȱenoughȱtoȱincludeȱnewȱformsȱ ofȱexploitation.ȱȱ ȱ Inȱtheȱcontextȱofȱinternalȱchildȱtrafficking,ȱtheȱnotionȱofȱexploitationȱisȱ particularlyȱimportant.ȱOften,ȱindeed,ȱchildrenȱareȱtraffickedȱinternallyȱ andȱforcedȱintoȱvariousȱformsȱofȱchildȱlabour.ȱInȱmanyȱinstances,ȱtheȱ traffickerȱ luresȱ familiesȱ andȱ childrenȱ byȱ promisesȱ ofȱ goodȱ workȱ andȱ workingȱconditions,ȱtoȱengageȱchildrenȱinȱexploitativeȱactivitiesȱand/orȱ exploitativeȱ conditions.ȱ Aȱ strongȱ legalȱ andȱ institutionalȱ frameworkȱ addressingȱ childȱ labourȱ isȱ thereforeȱ essentialȱ toȱ addressȱ internalȱ trafficking.ȱ ȱ Economicȱ exploitationȱ isȱ mentionedȱ inȱ Articleȱ 32ȱ ofȱ theȱ CRC,ȱ whichȱ states:ȱ ȱ ”Statesȱ Partiesȱ recognizeȱ theȱ rightȱ ofȱ theȱ childȱ toȱ beȱ protectedȱ fromȱ economicȱexploitationȱandȱfromȱperformingȱanyȱworkȱthatȱisȱlikelyȱtoȱ beȱ hazardousȱ orȱ toȱ interfereȱ withȱ theȱ childȇsȱ education,ȱ orȱ toȱ beȱ harmfulȱ toȱ theȱ childȇsȱ healthȱ orȱ physical,ȱ mental,ȱ spiritual,ȱ moralȱ orȱ socialȱdevelopment” 210 .ȱ
209 Guidelines for protection of the rights of children victims of trafficking in Southeastern Europe, UNICEF, May 2003. 210 CRC Article 32(1).
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ȱ Inȱ1993,ȱtheȱCRCȱCommitteeȱheldȱaȱDayȱofȱGeneralȱDiscussionȱonȱtheȱ EconomicȱExploitationȱofȱChildren.ȱInȱtheȱopeningȱremarks,ȱaȱmemberȱ ofȱtheȱCommitteeȱspelledȱoutȱaȱconceptualȱdefinitionȱofȱexploitation: 211ȱ ȱ Exploitationȱmeansȱtakingȱunjustȱadvantageȱofȱanotherȱforȱone’sȱ ownȱadvantageȱorȱbenefit.ȱItȱcoversȱsituationsȱofȱmanipulation,ȱ misuse,ȱ abuse,ȱ victimization,ȱ oppressionȱ orȱ illȱ treatment.ȱ […]ȱ Weȱ areȱ confrontedȱ withȱ aȱ situationȱ ofȱ exploitationȱ essentiallyȱ whenȱ theȱ humanȱ dignityȱ ofȱ theȱ childȱ orȱ theȱ harmoniousȱ developmentȱofȱtheȱchild’sȱpersonalityȱisȱnotȱrespected. 212ȱ ȱ Theȱ referenceȱ toȱ anyȱ workȱ thatȱ isȱ likelyȱ toȱ beȱ hazardousȱ orȱ interfereȱ withȱ theȱ child’sȱ education,ȱ orȱ toȱ beȱ harmfulȱ toȱ theȱ child’sȱ healthȱ orȱ physical,ȱmental,ȱspiritual,ȱmoralȱorȱsocialȱdevelopmentȱinȱCRCȱArticleȱ 32ȱ canȱ alsoȱ defineȱ aȱ standardȱ forȱ determiningȱ whetherȱ aȱ situationȱ isȱ exploitativeȱorȱnot.ȱ ȱ Additionalȱinternationalȱinstrumentsȱcanȱalsoȱbeȱusedȱtoȱcomplementȱ theȱlistȱprovidedȱbyȱtheȱPalermoȱProtocol,ȱandȱtackleȱtheȱmultipleȱfacesȱ ofȱchildȱexploitation.ȱȱ ȱ Boxȱ35:ȱInternationalȱinstrumentsȱprovidingȱguidanceȱonȱchildȱexploitation:ȱ x Theȱsaleȱofȱchildren,ȱchildȱprostitution,ȱandȱuseȱofȱchildrenȱinȱtheȱ productionȱofȱpornography,ȱasȱdefinedȱunderȱtheȱOptionalȱProtocolȱtoȱtheȱ CRCȱonȱSaleȱofȱChildren,ȱChildȱProstitutionȱandȱChildȱPornography;ȱȱȱ x Theȱcompulsoryȱrecruitmentȱandȱparticipationȱinȱhostilitiesȱofȱchildrenȱ underȱ18,ȱdefinedȱunderȱtheȱOptionalȱProtocolȱtoȱtheȱCRCȱonȱChildrenȱinȱ ArmedȱConflict;ȱ x TheȱworstȱformsȱofȱchildȱlabourȱasȱdefinedȱunderȱILOȱConventionȱ182ȱ (1999):ȱallȱformsȱofȱslaveryȱorȱpracticesȱsimilarȱtoȱslavery,ȱsuchȱasȱsaleȱofȱ children,ȱdebtȱbondageȱandȱserfdomȱandȱforcedȱorȱcompulsoryȱlabour,ȱ includingȱforcedȱorȱcompulsoryȱrecruitmentȱofȱchildrenȱinȱarmedȱconflict;ȱȱ childȱprostitutionȱandȱtheȱuseȱofȱchildrenȱforȱtheȱproductionȱofȱ pornographyȱorȱforȱpornographicȱperformances;ȱȱtheȱuseȱofȱchildrenȱforȱ illicitȱactivities;ȱandȱworkȱwhich,ȱbyȱitsȱnatureȱorȱtheȱcircumstancesȱinȱ whichȱitȱisȱcarriedȱout,ȱisȱlikelyȱtoȱharmȱtheȱhealth,ȱsafetyȱorȱmoralsȱofȱ children;ȱ x Workȱdoneȱbyȱchildrenȱbelowȱtheȱminimumȱageȱforȱadmissionȱtoȱ employmentȱasȱspecifiedȱinȱILOȱConventionȱ138ȱ(1973);ȱ
211 Remarks by Marta Santos Pais (former member of the CRC Committee). 212 CRC/C/20, Annex V, available at http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu2/6/crc/doc/days/exploit.pdf.
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x Adoptionȱforȱfinancialȱgain,ȱcontraryȱtoȱtheȱHagueȱConventionȱonȱInterȬ CountryȱAdoption;ȱ x Forcedȱorȱearlyȱmarriage,ȱdefinedȱasȱaȱ“practiceȱsimilarȱtoȱslavery”ȱunderȱ theȱUNȱSupplementaryȱConventionȱonȱtheȱAbolitionȱofȱSlavery,ȱtheȱSlaveȱ Trade,ȱandȱInstitutionsȱandȱPracticesȱSimilarȱtoȱSlavery.ȱ ȱ Itȱfollowsȱfromȱtheȱforegoingȱthatȱtheȱcentralȱelementsȱofȱaȱdefinitionȱofȱ childȱexploitationȱthatȱneedȱtoȱbeȱreflectedȱinȱlegislationȱare:ȱ ȱ theȱactualȱharmȱlikelyȱtoȱbeȱcausedȱtoȱtheȱchildȱandȱhisȱorȱherȱ development,ȱbeȱitȱphysical,ȱmentalȱorȱpsychological,ȱincludingȱ interferenceȱwithȱtheȱchild’sȱeducation;ȱ theȱfactȱthatȱaȱthirdȱpersonȱisȱbenefitingȱfromȱthatȱsituation;ȱ labourȱlawsȱsettingȱlimitsȱinȱtermsȱofȱtheȱtypeȱofȱwork,ȱworkingȱ age(s),ȱandȱworkingȱconditionsȱforȱchildren.ȱ ȱ Boxȱ36:ȱTheȱRomanianȱLawȱonȱtheȱPreventionȱandȱFightingȱofȱTraffickingȱ TheȱRomanianȱlawȱonȱtheȱPreventionȱandȱFightingȱofȱTraffickingȱinȱHumanȱBeingsȱ (Lawȱ678ȱofȱ11ȱDecemberȱ2001)ȱdefinesȱ“exploitation”ȱasȱperformingȱforcedȱlabourȱ inȱviolationȱofȱtheȱlegalȱrequirementsȱonȱlabourȱconditions,ȱpay,ȱhealthȱandȱsecurity;ȱ keepingȱ aȱ personȱ inȱ aȱ stateȱ ofȱ slaveryȱ orȱ deprivingȱ thatȱ personȱ ofȱ freedom;ȱ compellingȱ aȱ personȱ toȱ engageȱ inȱ anyȱ formȱ ofȱ sexualȱ exploitationȱ includingȱ prostitutionȱ andȱ pornography;ȱ andȱ drawingȱ humanȱ organs.ȱ Importantly,ȱ theȱ lawȱ includesȱinȱ itsȱ definitionȱ ofȱ exploitationȱ “otherȱ similarȱactivitiesȱ thatȱ areȱ violatingȱ fundamentalȱhumanȱrightsȱandȱfreedoms,”ȱtherebyȱpavingȱtheȱwayȱforȱtheȱinclusionȱ ofȱnewȱformsȱofȱexploitationȱthatȱmayȱemerge,ȱonȱtheȱbasisȱthatȱtheyȱviolateȱhumanȱ rights.ȱȱ ȱ ȱ Partȱ2ȱ GUIDINGȱPRINCIPLESȱ ȱ Asȱ inȱ otherȱ areas,ȱ theȱ fourȱ guidingȱ principlesȱ ofȱ theȱ CRCȱ shouldȱ beȱ takenȱ intoȱ accountȱ andȱ provideȱ aȱ usefulȱ frameworkȱ inȱ legislativeȱ reformȱaimedȱatȱaddressingȱchildȱtrafficking.ȱInȱitsȱGeneralȱCommentȱ No.ȱ 6ȱ onȱ theȱ treatmentȱ ofȱ unaccompaniedȱ andȱ separatedȱ childrenȱ outsideȱtheirȱcountryȱofȱorigin, 213 ȱtheȱCommitteeȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱ Childȱanalysesȱtheȱimportanceȱofȱeachȱofȱtheȱguidingȱprinciplesȱforȱtheȱ protectionȱ ofȱ unaccompaniedȱ children’sȱ rightsȱ andȱ thisȱ analysisȱ canȱ provideȱ usefulȱ guidanceȱ toȱ theȱ issueȱ ofȱ childȱ victimsȱ ofȱ trafficking.ȱ Theseȱprinciplesȱalsoȱapplyȱtoȱinternalȱtrafficking.ȱ
213 CRC/GC/2005/6.
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ȱ 2.1ȱ RightȱtoȱNonȬdiscriminationȱ ȱ WhileȱnationalȱlegislationsȱoftenȱexpresslyȱassertȱtheȱprincipleȱofȱnonȬ discrimination,ȱfrequentlyȱinscribedȱasȱaȱconstitutionalȱprinciple,ȱsomeȱ specificȱgroundsȱforȱdiscriminationȱmustȱbeȱaddressedȱinȱantiȬ traffickingȱlegislation.ȱȱ ȱ Manyȱchildrenȱwhoȱareȱvictimsȱofȱtraffickingȱoftenȱfindȱthemselvesȱ unaccompanied,ȱinȱaȱcountryȱofȱwhichȱtheyȱareȱnotȱcitizens,ȱinȱanȱ “illegal”ȱsituation.ȱThisȱmayȱpreventȱthemȱfromȱhavingȱaccessȱtoȱ servicesȱandȱenjoyingȱotherȱrights.ȱȱ ȱ 2.2ȱ Jurisdictionȱ ȱ Theȱ CRCȱ expresslyȱ mentionsȱ thatȱ theȱ Conventionȱ appliesȱ toȱ allȱ childrenȱinȱtheȱStateȱParty’sȱjurisdiction.ȱTheȱprincipleȱisȱalsoȱcontainedȱ inȱ theȱ Palermoȱ Protocol.ȱ Inȱ itsȱ Generalȱ Commentȱ No.ȱ 6ȱ onȱ unaccompaniedȱandȱseparatedȱchildren,ȱtheȱCRCȱCommitteeȱreiteratesȱ theȱimportanceȱofȱthisȱprovision:ȱ ȱ [T]heȱenjoymentȱofȱrightsȱstipulatedȱinȱtheȱConventionȱisȱnotȱ limitedȱtoȱchildrenȱwhoȱareȱcitizensȱofȱaȱStateȱpartyȱandȱmustȱ therefore,ȱifȱnotȱexplicitlyȱstatedȱotherwiseȱinȱtheȱConvention,ȱ alsoȱbeȱavailableȱtoȱallȱchildrenȱȬȱincludingȱasylumȬseeking,ȱ refugeeȱandȱmigrantȱchildrenȱȬȱirrespectiveȱofȱtheirȱnationality,ȱ immigrationȱstatusȱorȱstatelessness.ȱ ȱ Adequateȱprovisionsȱshouldȱthereforeȱbeȱincludedȱinȱtheȱlawȱtoȱensureȱ thatȱ allȱ childȱ victimsȱ haveȱ anȱ equalȱ rightȱ toȱ protectionȱ andȱ support,ȱ regardlessȱofȱtheirȱnationalityȱorȱimmigrationȱstatus.ȱLegalȱprovisionsȱ relatingȱtoȱsocialȱbenefitsȱsuchȱasȱhealth,ȱhousingȱandȱeducationȱshouldȱ beȱreviewedȱtoȱensureȱthatȱtheyȱareȱnotȱrestrictedȱtoȱchildrenȱwhoȱareȱ nationals.ȱChildren’sȱspecificȱneedsȱinȱtermsȱofȱageȱandȱgenderȱshouldȱ alsoȱbeȱaddressed.ȱȱȱ ȱ Thisȱprincipleȱhasȱbroaderȱimplications.ȱForȱinstance,ȱtheȱStateȱwhereȱaȱ childȱisȱlocatedȱhasȱtheȱresponsibilityȱtoȱprovideȱforȱthatȱchild’sȱneedsȱ andȱmakeȱarrangementsȱasȱrelevantȱifȱreturnȱtoȱtheirȱstateȱofȱoriginȱisȱ
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inȱ theȱ theirȱ bestȱ interests.ȱ Theȱ issueȱ ofȱ jurisdictionȱ isȱ particularlyȱ importantȱ whenȱ negotiatingȱ internationalȱ agreements,ȱ asȱ theȱ lackȱ ofȱ agreementȱonȱwhichȱStateȱbearsȱtheȱresponsibilityȱ–ȱandȱcostsȱ–ȱforȱtheȱ returnȱofȱtheȱchildȱmayȱleadȱtoȱendlessȱproceduresȱandȱnegotiations.ȱȱ ȱ 2.3ȱ BestȱInterestsȱofȱtheȱChildȱ ȱ Asȱ statedȱ inȱ theȱ CRC,ȱ theȱ bestȱ interestsȱ ofȱ theȱ childȱ shouldȱ beȱ aȱ primaryȱconsiderationȱinȱallȱactionsȱconcerningȱchildren.ȱInȱtheȱareaȱofȱ trafficking,ȱthisȱprovisionȱhasȱevenȱmoreȱimportance,ȱasȱmanyȱinterestsȱ areȱcompetingȱwithȱchildren’sȱbestȱinterests.ȱForȱinstance,ȱStatesȱmayȱ beȱ firstȱ andȱ foremostȱ interestedȱ inȱ arrestingȱ andȱ prosecutingȱ traffickers,ȱwhoȱareȱpartȱofȱnetworksȱofȱorganizedȱcrime.ȱToȱthatȱend,ȱ theyȱmayȱ pressureȱchildȱvictimsȱtoȱtestify,ȱevenȱwhenȱitȱisȱ notȱ inȱtheȱ child’sȱbestȱinterestsȱinȱlightȱofȱtheȱtraumaȱtheyȱhaveȱ suffered.ȱStatesȱ mayȱ beȱ concernedȱ aboutȱ illegalȱ immigration,ȱ thusȱ preferringȱ toȱ repatriateȱvictimsȱtoȱtheirȱcountryȱofȱorigin,ȱevenȱifȱtheyȱdoȱnotȱhaveȱ absoluteȱassurancesȱthatȱtheyȱwillȱbeȱsafeȱthere.ȱȱ ȱ Asȱ explainedȱ inȱ thisȱ Handbook,ȱ aȱ country’sȱ legalȱ frameworkȱ mustȱ integrateȱtheȱbestȱinterestsȱofȱtheȱchildȱasȱaȱcrossȬcuttingȱprinciple,ȱandȱ inȱlawsȱrelatedȱtoȱtraffickingȱissuesȱthatȱprincipleȱshouldȱbeȱreiteratedȱ asȱsuperiorȱtoȱallȱotherȱconsiderations.ȱȱȱ ȱ Boxȱ37:ȱTheȱFederationȱofȱRussia’sȱDraftȱFederalȱLawȱagainstȱTraffickingȱ Theȱ Federationȱ ofȱ Russia’sȱ Draftȱ Federalȱ lawȱ againstȱ traffickingȱ inȱ Personsȱ andȱ MeasuresȱtoȱProtectȱVictimsȱofȱTraffickingȱstatesȱthatȱinȱtheȱeventȱchildȱvictimsȱofȱ traffickingȱ areȱ providedȱ assistance,ȱ allȱ measuresȱ shouldȱ beȱ takenȱ inȱ theȱ bestȱ interestsȱofȱtheȱchildȱandȱinȱaccordanceȱwithȱtheȱCRC.ȱ ȱ 2.4ȱ RightȱtoȱLife,ȱSurvivalȱandȱDevelopmentȱ ȱ Childȱtraffickingȱrepresentsȱaȱviolationȱofȱaȱchild’sȱrightȱtoȱlife,ȱsurvivalȱ andȱ development,ȱ asȱ childrenȱ forcedȱ intoȱ exploitationȱ performȱ tasksȱ thatȱ areȱ harmfulȱ toȱ theirȱ healthȱ andȱ harmoniousȱ development.ȱ Fightingȱ childȱ traffickingȱ isȱ thereforeȱ anȱ obligationȱ forȱ Statesȱ forȱ theȱ fulfilmentȱ ofȱ thisȱ CRCȱ provision.ȱ Itȱ doesȱ notȱ meanȱ prosecutingȱ traffickersȱatȱallȱcosts,ȱinȱparticularȱwhenȱitȱputsȱchildrenȱinȱdangerȱorȱ carriesȱ theȱ riskȱ ofȱ furtherȱ traumatizingȱ them.ȱ Itȱ implies,ȱ firstȱ andȱ foremost,ȱ settingȱ upȱ preventionȱ programmesȱ andȱ policiesȱ aimedȱ atȱ
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addressingȱ theȱ rootȱ causesȱ ofȱ trafficking.ȱ Inȱ thisȱ regard,ȱ theȱ lawȱ constitutesȱaȱusefulȱtoolȱtoȱmandateȱspecificȱinstitutionsȱandȱministriesȱ withȱ theȱ responsibilityȱ forȱ theȱ designȱ andȱ implementationȱ ofȱ suchȱ programmesȱ(seeȱsectionȱ1.4ȱonȱprevention).ȱ ȱ Theȱ implementationȱ ofȱ theȱ principleȱ ofȱ theȱ rightȱ toȱ life,ȱ survivalȱ andȱ developmentȱalsoȱimpliesȱtheȱobligationȱforȱStatesȱtoȱensureȱthatȱchildȱ victimsȱ ofȱ traffickingȱ haveȱ accessȱ toȱ appropriateȱ socialȱ services,ȱ inȱ particularȱ physicalȱ andȱ mentalȱ healthȱ servicesȱ andȱ educationȱ (Seeȱ sectionȱ1.3ȱonȱtheȱrightsȱofȱvictims).ȱ ȱ 2.5ȱ RespectȱforȱtheȱViewsȱofȱtheȱChildȱ ȱ Aȱchildȱvictimȱofȱtraffickingȱhasȱtheȱrightȱtoȱexpressȱhisȱorȱherȱviewsȱinȱ allȱ mattersȱ affectingȱ himȱ orȱ her,ȱ includingȱ theȱ legalȱ process,ȱ interimȱ careȱ andȱ protectionȱ andȱ theȱ identificationȱ andȱ implementationȱ ofȱ aȱ durableȱ solution,ȱ inȱ particularȱ inȱ decisionsȱ concerningȱ theȱ child’sȱ possibleȱreturnȱtoȱtheȱfamilyȱorȱcountryȱofȱorigin.ȱTheseȱviewsȱmustȱbeȱ soughtȱandȱgivenȱ dueȱweightȱinȱ accordanceȱwithȱtheȱchild’sȱageȱandȱ maturity.ȱ 214 ȱȱ ȱ Concretely,ȱ thisȱ meansȱ thatȱ theȱ legislativeȱ frameworkȱ shouldȱ requireȱ allȱresponsibleȱauthoritiesȱtoȱseekȱandȱconsiderȱtheȱviewsȱofȱtheȱchildȱ duringȱ theȱ decisionȬmakingȱ process.ȱ Theȱ lawȱ shouldȱ explicitlyȱ stateȱ thatȱprincipleȱandȱindicateȱatȱeachȱstageȱofȱtheȱprocessȱhowȱtheȱviewsȱ ofȱtheȱchildȱwillȱbeȱsought.ȱTheȱlawȱcanȱprovideȱforȱpossibleȱsanctions,ȱ includingȱtheȱnullityȱofȱrelevantȱacts,ȱifȱchildren’sȱviewsȱareȱnotȱheardȱ –ȱunlessȱadequateȱjustificationȱisȱprovided.ȱForȱtheȱchildren’sȱrightȱtoȱ participateȱ toȱ beȱ meaningful,ȱ processesȱ andȱ proceduresȱ shouldȱ beȱ adaptedȱtoȱcreateȱanȱenvironmentȱwhereȱtheȱchildȱfeelsȱfreeȱtoȱexpressȱ himȱorȱherselfȱandȱhasȱtheȱnecessaryȱsupportȱtoȱdoȱso.ȱChildrenȱshouldȱ haveȱtheȱoptionȱnotȱtoȱexpressȱtheirȱviewsȱifȱtheyȱsoȱchoose.ȱȱ ȱ AppropriateȱchildȬfriendlyȱinstitutionalȱsettingsȱshouldȱbeȱestablishedȱ byȱlawȱtoȱensureȱtheȱrealisationȱofȱthisȱright.ȱThisȱimpliesȱthatȱcourtsȱ mustȱbeȱequippedȱwithȱaȱspecialȱroomȱtoȱreceiveȱchildȱtestimonyȱand,ȱ whereȱ possible,ȱ videoȱ shouldȱ beȱ usedȱ toȱ recordȱ theseȱ testimoniesȱ toȱ avoidȱ repetitionȱ ofȱ trauma.ȱ Duringȱ administrativeȱ orȱ legalȱ
214 UNICEF guidelines, p. 10.
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proceedings,ȱ interviewsȱ mustȱ beȱ conductedȱ withȱ childȱ victimsȱ byȱ speciallyȱtrainedȱstaff,ȱpreferablyȱofȱtheȱsameȱgenderȱasȱtheȱchild,ȱandȱ theȱ viewsȱ expressedȱ inȱ theseȱ interviewsȱ mustȱ beȱ takenȱ intoȱ considerationȱwhenȱdecisionsȱareȱmade.ȱȱ ȱ Forȱexample,ȱinȱLondon,ȱUK,ȱnewȱpoliceȱheadquartersȱhaveȱbeenȱ establishedȱtoȱleadȱtheȱfightȱagainstȱchildȱabuseȱinȱfourȱboroughs.ȱTheȱ buildingȱhasȱtwoȱconferenceȱroomsȱfurnishedȱwithȱvideoȱandȱ recordingȱequipmentȱasȱwellȱasȱtoysȱtoȱcreateȱaȱchildȬfriendlyȱ environment.ȱTheȱobjectiveȱisȱtoȱallowȱchildrenȱtoȱgiveȱtheirȱtestimonyȱ inȱaȱcomfortableȱsettingȱratherȱthanȱinȱanȱintimidatingȱ–ȱandȱlikelyȱ traumatizingȱ–ȱcourtȱenvironment.ȱ ȱ ȱ Partȱ3ȱ RIGHTSȱOFȱVICTIMSȱ ȱ Aȱlawȱonȱtraffickingȱshouldȱaimȱtoȱensureȱthatȱvictimsȱareȱprotected.ȱ Victimsȱ ofȱ traffickingȱ areȱ particularlyȱ vulnerableȱ asȱ theyȱ mayȱ findȱ themselvesȱinȱaȱcountryȱorȱregionȱtheyȱdoȱnotȱknowȱandȱwhereȱtheyȱdoȱ notȱ speakȱ theȱ language,ȱ farȱ fromȱ theirȱ family,ȱ withoutȱ properȱ documentation,ȱ andȱ mayȱ beȱ atȱ riskȱ ofȱ reȬtraffickingȱ and/orȱ stigmatisationȱbackȱhome.ȱTheȱCRCȱCommitteeȱGeneralȱCommentȱonȱ unaccompaniedȱ andȱ separatedȱ childrenȱ outsideȱ ofȱ theirȱ countryȱ ofȱ origin,ȱwhileȱnotȱaddressingȱonlyȱcasesȱofȱtrafficking,ȱprovidesȱusefulȱ guidanceȱinȱdefiningȱStates’ȱobligationsȱwithȱrespectȱtoȱchildȱvictims.ȱ ȱ Legislativeȱ reformȱ forȱ theȱ protectionȱ ofȱ childȱ victimsȱ ofȱ traffickingȱ extendsȱ toȱ aȱ wideȱ rangeȱ ofȱ areasȱ ofȱ lawȱ andȱ lawȱ implementation.ȱ Aȱ fullyȱprotectiveȱlegalȱsystemȱmayȱrequireȱamendingȱaȱnumberȱofȱtexts,ȱ suchȱ asȱ familyȱ law/civilȱ codes,ȱ criminalȱ procedureȱ codes,ȱ educationȱ laws,ȱ immigrationȱ laws,ȱ etc.ȱ Asȱ alreadyȱ mentioned,ȱ theȱ legalȱ systemȱ mayȱ alreadyȱ containȱ adequateȱ provisionsȱ inȱ someȱ areasȱ butȱ notȱ inȱ others.ȱForȱthisȱreason,ȱaȱthoroughȱlawȱreviewȱisȱnecessary.ȱ ȱ SeeȱChapterȱ2ȱonȱlawȱreview.ȱ
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3.1ȱ GuidingȱPrinciplesȱSpecificȱtoȱtheȱRightsȱofȱVictimsȱ ȱ Whileȱ theȱ guidingȱ principlesȱ ofȱ theȱ CRCȱ asȱ theyȱ relateȱ toȱ legislativeȱ reformȱ inȱ theȱ areaȱ ofȱ traffickingȱ haveȱ alreadyȱ beenȱ examined,ȱ thisȱ sectionȱpresentsȱsomeȱofȱtheȱmoreȱspecificȱprinciplesȱthatȱapplyȱtoȱtheȱ rightsȱofȱvictims,ȱwhichȱtheȱlawȱshouldȱclearlyȱstateȱtoȱensureȱthatȱtheyȱ areȱrespected.ȱAsȱaȱgeneralȱprinciple,ȱitȱisȱessentialȱthatȱtheȱsituationȱofȱ eachȱandȱeveryȱchildȱbeȱassessedȱindividually.ȱȱ ȱ 3.1.1ȱ RightȱtoȱExpressȱViewsȱ ȱ Theȱrightȱofȱchildrenȱtoȱexpressȱviewsȱinȱallȱmattersȱaffectingȱthem,ȱasȱ providedȱ byȱ theȱ CRC,ȱ shouldȱ obviouslyȱ applyȱ toȱ childȱ victimsȱ ofȱ trafficking.ȱ Childȱ victimsȱ mustȱ beȱ ableȱ toȱ expressȱ theirȱ viewsȱ andȱ concernsȱ relatedȱ toȱ theirȱ involvementȱ inȱ theȱ justiceȱ process,ȱ inȱ particularȱ regardingȱ theirȱ safety,ȱ theȱ mannerȱ inȱ whichȱ theyȱ preferȱ toȱ provideȱ testimonyȱ andȱ theirȱ feelingsȱ aboutȱ theȱ conclusionsȱ ofȱ theȱ process.ȱ Ifȱ theirȱ requestsȱ cannotȱ beȱ accommodated,ȱ professionalsȱ shouldȱexplainȱtheȱreasonsȱtoȱchildren. 215ȱ ȱ 3.1.2ȱ RightȱtoȱInformationȱ ȱ Childȱvictimsȱhaveȱtheȱrightȱtoȱaccessibleȱinformationȱregardingȱtheirȱ situationȱandȱtheirȱrights,ȱasȱmentionedȱinȱtheȱPalermoȱProtocolȱandȱinȱ theȱ Optionalȱ protocolȱ onȱ theȱ saleȱ ofȱ children.ȱ Thisȱ rightȱ shouldȱ beȱ clearlyȱreflectedȱinȱtheȱlawȱandȱadequateȱmeasuresȱbeȱtakenȱtoȱensureȱ itsȱ realization.ȱ Itsȱ fulfillmentȱ impliesȱ anȱ obligationȱ toȱ tellȱ childrenȱ aboutȱ availableȱ services,ȱ theȱ lawȱ applicableȱ toȱ themȱ andȱ theȱ variousȱ optionsȱavailableȱinȱtermsȱofȱcriminalȱprosecution,ȱimmigrationȱstatus,ȱ return,ȱ asylum,ȱ etc.ȱ Inȱ theȱ criminalȱ proceedings,ȱ providingȱ childrenȱ withȱ adequateȱ informationȱ isȱ crucialȱ toȱ ensureȱ thatȱ theyȱ fullyȱ understandȱtheȱissuesȱatȱstake.ȱChildȱvictimsȱmustȱbeȱinformedȱonȱtheȱ servicesȱ toȱ whichȱ theyȱ areȱ entitled,ȱ includingȱ legalȱ representation.ȱ Theyȱ mustȱ knowȱ aboutȱ theȱ procedures,ȱ theirȱ scopeȱ andȱ timing,ȱ theȱ possibilityȱtoȱobtainȱcompensation,ȱasȱwellȱasȱwaysȱtoȱbeȱheard.ȱTheyȱ mustȱbeȱinformedȱofȱtheirȱroleȱinȱtheȱprocess,ȱtheȱwayȱquestioningȱwillȱ beȱconducted,ȱandȱtheȱavailabilityȱofȱprotectiveȱmeasures.ȱThroughoutȱ theȱproceedingsȱchildrenȱareȱentitledȱtoȱbeȱnotifiedȱonȱtheȱprogressȱofȱ
215 Ibid., Section 4.
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theȱcase,ȱincludingȱtheȱarrestȱofȱtheȱaccused,ȱtheȱprosecutorialȱdecision,ȱ andȱtheȱoutcomeȱofȱtheȱcase.ȱTheyȱshouldȱalsoȱbeȱawareȱofȱmechanismsȱ forȱreviewȱofȱdecisions. 216ȱ ȱ Theȱ realisationȱ ofȱ thisȱ rightȱ impliesȱ makingȱ sureȱ thatȱ adequateȱ institutionalȱ mechanismsȱ areȱ inȱ place.ȱ Importantly,ȱ informationȱ mustȱ beȱ explainedȱ toȱ childrenȱ inȱ aȱ mannerȱ thatȱ isȱ appropriateȱ toȱ theirȱ ageȱ andȱ maturityȱ andȱ inȱ aȱ languageȱ thatȱ theyȱ understand.ȱ Theȱ legalȱ guardianȱ ofȱ theȱ childȱ shouldȱ haveȱ theȱ primaryȱ responsibilityȱ forȱ informingȱtheȱchildȱvictimȱofȱhis/herȱrightsȱandȱguideȱtheȱchildȱinȱlightȱ ofȱhis/herȱbestȱinterests.ȱThisȱobligationȱshouldȱbeȱstatedȱinȱtheȱlawȱthatȱ addressesȱtheȱappointmentȱofȱlegalȱguardians.ȱWithȱrespectȱtoȱaccessȱtoȱ services,ȱinstitutionsȱresponsibleȱforȱtheȱcareȱofȱchildȱvictimsȱshouldȱbeȱ heldȱ accountableȱ forȱ ensuringȱ thatȱ childrenȱ areȱ awareȱ ofȱ theirȱ rights.ȱ Thisȱcanȱbeȱdoneȱbyȱincludingȱrelevantȱprovisionsȱwithinȱtheȱmandateȱ ofȱ theȱ institution.ȱ Withȱ regardȱ toȱ criminalȱ proceedings,ȱ lawȱ enforcementȱ personnelȱ shouldȱ beȱ obligatedȱ toȱ informȱ theȱ childȱ ofȱ his/herȱ rights,ȱ theȱ proceedings,ȱ andȱ theȱ expectationsȱ inȱ termsȱ ofȱ outcome.ȱȱ ȱ 3.1.3ȱ RightȱtoȱPrivacyȱandȱConfidentialityȱ ȱ Privacyȱ isȱ essentialȱ toȱ protectȱ childȱ victimsȱ andȱ preventȱ themȱ fromȱ beingȱstigmatizedȱbyȱsocietyȱorȱtheirȱcommunities.ȱChildrenȱneedȱtoȱbeȱ particularlyȱ protectedȱ asȱ theyȱ areȱ moreȱ vulnerableȱ toȱ stigmatization.ȱ Theȱpublicationȱofȱinformationȱonȱtheirȱsituationȱinȱtheȱmassȱmediaȱcanȱ haveȱ aȱ veryȱ negativeȱ impactȱ onȱ theirȱ developmentȱ andȱ representȱ aȱ significantȱ obstacleȱ toȱ theirȱ reintegration.ȱ Theȱ Palermoȱ protocolȱ stipulatesȱthatȱtheȱprivacyȱandȱidentityȱofȱvictimsȱofȱtraffickingȱshouldȱ beȱ protectedȱ “inȱ appropriateȱ casesȱ andȱ toȱ theȱ extentȱ possibleȱ underȱ [the]ȱdomesticȱlaw”ȱ(Articleȱ6.1).ȱTheȱOptionalȱProtocolȱonȱtheȱsaleȱofȱ childrenȱ insistsȱ onȱ theȱ importanceȱ ofȱ protectingȱ theȱ privacyȱ andȱ identityȱ ofȱ childȱ victimsȱ andȱ takingȱ measuresȱ toȱ avoidȱ theȱ disseminationȱ ofȱ informationȱ thatȱ couldȱ leadȱ toȱ theȱ identificationȱ ofȱ childȱvictims.ȱTheȱprotectionȱofȱprivacyȱandȱconfidentialityȱisȱvitalȱtoȱ guaranteeingȱtheȱsafetyȱofȱvictimsȱandȱensuringȱthatȱtheyȱwillȱnotȱbeȱ deterredȱ fromȱ filingȱ aȱ complaint.ȱȱOneȱ wayȱ ofȱ doingȱ thisȱ isȱ byȱ excludingȱ theȱ publicȱ andȱ theȱ mediaȱ fromȱ theȱ courtroom.ȱ Whenȱ
216 See Guidelines on Justice for Child Victims and Witnesses of Crime, Section 3.
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childrenȱ areȱ involved,ȱ allȱ informationȱ regardingȱ childrenȱ shouldȱ remainȱconfidential,ȱandȱviolationȱofȱthisȱprincipleȱshouldȱentailȱcivilȱ andȱpossiblyȱcriminalȱsanctions.ȱ ȱ 3.1.4ȱ NonȬrefoulementȱandȱInternalȱDisplacementȱ ȱ Whileȱ theȱ principleȱ ofȱ nonȬrefoulementȱ canȱ provideȱ guidanceȱ toȱ handleȱ casesȱ ofȱ internationalȱ trafficking,ȱ internalȱ displacementȱ canȱ helpȱinȱaddressingȱcasesȱofȱinternalȱtrafficking.ȱ ȱ Itȱshouldȱbeȱclearȱatȱtheȱoutsetȱthatȱtheȱprincipleȱofȱtheȱbestȱinterestsȱofȱ theȱ childȱ shouldȱ alwaysȱ prevail.ȱ Consequently,ȱ theȱ principleȱ ofȱ nonȬ refoulementȱshouldȱonlyȱbeȱusedȱasȱaȱsafetyȱnetȱand/orȱadvocacyȱtool,ȱ shouldȱtheȱbestȱinterestsȱofȱtheȱchildȱprincipleȱnotȱbeȱrespected.ȱȱ ȱ Whileȱ dueȱ toȱ immigrationȱ concerns,ȱ Statesȱ mayȱ beȱ temptedȱ toȱ sendȱ childrenȱ backȱ toȱ theirȱ Stateȱ ofȱ origin,ȱ theyȱ areȱ nonethelessȱ boundȱ toȱ respectȱ internationalȱ obligations.ȱ Theȱ principleȱ ofȱ nonȬrefoulementȱ representsȱ aȱ keyȱ provisionȱ ofȱ theȱ Genevaȱ Conventionȱ relatingȱ toȱ theȱ Statusȱ ofȱ Refugeesȱ ofȱ 1951.ȱ Theȱ Genevaȱ Conventionsȱ belongȱ toȱ theȱ realmȱofȱinternationalȱcustomaryȱlaw,ȱmeaningȱthatȱallȱStates,ȱwhetherȱ theyȱ areȱ partyȱ orȱ not,ȱ areȱ boundȱ byȱ theirȱ provisions,ȱ whichȱ areȱ recognisedȱasȱuniversal.ȱTheȱPalermoȱProtocolȱmakesȱexpressȱmentionȱ ofȱ theȱ Refugeeȱ Conventionȱ andȱ theȱ principleȱ ofȱ nonȬrefoulementȱ inȱ Articleȱ14.ȱThatȱConventionȱdefinesȱaȱrefugeeȱasȱsomeoneȱwhoȱhas:ȱ ȱ “[A]ȱwellȬfoundedȱfearȱofȱbeingȱpersecutedȱforȱreasonsȱofȱrace,ȱ religion,ȱnationality,ȱmembershipȱofȱaȱparticularȱsocialȱgroupȱorȱ politicalȱopinion,ȱisȱoutsideȱtheȱcountryȱofȱhisȱnationalityȱandȱisȱ unable,ȱorȱowingȱtoȱsuchȱfear,ȱisȱunwillingȱtoȱavailȱhimselfȱofȱtheȱ protectionȱofȱthatȱcountry;ȱorȱwho,ȱnotȱhavingȱaȱnationalityȱandȱ beingȱoutsideȱtheȱcountryȱofȱhisȱformerȱhabitualȱresidenceȱasȱaȱ resultȱ ofȱ suchȱ events,ȱ isȱ unableȱ or,ȱ owingȱ toȱ suchȱ fear,ȱ isȱ unwillingȱtoȱreturnȱtoȱit”ȱ(Articleȱ1).ȱ ȱ Accordingȱ toȱ theȱ principleȱ ofȱ nonȬrefoulement,ȱ whenȱ someoneȱ isȱ recognizedȱ asȱ aȱ refugee,ȱ aȱ Stateȱ cannotȱ expelȱ thatȱ person,ȱ asȱ he/sheȱ wouldȱbeȱinȱdangerȱinȱhis/herȱhomeȱcountry:ȱ ȱ
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“NoȱContractingȱStateȱshallȱexpelȱorȱreturnȱ(ȈrefoulerȈ)ȱaȱrefugeeȱ inȱ anyȱ mannerȱ whatsoeverȱ toȱ theȱ frontiersȱ ofȱ territoriesȱ whereȱ hisȱlifeȱorȱfreedomȱwouldȱbeȱthreatenedȱonȱaccountȱofȱhisȱrace,ȱ religion,ȱnationality,ȱmembershipȱofȱaȱparticularȱsocialȱgroupȱorȱ politicalȱopinion”ȱ(Articleȱ33).ȱ ȱ CourtȱdecisionsȱinȱseveralȱStatesȱhaveȱaccordedȱtheȱstatusȱofȱrefugeeȱtoȱ victimsȱ ofȱ trafficking,ȱ basingȱ theirȱ decisionȱ onȱ theȱ “membershipȱ toȱ aȱ particularȱ group,”ȱ aȱ groupȱ defined,ȱ forȱ instance,ȱ asȱ “youngȱ womenȱ fromȱ theȱ formerȱ Sovietȱ Unionȱ recruitedȱ forȱ exploitationȱ inȱ theȱ internationalȱ sexȱ trade.” 217 ȱ Lawyersȱ involvedȱ inȱ traffickingȱ casesȱ shouldȱbeȱawareȱofȱthatȱcaseȬlaw.ȱȱ ȱ Theȱ CRCȱ Committeeȱ inȱ itsȱ Generalȱ Commentȱ No.ȱ 6ȱ reiteratesȱ thatȱ principle.ȱItȱstatesȱinȱparticularȱthat:ȱ ȱ “Statesȱ shallȱ notȱ returnȱ aȱ childȱ toȱ aȱ countryȱ whereȱ thereȱ areȱ substantialȱ groundsȱ forȱ believingȱ thatȱ thereȱ isȱ aȱ realȱ riskȱ ofȱ irreparableȱharmȱtoȱtheȱchild,ȱsuchȱas,ȱbutȱbyȱnoȱmeansȱlimitedȱ to,ȱ thoseȱ contemplatedȱ underȱ articlesȱ 6ȱ andȱ 37ȱ ofȱ theȱ Conventionȱ (…).ȱ Suchȱ nonȬrefoulementȱ obligationsȱ applyȱ irrespectiveȱ ofȱ whetherȱ seriousȱ violationsȱ ofȱ thoseȱ rightsȱ guaranteedȱ underȱ theȱ Conventionȱ originateȱ fromȱ nonȬStateȱ actorsȱ orȱ whetherȱ suchȱ violationsȱ areȱ directlyȱ intendedȱ orȱ areȱ theȱindirectȱconsequenceȱofȱactionȱorȱinaction.ȱTheȱassessmentȱofȱ theȱriskȱofȱsuchȱseriousȱviolationsȱshouldȱbeȱconductedȱinȱanȱageȱ andȱgenderȬsensitiveȱmannerȱ(…)”ȱ ȱ Inȱtheȱcontextȱofȱinternalȱtrafficking,ȱsomeȱexpertsȱhaveȱadvocatedȱforȱ anȱ approachȱ drawingȱ onȱ theȱ similarityȱ betweenȱ theȱ situationȱ andȱ vulnerabilityȱ ofȱ internationallyȱ displacedȱ personsȱ andȱ victimsȱ ofȱ trafficking. 218 ȱ Inȱ thisȱ view,ȱ humanȱ traffickingȱ sharesȱ withȱ internalȱ displacementȱ theȱ elementȱ ofȱ aȱ coerced,ȱ forcedȱ orȱ involuntaryȱ movementȱ –ȱ evenȱ ifȱ theȱ movementȱ isȱ initiallyȱ voluntary,ȱ theȱ exploitativeȱ situationȱ isȱ not.ȱ Internallyȱ displacedȱ personsȱ areȱ vulnerableȱ toȱ traffickingȱ andȱ promisesȱ ofȱ betterȱ situationsȱ elsewhere.ȱ
217 UK, Immigration Appeal Tribunal, CC-50627-99 (00TH00728), 17 May 2000. Quoted by Kartusch, Angelika, Reference Guide for Anti-Trafficking Legislative Review [with particular emphasis on South Eastern Europe], OSCE (September 2001). 218 S. Martin, Internal Trafficking, Forced Migration Review 25 (May 2006), p.12-3.
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Displacementȱ disruptsȱ familyȱ andȱ communityȱ networksȱ whichȱ representȱ keyȱ elementsȱ ofȱ theȱ child’sȱ protectiveȱ environment.ȱ Inȱ thisȱ context,ȱ theȱ Guidingȱ Principlesȱ onȱ Internalȱ Displacement 219 ȱ offerȱ usefulȱ andȱ detailedȱ guidanceȱ onȱ theȱ measuresȱ necessaryȱ toȱ protectȱ victimsȱofȱtrafficking.ȱItȱstatesȱtheȱneedȱtoȱprovideȱadequateȱprotectionȱ andȱ assistanceȱ toȱ children,ȱ takingȱ intoȱ accountȱ theirȱ specialȱ needs.ȱ Itȱ refersȱtoȱfamilyȱreunificationȱandȱtheȱrightȱtoȱeducation.ȱImportantly,ȱitȱ includesȱprinciplesȱrelatedȱtoȱlongȬtermȱsolutionsȱsuchȱasȱreturn,ȱlocalȱ integration,ȱ orȱ resettlementȱ andȱ assignsȱ responsibilityȱ toȱ nationalȱ authorities.ȱ Theȱ documentȱ isȱ howeverȱ notȱ childȬspecificȱ andȱ shouldȱ thereforeȱbeȱreadȱinȱconjunctionȱwithȱchildȱrightsȱinstruments.ȱ ȱ 3.2ȱ ConcreteȱStepsȱforȱtheȱProtectionȱofȱChildȱVictimsȱ ȱ 3.2.1ȱ RecognitionȱofȱtheȱStatusȱofȱVictimȱ ȱ Theȱfirstȱstepȱisȱtoȱhaveȱaȱprocedureȱtoȱensureȱthatȱvictimsȱhaveȱtheirȱ statusȱofficiallyȱrecognised.ȱThereȱareȱseveralȱmeansȱtoȱdoȱso:ȱ ȱ 1. Allowingȱcourtsȱdealingȱwithȱtraffickingȱcasesȱtoȱidentifyȱ victimsȱandȱcertifyȱtheirȱstatus;ȱ 2. Allowingȱaȱjudicialȱorȱadministrativeȱdecisionȱbasedȱonȱreportsȱ ofȱlawȱenforcement,ȱborderȬcontrolȱorȱotherȱofficialsȱwhoȱ encounterȱvictims;ȱ 3. Allowingȱaȱjudicialȱorȱadministrativeȱdecisionȱbasedȱonȱtheȱ applicationȱofȱtheȱallegedȱvictimȱorȱhis/herȱrepresentative. 220ȱ ȱ Theȱ recognitionȱ ofȱ aȱ childȱ asȱ aȱ victimȱ shouldȱ inȱ noȱ circumstancesȱ beȱ linkedȱ toȱ his/herȱ willingnessȱ toȱ testifyȱ orȱ toȱ theȱ arrestȱ ofȱ aȱ criminalȱ and/orȱtoȱtheȱarrestȱofȱtraffickersȱorȱcriminal.ȱItȱshouldȱsolelyȱbeȱbasedȱ onȱtheȱchild’sȱexperienceȱandȱthisȱshouldȱbeȱexplicitȱinȱtheȱlaw.ȱ
219 Special Representative of the Secretary-General on Internally Displaced Persons, Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement, E/CN.4/1998/53/Add.2. 220 United Nations Centre for International Crime Prevention, Legislative Guide for the Implementation of the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, Draft 3, Vienna (March 2003), p. 38.
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3.2.2ȱ AppointmentȱofȱaȱGuardianȱ ȱ Theȱlawȱshouldȱprovideȱforȱtheȱappointmentȱofȱaȱguardianȱasȱsoonȱasȱaȱ childȱvictimȱisȱidentifiedȱtoȱaccompanyȱtheȱchildȱthroughoutȱtheȱentireȱ processȱuntilȱaȱdurableȱsolutionȱhasȱbeenȱidentifiedȱandȱimplemented.ȱ Ifȱ aȱ childȱ isȱ notȱ unaccompaniedȱ andȱ alreadyȱ hasȱ aȱ guardian,ȱ theȱ lawȱ shouldȱrequireȱanȱassessmentȱandȱincludeȱtheȱpossibilityȱthatȱanotherȱ guardianȱ beȱ appointed,ȱ shouldȱ theȱ assessmentȱ concludeȱ thatȱ theȱ currentȱoneȱmayȱnotȱfullyȱactȱinȱtheȱbestȱinterestsȱofȱtheȱchild.ȱȱ ȱ Theseȱ provisionsȱ shouldȱ beȱ accompaniedȱ byȱ theȱ designation,ȱ inȱ theȱ law,ȱofȱtheȱauthorityȱresponsibleȱforȱappointingȱtheȱguardianȱandȱtheȱ establishmentȱ ofȱ accountabilityȱ mechanismsȱ forȱ thatȱ authority.ȱ Theȱ authorityȱcanȱbeȱspecificallyȱestablishedȱtoȱdealȱwithȱtraffickingȱissues,ȱ orȱ itȱ canȱ beȱ aȱ childȱ protectionȱ agencyȱ withȱ aȱ broaderȱ mandateȱ (Forȱ moreȱinformationȱseeȱsectionȱVIIȱonȱinstitutionalȱreform).ȱ ȱ Theȱ lawȱ shouldȱ spellȱ outȱ theȱ legalȱ responsibilitiesȱ andȱ obligationsȱ ofȱ theȱguardian,ȱwhichȱinȱcivilȱlawȱcountriesȱareȱoftenȱfoundȱinȱtheȱcivilȱ code.ȱ ȱ 3.2.3ȱ MedicalȱandȱPsychologicalȱCareȱ ȱ Traffickingȱcanȱhaveȱseriousȱmedicalȱandȱpsychologicalȱconsequencesȱ onȱchildren.ȱAsȱdiscussedȱinȱSectionȱIIȱonȱdefinitions,ȱchildȱexploitationȱ isȱ definedȱ byȱ theȱ factȱ thatȱ itȱ isȱ harmfulȱ toȱ theȱ child’sȱ healthȱ andȱ development.ȱAccessȱtoȱappropriateȱmedicalȱandȱpsychologicalȱcareȱisȱ thusȱ essentialȱ forȱ theȱ child’sȱ recovery.ȱ Theseȱ servicesȱ shouldȱ alsoȱ addressȱ theȱ specialȱ needsȱ ofȱ girls.ȱ Statesȱ shouldȱ makeȱ sure,ȱ throughȱ legalȱ provisions,ȱ thatȱ theirȱ healthȱ systemȱ isȱ openȱ toȱ childȱ victimsȱ ofȱ trafficking,ȱevenȱifȱtheyȱareȱnotȱnationalsȱofȱthatȱState.ȱȱȱ ȱ 3.2.4ȱ Housingȱ ȱ Childȱvictimsȱofȱtraffickingȱareȱoftenȱseparatedȱfromȱtheirȱparentsȱandȱ family.ȱ Theyȱ haveȱ noȱ placeȱ toȱ go,ȱ otherȱ thanȱ toȱ returnȱ toȱ theirȱ trafficker,ȱ whichȱ victimsȱ sometimesȱ doȱ whenȱ theyȱ doȱ notȱ receiveȱ enoughȱ support.ȱ Providingȱ appropriateȱ housingȱ thatȱ isȱ safe,ȱ childȬ friendly,ȱandȱoperatedȱbyȱchildȬsensitiveȱstaffȱisȱessential.ȱToȱthatȱend,ȱ childrenȱshouldȱbeȱseparatedȱfromȱadultsȱunlessȱtheseȱareȱtheirȱparentsȱ
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orȱ careȬtakersȱ andȱ aȱ genderȱ sensitiveȬapproachȱ toȱ theirȱ needsȱ shouldȱ alsoȱbeȱemployed,ȱinȱparticularȱwithȱrespectȱtoȱtheȱgenderȱofȱtheȱstaffȱ thatȱareȱtakingȱcareȱofȱthem.ȱFurthermore,ȱtoȱremainȱsafe,ȱtheȱexistenceȱ andȱlocationȱofȱsuchȱhousingȱshouldȱbeȱkeptȱconfidential.ȱȱ ȱ 3.2.5ȱ Educationȱ ȱ Victimsȱ needȱ toȱ returnȱ toȱ aȱ senseȱ ofȱ normalcyȱ inȱ theirȱ lives.ȱ Besides,ȱ childrenȱwhoȱhaveȱbeenȱtraffickedȱhaveȱmostȱlikelyȱnotȱhadȱaccessȱtoȱ education.ȱTheȱrightȱtoȱeducationȱofȱchildȱvictimsȱneedsȱtoȱbeȱfulfilledȱ byȱ theȱ receivingȱ State,ȱ whateverȱ theȱ nationalityȱ ofȱ theȱ victimȱ ofȱ trafficking.ȱTheȱfulfilmentȱofȱthisȱrightȱmayȱrequireȱtheȱadaptationȱofȱ educationȱ lawsȱ toȱ ensureȱ thatȱ educationȱ isȱ accessibleȱ toȱ allȱ childrenȱ withinȱtheȱState’sȱjurisdiction.ȱ ȱ Forȱexample,ȱtheȱRussianȱdraftȱlawȱprovidesȱthatȱtheȱFederalȱ Commission,ȱregionalȱcommissions,ȱasylumsȱandȱcentresȱmustȱ immediatelyȱnotifyȱexecutiveȱauthoritiesȱinȱchargeȱofȱtheȱissuesȱofȱcareȱ andȱguardianship,ȱifȱtheyȱreceiveȱanyȱinformationȱaboutȱaȱchildȱvictimȱ ofȱtrafficking,ȱtoȱensureȱandȱprotectȱtheȱchild’sȱrights.ȱTheȱdraftȱlawȱ alsoȱstatesȱthatȱchildȱvictimsȱofȱtraffickingȱmustȱbeȱprovidedȱanȱ opportunityȱtoȱattendȱschoolȱinȱcomplianceȱwithȱtheȱfederalȱlawȱonȱ education.ȱ ȱ 3.3ȱ RightsȱofȱVictimsȱinȱJudicialȱProceedingsȱ ȱ 3.3.1ȱ NonȬcriminalizationȱofȱVictimsȱ ȱ Underȱ noȱ circumstancesȱ shouldȱ lawsȱ holdȱ childrenȱ whoȱ haveȱ beenȱ traffickedȱ criminallyȱ responsible.ȱ Childrenȱ whoȱ haveȱ beenȱ traffickedȱ andȱ exploitedȱ mustȱ beȱ treatedȱ asȱ victims,ȱ notȱ asȱ offenders.ȱ Unfortunately,ȱ victimsȱ ofȱ traffickingȱ areȱ oftenȱ prosecuted,ȱ basedȱ onȱ legislationȱonȱprostitutionȱorȱimmigration,ȱforȱexample.ȱHowever,ȱtheȱ criminalȱisȱtheȱtraffickerȱandȱtheȱlawȱshouldȱnotȱbeȱambiguousȱinȱthatȱ regard.ȱInȱtheȱcaseȱofȱchildȱvictims,ȱthisȱisȱevenȱclearerȱasȱthereȱisȱnoȱ needȱtoȱproveȱtheȱuseȱofȱcoercion,ȱdeceptionȱorȱanyȱotherȱmeans,ȱasȱperȱ theȱdefinitionȱofȱchildȱtraffickingȱ(SeeȱsectionȱIIȱonȱdefinitions).ȱȱ ȱ
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Therefore,ȱaȱcourtȱconsideringȱaȱchildȱtraffickingȱcaseȱshouldȱnotȱlookȱ atȱ whetherȱ theȱ childȱ hasȱ givenȱ anyȱ formȱ ofȱ consent.ȱ Ifȱ theȱ childȱ isȱ aȱ victimȱ ofȱ trafficking,ȱ his/herȱ performingȱ ofȱ illegalȱ activitiesȱ isȱ irrelevant.ȱTheȱresponsibilityȱfallsȱwithȱtheȱtrafficker(s).ȱForȱinstance,ȱitȱ isȱirrelevantȱtoȱconsiderȱwhetherȱaȱchildȱhasȱagreedȱtoȱbeȱsmuggledȱorȱ hasȱacceptedȱaȱcertainȱkindȱofȱemployment.ȱOftenȱtimesȱhowever,ȱdueȱ toȱ poverty,ȱ parentsȱ giveȱ theirȱ consentȱ toȱ sendȱ theirȱ childrenȱ toȱ exploitativeȱlabour.ȱThisȱsituationȱneedsȱtoȱbeȱaddressed,ȱbyȱsettingȱupȱ safeguardsȱ againstȱ reȬtrafficking.ȱ Itȱ isȱ theȱ State’sȱ responsibilityȱ toȱ provideȱ parentsȱ withȱ appropriateȱ supportȱ measuresȱ toȱ avoidȱ reȬ trafficking.ȱ Parentsȱ cannotȱ andȱ shouldȱ notȱ beȱ heldȱ criminallyȱ responsibleȱifȱtheyȱgaveȱtheirȱconsentȱtoȱexploitativeȱlabourȱconditionsȱ forȱ theirȱ childȱ becauseȱ criminalȱ responsibilityȱ liesȱ withȱ theȱ trafficker.ȱ However,ȱ civilȱ sanctionsȱ shouldȱ beȱ providedȱ inȱ theȱ lawȱ toȱ deterȱ parentsȱfromȱgivingȱtheirȱconsentȱandȱappliedȱwithȱdueȱregardȱtoȱtheȱ circumstances.ȱ Suchȱ sanctionsȱ shouldȱ beȱ linkedȱ toȱ theȱ exerciseȱ ofȱ parentalȱauthorityȱ–ȱandȱadequateȱlimitationsȱthereofȱifȱtheȱchildȱisȱatȱ riskȱ–ȱbutȱusedȱonlyȱinȱextremeȱcases.ȱȱ ȱ 3.3.2ȱ RightȱtoȱAssistanceȱ ȱ Assistanceȱ throughoutȱ theȱ proceedingsȱ canȱ takeȱ manyȱ forms.ȱ Someȱ legalȱ systemsȱ provideȱ thatȱ freeȱ legalȱ assistanceȱ willȱ beȱ affordedȱ toȱ peopleȱwhoȱdoȱnotȱhaveȱaȱcertainȱminimumȱofȱresources.ȱChildȱvictimsȱ shouldȱ alwaysȱ haveȱ accessȱ toȱ freeȱ counselȱ andȱ thisȱ rightȱ shouldȱ beȱ explicitȱinȱtheȱlawȱandȱadequateȱresourcesȱallocated.ȱTheyȱshouldȱalsoȱ haveȱ accessȱ toȱ physicalȱ andȱ psychologicalȱ healthȱ servicesȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ otherȱ necessaryȱ services,ȱ includingȱ theȱ presenceȱ ofȱ theȱ familyȱ whenȱ appropriateȱandȱpossible,ȱtoȱaccompanyȱtheȱchildȱinȱtheȱproceedings.ȱ ȱ 3.3.3ȱȱ FairȱTrialȱ ȱ Whileȱ takingȱ intoȱ accountȱ theȱ rightsȱ ofȱ victims,ȱ allȱ proceedingsȱ mustȱ complyȱwithȱ humanȱ rightsȱstandards,ȱinȱparticularȱtheȱrightȱtoȱ aȱfairȱ trialȱforȱtheȱsuspectȱorȱaccused.ȱȱ ȱ 3.3.4ȱ RightȱtoȱSafetyȱ ȱ Allȱ necessaryȱ measuresȱ shouldȱ beȱ takenȱ toȱ ensureȱ thatȱ lawȱ enforcementȱ authoritiesȱ areȱ awareȱ ofȱ theȱ safetyȱ risksȱ facedȱ byȱ childȱ
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victimsȱ andȱ takeȱ appropriateȱ action.ȱ Staffȱ workingȱ withȱ childrenȱ shouldȱhaveȱtheȱobligationȱtoȱnotifyȱauthoritiesȱifȱtheyȱsuspectȱthatȱaȱ childȱ victimȱ hasȱ beenȱ harmedȱ orȱ isȱ atȱ risk.ȱ Thisȱ obligationȱ shouldȱbeȱ inscribedȱ inȱ relevantȱ legislationȱ regulatingȱ theȱ practiceȱ ofȱ severalȱ professionsȱ involvingȱ workȱ withȱ children,ȱ includingȱ teachers,ȱ socialȱ workersȱandȱmedicalȱdoctors.ȱȱ ȱ 3.3.5ȱ RightȱtoȱanȱEffectiveȱRemedyȱ ȱ Theȱrightȱtoȱaȱremedyȱforȱhumanȱrightsȱviolationsȱisȱaȱcornerstoneȱforȱ theȱ implementationȱ ofȱ humanȱ rightsȱ standards.ȱ Articleȱ 4ȱ ofȱ theȱ Conventionȱ onȱ theȱ Rightsȱ ofȱ theȱ Childȱ obligesȱ Statesȱ toȱ takeȱ allȱ necessaryȱ measuresȱ toȱ implementȱ theȱ Convention.ȱ Inȱ itsȱ Generalȱ Commentȱ onȱ thisȱ issue,ȱ theȱ Committeeȱ onȱ theȱ Rightsȱ ofȱ theȱ Childȱ statesȱ thatȱ thisȱ provisionȱ includesȱ theȱ obligationȱ forȱ Statesȱ toȱ ensureȱ thatȱeffectiveȱremediesȱareȱinȱplaceȱforȱchildȱrightsȱviolationsȱandȱthatȱ childȬsensitiveȱproceduresȱareȱavailable. 221 ȱȱ ȱ Forȱtheȱremedyȱtoȱbeȱeffective,ȱseveralȱconditionsȱareȱrequired.ȱVictimsȱ mustȱbeȱinformedȱofȱtheirȱrights,ȱhaveȱtheirȱconfidentialityȱrespected,ȱ beȱ protectedȱ againstȱ retaliationȱ andȱ feelȱ thatȱ theyȱ willȱ beȱ listenedȱ toȱ andȱ thatȱ lawȱ enforcementȱ authoritiesȱ areȱ sensitiveȱ toȱ theirȱ situation.ȱ Childrenȱ areȱ especiallyȱ entitledȱ toȱ justiceȱ mechanismsȱ thatȱ takeȱ intoȱ accountȱ theirȱ specificȱ needsȱ andȱ giveȱ dueȱ regardȱ toȱ theirȱ ageȱ andȱ maturity.ȱOneȱessentialȱconditionȱisȱthatȱchildrenȱwhoȱdoȱnotȱspeakȱorȱ masterȱtheȱofficialȱlanguageȱbeȱprovidedȱwithȱappropriateȱtranslationȱ servicesȱ inȱ theirȱ motherȱ tongue,ȱ especiallyȱ forȱ allȱ informationȱ regardingȱtheȱproceedingsȱandȱtheirȱtestimony.ȱ ȱ Theȱ Guidelinesȱ onȱ Justiceȱ forȱ Childȱ Victimsȱ andȱ Witnessesȱ ofȱ Crimeȱ elaboratedȱ byȱ theȱ NGOȱ Internationalȱ Bureauȱ forȱ Children’sȱ Rightsȱ provideȱveryȱusefulȱandȱcomprehensiveȱinformationȱonȱwaysȱtoȱensureȱ 222 thatȱjusticeȱproceduresȱareȱchildȬfriendly.
221 CRC Committee, General Comment on General measures of implementation for the Convention on the Rights of the Child, CRC/GC/2003/5, 3 October 2003. 222 International Bureau for Children’s Rights, Guidelines on Justice for Child Victims and Witnesses of Crime (January 2003); available at http://www.ibcr.org/.
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3.3.6ȱ RightȱofȱVictimsȱtoȱCompensationȱ ȱ Anȱ effectiveȱ remedyȱ includesȱ theȱ rightȱ toȱ seekȱ compensationȱ forȱ theȱ damageȱ suffered.ȱ Victimsȱ ofȱ traffickingȱ haveȱ oftenȱ enduredȱ physicalȱ andȱ psychologicalȱ damage,ȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ unfairȱ remunerationȱ forȱ theirȱ work.ȱ Compensationȱ enablesȱ themȱ toȱ fulfilȱ theirȱ materialȱ needsȱ forȱ theirȱ rehabilitation.ȱ Itȱ alsoȱ providesȱ anȱ acknowledgementȱ ofȱ theȱ victim’sȱsuffering.ȱȱ ȱ Dependingȱ onȱ theȱ legalȱ system,ȱ proceduresȱ toȱ obtainȱ compensationȱ vary. 223ȱ ȱ Inȱ countriesȱ belongingȱ toȱ theȱ civilȱ lawȱ tradition,ȱ aȱ civilȱ actionȱ forȱ compensationȱcanȱbeȱjoinedȱtoȱtheȱcriminalȱcase.ȱTheȱcriminalȱcaseȱwillȱ establishȱ whetherȱ theȱ suspectedȱ traffickerȱ isȱ guiltyȱ andȱ whetherȱ theȱ traffickedȱ personȱ isȱ indeedȱ aȱ victim.ȱ Theȱ judgeȱ willȱ thenȱ allocateȱ compensationȱ basedȱ onȱ theȱ damageȱandȱ economicȱ lossesȱ sufferedȱbyȱ theȱvictim.ȱThisȱwayȱofȱobtainingȱcompensationȱisȱmuchȱsimplerȱandȱ fasterȱthanȱseekingȱcompensationȱinȱcivilȱcourts.ȱ ȱ However,ȱ theȱ civilȱ actionȱ isȱ notȱ systematicallyȱ linkedȱ toȱ theȱ criminalȱ caseȱ inȱ theseȱ countries.ȱ Itȱ requiresȱ thatȱ victimsȱ takeȱ specificȱ separateȱ legalȱaction.ȱYet,ȱvictimsȱareȱnotȱalwaysȱinformedȱofȱthisȱpossibility,ȱasȱ publicȱauthoritiesȱtendȱtoȱfocusȱonȱcriminalȱaspectsȱandȱlawyersȱmayȱ notȱ deemȱ itȱ necessary,ȱ includingȱ becauseȱ chancesȱ toȱ actuallyȱ collectȱ compensationȱ areȱ usuallyȱ slim.ȱ Whileȱ itȱ isȱ trueȱ thatȱ traffickers’ȱ insolvencyȱ oftenȱ makesȱ itȱ difficultȱ toȱ obtainȱ compensation,ȱ theȱ recognitionȱofȱtheȱrightȱtoȱbeȱcompensatedȱoftenȱoperatesȱasȱaȱformȱofȱ recognitionȱforȱtheȱvictimȱandȱisȱimportantȱforȱtheȱhealingȱprocess.ȱȱ ȱ Inȱ commonȱ lawȱ countries,ȱ aȱ civilȱ claimȱ cannotȱ beȱ linkedȱ toȱ criminalȱ action.ȱ However,ȱ judgesȱ haveȱ discretionȱ toȱ awardȱ compensationȱ toȱ victimsȱasȱpartȱofȱsentencing.ȱ ȱ Anotherȱ possibilityȱ inȱ bothȱ systemsȱ isȱ toȱ bringȱ separateȱ civilȱ actionsȱ againstȱ traffickersȱ beforeȱ civilȱ courts.ȱ Civilȱ lawsuitsȱ tendȱ toȱ beȱ lengthierȱandȱoftenȱrequireȱtheȱcriminalȱcaseȱtoȱbeȱcompletedȱfirst.ȱȱ
223 The following information is based on: Anti-Slavery International, Human traffic, human rights: Redefining victim protection (2002), p. 57-9, available at http://www.antislavery.org/homepage/resources/humantraffichumanrights.htm.
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ȱ Oneȱgeneralȱproblemȱrelatedȱtoȱcivilȱlawsuits,ȱwhetherȱorȱnotȱlinkedȱtoȱ aȱ criminalȱ lawsuit,ȱ liesȱ inȱ theȱ notionȱ ofȱ compensationȱ forȱ theȱ unfairȱ retributionȱofȱworkȱperformed.ȱInȱmanyȱinstances,ȱactivitiesȱperformedȱ byȱ victimsȱ wereȱ illegal.ȱ However,ȱ victimsȱ didȱ work,ȱ oftenȱ inȱ exploitativeȱ circumstances.ȱ Canȱ aȱ courtȱ recogniseȱ aȱ rightȱ toȱ fairȱ retributionȱ forȱ anȱ illegalȱ activityȱ and/orȱ exploitativeȱ situation?ȱ Oneȱ approachȱtoȱthisȱquestionȱisȱtoȱconsiderȱthatȱchildȱvictimsȱofȱtraffickingȱ areȱ entitledȱ toȱ compensationȱ forȱ theȱ painȱ theyȱ suffered,ȱ ratherȱ thanȱ remunerationȱforȱtheȱactualȱworkȱperformed.ȱȱ ȱ Inȱpractice,ȱhowever,ȱtheȱfactȱthatȱmanyȱtraffickersȱmayȱnotȱbeȱarrestedȱ andȱ prosecutedȱ orȱ areȱ notȱ solventȱ makesȱ itȱ difficultȱ toȱ obtainȱ compensation.ȱAsȱ mentionedȱ inȱ theȱ sectionȱ onȱ criminalization,ȱ assetsȱ andȱmaterialsȱseizedȱandȱconfiscatedȱbyȱtheȱStateȱshouldȱbeȱusedȱforȱ victims’ȱcompensation.ȱThisȱimpliesȱthatȱ mechanismsȱforȱseizureȱandȱ confiscationȱ shouldȱ beȱ quickȱ andȱ effectiveȱ soȱ asȱ toȱ ensureȱ thatȱ theȱ traffickerȱdoesȱnotȱhaveȱtimeȱtoȱmakeȱarrangements.ȱȱ ȱ Oneȱ solutionȱ toȱ ensureȱ compensationȱ isȱ toȱ createȱ aȱ trustȱ fundȱ forȱ victims.ȱForȱexample,ȱsuchȱfundsȱwereȱcreatedȱinȱtheȱNetherlandsȱandȱ inȱtheȱUK.ȱYetȱonceȱagain,ȱvictimsȱneedȱtoȱbeȱinformedȱofȱitsȱexistenceȱ andȱ amountsȱ awardedȱ areȱ usuallyȱ lowȱ comparedȱ toȱ theȱ damageȱ sufferedȱbyȱtheȱvictim.ȱȱ ȱ 3.4ȱ StatusȱofȱVictimsȱinȱReceivingȱStatesȱ ȱ Forȱ childȱ victims,ȱ theȱ bestȱ interestsȱ ofȱ theȱ childȱ shouldȱ alwaysȱ guideȱ decisionsȱ relatedȱ toȱ theȱ victim’sȱ stayȱ inȱ theȱ countryȱ orȱ returnȱ toȱ theȱ countryȱ ofȱ origin.ȱ Whileȱ Statesȱ oftenȱ linkȱ theȱ residencyȱ statusȱ ofȱ victimsȱ toȱ victims’ȱ willingnessȱ toȱ testifyȱ againstȱ theirȱ traffickers,ȱ forȱ childrenȱtheȱconditionȱofȱcooperationȱwithȱlawȱenforcementȱauthoritiesȱ shouldȱneverȱplayȱanyȱroleȱinȱtheȱdecisionȱtoȱgrantȱaȱresidencyȱpermit.ȱȱ ȱ 3.4.1ȱ ReflectionȱDelayȱ ȱ Theȱ reflectionȱ delayȱ isȱ aȱ mechanismȱ institutedȱ byȱ someȱ Statesȱ asȱ aȱ middleȱ groundȱ betweenȱ respectȱ forȱ theȱ rightsȱ ofȱ victimsȱ andȱ States’ȱ needȱtoȱarrestȱandȱprosecuteȱtraffickers.ȱItȱisȱsupposedȱtoȱensureȱthatȱ
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victimsȱ ofȱ traffickingȱ canȱ recoverȱ fromȱ theirȱ trauma,ȱ haveȱ accessȱ toȱ supportȱ andȱ assistanceȱ includingȱ medicalȱ careȱ andȱ legalȱ advice,ȱ andȱ canȱthusȱmakeȱanȱinformedȱdecisionȱaboutȱwhetherȱtheyȱwantȱtoȱtestifyȱ againstȱ theȱ trafficker.ȱ AntiȬSlaveryȱ Internationalȱ hasȱ concludedȱ thatȱ thoseȱ whoȱ benefitȱ fromȱ theȱ reflectionȱ delayȱ areȱ moreȱ likelyȱ toȱ pressȱ chargesȱ againstȱ theirȱ trafficker,ȱ asȱ rightȱ afterȱ theirȱ interceptionȱ byȱ authorities,ȱ victimsȱ areȱ stillȱ underȱ theȱ influenceȱ andȱ fearȱ ofȱ theirȱ trafficker,ȱ whoȱ canȱ beȱ someoneȱ theyȱ knowȱ wellȱ –ȱ aȱ “boyfriend”,ȱ aȱ “protector”,ȱanȱ“employer”,ȱorȱsomeoneȱwhoȱhasȱthreatenedȱthemȱandȱ theirȱfamiliesȱifȱtheyȱtalkȱtoȱauthorities.ȱ 224 ȱAfterȱsomeȱtimeȱandȱwhenȱ theyȱ feelȱ supported,ȱ theyȱ willȱ beȱ moreȱwillingȱ toȱ testifyȱ againstȱtheirȱ traffickers.ȱȱ ȱ However,ȱ asȱ repeatedlyȱ stated,ȱ onlyȱ theȱ bestȱ interestsȱ ofȱ theȱ childȱ shouldȱguideȱdecisionsȱregardingȱchildȱvictims.ȱTheȱnotionȱofȱ“delay”ȱ shouldȱinȱnoȱcaseȱentailȱthatȱprotectionȱmechanismsȱwillȱbeȱliftedȱatȱtheȱ endȱofȱtheȱ“delay.”ȱȱ ȱ 3.4.2ȱ LongȬtermȱResidencyȱPermitsȱ ȱ LongȬtermȱresidencyȱpermitsȱareȱdeliveredȱbyȱsomeȱStatesȱifȱtheȱvictimȱ isȱ likelyȱ toȱ beȱ harmedȱ backȱ inȱ theȱ countryȱ ofȱ originȱ and/orȱ ifȱ he/sheȱ cooperatesȱ withȱ theȱ justiceȱ system.ȱ However,ȱ whenȱ itȱ comesȱ toȱ children,ȱitȱshouldȱbeȱclearȱinȱtheȱlawȱthatȱtheȱbestȱinterestsȱofȱtheȱchildȱ isȱ toȱ beȱ theȱ primaryȱ considerationȱ forȱ theȱ attributionȱ ofȱ longȬtermȱ residencyȱ permits.ȱ Asȱ aȱ consequence,ȱ considerationȱ ofȱ requestsȱ fromȱ childrenȱforȱsuchȱpermitsȱshouldȱbeȱdealtȱwithȱonȱaȱcaseȱbyȱcaseȱbasis,ȱ andȱ decisionsȱ dulyȱ motivated.ȱ Theȱ processȱ forȱ makingȱ longȬtermȱ arrangementsȱforȱchildrenȱshouldȱbeȱsubjectȱtoȱaȱjudicialȱdecision,ȱandȱ theȱ viewsȱ ofȱ theȱ childȱ mustȱ beȱ heardȱ andȱ givenȱ dueȱ weight.ȱ Suchȱ provisionsȱmustȱbeȱincludedȱinȱtheȱlawȱsoȱasȱtoȱlimitȱtheȱdiscretionaryȱ powerȱofȱrelevantȱauthorities.ȱ ȱ Inȱ thisȱ context,ȱ severalȱ aspectsȱ mustȱ beȱ takenȱ intoȱ consideration,ȱ includingȱtheirȱdegreeȱofȱintegrationȱinȱtheȱreceivingȱStateȱandȱtheȱfactȱ thatȱifȱtheyȱremainȱinȱtheȱcountryȱofȱdestination,ȱtheyȱwillȱprobablyȱbeȱ separatedȱfromȱtheirȱparents.ȱHowever,ȱinȱsomeȱinstances,ȱtheyȱmayȱbeȱ rejectedȱorȱstigmatizedȱbyȱtheirȱparents/familyȱifȱtheyȱreturn,ȱbecauseȱ
224 Ibid., p. 41-2.
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theyȱhaveȱbeenȱobligedȱtoȱparticipateȱinȱ“shameful”ȱactivitiesȱsuchȱasȱ prostitution,ȱ orȱ becauseȱ theirȱ familyȱ cannotȱ offerȱ themȱ financialȱ andȱ otherȱnecessaryȱsupport.ȱ ȱ 3.4.3ȱ LongȬtermȱArrangementsȱ ȱ Ifȱ aȱ childȱ isȱ grantedȱ longȱ termȱ orȱ permanentȱ residencyȱ statusȱ inȱ theȱ Stateȱofȱdestination,ȱarrangementsȱneedȱtoȱbeȱmadeȱtoȱensureȱhis/herȱ protectionȱinȱtheȱlongȱterm.ȱInȱmanyȱcases,ȱtheȱchildȱisȱunaccompaniedȱ andȱ separatedȱ fromȱ his/herȱ family.ȱ Ifȱ so,ȱ relevantȱ authoritiesȱ shouldȱ assessȱ theȱ child’sȱ situationȱ andȱ determineȱ theȱ appropriateȱ longȬtermȱ arrangements,ȱ inȱ consultationȱ withȱ theȱ childȱ andȱ his/herȱ guardian. 225 ȱ Theȱ lawȱ shouldȱ designateȱ theȱ authorityȱ responsibleȱ forȱ makingȱ suchȱ arrangementsȱandȱadequateȱresourcesȱshouldȱbeȱallocatedȱtoȱthatȱend.ȱȱ ȱ 3.4.4ȱȱ RepatriationȱofȱVictims 226ȱ ȱ Theȱquestionȱofȱrepatriationȱisȱveryȱsensitive.ȱReceivingȱStatesȱtendȱtoȱ preferȱthatȱvictimsȱreturnȱtoȱtheirȱcountryȱofȱorigin,ȱwhereȱvictimsȱmayȱ endȱupȱinȱtheȱsameȱsituationȱthatȱledȱthemȱtoȱbeȱtraffickedȱinȱtheȱfirstȱ place.ȱ Theȱ abilityȱ ofȱ theȱ countryȱ ofȱ originȱ toȱ protectȱ themȱ isȱ key,ȱ asȱ repatriatedȱvictimsȱareȱatȱhighȱriskȱofȱbeingȱreȬtraffickedȱorȱretaliatedȱ against.ȱ Atȱ theȱ sameȱ time,ȱ familyȱ reunification,ȱ whenȱ possible,ȱ isȱ theȱ bestȱsolutionȱtoȱensureȱtheȱchild’sȱharmoniousȱdevelopment.ȱ ȱ Theȱ Palermoȱ Protocolȱ triesȱ toȱ balanceȱ theseȱ imperatives.ȱ Itȱ providesȱ thatȱtheȱStateȱofȱoriginȱshouldȱfacilitateȱandȱacceptȱtheȱreturnȱofȱvictimsȱ ofȱ trafficking.ȱ Conversely,ȱ theȱ receivingȱ Stateȱ shouldȱ payȱ dueȱ regardȱ forȱtheȱsafetyȱofȱtheȱvictimȱandȱlegalȱproceedingsȱunderway,ȱandȱitȱisȱ preferableȱ thatȱ theȱ returnȱ beȱ voluntary.ȱ Consequently,ȱ nationalȱ lawsȱ shouldȱmakeȱitȱclearȱthatȱtheȱbestȱinterestsȱofȱtheȱchildȱshouldȱprevail.ȱ ȱ Shouldȱrepatriationȱbeȱdeemedȱinȱtheȱchild’sȱbestȱinterest,ȱoneȱseriousȱ issueȱ encounteredȱ isȱ thatȱ countriesȱ ofȱ originȱ mayȱ reȬvictimizeȱ traffickingȱvictimsȱuponȱentryȱintoȱtheirȱterritory,ȱbyȱ detainingȱthem,ȱ forcingȱ themȱ toȱ takeȱ HIV/AIDSȱ testsȱ andȱ prohibitingȱ themȱ fromȱ travellingȱ abroadȱagain.ȱTheȱlawȱshouldȱmakeȱitȱclearȱthatȱvictimsȱofȱ
225 CRC Committee General Comment no. 6. 226 This section is informed by the Anti-Slavery report, p.60-2.
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traffickingȱ shouldȱ haveȱ theirȱ rights,ȱ includingȱ theirȱ rightȱ toȱ privacy,ȱ respected,ȱandȱshouldȱhaveȱaccessȱtoȱbasicȱservices.ȱChildrenȱshouldȱbeȱ reunitedȱwithȱtheirȱparentsȱandȱfamilyȱifȱitȱisȱinȱtheirȱbestȱinterests,ȱorȱ takenȱcareȱofȱbyȱexperiencedȱandȱrecognisedȱorganizations.ȱ ȱ Theȱ protectionȱ systemȱ canȱ indeedȱ relyȱ onȱ NGOsȱ andȱ associationsȱ onȱ theȱ ground,ȱ whichȱ haveȱ experienceȱ inȱ supportingȱ andȱ protectingȱ theȱ rightsȱofȱtraffickingȱvictims.ȱTheȱroleȱofȱorganisationsȱinvolvedȱinȱtheȱ protectionȱ andȱ rehabilitationȱ ofȱ victimsȱ isȱ recognisedȱ inȱ theȱ Optionalȱ Protocolȱ onȱ theȱ saleȱ ofȱ children.ȱ Itȱ providesȱ thatȱ Statesȱ shouldȱ adoptȱ measuresȱ toȱ protectȱ theseȱ personsȱ and/orȱ organisations.ȱ Thisȱ recognitionȱ isȱ importantȱ asȱ Statesȱ mayȱ notȱ haveȱ theȱ expertiseȱ orȱ theȱ capacityȱ toȱ careȱ forȱ victims.ȱ Theȱ specialȱ statusȱ ofȱ suchȱ organisationsȱ shouldȱ thereforeȱ beȱ reflectedȱ inȱ theȱ law.ȱ Theȱ lawȱ canȱ provideȱ forȱ aȱ processȱ ofȱ accreditationȱ byȱ theȱ Stateȱ ofȱ theȱ capacityȱ ofȱ specificȱ organisationsȱtoȱcareȱforȱvictimsȱandȱdesignateȱinstitutionsȱresponsibleȱ forȱmonitoringȱtheȱworkȱofȱtheseȱorganisations.ȱ ȱ NonȬgovernmentalȱorganisationsȱcouldȱbeȱcontactedȱbyȱtheȱcountryȱofȱ destinationȱpriorȱtoȱtheȱrepatriationȱofȱvictims,ȱtoȱensureȱthatȱtheyȱ provideȱappropriateȱcareȱwhenȱvictimsȱarrive.ȱNGOsȱofferȱaȱgoodȱ alternativeȱwhenȱitȱisȱnotȱappropriateȱforȱtheȱcountryȱofȱdestinationȱtoȱ informȱofficialsȱinȱtheȱcountryȱofȱoriginȱthatȱaȱpersonȱhasȱbeenȱ trafficked,ȱasȱcorruptionȱofȱofficialsȱandȱpossibleȱcollusionȱwithȱ traffickersȱmayȱputȱtheȱvictimȱatȱhighȱrisk.ȱLikewise,ȱvictimsȱofȱ traffickingȱwhoȱremainedȱinȱtheirȱhomeȱcountryȱmayȱfindȱitȱsaferȱtoȱ turnȱtoȱnonȬgovernmentalȱorganisations.ȱInȱfact,ȱTheȱSAARCȱ ConventionȱonȱPreventingȱandȱCombatingȱTraffickingȱinȱWomenȱandȱ ChildrenȱforȱProstitutionȱstipulatesȱthatȱStatesȱPartiesȱmayȱauthoriseȱ recognisedȱNGOsȱtoȱprovideȱhomesȱandȱshelterȱforȱvictimsȱofȱ traffickingȱandȱshouldȱencourageȱthemȱinȱtheirȱefforts.ȱ ȱ Withȱrespectȱtoȱrepatriation,ȱoneȱproblemȱarisesȱwhenȱvictimsȱdoȱnotȱ haveȱ documentationȱ provingȱ ofȱ whichȱ countryȱ theyȱ areȱ nationalsȱ orȱ haveȱpermanentȱresidence.ȱInȱthisȱcase,ȱinȱaccordanceȱwithȱtheȱPalermoȱ Protocol,ȱaȱreceivingȱcountryȱcanȱaskȱforȱverificationȱtoȱanotherȱState,ȱ and,ȱifȱconfirmed,ȱthatȱStateȱshouldȱissueȱappropriateȱtravelȱdocumentsȱ toȱtheȱvictim.ȱ ȱ
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UNICEF’sȱ Regionalȱ Officeȱ forȱ CEE/CISȱ hasȱ elaboratedȱ Guidelinesȱ onȱ determiningȱ whetherȱ aȱ returnȱ toȱ familyȱ and/orȱ countryȱ ofȱ originȱ isȱ inȱ theȱ child’sȱ bestȱ interests, 227 ȱ basedȱ onȱ theȱ Committeeȱ onȱ theȱ Rightsȱ ofȱ theȱ Child’sȱ Generalȱ Commentȱ No.ȱ 6ȱ onȱ theȱ treatmentȱ ofȱ unaccompaniedȱ andȱseparatedȱchildrenȱoutsideȱtheirȱcountryȱofȱorigin.ȱTheȱGuidelinesȱ includeȱaȱstepȬbyȬstepȱdescriptionȱofȱtheȱrequirementsȱforȱrepatriation.ȱ Theseȱincludeȱtakingȱintoȱaccountȱtheȱgeneralȱprinciplesȱof:ȱ ȱ x Safety,ȱsecurityȱandȱconditions,ȱincludingȱsocioȬeconomicȱ conditions,ȱawaitingȱtheȱchildȱuponȱreturn;ȱ x Availabilityȱofȱcareȱarrangementsȱforȱthatȱparticularȱchild;ȱ x Viewsȱofȱtheȱchildȱexpressedȱandȱthoseȱofȱtheȱcaretakers;ȱ x Child’sȱlevelȱofȱintegrationȱinȱtheȱhostȱcountryȱandȱdurationȱofȱ absenceȱfromȱtheȱhomeȱcountry;ȱ x Child’sȱrightȱtoȱpreserveȱhis/herȱidentity,ȱnationality,ȱnameȱandȱ familyȱrelationsȱ(Articleȱ8ȱofȱtheȱCRC);ȱ x Theȱdesirabilityȱforȱcontinuityȱinȱaȱchild’sȱupbringingȱ(Articleȱ 20);ȱ x Tracingȱsuitableȱcaregivers;ȱ x Preventingȱfurtherȱharmȱtoȱtheȱchild;ȱ x Aȱsecurityȱassessmentȱfocussingȱonȱpossibleȱthreatsȱfromȱtheȱ traffickersȱtoȱtheȱchildȱorȱherȱorȱhisȱrelatives;ȱ x Aȱriskȱassessmentȱassessingȱtheȱcircumstancesȱofȱtheȱhomeȱandȱ communityȱtoȱwhichȱtheȱchildȱisȱlikelyȱtoȱreturn;ȱ x Bilateralȱcooperationȱinȱrespondingȱtoȱinformationȱrequestsȱinȱ theȱcountryȱofȱorigin;ȱ x Theȱdutyȱofȱtheȱcountryȱofȱdestinationȱtoȱinformȱtheȱcountryȱofȱ originȱofȱtheȱdecisionȱmade.ȱ ȱ ȱ Partȱ4ȱ PREVENTIONȱ ȱ Preventionȱofȱtraffickingȱinvolvesȱmanyȱpolicyȱtools.ȱPreventionȱ impliesȱaddressingȱtheȱrootȱcausesȱofȱtrafficking,ȱonȱbothȱtheȱdemandȱ andȱtheȱsupplyȱsides.ȱOnȱtheȱsupplyȱside,ȱvulnerabilityȱtoȱtraffickingȱ mainlyȱliesȱinȱpovertyȱandȱlackȱofȱopportunities.ȱMeasuresȱtoȱpreventȱ
227 See Reference Guide on Protecting the Rights of Child Victims of Trafficking in Europe, UNICEF (2006); available at http://www.unicef.org/ceecis/UNICEF_Child_Trafficking_low.pdf.
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traffickingȱincludeȱeducation,ȱinformationȱandȱmediaȱcampaigns,ȱ aimedȱatȱtheȱwholeȱpopulation,ȱbutȱalsoȱadaptedȱtoȱthoseȱwhoȱareȱmostȱ vulnerable,ȱespeciallyȱchildren.ȱLegislationȱcanȱfurtherȱaddressȱtheȱ demandȱforȱtrafficking,ȱthroughȱtheȱprohibitionȱofȱadvertisement,ȱ directȱofȱindirect,ȱofȱtraffickingȱandȱexploitationȱandȱtheȱpunishmentȱofȱ possibleȱcustomers.ȱItȱcanȱalsoȱfavourȱtheȱorganisationȱofȱawarenessȬ raisingȱactivities.ȱ ȱ Majorȱtreatiesȱrelatedȱtoȱchildȱtrafficking,ȱinȱparticularȱtheȱPalermoȱ Protocol,ȱtheȱOptionalȱProtocolȱonȱtheȱsaleȱofȱchildrenȱandȱILOȱ Conventionȱ182,ȱcontainȱprovisionsȱrelatedȱtoȱprevention.ȱTheyȱallȱ emphasiseȱtheȱimportanceȱofȱinternationalȱcooperationȱandȱassistanceȱ toȱaddressȱtheȱrootȱcausesȱofȱtheȱproblem.ȱȱȱ ȱ 4.1ȱ ActionȱonȱDemandȱ ȱ TheȱPalermoȱProtocolȱprovidesȱthatȱStatesȱshouldȱadoptȱorȱstrengthenȱ legislativeȱorȱotherȱmeasuresȱtoȱdiscourageȱtheȱdemandȱthatȱfostersȱallȱ formsȱofȱexploitationȱinȱpersons,ȱsuchȱasȱtheȱdemandȱforȱcheapȱlabourȱ andȱ services,ȱ someȱ ofȱ whichȱ isȱ beingȱ metȱ byȱ persons,ȱ includingȱ children,ȱwhoȱhaveȱbeenȱtrafficked.ȱȱȱ ȱ 4.1.1ȱProhibitionȱofȱtheȱProductionȱandȱDisseminationȱofȱMaterialȱ AdvertisingȱtheȱOffencesȱ ȱ Theȱ Optionalȱ Protocolȱ onȱ theȱ saleȱ ofȱ childrenȱ obligesȱ Statesȱ toȱ takeȱ measuresȱ toȱ effectivelyȱ prohibitȱ theȱ productionȱ andȱ disseminationȱ ofȱ materialȱ advertisingȱ theȱ saleȱ ofȱ children,ȱ childȱ prostitutionȱ andȱ childȱ pornography.ȱConcretely,ȱthisȱimpliesȱthatȱtheȱlegislationȱshouldȱmakeȱ theȱproductionȱandȱdisseminationȱofȱsuchȱmaterialȱaȱcriminalȱoffence,ȱ andȱprovideȱthatȱprohibitedȱmaterialsȱbeȱseized.ȱ ȱ 4.1.2ȱCriminalȱResponsibilityȱandȱAwarenessȬraisingȱofȱEmployersȱ andȱCustomersȱ ȱ Employers,ȱorȱcustomersȱinȱtheȱcaseȱofȱsexualȱexploitation,ȱrepresentȱ theȱdemandȱforȱlabourȱandȱservicesȱthatȱinvolveȱtraffickingȱinȱchildren.ȱ Theȱcriminalȱresponsibilityȱofȱemployersȱandȱcustomersȱisȱonlyȱoneȱ sideȱofȱtheȱcoin.ȱThereȱareȱindeedȱmanyȱobstaclesȱtoȱtheȱenforcementȱofȱ
198 Handbook on Legislative Reform legislationȱinȱthisȱregard.ȱWhenȱaȱcustomerȱusesȱtheȱsexualȱexploitationȱ ofȱchildrenȱoutsideȱofȱhis/herȱcountryȱofȱnationalityȱ–ȱasȱinȱcasesȱofȱ “sexȱtourism”ȱ–ȱitȱmayȱbeȱdifficultȱtoȱgatherȱevidence.ȱTheseȱ behavioursȱshouldȱbeȱdiscouragedȱinȱtheȱfirstȱplace.ȱOneȱwayȱtoȱdoȱsoȱ isȱtoȱmakeȱtourȱoperatorsȱandȱtravelȱagenciesȱresponsibleȱforȱinformingȱ theirȱclientsȱonȱtheȱillegalityȱofȱsexȱtourism,ȱrefrainȱfromȱusingȱ messagesȱsuggestingȱsuchȱbehaviours,ȱandȱtrainȱtheirȱstaffȱonȱtheirȱ obligations.ȱȱ ȱ Boxȱ38:ȱTheȱNigerianȱTraffickingȱinȱPersonsȱ(Prohibition)ȱLawȱEnforcementȱandȱ AdministrationȱActȱ Theȱ Nigerianȱ Traffickingȱ inȱ Personsȱ (Prohibition)ȱ Lawȱ Enforcementȱ andȱ AdministrationȱActȱofȱ2003ȱconstitutesȱaȱgoodȱexampleȱofȱtheȱuseȱofȱlegislationȱtoȱ placeȱ obligationsȱ onȱ tourȱ operators,ȱ travelȱ agentsȱ andȱ airlineȱ companiesȱ toȱ discourageȱ demandȱ forȱ traffickingȱ forȱ sexualȱ exploitation.ȱ Theȱ Actȱ stipulatesȱ theȱ following:ȱ Articleȱ30ȱ “Everyȱtourȱoperatorȱandȱtravelȱagentȱshall:ȱ notifyȱ itsȱ clientȱ ofȱ itsȱ obligationȱ underȱ thisȱ Actȱ notȱ toȱ aidȱ andȱ abet,ȱ facilitateȱ orȱ promoteȱinȱanyȱwayȱtheȱtrafficȱinȱanyȱperson,ȱȱ (b)ȱ notifyȱ theirȱ clientsȱ ofȱ theirȱ obligationsȱ underȱ thisȱ Actȱ notȱ toȱ aidȱ andȱ abet,ȱ facilitateȱ orȱ promoteȱ inȱ anyȱ way,ȱ anyȱ person’sȱ pornographyȱ andȱ otherȱ person’sȱ exploitationȱinȱtourism,ȱ insertȱ inȱ contractsȱ withȱ correspondingȱ suppliersȱ inȱ destinationȱ countries,ȱ clausesȱ requiringȱthemȱtoȱcomplyȱwithȱtheȱobligationsȱstatedȱinȱtheȱprecedingȱparagraphsȱofȱ thisȱ subsection,ȱ refrainȱ fromȱ utilizingȱ messagesȱ onȱ printedȱ material,ȱ videoȱ orȱ theȱ Internetȱthatȱcouldȱsuggestȱorȱalludeȱtoȱbehaviourȱincompatibleȱwithȱtheȱobjectiveȱofȱ thisȱAct,ȱinformȱtheirȱstaffȱofȱtheirȱobligationsȱunderȱthisȱAct,ȱandȱincludeȱclausesȱ regardingȱ theirȱ obligationsȱ underȱ thisȱ Actȱ toȱ theirȱ staffȱ inȱ newȱ employmentȱ contracts.ȱ ȱ Articleȱ31ȱ Everyȱ airlineȱ companyȱ shallȱ promoteȱ throughȱ everyȱ possibleȱ means,ȱ publicȱ awarenessȱofȱtheȱguidingȱprinciplesȱofȱthisȱActȱinȱinȬflightȱmagazines,ȱticketȱjackets,ȱ internetȱunitsȱandȱvideoȱonȱlongȱflights.ȱ ȱ Anotherȱ issueȱ concernsȱ theȱ caseȱ ofȱ childȱ domesticȱ workers.ȱ Inȱ thisȱ highlyȱ unregulatedȱ segmentȱ ofȱ theȱ labourȱ market,ȱ childrenȱ remainȱ invisible.ȱ Theyȱ areȱ oftenȱ exploitedȱ byȱ theirȱ employersȱ whileȱ beingȱ consideredȱasȱ“partȱofȱtheȱhome.” 228 ȱInȱthisȱcontext,ȱemployersȱdoȱnotȱ perceiveȱthemselvesȱasȱexploitersȱbutȱratherȱasȱbenefactors.ȱRacismȱandȱ prejudiceȱ againstȱ migrantsȱ andȱ ethnicȱ minoritiesȱ alsoȱ increasesȱ
228 Anderson, Bridget and Julia O’Connell Davidson, Is trafficking in Human Beings Demand Driven? A Multi-Country Pilot Study, IOM (December 2003).
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children’sȱ vulnerabilityȱ toȱ trafficking.ȱ Peopleȱ fromȱ theseȱ groupsȱ areȱ moreȱ easilyȱ traffickedȱ becauseȱ theyȱ tendȱ toȱ beȱ marginalizedȱ andȱ consideredȱasȱ“different”ȱbyȱtheirȱemployers.ȱAsȱaȱresult,ȱusualȱsocialȱ normsȱthatȱregulateȱ–ȱandȱlimitȱ–ȱtheȱbehaviourȱofȱemployersȱdoȱnotȱ apply.ȱȱThatȱ isȱ whyȱ legislativeȱ measuresȱ shouldȱ beȱ accompaniedȱ byȱ awarenessȬraisingȱ activities,ȱ addressingȱ theȱ discriminationȱ andȱ prejudiceȱ againstȱ migrantsȱ andȱ ethnicȱ minorities.ȱ Theȱ aimȱ ofȱ suchȱ measuresȱ isȱ toȱ setȱ notȱ onlyȱ legalȱ butȱ alsoȱ socialȱ limitsȱ toȱ exploitativeȱ behavioursȱ andȱ promoteȱ theȱ integrationȱ ofȱ marginalisedȱ groups,ȱ includingȱthroughȱsocialȱandȱeconomicȱmeans.ȱȱ ȱ 4.1.3ȱ TravelȱDocumentsȱ ȱ Theȱ firstȱ stepȱ towardsȱ increasedȱ andȱ moreȱ effectiveȱ borderȱ controlȱ isȱ ensuringȱtheȱqualityȱofȱtravelȱorȱidentityȱdocuments,ȱsoȱasȱtoȱpreventȱ theirȱ falsificationȱ orȱ alteration.ȱ Inȱ addition,ȱ internationalȱ cooperationȱ mayȱbeȱnecessaryȱwithȱregardȱtoȱtheȱverificationȱofȱtheȱvalidityȱofȱsuchȱ documents.ȱ Asȱ statedȱ inȱ theȱ Palermoȱ Protocol,ȱ Statesȱ shouldȱ provideȱ assistanceȱ toȱ oneȱ anotherȱ inȱ thisȱ respect.ȱ However,ȱ theȱ verificationȱ procedureȱ shouldȱ beȱ expeditedȱ withinȱ aȱ reasonableȱ time.ȱ Ifȱ childrenȱ areȱheldȱatȱtheȱborder,ȱchildȬfriendlyȱfacilitiesȱshouldȱbeȱavailableȱandȱ theirȱcareȱandȱmedicalȱneedsȱaddressed.ȱ ȱ 4.1.4ȱ TrainingȱofȱImmigrationȱandȱOtherȱRelevantȱOfficialsȱ ȱ Asȱ statedȱ inȱ Articleȱ 10ȱ ofȱ theȱ Palermoȱ Protocol,ȱ lawȱ enforcement,ȱ immigrationȱandȱotherȱofficialsȱshouldȱbeȱtrainedȱinȱtheȱpreventionȱofȱ trafficking.ȱ Thisȱ trainingȱ shouldȱ includeȱ notȱ onlyȱ methodsȱ toȱ detectȱ andȱprosecuteȱtraffickers,ȱbutȱalsoȱwaysȱtoȱprotectȱtheȱrightsȱofȱvictims,ȱ includingȱaddressingȱtheȱspecialȱneedsȱofȱwomenȱandȱchildȱvictims.ȱ ȱ 4.1.5ȱ LiabilityȱofȱCommercialȱCarriersȱ ȱ Theȱ Palermoȱ Protocolȱ providesȱ thatȱ Statesȱ shouldȱ takeȱ measuresȱ toȱ ensureȱ theȱ obligationȱ ofȱ commercialȱ carriersȱ toȱ ascertainȱ thatȱ allȱ passengersȱ areȱ inȱ possessionȱ ofȱ theȱ necessaryȱ travelȱ documentsȱ forȱ entryȱ inȱ theȱ receivingȱ State.ȱ Thisȱ provisionȱ isȱ aimedȱ atȱ offeringȱ anȱ additionalȱ levelȱ ofȱ protectionȱ toȱ potentialȱ victimsȱ ofȱ trafficking,ȱ althoughȱmanyȱofȱthemȱtravelȱwithȱvalidȱdocuments.ȱȱ ȱ
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4.1.6ȱ RevocationȱofȱVisas,ȱDenialȱofȱEntryȱofȱTraffickersȱ ȱ Immigrationȱ lawsȱ shouldȱ containȱ provisionsȱ forbiddingȱ traffickersȱ orȱ theirȱaccomplicesȱwhoȱhaveȱbeenȱidentifiedȱandȱsentencedȱtoȱenterȱtheȱ State.ȱȱ ȱ 4.2ȱ AddressingȱFactorsȱofȱVulnerabilityȱtoȱTraffickingȱ ȱ 4.2.1ȱ EffectsȱofȱImmigrationȱLawsȱandȱPoliciesȱ ȱ Immigrationȱ lawsȱ andȱ policiesȱ canȱ haveȱ aȱ significantȱ impactȱ onȱ traffickingȱ byȱ movingȱ theȱ frontierȱ ofȱ illegality.ȱ Migrationȱ restrictionsȱ mayȱ renderȱ childrenȱ andȱ adultsȱ moreȱ vulnerableȱ toȱ exploitativeȱ situations,ȱ includingȱ trafficking,ȱ whenȱ theyȱ resortȱ toȱ formsȱ ofȱ illegalȱ borderȱcrossing.ȱWhenȱimmigrationȱpoliciesȱareȱveryȱrestrictive,ȱmoreȱ peopleȱenterȱinȱaȱcountryȱillegally,ȱhenceȱinvisibly.ȱ ȱ 4.2.2ȱ BirthȱRegistrationȱ ȱ Birthȱ registrationȱ isȱ vitalȱ forȱ theȱ preventionȱ ofȱ trafficking.ȱ Itȱ ensuresȱ thatȱ childrenȱ haveȱ anȱ identityȱ andȱ areȱ recognisedȱ byȱ theȱ Stateȱ asȱ citizens,ȱwhichȱisȱessentialȱinȱcasesȱofȱinternationalȱtrafficking.ȱItȱalsoȱ helpsȱ provideȱ evidenceȱ thatȱ childrenȱ haveȱ “disappeared”ȱ andȱ areȱ unaccountedȱfor,ȱandȱitȱisȱcriticalȱforȱcorrectȱageȱdetermination.ȱȱ ȱ 4.2.3ȱ EducationȱandȱAwarenessȬraisingȱ ȱ AwarenessȬraisingȱandȱeducationalȱactivitiesȱmustȱnotȱbeȱleftȱoutȱofȱtheȱ legislativeȱ framework.ȱ Theyȱ areȱ theȱ mostȱ powerfulȱ toolsȱ toȱ preventȱ trafficking.ȱTraffickersȱoftenȱuseȱdeceptiveȱmeansȱtoȱlureȱtheirȱvictimsȱ byȱ promisingȱ aȱ goodȱ jobȱ andȱ aȱ betterȱ future.ȱ Communities,ȱ parentsȱ andȱ children,ȱ especiallyȱ thoseȱ inȱ aȱ vulnerableȱ situation,ȱ mustȱ beȱ informedȱ aboutȱ theseȱ techniques.ȱ Fromȱ aȱ legislativeȱ perspective,ȱ thisȱ canȱbeȱachievedȱbyȱentrustingȱanȱinstitutionȱwithȱtheȱtaskȱofȱcarryingȱ outȱ andȱ promotingȱ suchȱ activities.ȱ Theȱ institutionȱ mayȱ beȱ anȱ independentȱ agency,ȱ asȱ willȱ beȱ examinedȱ inȱ theȱ followingȱ section,ȱ aȱ ministryȱorȱaȱministerialȱoffice.ȱInȱanyȱcase,ȱitȱisȱimportantȱthatȱtheseȱ activitiesȱbeȱincludedȱinȱtheȱmandateȱofȱsuchȱinstitutionsȱandȱthatȱtheyȱ beȱrequiredȱtoȱreportȱonȱthem.ȱ
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ȱ InȱRomania,ȱforȱexample,ȱtheȱantiȬtraffickingȱlawȱprovidesȱthatȱtheȱ MinistryȱofȱEducation,ȱwithȱsupportȱfromȱtheȱotherȱrelevantȱministriesȱ andȱinȱcooperationȱwithȱrelevantȱNGOs,ȱshallȱdevelopȱeducationalȱ programsȱforȱparentsȱandȱchildren,ȱespeciallyȱgroupsȱhighlyȱatȱriskȱofȱ becomingȱtraffickingȱvictims,ȱwithȱaȱviewȱtoȱpreventingȱtraffickingȱinȱ humanȱbeings.ȱItȱrecognisesȱtheȱspecialȱvulnerabilityȱofȱwomenȱinȱveryȱ poorȱareas.ȱInȱBulgaria,ȱitȱisȱtheȱresponsibilityȱofȱtheȱNationalȱ Commissionȱagainstȱtraffickingȱtoȱinitiateȱandȱtakeȱpartȱinȱtheȱ implementationȱofȱeducationalȱprogramsȱforȱparentsȱandȱstudentsȱinȱ schools,ȱforȱunemployedȱandȱilliterateȱindividuals,ȱhighȱriskȱgroups,ȱ andȱvictimsȱofȱtrafficking.ȱItȱisȱalsoȱinȱchargeȱofȱprovidingȱpublicȱ informationȱregardingȱriskȱsituationsȱforȱbecomingȱaȱvictimȱofȱ trafficking.ȱȱ ȱ 4.2.4ȱ SocialȱPoliciesȱandȱIncentivesȱforȱtheȱEmploymentȱofȱPersonsȱatȱ RiskȱofȱTraffickingȱ ȱ Oneȱ wayȱ toȱ addressȱ theȱ vulnerabilityȱ ofȱ certainȱ segmentsȱ ofȱ theȱ populationȱ toȱ humanȱ traffickingȱ isȱ byȱ offeringȱ opportunitiesȱ forȱ aȱ livingȱwageȱthatȱwillȱpreventȱthemȱfromȱbeingȱluredȱbyȱpromisesȱofȱaȱ jobȱ elsewhereȱ forȱ themȱ orȱ theirȱ children,ȱ thusȱ findingȱ themselvesȱ inȱ exploitativeȱ situations.ȱȱForȱ example,ȱ Romanianȱ Lawȱ 678ȱ onȱ theȱ Preventionȱ andȱ Fightingȱ Traffickingȱ inȱ Humanȱ Beingsȱ entrustsȱ theȱ MinistryȱofȱLabourȱandȱSocialȱSolidarityȱwithȱtheȱtaskȱofȱworkingȱoutȱ andȱ enforcingȱ specialȱ measuresȱ forȱ theȱ integrationȱ intoȱ theȱ labourȱ marketȱ ofȱ personsȱ highlyȱ atȱ riskȱ ofȱ becomingȱ traffickingȱ victims,ȱ especiallyȱ womenȱ inȱ poorȱ areasȱ andȱ socialȱ outcasts.ȱ Theȱ Lawȱ alsoȱ requiresȱ thatȱ Ministry,ȱ jointlyȱ withȱ theȱ Ministryȱ ofȱ Finance,ȱ exploreȱ possibleȱmeasuresȱtoȱprovideȱincentivesȱtoȱcompaniesȱtoȱhireȱpersonsȱ atȱhighȱriskȱofȱbeingȱtraffickedȱandȱtraffickingȱvictims.ȱUnderȱtheȱsameȱ Law,ȱ theȱ Nationalȱ Employmentȱ Agencyȱ mustȱ developȱ informationȱ programmesȱforȱpersonsȱatȱriskȱandȱforȱpotentialȱemployers.ȱ ȱ 4.2.5ȱ PreventionȱfromȱAbuse,ȱViolenceȱandȱNeglectȱatȱHomeȱ ȱ Preventingȱ childȱ traffickingȱ alsoȱ requiresȱ ensuringȱ theȱ protectionȱ ofȱ childrenȱwhereȱtheyȱlive,ȱbyȱbuildingȱaȱprotectiveȱenvironment.ȱȱ ȱ
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Children,ȱespeciallyȱadolescents,ȱwhoȱareȱvictimsȱofȱdomesticȱviolenceȱ orȱexperienceȱviolenceȱinȱtheirȱhomes,ȱareȱmoreȱlikelyȱtoȱbeȱwillingȱtoȱ leaveȱtheȱfamilyȱhome.ȱTheyȱmayȱbeȱmoreȱsensitiveȱtoȱtheȱargumentsȱ ofȱ traffickersȱ whoȱ promiseȱ aȱ betterȱ placeȱ toȱ live.ȱ Theyȱ mayȱ alsoȱ beȱ reluctantȱtoȱreturnȱhomeȱafterȱtheyȱhaveȱbeenȱfoundȱandȱmoreȱlikelyȱtoȱ beȱreȬtrafficked.ȱLawsȱprotectingȱchildrenȱfromȱviolenceȱinȱtheȱfamilyȱ areȱthereforeȱaȱkeyȱtoolȱforȱprevention.ȱTheyȱshouldȱbeȱaccompaniedȱ byȱotherȱmeasuresȱsuchȱasȱtheȱcreationȱofȱhotlinesȱandȱproceduresȱforȱ addressingȱviolenceȱwithinȱtheȱfamily.ȱ ȱ 4.2.6ȱ FreeȱConsentȱforȱMarriageȱ ȱ Marriageȱisȱaȱtechniqueȱoftenȱusedȱbyȱtraffickersȱtoȱabductȱwomenȱandȱ girls,ȱandȱexploitȱthem.ȱItȱprovidesȱaȱlegalȱbasisȱforȱtransportingȱthem,ȱ bothȱwithinȱaȱcountryȱandȱoutsideȱofȱtheȱcountry.ȱInȱmanyȱcountries,ȱ marriageȱ isȱ consideredȱ aȱ passageȱ toȱ adulthood,ȱ evenȱ ifȱ theȱ personȱ isȱ underȬeighteen.ȱAsȱaȱresult,ȱtheȱspecialȱprotectionȱmeasuresȱrecognisedȱ forȱ childrenȱ mayȱ notȱ applyȱ toȱ thoseȱ whoȱ areȱ married.ȱ However,ȱ theȱ Palermoȱ Protocolȱ clearlyȱ appliesȱ toȱ anyoneȱ underȱ eighteenȱ yearsȱ ofȱ age,ȱwithoutȱexception,ȱthereforeȱanyoneȱunderȱeighteenȱyearsȱofȱage,ȱ marriedȱorȱnot,ȱisȱprotectedȱbyȱitsȱprovisions.ȱ ȱ Withȱ respectȱ toȱ theȱ freedomȱ ofȱ marriage,ȱ inȱ accordanceȱ withȱ theȱ Internationalȱ Covenantȱ onȱ Civilȱ andȱ Politicalȱ Rights,ȱ “Noȱ marriageȱ shallȱbeȱenteredȱintoȱwithoutȱtheȱfreeȱandȱfullȱconsentȱofȱtheȱintendingȱ spouses”ȱ(Articleȱ23).ȱItȱcanȱbeȱarguedȱthatȱ“consent”ȱisȱnotȱgenuine,ȱifȱ theȱspouseȱis,ȱasȱaȱresultȱofȱmarriage,ȱtraffickedȱandȱexploited.ȱTheȱlawȱ shouldȱ provideȱ thatȱ ifȱ marriageȱ isȱ performedȱ forȱ theȱ purposeȱ ofȱ trafficking,ȱ itȱ isȱ void.ȱ Whenȱ anȱ officerȱ hasȱ reasonsȱ toȱ thinkȱ thatȱ marriageȱisȱperformedȱforȱtrafficking,ȱhe/sheȱhasȱtheȱdutyȱtoȱpostponeȱ theȱ marriageȱ untilȱ properȱ investigationsȱ haveȱ beenȱ conducted.ȱ Adequateȱprotection,ȱinȱparticularȱagainstȱpossibleȱretaliation,ȱshouldȱ beȱ availableȱ forȱ victimsȱ ofȱ suchȱ marriagesȱ orȱ attemptsȱ ofȱ suchȱ marriages.ȱ ȱ Properȱlegislationȱshouldȱalsoȱbeȱadoptedȱtoȱprohibitȱearlyȱmarriageȱ andȱsetȱrelevantȱsafeguardsȱtoȱensureȱimplementationȱofȱtheȱlaw.ȱ
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4.2.7ȱ ResearchȱonȱtheȱRootȱCausesȱofȱTraffickingȱ ȱ Researchȱandȱdataȱcollectionȱshouldȱbeȱconductedȱtoȱbetterȱunderstandȱ theȱrootȱcausesȱofȱtraffickingȱandȱfineȬtuneȱinterventionsȱtoȱaddressȱ them.ȱSpecificȱeffortsȱshouldȱbeȱmadeȱatȱregionalȱandȱinternationalȱ levelȱtoȱelaborateȱchildȱprotectionȱindicatorsȱandȱharmoniseȱindicatorsȱ andȱdataȱcollectionȱmethodsȱwithȱaȱviewȱtoȱensuringȱcomparability.ȱ Lawsȱcanȱcontainȱprovisionsȱrequestingȱaȱspecificȱinstitution,ȱsuchȱasȱ theȱcommissionȱestablishedȱtoȱmonitorȱtraffickingȬrelatedȱissues,ȱ participateȱinȱinternationalȱcooperationȱandȱdisseminateȱfindings.ȱȱ ȱ InȱYemen,ȱtheȱdraftȱNationalȱPlanȱofȱActionȱtoȱCombatȱtraffickingȱandȱ SmugglingȱinȱChildrenȱhasȱbeenȱelaboratedȱthroughȱextensiveȱ consultationsȱwithȱaȱwideȱrangeȱofȱstakeholders,ȱincludingȱ governmentȱofficials,ȱcommunityȱrepresentatives,ȱcivilȱsocietyȱ representatives,ȱacademicȱinstitutions,ȱuniversitiesȱandȱnationalȱandȱ internationalȱNGOs.ȱOneȱofȱtheȱprioritiesȱsetȱoutȱbyȱtheȱdraftȱPlanȱofȱ Actionȱisȱpreventionȱthroughȱresearch,ȱinitiativesȱaddressingȱtheȱ economicȱandȱsocialȱvulnerabilityȱofȱchildren,ȱawarenessȱandȱaȱmassȱ mediaȱcampaign.ȱTheseȱeffortsȱareȱaccompaniedȱbyȱaȱcampaignȱtoȱ promoteȱfreeȱandȱaccessibleȱbirthȱregistration. 229ȱ ȱ ȱ Partȱ5ȱ CRIMINALIZATIONȱ ȱ Asȱalreadyȱstatedȱinȱthisȱchapter,ȱfromȱaȱchildȱrightsȱperspective,ȱtheȱ primaryȱconcernȱisȱtoȱcareȱforȱtheȱrightsȱofȱvictimsȱofȱtraffickingȱandȱ preventȱchildrenȱfromȱbeingȱtrafficked.ȱInȱthisȱcontext,ȱcriminalizationȱ ofȱhumanȱtraffickingȱisȱanȱimportantȱaspect,ȱbutȱshouldȱnotȱbeȱ consideredȱasȱtheȱonlyȱresponseȱtoȱchildȱtrafficking.ȱTooȱoftenȱindeed,ȱ Statesȱareȱprimarilyȱconcernedȱwithȱarrestingȱandȱprosecutingȱ traffickersȱasȱpartȱofȱtheirȱfightȱagainstȱcrime,ȱincludingȱtransnationalȱ andȱorganizedȱcrime.ȱHereȱagain,ȱtheȱprincipleȱofȱtheȱbestȱinterestsȱofȱ theȱchildȱshouldȱruleȱStates’ȱactions.ȱProsecutionȱofȱtraffickersȱshouldȱ
229 Belbase, K., G. El-Khoury, D. Fall, K. Hirabayashi, N. Izumi and J.Kunugi, Combating Child Trafficking in the Gulf Countries, Yemen and Afghanistan: Policy Options, UNICEF and University of Maastricht Learning Programme on Public Policy, Advocacy and Partnerships (draft).
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neverȱcomeȱatȱtheȱexpenseȱofȱchildren’sȱrights.ȱTheȱpurposeȱofȱthisȱ sectionȱisȱtoȱpresentȱissuesȱrelatedȱtoȱtheȱcriminalizationȱofȱhumanȱ trafficking,ȱwhichȱareȱmostȱoftenȱpartȱofȱlegislativeȱreformȱdebatesȱinȱ thisȱarea.ȱȱ ȱ Criminalizationȱ isȱ indeedȱ anȱ importantȱ elementȱ ofȱ treatiesȱ relatedȱ toȱ trafficking.ȱ Virtuallyȱ allȱ ofȱ themȱ containȱ provisionsȱ obligingȱ Statesȱ Partiesȱ toȱ makeȱ traffickingȱ orȱ relatedȱ activitiesȱ criminalȱ offencesȱ inȱ theirȱnationalȱlegislation.ȱȱ ȱ Theȱ offenceȱ ofȱ traffickingȱ needsȱ toȱ beȱ clearlyȱ establishedȱ inȱ theȱ law,ȱ andȱ distinctȱ fromȱ otherȱ offencesȱ relatedȱ toȱ trafficking.ȱ Often,ȱ onlyȱ offencesȱ relatedȱ toȱ traffickingȱ areȱ criminalized,ȱ andȱ becauseȱ theȱ sanctionsȱ areȱ notȱ adaptedȱ toȱ theȱ gravityȱ ofȱ theȱ crimeȱ theyȱ presentȱ aȱ humanȱrightsȱviolation.ȱTheȱpunishmentȱisȱminimalȱandȱasȱaȱresultȱnotȱ dissuasive.ȱȱ ȱ Thereȱareȱseveralȱwaysȱbyȱwhichȱtraffickingȱcanȱbeȱcriminalized.ȱEitherȱ provisionsȱcanȱbeȱincorporatedȱintoȱtheȱpenalȱcode,ȱasȱisȱoftenȱtheȱcaseȱ inȱcountriesȱofȱtheȱRomanȱlegalȱtradition,ȱorȱaȱspecialȱlawȱonȱtraffickingȱ canȱbeȱadopted,ȱtypicallyȱinȱcommonȱlawȱcountries.ȱWhileȱprovisionsȱ toȱbeȱincorporatedȱinȱtheȱpenalȱcodeȱareȱusuallyȱbriefȱandȱoftenȱcontainȱ onlyȱ criminalȱ dispositions,ȱ aȱ specialȱ lawȱ isȱ moreȱ likelyȱ toȱ beȱ comprehensive,ȱincludingȱprovisionsȱrelatedȱtoȱcivilȱlaw,ȱprotectionȱofȱ victimsȱandȱwitnesses,ȱresidency,ȱetc.ȱ ȱ Inȱ accordanceȱ withȱ internationalȱ treaties,ȱ criminalȱ provisionsȱ shouldȱ haveȱ aȱ broadȱ jurisdictionȱ addressingȱ theȱ nationalȱ orȱ internationalȱ natureȱ ofȱ theȱ crime,ȱ enableȱ prosecutionȱ byȱ legalȱ entitiesȱ andȱ makeȱ provisionȱforȱseriousȱsanctions.ȱ ȱ 5.1ȱ Jurisdictionȱ ȱ Theȱ questionȱ ofȱ jurisdictionȱ isȱ essentialȱ forȱ aȱ crimeȱ oftenȱ involvingȱ internationalȱ elements.ȱ Traditionally,ȱ aȱ State’sȱ criminalȱ jurisdictionȱ isȱ spatialȱ –ȱ itȱ isȱ limitedȱ toȱ theȱ territoryȱ overȱ whichȱ itȱ isȱ sovereign.ȱ Thisȱ meansȱ thatȱ theȱ lawȱ ofȱ theȱ Stateȱ willȱ onlyȱ applyȱ toȱ criminalȱ actsȱ performedȱonȱtheȱterritoryȱofȱthatȱState.ȱTheȱOptionalȱProtocolȱonȱtheȱ saleȱofȱchildrenȱextendsȱtheȱjurisdictionȱtoȱtheȱpersonsȱinvolvedȱ–ȱitȱisȱ
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notȱ onlyȱ territorialȱ anymore.ȱ Theȱ nationalityȱ orȱ residenceȱ ofȱ theȱ offender,ȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ theȱ nationalityȱ ofȱ theȱ victim,ȱ alsoȱ enableȱ applicationȱofȱtheȱlawȱofȱthatȱState,ȱevenȱifȱtheȱoffenceȱwasȱcommittedȱ elsewhere.ȱThisȱconsiderablyȱexpandsȱtheȱscopeȱofȱtheȱlaw.ȱȱ ȱ Theȱreferenceȱtoȱtheȱnationalityȱofȱtheȱvictimȱclearlyȱaimsȱatȱprotectingȱ childrenȱwhoseȱcountryȱofȱnationalityȱisȱpartyȱtoȱtheȱOptionalȱProtocol.ȱ Thisȱmeansȱthatȱtheȱcrimesȱcommittedȱagainstȱchildrenȱnationalsȱofȱtheȱ Stateȱ Partyȱ areȱ punishable,ȱ includingȱ whenȱ childrenȱ areȱ soldȱ fromȱ aȱ neighbouringȱ countryȱ toȱ aȱ neighbouringȱ countryȱ forȱ instance.ȱ Veryȱ oftenȱindeed,ȱchildrenȱareȱtraffickedȱthroughȱcountriesȱofȱtransit.ȱEvenȱ whenȱ theȱ Stateȱ ofȱ whichȱ theȱ childȱ isȱ citizenȱ hasȱ notȱ ratifiedȱ theȱ Optionalȱ Protocol,ȱ variousȱ legalȱ instrumentsȱ suchȱ asȱ bilateralȱ agreements,ȱ mutualȱ legalȱ assistanceȱ agreementsȱ andȱ otherȱ formsȱ ofȱ extraterritorialȱjurisdictionȱmayȱbeȱusedȱasȱlegalȱframeworks.ȱȱ ȱ Theȱoffenderȱisȱobviouslyȱtheȱtraffickerȱandȱhisȱorȱherȱaccomplices,ȱbutȱ alsoȱ theȱ customerȱ inȱ theȱ caseȱ ofȱ sexualȱ exploitation.ȱ “Sexȱ tourism”ȱisȱ thusȱpunishedȱnotȱonlyȱinȱtheȱcountryȱwhereȱtheȱoffenceȱoccurred,ȱbutȱ alsoȱ inȱ theȱ countryȱ whereȱ theȱ customerȱ isȱ from.ȱ Thisȱ isȱ especiallyȱ importantȱ whenȱ lawȱ enforcementȱ mechanismsȱ inȱ theȱ countryȱ ofȱ theȱ offenceȱareȱweak.ȱȱȱ ȱ TheȱextraȬterritorialȱjurisdictionȱallowsȱthatȱevidenceȱagainstȱtraffickersȱ beȱ soughtȱ inȱ manyȱ countries,ȱ relyingȱ onȱ cooperationȱ betweenȱ lawȱ enforcementȱinstitutions.ȱȱ ȱ 5.2ȱ CriminalȱLiabilityȱofȱLegalȱEntitiesȱ ȱ Criminalȱ liabilityȱ shouldȱ notȱ onlyȱ concernȱ individualsȱ butȱ alsoȱ legalȱ entitiesȱusedȱforȱtheȱpurposeȱofȱtrafficking.ȱOften,ȱindividualsȱmayȱsetȱ upȱ orȱ useȱ aȱ companyȱ toȱ coverȱ and/orȱ pursueȱ theirȱ activities.ȱ Theȱ OptionalȱProtocolȱonȱtheȱsaleȱofȱchildrenȱobligesȱStatesȱtoȱestablishȱtheȱ criminalȱ liabilityȱ ofȱ legalȱ entities,ȱ subjectȱ toȱ theirȱ nationalȱ legislation.ȱ TheȱUNȱConventionȱonȱTransnationalȱOrganizedȱCrimeȱalsoȱcontainsȱ provisionsȱ relatedȱ toȱ theȱ liabilityȱ ofȱ legalȱ personsȱ forȱ participationȱ inȱ seriousȱcrimesȱinvolvingȱcriminalȱorganizedȱgroups.ȱ ȱ
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Theȱ criminalȱ liabilityȱ ofȱ legalȱ personsȱ isȱ aȱ conceptȱ thatȱ distinguishesȱ theȱliabilityȱofȱtheȱlegalȱentityȱfromȱtheȱliabilityȱofȱtheȱindividuals.ȱItȱisȱ usedȱ whenȱ aȱ criminalȱ actȱ wasȱ performedȱ underȱ theȱ nameȱ and/orȱ forȱ theȱprofitȱofȱaȱlegalȱentity.ȱPreciseȱdefinitionsȱandȱconditionsȱvaryȱfromȱ Stateȱ toȱ State.ȱ Sanctionsȱ includeȱ theȱ paymentȱ ofȱ fines,ȱ usuallyȱ muchȱ higherȱthanȱforȱindividualȱliability,ȱrestrictionsȱofȱactivity,ȱconfiscationȱ ofȱproceedsȱillegallyȱearned,ȱandȱdissolution.ȱȱ ȱ Itȱ hasȱ toȱ beȱ noted,ȱ however,ȱ thatȱ corporateȱ liabilityȱ doesȱ notȱ excludeȱ individualȱcriminalȱliability.ȱParticularlyȱinȱtheȱcaseȱofȱtrafficking,ȱifȱaȱ legalȱentityȱhasȱbeenȱinvolvedȱinȱsuchȱactivities,ȱitȱisȱexpectedȱthatȱtheȱ individualsȱwhoȱhaveȱtakenȱdecisionsȱandȱotherȱemployeesȱinvolvedȱinȱ committingȱtheȱcrimeȱwillȱbeȱheldȱcriminallyȱresponsible.ȱȱ ȱ 5.3ȱ ActivitiesȱRelatedȱtoȱTraffickingȱ ȱ Criminalizationȱ shouldȱ accountȱ notȱ onlyȱ forȱ traffickingȱ butȱ alsoȱ forȱ complicityȱ andȱ allȱ otherȱ activitiesȱ linkedȱtoȱ trafficking.ȱ Complicityȱofȱ traffickingȱ shouldȱ includeȱ anyoneȱ whoȱ knowinglyȱ contributedȱ toȱ theȱ commissionȱ ofȱ theȱ crimeȱ and/orȱ benefitedȱ fromȱ it.ȱ Inȱ particular,ȱ customersȱ engagedȱ inȱ sexualȱ exploitationȱ shouldȱ beȱ heldȱ criminallyȱ responsible.ȱȱȱ ȱ Otherȱ piecesȱofȱ legislationȱ relatedȱ toȱ trafficking,ȱ suchȱ asȱ labourȱlaws,ȱ adoptionȱlaws,ȱprovisionsȱonȱslavery,ȱdebtȱbondage,ȱetc.ȱshouldȱalsoȱbeȱ criminalized,ȱbothȱseparatelyȱandȱinȱconjunctionȱwithȱtrafficking.ȱTheȱ objectiveȱisȱtoȱensureȱthatȱoffendersȱbeȱprosecutedȱandȱpunished,ȱevenȱ ifȱtheȱcrimeȱofȱtraffickingȱperȱseȱcannotȱbeȱproved.ȱȱ ȱ 5.3.1ȱ TraffickingȱandȱAdoptionȱ ȱ Lawsȱonȱadoptionȱareȱessentialȱtoȱpreventȱillegalȱadoptionsȱandȱpunishȱ thoseȱ whoȱ sellȱ childrenȱ orȱ participateȱ inȱ theȱ traffickingȱ ofȱ pregnantȱ womenȱforȱtheȱpurposeȱofȱsellingȱtheirȱnewbornȱbabies.ȱȱ ȱ 5.3.2ȱ TraffickingȱandȱChildȱLabourȱ ȱ Lawsȱonȱchildȱlabourȱmustȱattemptȱtoȱidentifyȱexploitativeȱsituations.ȱ Theseȱ lawsȱ mustȱ makeȱ itȱ aȱ crimeȱ forȱ anȱ employerȱ toȱ hireȱ childrenȱ
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youngerȱthanȱtheȱminimumȱageȱofȱlegalȱadmissionȱtoȱworkȱandȱunderȬ ageȱ childrenȱ withȱ workingȱ hoursȱ exceedingȱ theȱ limitȱ setȱ byȱ theȱ lawȱ and/orȱmakeȱthemȱperformȱhazardousȱtasksȱorȱtasksȱthatȱimpairȱtheirȱ development,ȱ inȱ accordanceȱ withȱ Articleȱ 32ȱ ofȱ theȱ CRCȱ andȱ ILOȱ Conventionȱ182ȱonȱtheȱWorstȱFormsȱofȱChildȱLabour.ȱȱ ȱ 5.4ȱ Sanctionsȱ ȱ Sanctionsȱneedȱtoȱbeȱdissuasive,ȱandȱincludeȱfinesȱandȱimprisonmentȱ forȱtraffickersȱandȱforȱcustomers.ȱTheȱseriousnessȱofȱtheȱcrimeȱshouldȱ beȱtakenȱintoȱaccount.ȱForȱinstance,ȱmanyȱStatesȱhaveȱlawsȱthatȱimposeȱ harsherȱsentencesȱifȱtheȱchildȱwasȱyoungerȱthanȱaȱcertainȱage,ȱusuallyȱ 14ȱorȱ15,ȱifȱtheȱchildȱhasȱaȱdisability,ȱifȱtheȱtraffickerȱwasȱaȱpersonȱcloseȱ toȱtheȱchildȱsuchȱasȱaȱparent,ȱguardianȱorȱlawȱenforcementȱofficial,ȱorȱifȱ theȱ perpetratorȱ wasȱ anȱ organisedȱ criminalȱ group.ȱ Aggravatingȱ circumstancesȱ shouldȱ beȱ partȱ ofȱ theȱ sanctionȱ frameworkȱ inȱ orderȱ toȱ furtherȱprotectȱvulnerableȱchildren.ȱȱ ȱ Yetȱsanctionsȱshouldȱnotȱbeȱtooȱharsh,ȱasȱtheyȱmayȱdeterȱpoliceȱofficersȱ andȱjudgesȱfromȱprosecutingȱandȱcondemningȱtraffickers. 230 ȱȱ ȱ 5.5ȱ Evidenceȱ ȱ Becauseȱtraffickingȱisȱoftenȱaȱcrimeȱcommittedȱacrossȱseveralȱcountries,ȱ evidenceȱ fromȱ allȱ theseȱ countriesȱ needsȱ toȱ beȱ gatheredȱ forȱ theȱ prosecutionȱandȱconvictionȱofȱoffenders.ȱThisȱimpliesȱthatȱeffectiveȱandȱ swiftȱ mechanismsȱ ofȱ internationalȱ judicialȱ cooperationȱ forȱ gatheringȱ evidenceȱneedȱtoȱbeȱinȱplace.ȱ ȱ Anotherȱpossibilityȱisȱforȱtheȱlawȱtoȱresortȱtoȱaȱsystemȱofȱpresumption.ȱ Inȱthisȱsystem,ȱifȱcertainȱconditionsȱareȱestablished,ȱevenȱifȱthereȱisȱnoȱ substantialȱ evidenceȱ againstȱ aȱ particularȱ person,ȱ thatȱ personȱ isȱ presumedȱguilty.ȱForȱinstance,ȱifȱsomeoneȱlivesȱorȱfrequentsȱaȱvictimȱofȱ trafficking,ȱandȱcannotȱprovideȱjustificationȱforȱhis/herȱresources,ȱthatȱ personȱcanȱbeȱpresumedȱtoȱbeȱguiltyȱofȱtheȱcrimeȱofȱtrafficking.ȱInȱthisȱ case,ȱ itȱ isȱ upȱ toȱ theȱ allegedȱ offenderȱ toȱ proveȱ he/sheȱ isȱ innocent.ȱ Presumptionsȱ significantlyȱ broadenȱ theȱ scopeȱ ofȱ theȱ lawȱ andȱ areȱ aȱ
230 See Dottridge, M., Kids as Commodities? Child trafficking and what to do about it, Terre des Hommes (2004), p. 54.
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usefulȱtoolȱtoȱarrestȱcriminals,ȱprovidedȱthatȱtheyȱareȱusedȱasȱpartȱofȱaȱ fairȱtrial.ȱ ȱ 5.6ȱ Extraditionȱ ȱ Extraditionȱisȱanȱessentialȱelementȱofȱinternationalȱjudicialȱcooperationȱ andȱisȱparticularlyȱrelevantȱinȱtheȱcaseȱofȱtrafficking,ȱasȱtraffickersȱmayȱ tryȱ toȱ takeȱ refugeȱ inȱ countriesȱ whereȱ theȱ lawȱ enforcementȱ systemȱ isȱ weakȱandȱwhereȱtheȱlegislationȱisȱlessȱsevere.ȱ ȱ Extraditionȱ isȱ theȱ processȱ byȱ whichȱ oneȱ Stateȱ (theȱ requestedȱ State)ȱ surrendersȱ anȱ individualȱ foundȱ onȱ itsȱ territoryȱ toȱ anotherȱ Stateȱ (theȱ requestingȱ State)ȱ whereȱ he/sheȱ isȱ wantedȱ eitherȱ toȱ standȱ trialȱ forȱ anȱ offenceȱ he/sheȱ isȱ allegedȱ toȱ haveȱ committed,ȱ orȱ toȱ serveȱ aȱ penalȱ sentenceȱalreadyȱpronouncedȱagainstȱhim/her. 231ȱ ȱ Extraditionȱcanȱfindȱitsȱsourceȱeitherȱinȱinternationalȱcourtesy,ȱbilateralȱ extraditionȱ treaties,ȱ multilateralȱ extraditionȱ conventions,ȱ whichȱ areȱ mostȱ oftenȱ concludedȱ atȱ theȱ regionalȱ level,ȱ orȱ otherȱ treatiesȱ thatȱ containȱprovisionsȱrelatedȱtoȱextradition,ȱsuchȱasȱtheȱOptionalȱProtocolȱ toȱ theȱ CRCȱ onȱ theȱ saleȱ ofȱ children,ȱ childȱ prostitutionȱ andȱ childȱ pornography.ȱOneȱtraditionalȱlimitationȱtoȱextraditionȱisȱtheȱrefusalȱbyȱ manyȱ Statesȱ toȱ extraditeȱ theirȱ nationals.ȱ Inȱ thatȱ case,ȱ underȱ theȱ Optionalȱ Protocol,ȱ theyȱ haveȱ theȱ obligationȱ toȱ prosecuteȱ andȱ tryȱ themselvesȱtheȱsuspectedȱindividual.ȱȱ ȱ Mostȱ often,ȱ extraditionȱ agreementsȱ containȱ aȱ “doubleȱ incrimination”ȱ clause,ȱ whichȱ requiresȱ thatȱ theȱ offenceȱ beȱ criminalisedȱ inȱ bothȱ theȱ requestedȱ Stateȱ andȱ theȱ requestingȱ State.ȱ Thisȱ canȱ beȱ anȱ obstacleȱ toȱ extraditionȱ ifȱ oneȱ ofȱ theȱ Statesȱ doesȱ notȱ recogniseȱ theȱ crimeȱ ofȱ traffickingȱ orȱ anȱ equivalentȱ thatȱ canȱ beȱ assimilatedȱ toȱ theȱ crimeȱ ofȱ trafficking.ȱ Forȱ thatȱ reason,ȱ criminalizationȱ ofȱ traffickingȱ inȱ nationalȱ lawsȱ–ȱinȱaccordanceȱwithȱinternationalȱstandardsȱ–ȱisȱkeyȱtoȱensuringȱ effectiveȱ internationalȱ judicialȱ cooperation.ȱ Theȱ Europeanȱ arrestȱ warrant,ȱ applicableȱ toȱ Europeanȱ Unionȱ Memberȱ States,ȱ isȱ aȱ goodȱ exampleȱofȱanȱeffectiveȱextraditionȱagreement,ȱasȱitȱwaivesȱtheȱdoubleȱ
231 Interpol, Legal Fact Sheets, Extradition – Some benchmarks, available at http://www.interpol.int/Public/ICPO/LegalMaterials/FactSheets/FS11.asp.
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incriminationȱ conditionȱ forȱ aȱ numberȱ ofȱ seriousȱ crimes,ȱ includingȱ trafficking,ȱsexualȱexploitationȱofȱchildrenȱandȱchildȱpornography.ȱȱ ȱ Withȱ aȱ viewȱ toȱ facilitatingȱ extradition,ȱ theȱ Optionalȱ Protocolȱ onȱ theȱ saleȱ ofȱ childrenȱ providesȱ thatȱ whenȱ thereȱ isȱ anȱ extraditionȱ requestȱ betweenȱ twoȱ Statesȱ Partiesȱ toȱ theȱ Protocol,ȱ thisȱ treatyȱ isȱ aȱ sufficientȱ groundȱforȱextradition.ȱInȱaddition,ȱtheȱOptionalȱProtocolȱspecifiesȱthatȱ theȱ jurisdictionȱ toȱ takeȱ intoȱ accountȱ forȱ theȱ purposeȱ ofȱ extraditionȱ isȱ notȱonlyȱtheȱterritoryȱofȱtheȱStateȱ–ȱwhichȱ isȱtheȱusualȱjurisdictionȱinȱ criminalȱlawȱ–ȱbutȱalsoȱtheȱnationality/residentȱstatusȱofȱtheȱoffenderȱorȱ theȱvictim,ȱevenȱifȱtheȱcrimeȱwasȱcommittedȱoutsideȱofȱtheȱrequestingȱ State’sȱterritory.ȱConcretely,ȱitȱmeansȱthatȱCountryȱAȱcanȱrequestȱtheȱ extraditionȱ ofȱ oneȱ ofȱ itsȱ nationalsȱ locatedȱ inȱ Countryȱ B,ȱ becauseȱ itȱ suspectsȱ thatȱ thisȱ individualȱ hasȱ beenȱ linkedȱ toȱ childȱ sexualȱ exploitationȱactivitiesȱinȱCountryȱC.ȱȱ ȱ Mostȱextraditionȱtreaties,ȱincludingȱtheȱUNȱmodelȱtreatyȱonȱextraditionȱ adoptedȱ inȱ 1990ȱ thatȱ isȱ theȱ basisȱ forȱ mostȱ extraditionȱ treaties,ȱ defineȱ extraditableȱoffencesȱaccordingȱtoȱtheirȱgravityȱandȱtheȱpenaltyȱwhichȱ mayȱ beȱ incurred.ȱ Oneȱ criterionȱ isȱ oftenȱ theȱ minimumȱ durationȱ ofȱ aȱ prisonȱsentence.ȱSpecificȱoffencesȱareȱusuallyȱnotȱmentioned.ȱHowever,ȱ theȱ criterionȱ ofȱ theȱ gravityȱ ofȱ theȱ crimeȱ canȱ beȱ usedȱ toȱ includeȱ traffickingȱ orȱ relatedȱ offencesȱ suchȱ asȱ childȱ sexualȱ exploitationȱ andȱ slavery.ȱ Thisȱ isȱ oneȱ moreȱ reasonȱ whyȱ itȱ isȱ importantȱ thatȱ seriousȱ sanctionsȱ beȱ establishedȱ forȱ theȱ crimeȱ ofȱ traffickingȱ andȱ relatedȱ activities.ȱ ȱ Inȱ conclusion,ȱ extraditionȱ treatiesȱ areȱ keyȱ instrumentsȱ forȱ bothȱ internationalȱ cooperationȱ andȱ efficientȱ justiceȱ andȱ lawȱ enforcementȱ mechanismsȱinȱtheȱfightȱagainstȱtrafficking.ȱWhenȱtheyȱareȱnegotiated,ȱ attentionȱshouldȱbeȱpaidȱtoȱincludingȱeitherȱaȱlistȱofȱcrimesȱthatȱdoesȱ notȱ requireȱ doubleȱ incrimination,ȱ orȱ ensuringȱ thatȱ theȱ twoȱ countriesȱ haveȱ lawsȱ thatȱ wouldȱ allowȱ theȱ extraditionȱ ofȱ anȱ individualȱ prosecutedȱ forȱ traffickingȱ inȱ humanȱ beings.ȱ Advocacyȱ forȱ theȱ ratificationȱ ofȱ theȱ Optionalȱ Protocolȱ onȱ theȱ saleȱ ofȱ children,ȱ childȱ prostitutionȱ andȱ childȱ pornographyȱ isȱ alsoȱ anȱ importantȱ activityȱ toȱ promoteȱextraditionȱinȱcertainȱcasesȱofȱtrafficking.ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
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Partȱ6ȱ INSTITUTIONALȱREFORMȱ ȱ 6.1ȱ CreationȱofȱaȱSpecificȱInstitutionȱ ȱ Asȱ shownȱ inȱ thisȱ chapter,ȱ traffickingȱ inȱ humanȱ beingsȱ isȱ aȱ complexȱ issueȱ thatȱ involvesȱ manyȱ differentȱ aspects,ȱ fromȱ prosecutionȱ toȱ protectingȱ theȱ rightsȱ ofȱ victims,ȱ toȱ preventionȱ andȱ internationalȱ cooperation.ȱTheseȱdimensionsȱareȱstronglyȱinterrelated.ȱYet,ȱtheyȱareȱ oftenȱ dealtȱ withȱ byȱ differentȱ institutionsȱ inȱ aȱ givenȱ State.ȱ Inȱ broadȱ lines,ȱprosecutionȱisȱaȱfunctionȱofȱtheȱjudiciary,ȱprotectionȱofȱtheȱrightsȱ ofȱvictimsȱinvolvesȱlawȱenforcementȱofficialsȱandȱwelfareȱinstitutions,ȱ andȱinternationalȱcooperationȱisȱusuallyȱtheȱprerogativeȱofȱtheȱMinistryȱ ofȱ Foreignȱ Affairs.ȱ Forȱ theȱ implementationȱ ofȱ antiȬtraffickingȱ legislation,ȱ itȱ isȱ thusȱ notȱ sufficientȱ forȱ theȱ lawȱ toȱ comprehendȱ allȱ aspectsȱ andȱ attributeȱ specificȱ responsibilitiesȱ toȱ institutionsȱ forȱ itsȱ implementation.ȱEffectiveȱcoordinationȱbetweenȱallȱsectorsȱisȱessentialȱ toȱensureȱthatȱthereȱareȱnoȱgapsȱinȱtheȱprocess.ȱ ȱ Inȱ Pakistan,ȱ forȱ effectiveȱ coordinationȱ andȱ enforcementȱ ofȱ theȱ PreventionȱandȱControlȱofȱHumanȱTraffickingȱOrdinance,ȱ2002,ȱseveralȱ coordinationȱmechanismsȱhaveȱbeenȱcreatedȱatȱdifferentȱlevels.ȱAtȱtheȱ policyȱ level,ȱ aȱ Ministerialȱ levelȱ Nationalȱ Committeeȱ regularlyȱ holdsȱ meetingsȱ toȱ reviewȱ progress.ȱ Atȱ theȱ administrativeȱ levelȱ anȱ AntiȬ Traffickingȱ Unitȱ (ATU)ȱ Coordinationȱ andȱ Monitoringȱ Cellȱ hasȱ beenȱ establishedȱ inȱ theȱ Federalȱ Investigationȱ Agency’sȱ headquarters,ȱ withȱ subȬofficesȱinȱtheȱfourȱzonalȱDirectorates.ȱAtȱtheȱlawȱenforcementȱlevel,ȱ anȱ InterȬagencyȱ Taskȱ Forceȱ (IATF)ȱ consistingȱ ofȱ allȱ theȱ Lawȱ Enforcementȱ Agenciesȱ includingȱ theȱ Federalȱ Investigationȱ Agency,ȱ Frontierȱ Constabularyȱ Baluchistan,ȱ Coastȱ Guards,ȱ Maritimeȱ Securityȱ AgencyȱandȱtheȱPoliceȱhasȱbeenȱcreated.ȱȱȱȱ ȱ Oneȱ wayȱ ofȱ guaranteeingȱ theȱ coordinationȱ amongȱ allȱ actorsȱ andȱ ensuringȱtheȱdesignȱofȱsoundȱpoliciesȱisȱtoȱcreateȱanȱinstitutionȱ–ȱbeȱitȱ anȱ agency,ȱ aȱ department,ȱ aȱ commissionȱ orȱ aȱ councilȱ –ȱ withȱ theȱ mandateȱtoȱcoordinateȱallȱantiȬtraffickingȱactivitiesȱandȱmoreȱbroadly,ȱ ensureȱtheȱimplementationȱofȱtheȱlawȱinȱallȱitsȱaspects.ȱTheȱformatȱofȱ suchȱinstitutionsȱvariesȱfromȱStateȱtoȱState,ȱbutȱsomeȱcommonȱaspects,ȱ inȱtermsȱofȱstructure,ȱmandate,ȱandȱaccountabilityȱcanȱbeȱdrawn.ȱȱ ȱ
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6.2ȱ Structureȱ ȱ Theȱ institutionȱ shouldȱ beȱ anȱ entityȱ ableȱ toȱ effectivelyȱ coordinateȱ severalȱ ministriesȱ orȱ otherȱ actors.ȱ Dependingȱ onȱ theȱ administrativeȱ systemȱ ofȱ theȱ country,ȱ severalȱ optionsȱ canȱ beȱ envisaged.ȱ Anȱ independentȱbodyȱcanȱbeȱcreatedȱbutȱitȱrisksȱhavingȱlimitedȱauthorityȱ inȱguidingȱnationalȱinstitutions,ȱespeciallyȱsuchȱpowerfulȱministriesȱasȱ theȱ Ministryȱ ofȱ Interior,ȱ ofȱ Justiceȱ orȱ Foreignȱ Affairs.ȱ Oneȱ otherȱ possibilityȱisȱtoȱsetȱupȱaȱspecialȱofficeȱwithinȱaȱrelevantȱMinistry.ȱThisȱ optionȱ enhancesȱ theȱ authorityȱ ofȱ theȱ body,ȱ includingȱ financialȱ andȱ humanȱresources.ȱItȱalsoȱtendsȱtoȱconcentrateȱtheȱresponsibilityȱtoȱfightȱ traffickingȱwithinȱoneȱministry.ȱWhileȱanȱinstitutionȱshouldȱbeȱsetȱupȱ atȱ theȱ nationalȱ level,ȱ institutionsȱ canȱ alsoȱ beȱ establishedȱ atȱ theȱ localȱ levelȱinȱorderȱtoȱworkȱinȱcloserȱcontactȱwithȱtheȱpopulationȱandȱlocalȱ institutions,ȱparticularlyȱinȱgeographicȱareasȱatȱhigherȱrisk.ȱȱ ȱ Theȱ institutionȱ shouldȱ beȱ composedȱ ofȱ peopleȱ orȱ representativesȱ ofȱ institutionsȱ andȱ organisationsȱ withȱ variousȱ skillsȱ whoȱ workȱ onȱ traffickingȱ fromȱ differentȱ perspectives,ȱ therebyȱ coveringȱ allȱ ofȱ theȱ differentȱ aspectsȱ ofȱ antiȬtraffickingȱ activities.ȱ Itȱ isȱ usefulȱ toȱ includeȱ representativesȱfromȱvariousȱministries,ȱtheȱGovernment,ȱtheȱjudiciary,ȱ teachers,ȱ psychologists,ȱ lawyersȱ andȱ doctors,ȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ nonȬ governmentalȱorganisationsȱorȱotherȱcivilȱsocietyȱinstitutions.ȱOverall,ȱ theȱfunctioningȱshouldȱbeȱtransparentȱandȱparticipatory.ȱ ȱ Adequateȱresources,ȱbothȱhumanȱandȱfinancial,ȱshouldȱbeȱallocatedȱforȱ theȱ institutionȱ toȱ accomplishȱ itsȱ tasks.ȱ Suchȱ resourcesȱ shouldȱ alsoȱ beȱ availableȱ inȱ allȱ sectorsȱ involvedȱ inȱ addressingȱ childȱ trafficking.ȱ Oneȱ wayȱ toȱ accomplishȱ thisȱ isȱ toȱ requireȱ thatȱ eachȱ ministryȱ orȱ institutionȱ workingȱonȱthisȱissueȱallocateȱaȱportionȱofȱitsȱannualȱresourcesȱtoȱantiȬ traffickingȱactivitiesȱbyȱlaw.ȱ ȱ InȱBulgaria,ȱtheȱlawȱestablishesȱbothȱaȱNationalȱCommissionȱandȱLocalȱ CommissionsȱforȱFightingȱTraffickingȱinȱHumanȱBeings.ȱTheȱNationalȱ Commissionȱ isȱ composedȱ ofȱ highȱ levelȱ representativesȱ fromȱ theȱ ministriesȱofȱlabour,ȱinterior,ȱjustice,ȱhealth,ȱandȱeducation,ȱasȱwellȱasȱ theȱ Stateȱ Agencyȱ forȱ Childȱ Protectionȱ andȱ theȱ Commissionȱ forȱ counteractingȱtheȱAntiȬSocialȱBehaviourȱofȱJuvenilesȱandȱMinors.ȱTheȱ Nationalȱ Commissionȱ alsoȱ includesȱ membersȱ ofȱ theȱ Supremeȱ Court,ȱ
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Prosecutorȱ Generalȱ andȱ Nationalȱ Investigativeȱ service,ȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ representativesȱ ofȱ NGOsȱ andȱ internationalȱ organisationsȱ representedȱ inȱ theȱ countryȱ workingȱ inȱ theȱ areaȱ ofȱ preventingȱ andȱ combatingȱ humanȱtrafficking.ȱLocalȱcommissionsȱareȱcomposedȱofȱthreeȱtoȱsevenȱ membersȱappointedȱbyȱtheȱMayorȱandȱinvolvingȱrepresentativesȱofȱtheȱ localȱ governmentȱ involvedȱ inȱ education,ȱ healthȱ issuesȱ andȱ socialȱ policy,ȱdepartmentsȱforȱchildȱprotection,ȱrepresentativesȱofȱtheȱpolice,ȱ NGOs,ȱteachers,ȱpsychologists,ȱlawyers,ȱdoctors,ȱetc.ȱAȱrepresentativeȱ ofȱ theȱ Regionalȱ Prosecutor’sȱ Officeȱ mustȱ attendȱ theȱ sessionsȱ ofȱ theȱ Localȱ Commission.ȱ Theȱ lawȱ alsoȱ providesȱ thatȱ Localȱ Commissionsȱ shallȱbeȱfundedȱbyȱtheȱbudgetȱofȱtheȱmunicipality.ȱ ȱ Theȱ mandateȱ ofȱ theȱ institutionȱ shouldȱ beȱ broadȱ enoughȱ toȱ ensureȱ itȱ encompassesȱ allȱ dimensionsȱ ofȱ theȱ implementationȱ ofȱ theȱ law.ȱ Followingȱareȱtheȱpotentialȱmajorȱareasȱofȱactivityȱforȱsuchȱinstitutions.ȱȱ ȱ Oneȱofȱtheȱmainȱrolesȱofȱtheȱinstitutionȱshouldȱbeȱtheȱcoordinationȱofȱ theȱactivitiesȱofȱallȱactorsȱinvolvedȱinȱcombatingȱtrafficking.ȱItȱshouldȱ aimȱ atȱ facilitatingȱ theȱ exchangeȱ ofȱ informationȱ betweenȱ variousȱ ministriesȱ andȱ institutions,ȱ encouragingȱ collaborationȱ ofȱ theseȱ bodiesȱ inȱundertakingȱactivitiesȱforȱtheȱimplementationȱofȱtheȱlawȱasȱwellȱasȱ communicatingȱ onȱ theȱ implementationȱ ofȱ nationalȱ policies.ȱ Asȱ aȱ coordinationȱ mechanism,ȱ itȱ shouldȱ alsoȱ ensureȱ thatȱ thereȱ isȱ aȱ coordinatedȱandȱeffectiveȱresponseȱtoȱcasesȱofȱtrafficking.ȱ ȱ Theȱ mandateȱ ofȱ theȱ institutionȱ shouldȱ includeȱresearchȱ activitiesȱandȱ dataȱcollectionȱandȱanalysisȱinȱ orderȱtoȱinformȱpoliciesȱonȱtraffickingȱ andȱ toȱ facilitateȱ monitoringȱ andȱ evaluationȱ ofȱ theȱ implementationȱ ofȱ nationalȱlawsȱandȱpolicies.ȱ ȱ Basedȱ onȱ itsȱ coordinationȱ andȱ researchȱ functions,ȱ theȱ institutionȱ shouldȱbeȱinȱchargeȱofȱadvisingȱonȱandȱdevelopingȱcomprehensiveȱandȱ integratedȱpoliciesȱtoȱaddressȱtraffickingȱinȱhumanȱbeingsȱandȱshouldȱ monitorȱ theirȱ implementation.ȱ Itȱ shouldȱ beȱ mandatedȱ toȱ formulateȱ strategiesȱ andȱ adoptȱ specificȱ measuresȱ asȱ necessaryȱ forȱ theȱ implementationȱ ofȱ theȱ law.ȱ Thisȱ shouldȱ includeȱ theȱ designȱ ofȱ programmesȱaimedȱatȱtheȱreintegrationȱofȱvictimsȱofȱtrafficking.ȱ ȱ Oneȱ ofȱ theȱ obstaclesȱ toȱ internationalȱ cooperationȱ isȱ theȱ difficultyȱ toȱ identifyȱ theȱ appropriateȱ counterpartȱ inȱ anotherȱ State.ȱ Theȱ institutionȱ
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shouldȱthusȱdealȱwithȱinternationalȱrequests,ȱbyȱdirectingȱthemȱtoȱtheȱ appropriateȱ departmentȱ asȱ relevantȱ andȱ followingȱ upȱ onȱ them.ȱ Itȱ shouldȱ alsoȱ facilitateȱ theȱ exchangeȱ ofȱ informationȱ andȱ overallȱ collaborationȱ betweenȱ States.ȱ Forȱ example,ȱ theȱ bilateralȱ agreementȱ betweenȱ Côteȱ d’Ivoireȱ andȱ Maliȱ providesȱ forȱ theȱ creationȱ ofȱ aȱ Permanentȱ Commissionȱ forȱ followȬupȱ onȱ theȱ implementationȱ ofȱ theȱ agreement.ȱTheȱagreementȱstipulatesȱthatȱtheȱCommissionȱwillȱmeetȱatȱ leastȱonceȱaȱyear.ȱ ȱ Theȱ institutionȱ shouldȱ beȱ responsibleȱ forȱ theȱ trainingȱ ofȱ lawȱ enforcementȱ officialsȱ andȱ otherȱ relevantȱ actorsȱ onȱ traffickingȱ andȱ children’sȱrightsȱissues.ȱȱ ȱ Theȱ institutionȱ shouldȱ beȱ mandatedȱ toȱ undertakeȱ communicationsȱ campaignsȱtoȱsensitiseȱtheȱpopulation,ȱespeciallyȱthoseȱmostȱatȱriskȱandȱ potentialȱoffenders,ȱonȱtraffickingȱissues.ȱ ȱ 6.3ȱ Accountabilityȱ ȱ Likeȱ allȱ institutions,ȱ theȱ antiȬtraffickingȱ institutionȱ shouldȱ beȱ accountableȱandȱitsȱactionsȱmonitored.ȱTheȱstandardȱprocedureȱisȱtheȱ submissionȱofȱanȱannualȱreportȱtoȱtheȱgovernmentȱandȱtheȱparliamentȱ presentingȱactivitiesȱundertakenȱandȱresultsȱachieved.ȱ ȱ 6.4ȱ StrengtheningȱLawȱEnforcementȱ ȱ Strengtheningȱ theȱ country’sȱ institutionalȱ capacityȱ impliesȱ settingȱ upȱ efficientȱ systemsȱ ofȱ accountabilitiesȱ ofȱ allȱ actors,ȱ inȱ particularȱ lawȱ enforcementȱofficials.ȱToȱthatȱend,ȱappropriateȱtrainingsȱandȱcapacityȬ buildingȱactivitiesȱshouldȱbeȱundertakenȱandȱaimedȱatȱimprovingȱtheȱ skillsȱ ofȱ policeȱ officers,ȱ judges,ȱ socialȱ workersȱ andȱ otherȱ actorsȱ involvedȱwithȱchildȱvictimsȱtoȱtakeȱintoȱaccountȱtheirȱspecificȱsituation.ȱ ȱ Forȱ example,ȱ theȱ governmentȱ ofȱ Yemen,ȱ withȱ supportȱ fromȱ UNICEFȱ andȱ IOM,ȱ trainedȱ policeȱ officersȱ onȱ techniquesȱ toȱ recogniseȱ andȱ properlyȱhandleȱtraffickingȱcases.ȱSecurityȱofficialsȱworkingȱinȱborderȱ areasȱandȱinternationalȱairportsȱacquiredȱskillsȱonȱvictimȱidentification,ȱ registrationȱ andȱ monitoringȱ ofȱ childȱ trafficking.ȱ Governmentȱ officialsȱ
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wereȱ trainedȱ onȱ shelterȱ managementȱ andȱ assistanceȱ toȱ victimsȱ ofȱ trafficking. 232ȱ ȱ ȱ Partȱ7ȱ PROCESSESȱANDȱENTRYȱPOINTSȱ FORȱLEGISLATIVEȱREFORMȱINȱ THEȱAREAȱOFȱTRAFFICKINGȱ ȱ Asȱ inȱ otherȱ areas,ȱ aȱ participatoryȱ andȱ openȱ process,ȱ involvingȱ allȱ stakeholders,ȱisȱessentialȱtoȱensureȱthatȱtheȱlawȱrespondsȱadequatelyȱtoȱ theȱchallengesȱposedȱbyȱtraffickingȱinȱaȱspecificȱcountry.ȱSuchȱaȱprocessȱ alsoȱhelpsȱraisingȱawarenessȱofȱissuesȱrelatedȱtoȱtrafficking,ȱincludingȱ theȱsituationȱofȱvictims,ȱandȱcontributesȱtoȱtrainingȱthoseȱwhoȱwillȱbeȱ onȱtheȱfrontlineȱforȱtheȱimplementationȱofȱtheȱlaw.ȱȱ ȱ 7.1ȱ AȱHumanȱRightsȬbasedȱApproachȱtoȱLegislativeȱ ReformȱinȱtheȱAreaȱofȱTraffickingȱ ȱ Theȱprinciplesȱofȱaȱhumanȱrightsȱbasedȱapproachȱtoȱlegislativeȱreformȱ canȱbeȱappliedȱasȱfollowsȱinȱtheȱcaseȱofȱtrafficking.ȱ ȱ 7.1.1ȱ Accountabilityȱ ȱ Advocacyȱ effortsȱ shouldȱ focusȱ onȱ ensuringȱ thatȱ Statesȱ haveȱ ratifiedȱ relevantȱinternationalȱtreatiesȱtoȱcombatȱtrafficking,ȱincludingȱregionalȱ treatiesȱandȱagreements.ȱ ȱ Theȱ implementationȱ ofȱ theseȱ instrumentsȱ shouldȱ thenȱ beȱ promotedȱ withȱtheȱgovernment,ȱandȱemphasisȱbeȱplacedȱonȱtheȱlegalȱobligationsȱ theyȱentail.ȱAsȱhighlightedȱinȱthisȱchapter,ȱtheseȱinstrumentsȱprovideȱaȱ strongȱ basisȱ forȱ advocacyȱ forȱ legislativeȱ reformȱ addressingȱ allȱ theȱ dimensionsȱ ofȱ childȱ trafficking.ȱ Lawȱ reviewȱ andȱ legislativeȱ reformȱ shouldȱ thereforeȱ beȱ conductedȱ inȱ lightȱ ofȱ theseȱ treaties.ȱ Itȱ shouldȱ beȱ madeȱ clearȱ thatȱ forȱ aȱ lawȱ toȱ contributeȱ toȱ fulfillingȱ theȱ State’sȱ obligations,ȱitȱmustȱbeȱenforcedȱandȱimplemented.ȱ
232 See Combating Child Trafficking in the Gulf Countries, Yemen and Afghanistan: Policy Options (draft). Op.cit.
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ȱ 7.1.2ȱ Universalityȱ ȱ Theȱ principleȱ ofȱ universalityȱ impliesȱ thatȱ theȱ lawȱ mustȱ addressȱ theȱ rightsȱ ofȱ allȱ children,ȱ inȱ particularȱ theȱ specialȱ needsȱ ofȱ girls.ȱ Asȱ highlightedȱaboveȱwithȱrespectȱtoȱtheȱprincipleȱofȱnonȬdiscrimination,ȱ itȱisȱespeciallyȱimportantȱwithȱrespectȱtoȱinternationalȱtraffickingȱthatȱ childrenȱwhoȱareȱnotȱcitizensȱofȱtheȱcountryȱhaveȱtheirȱrightsȱprotectedȱ likeȱ theȱ nationalsȱ ofȱ thatȱ country,ȱ andȱ enjoyȱ evenȱ greaterȱ protectionȱ dueȱtoȱtheirȱsituationȱandȱtheȱfactȱthatȱtheyȱareȱoftenȱunaccompanied.ȱ Theȱ universalityȱ principleȱ furtherȱ impliesȱ thatȱ measuresȱ aimedȱ atȱ preventingȱ childȱ traffickingȱ takeȱ intoȱ accountȱ theȱ mostȱ marginalizedȱ andȱexcluded,ȱwhoȱareȱtheȱmostȱvulnerableȱtoȱtrafficking.ȱȱ ȱ Theȱprincipleȱofȱuniversalityȱalsoȱmeansȱthatȱtheȱprocessȱofȱdraftingȱofȱ theȱlawȱshouldȱinvolveȱallȱstakeholders,ȱwithȱaȱparticularȱattentionȱtoȱ includingȱsectorsȱofȱtheȱpopulationȱthatȱareȱtraditionallyȱmarginalized,ȱ excludedȱandȱdiscriminatedȱagainst.ȱȱ ȱ 7.1.3ȱ Indivisibilityȱ ȱ Asȱindicatedȱthroughoutȱthisȱchapter,ȱlegislativeȱreformȱonȱtraffickingȱ shouldȱ takeȱ intoȱ considerationȱ theȱ entireȱ legalȱ frameworkȱ ofȱ theȱ country.ȱ Itȱ shouldȱ buildȱ on,ȱ andȱ strengthen,ȱ existingȱ lawsȱ andȱ institutionsȱ thatȱ areȱ indirectlyȱ relatedȱ toȱ trafficking,ȱ butȱ areȱ keyȱ toȱ combatingȱ childȱ traffickingȱ andȱ caringȱ forȱ victims,ȱ preventingȱ proliferationȱofȱlawsȱandȱinstitutions,ȱandȱintegratingȱexistingȱlawsȱandȱ institutionsȱ intoȱ aȱ comprehensiveȱ approachȱ toȱ safeguardȱ children’sȱ rights.ȱȱȱ ȱ 7.1.4ȱ Participationȱ ȱ Participationȱandȱtransparencyȱareȱessentialȱforȱdraftingȱaȱlawȱthatȱisȱ sound,ȱinformed,ȱandȱeffective.ȱAsȱinȱotherȱareas,ȱparticipationȱinȱtheȱ elaborationȱ ofȱ theȱ lawȱ andȱ itsȱ implementationȱ shouldȱ beȱ asȱ broadȱ asȱ possible.ȱ Whileȱ aȱ fullȱ overviewȱ ofȱ participationȱ mechanismsȱ areȱ providedȱ inȱ Chapterȱ II,ȱ inȱ theȱ areaȱ ofȱ trafficking,ȱ particularȱ attentionȱ shouldȱbeȱplacedȱonȱincludingȱatȱleastȱtheȱfollowing:ȱ ȱ
216 Handbook on Legislative Reform x Relevantȱministries.ȱTheȱdraftingȱandȱimplementationȱofȱtheȱ lawȱandȱaccompanyingȱpoliciesȱaddressingȱchildȱtraffickingȱ shouldȱnotȱbeȱpreparedȱonlyȱbyȱtheȱMinistryȱresponsibleȱforȱ children’sȱissues,ȱmostȱoftenȱtheȱMinistryȱofȱSocial/Familyȱ Affairs.ȱTheȱMinistryȱofȱLabour,ȱtheȱMinistryȱofȱJustice,ȱtheȱ MinistryȱinȱchargeȱofȱtheȱpoliceȱsuchȱasȱtheȱMinistryȱofȱtheȱ Interior,ȱandȱtheȱMinistryȱofȱForeignȱAffairsȱshouldȱbeȱactivelyȱ involvedȱasȱwell.ȱTheȱMinistryȱofȱFinanceȱalsoȱrepresentsȱanȱ essentialȱpartnerȱtoȱallocateȱresourcesȱandȱimplementȱeconomicȱ policiesȱaimedȱatȱaddressingȱtheȱrootȱcausesȱofȱtrafficking,ȱinȱ particularȱpoverty,ȱwhichȱmakesȱsomeȱgroupsȱofȱtheȱpopulationȱ vulnerableȱtoȱtrafficking.ȱȱ x MembersȱofȱParliament.ȱTheȱParliamentȱshouldȱcontributeȱtoȱ theȱdraftingȱofȱtheȱlaw,ȱevenȱifȱtheȱlawȱisȱeventuallyȱpresentedȱ byȱtheȱHeadȱofȱGovernment’sȱoffice.ȱMoreȱspecifically,ȱrelevantȱ parliamentaryȱCommitteesȱshouldȱbeȱconsulted,ȱsuchȱasȱtheȱ Committeeȱdealingȱwithȱchildren’sȱrights,ȱtheȱCommitteesȱonȱ labour,ȱjustice,ȱinternalȱsecurity,ȱcriminalȱmatters,ȱcivilȱmatters,ȱ foreignȱaffairs,ȱetc.ȱ ȱ x Membersȱofȱtheȱjudiciary.ȱJudgesȱandȱprosecutorsȱcanȱidentifyȱ legalȱgapsȱinȱtheȱlegislationȱandȱinformȱtheȱdraftingȱofȱtheȱlawȱ toȱmakeȱsureȱitȱisȱeffective,ȱapplicableȱinȱlegalȱcases,ȱandȱlegallyȱ coherent.ȱ x Lawyers.ȱLawyersȱcanȱalsoȱprovideȱusefulȱlegalȱexpertise.ȱ Lawyersȱinvolvedȱshouldȱhaveȱexperienceȱinȱtheȱareasȱtackledȱ byȱtheȱlaw,ȱinȱparticularȱinȱchildren’sȱrights,ȱwomen’sȱrights,ȱ criminalȱlaw,ȱandȱcivilȱlaw,ȱasȱwellȱasȱprivateȱinternationalȱlaw.ȱ x Childrenȱandȱyouth.ȱChildrenȱandȱyouthȱshouldȱbeȱconsultedȱ inȱtheȱpreparationȱofȱtheȱlawȱandȱinȱtheȱimplementation.ȱ Childrenȱandȱyouthȱwhoȱhaveȱbeenȱvictimsȱofȱtraffickingȱ shouldȱbeȱlistenedȱto,ȱespeciallyȱwithȱrespectȱtoȱtheȱprotectionȱ andȱcareȱofȱvictims.ȱYet,ȱappropriateȱmeasuresȱshouldȱbeȱtakenȱ toȱensureȱthatȱtheirȱparticipationȱdoesȱnotȱputȱthemȱatȱrisk.ȱ x Communityȱleaders.ȱCommunity,ȱtraditionalȱorȱreligiousȱ leaders,ȱinȱparticularȱinȱareasȱparticularlyȱaffectedȱbyȱtraffickingȱ canȱbeȱinstrumentalȱinȱpreventingȱtraffickingȱandȱensuringȱtheȱ reintegrationȱofȱchildrenȱvictimsȱofȱtrafficking.ȱȱ x NonȬgovernmentalȱorganizations.ȱBothȱdomesticȱandȱ internationalȱNGOsȱworkingȱinȱtheȱareaȱofȱtraffickingȱshouldȱbeȱ
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consulted.ȱInȱparticular,ȱassociationsȱrunningȱcareȱcentresȱforȱ victimsȱshouldȱbeȱinvolved.ȱ x InterȬgovernmentalȱorganizations.ȱUNȱagenciesȱandȱregionalȱ organisationsȱpresentȱinȱtheȱcountryȱand/orȱinȱtheȱregionȱandȱ workingȱinȱtheȱareaȱofȱtraffickingȱshouldȱbeȱconsulted.ȱ x Media.ȱTheȱmediaȱplaysȱanȱessentialȱroleȱinȱsensitisingȱtheȱ populationȱonȱtraffickingȱandȱdeconstructingȱtheȱmythsȱofȱaȱ betterȱlifeȱpromisedȱbyȱtraffickers.ȱPublicȱauthoritiesȱshouldȱ partnerȱwithȱtheȱmediaȱforȱpublicȱawarenessȱcampaigns.ȱItȱisȱ particularlyȱimportantȱthatȱappropriateȱmediaȱofȱ communicationȱbeȱchosenȱdependingȱonȱtheȱgroupsȱmostȱatȱ risk.ȱInȱareasȱwithȱhighȱilliteracyȱrates,ȱforȱexample,ȱradioȱspotsȱ mayȱbeȱmoreȱefficientȱthatȱnewspapersȱtoȱconveyȱaȱmessage.ȱInȱ addition,ȱmessagesȱshouldȱbeȱtailoredȱtoȱtheȱlanguageȱandȱ cultureȱofȱtheȱcommunitiesȱinȱwhichȱtheyȱareȱbroadcast.ȱWhenȱ minorityȱgroupsȱspeakingȱaȱdifferentȱlanguageȱfromȱtheȱofficialȱ languageȱofȱtheȱcountryȱareȱvulnerableȱtoȱtrafficking,ȱ informationȱshouldȱbeȱcommunicatedȱinȱthatȱlanguage.ȱ Receivingȱcountriesȱshouldȱalsoȱensureȱthatȱinformationȱreachesȱ childȱvictimsȱinȱaȱlanguageȱtheyȱcanȱunderstand,ȱespeciallyȱ whenȱtraffickingȱtrendsȱshowȱthatȱchildȱvictimsȱcomeȱfromȱaȱ specificȱcountry/region.ȱFurthermore,ȱsomeȱcommunicationȱ strategiesȱshouldȱbeȱspecificallyȱaddressedȱatȱchildren,ȱtakingȱ intoȱaccountȱtheirȱspecialȱcommunicationȱneedsȱtoȱensureȱthatȱ theyȱunderstandȱtheȱmessage.ȱȱ ȱ 7.1.5ȱ TrainingȱandȱCapacityȱBuildingȱ ȱ TrainingȱandȱcapacityȬbuildingȱareȱcriticalȱtoȱensureȱthatȱparticipationȱ isȱ genuineȱ andȱ informed,ȱ andȱ thatȱ theȱ lawȱ isȱ implemented.ȱ Trainingȱ andȱ capacityȬbuildingȱ activitiesȱcanȱ evenȱ takeȱ placeȱbeforeȱ theȱlawȱisȱ adopted,ȱduringȱtheȱpreparationȱphase.ȱOnceȱtheȱlawȱisȱadopted,ȱsuchȱ activitiesȱareȱimportantȱtoȱascertainȱwhetherȱitȱwillȱindeedȱbeȱapplied,ȱ orȱifȱitȱisȱmisinterpreted.ȱTrainingȱisȱoftenȱaȱcomponentȱofȱtheȱmandateȱ ofȱnational/localȱcommissionsȱinȱchargeȱofȱdealingȱwithȱtrafficking.ȱȱ ȱ 7.1.6ȱ TrainingȱofȱJudgesȱandȱLawyersȱ ȱ Judgesȱandȱlawyersȱshouldȱbeȱtrainedȱbothȱonȱtheȱinternationalȱlegalȱ frameworkȱ andȱ onȱ theȱ contentȱ ofȱ theȱ law.ȱ Whereȱ appropriate,ȱ theyȱ
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couldȱbeȱgivenȱexamplesȱofȱjurisprudenceȱinȱcountriesȱwithȱaȱsimilarȱ legalȱtradition.ȱTheȱfocusȱshouldȱbeȱplacedȱonȱtheȱexperienceȱofȱchildȱ victimsȱandȱtheȱhumanȱrightsȱviolationsȱtheyȱhaveȱsuffered.ȱEmphasisȱ shouldȱbeȱplacedȱonȱtheȱneedȱtoȱadaptȱjudicialȱproceedingsȱtoȱtheȱfactȱ thatȱ victimsȱ areȱ childrenȱ andȱ toolsȱ providedȱ toȱ doȱ so,ȱ inȱ lineȱ withȱ relevantȱinternationalȱguidelinesȱinȱthisȱarea,ȱasȱmentionedȱabove.ȱ ȱ 7.1.7ȱ TrainingȱofȱStaffȱDealingȱwithȱVictimsȱ ȱ Trainingȱofȱallȱstaffȱdealingȱwithȱvictimsȱisȱessentialȱinȱorderȱtoȱavoidȱ dealingȱwithȱvictimsȱinȱanȱinappropriateȱwayȱthatȱmayȱdeepenȱtheirȱ trauma.ȱOftenȱtimesȱindeed,ȱlawȱenforcementȱofficialsȱconsiderȱvictimsȱ asȱcriminals,ȱorȱwantȱtoȱuseȱthemȱasȱwitnessesȱandȱputȱthemȱunderȱ pressureȱtoȱspeak.ȱThisȱmayȱbeȱdueȱtoȱaȱlackȱofȱunderstandingȱofȱissuesȱ relatedȱtoȱtrafficking.ȱTrainingȱofȱstaffȱdealingȱwithȱchildrenȱisȱalsoȱ crucial.ȱWhileȱitȱshouldȱalreadyȱbeȱpartȱofȱtheȱtrainingȱofȱlawȱ enforcementȱofficialsȱandȱotherȱstaffȱdealingȱwithȱchildren,ȱitȱisȱkeyȱ thatȱthisȱaspectȱbeȱtakenȱintoȱconsiderationȱwithȱrespectȱtoȱtrafficking.ȱȱȱȱ ȱ 7.1.8ȱ InternationalȱCooperationȱ ȱ Asȱ mentionedȱ throughoutȱ thisȱ chapter,ȱ internationalȱ cooperationȱ isȱ criticalȱ forȱ addressingȱ internationalȱ childȱ trafficking.ȱ Internationalȱ agreements,ȱ eitherȱ bilateralȱ orȱ multilateral,ȱ constituteȱ bothȱ importantȱ elementsȱ ofȱ theȱ legislativeȱ frameworkȱ andȱ atȱ theȱ sameȱ timeȱ entryȱ pointsȱforȱlegislativeȱreformȱatȱnationalȱlevel.ȱȱ ȱ Bilateralȱ andȱ regionalȱ agreementsȱ areȱ multiplyingȱ aroundȱ theȱ globe.ȱ Theȱ Southȱ Asianȱ Associationȱ forȱ Regionalȱ Cooperationȱ (SAARC)ȱ ConventionȱonȱPreventingȱandȱCombatingȱTraffickingȱinȱWomenȱandȱ ChildrenȱforȱProstitution,ȱforȱexample,ȱwhileȱlimitedȱtoȱtraffickingȱforȱ prostitution,ȱ wasȱ adoptedȱ inȱ 2002ȱ andȱ providesȱ aȱ goodȱ exampleȱ ofȱ internationalȱcooperationȱatȱsubȬregionalȱlevel.ȱItȱfocusesȱonȱcommonȱ responsesȱandȱmutualȱassistanceȱinȱfightingȱtraffickingȱandȱprotectingȱ theȱrightsȱofȱvictims.ȱ ȱ Theȱ sixȱ nationsȱ ofȱ theȱ Greaterȱ Mekongȱ SubȬRegionȱ signedȱ anȱ agreementȱ inȱ 2004,ȱ committingȱ themselvesȱ toȱ coordinatedȱ actionȱ onȱ traffickingȱprevention,ȱlawȱenforcement,ȱtheȱprosecutionȱofȱtraffickers,ȱ andȱtheȱrecovery,ȱreintegrationȱandȱsupportȱofȱtraffickingȱvictims.ȱ
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ȱ Likewise,ȱ aȱ subȬregionalȱ agreementȱ forȱ Westȱ andȱ Centralȱ Africaȱ wasȱ signedȱ inȱ Julyȱ 2006ȱ underȱ theȱ auspicesȱ ofȱ ECOWASȱ toȱ addressȱ childȱ traffickingȱthroughȱstrengthenedȱcooperationȱinȱtheȱregion.ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
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Chapterȱ5ȱ ȱ REALISINGȱCHILDREN’SȱRIGHTSȱTOȱ ADEQUATEȱNUTRITIONȱTHROUGHȱ NATIONALȱLEGISLATIVEȱREFORMȱ ȱ Inadequateȱnutritionȱearlyȱinȱlifeȱcanȱcauseȱirreparableȱdamageȱtoȱtheȱ developingȱ brainȱ andȱ body.ȱ Amongȱ otherȱ ills,ȱ resultsȱ canȱ includeȱ improperȱ mentalȱ andȱ physicalȱ development,ȱ diminishedȱ mentalȱ andȱ physicalȱ capacity,ȱ mentalȱ retardation,ȱ blindness,ȱ impairedȱ abilityȱ toȱ fightȱinfectionsȱandȱincreasedȱriskȱforȱobesityȱandȱtheȱchronicȱdiseasesȱ associatedȱ withȱ it.ȱ Malnutritionȱ underliesȱ andȱ contributesȱ toȱ approximatelyȱ53ȱpercentȱofȱallȱchildȱdeaths. 233 ȱTheȱrightȱtoȱadequateȱ nutrition,ȱtherefore,ȱisȱaȱfundamental,ȱfoundationalȱrightȱforȱchildren.ȱ Itsȱ fulfillmentȱ isȱ essentialȱ forȱ life,ȱ health,ȱ developmentȱ andȱ dignity.ȱ Withoutȱthese,ȱaȱchildȱwillȱhaveȱdifficultyȱlearning,ȱplaying,ȱengagingȱ inȱotherȱchildhoodȱactivities,ȱbecomingȱaȱproductiveȱmemberȱofȱsocietyȱ inȱlaterȱyearsȱandȱenjoyingȱtheȱfullȱrangeȱofȱhumanȱrightsȱtoȱwhichȱallȱ humansȱareȱentitled.ȱ ȱ GeneralȱCommentȱNo.ȱ12ȱtoȱtheȱInternationalȱCovenantȱonȱEconomic,ȱ Socialȱ andȱ Culturalȱ Rightsȱ (ICESCR)ȱ clarifiesȱ thatȱ everyȱ stateȱ isȱ obligatedȱ toȱ ensureȱ forȱ everyoneȱ underȱ itsȱ jurisdictionȱ accessȱ toȱ theȱ minimumȱessentialȱfoodȱwhichȱisȱsufficient,ȱnutritionallyȱadequateȱandȱ safeȱ toȱ ensureȱ freedomȱ fromȱ hunger.ȱ Theȱ rightȱ toȱ adequateȱ foodȱ isȱ realisedȱ whenȱ everyȱ man,ȱ womanȱ andȱ child,ȱ aloneȱ orȱ inȱ communityȱ withȱothers,ȱhasȱphysicalȱandȱeconomicȱaccessȱatȱallȱtimesȱtoȱadequateȱ foodȱ orȱ meansȱ forȱ itsȱ procurement.ȱ Generalȱ Commentȱ No.ȱ 12ȱ recognizes,ȱ however,ȱ thatȱ theȱ rightȱ toȱ adequateȱ foodȱ willȱ haveȱ toȱ beȱ realisedȱprogressivelyȱinȱmanyȱcountries.ȱ ȱ Aȱcomprehensiveȱsolutionȱtoȱachievingȱadequateȱnutritionȱforȱchildrenȱ callsȱ forȱ multipleȱ strategiesȱ involvingȱ interventionsȱ forȱ theȱ wholeȱ population.ȱ Asȱ proclaimedȱ inȱ theȱ Universalȱ Declarationȱ onȱ theȱ
233 Bryce, J. et al. Child Health Epidemiology Reference Group, “WHO estimates of the causes of death in children.” Lancet vol. 365 (2005); p. 1147-52.
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Eradicationȱ ofȱ Hungerȱ andȱ Malnutrition, 234 ȱ governmentsȱ shouldȱ integrateȱ appropriateȱ foodȱ andȱ nutritionȱ policiesȱ withinȱ socioȬ economicȱ andȱ agriculturalȱ developmentȱ plans,ȱ stressingȱ theȱ importanceȱ ofȱ humanȱ milkȱ inȱ thisȱ connection.ȱ Paragraphȱ 4ȱ ofȱ theȱ DeclarationȱprovidesȱthatȱeachȱStateȱhasȱtheȱresponsibilityȱto:ȱprovideȱ effectiveȱmeasuresȱforȱsocioȬeconomicȱtransformationȱbyȱagrarian,ȱtax,ȱ creditȱandȱinvestmentȱpolicyȱreform,ȱreorganisationȱofȱruralȱstructures,ȱ suchȱ asȱ reformȱ ofȱ theȱ conditionsȱ ofȱ ownership,ȱ encouragementȱ ofȱ producerȱ andȱ consumerȱ coȬoperatives,ȱ mobilisationȱ ofȱ theȱ fullȱ potentialȱ ofȱ bothȱ maleȱ andȱ femaleȱ humanȱ resources,ȱ involvingȱ smallȱ farmers,ȱ fishermenȱ andȱ landlessȱ workers,ȱ andȱ ensuringȱ thatȱ appropriateȱ education,ȱ extensionȱ programmes,ȱ andȱ financialȱ facilitiesȱ areȱmadeȱavailableȱtoȱwomenȱonȱequalȱtermsȱwithȱmen.ȱȱ ȱ Aȱ thoroughȱ discussionȱ ofȱ theȱ fullȱ rangeȱ ofȱ measuresȱ andȱ legislativeȱ interventionsȱ inȱ theseȱ spheresȱ isȱ beyondȱ theȱ scopeȱ ofȱ thisȱ chapterȱ subchapter.ȱ Instead,ȱ theȱ subchapterȱ addressesȱ fourȱ focusedȱ nutritionȱ interventionsȱ thatȱ areȱ crucialȱ componentsȱ ofȱ theȱ mixȱ thatȱ guaranteesȱ childrenȱ theȱ rightȱ toȱ adequateȱ nutrition:ȱ 1)ȱ combatingȱ micronutrientȱ malnutrition,ȱ primarilyȱ throughȱ foodȱ fortification;ȱ 2)ȱ protecting,ȱ promoting,ȱandȱsupportingȱbreastfeeding;ȱ3)ȱenactingȱorȱstrengtheningȱ accompanyingȱ socialȱ policiesȱ toȱ enableȱ womenȱ toȱ breastfeed;ȱ andȱ 4)ȱ promotingȱhealthyȱdietsȱandȱphysicalȱactivityȱtoȱreverseȱtheȱalarmingȱ trendȱofȱchildhoodȱobesityȱandȱresultingȱchronicȱdiseasesȱinȱdevelopedȱ andȱdevelopingȱcountriesȱalike.ȱȱ ȱ Theseȱ interventionsȱ wereȱ chosenȱ becauseȱ theyȱ areȱ criticalȱ forȱ preventingȱ theȱ irreparableȱ harmsȱ thatȱ canȱ resultȱ fromȱ inadequateȱ nutritionȱduringȱtheȱmostȱcriticalȱperiodȱofȱchildȱdevelopment,ȱtheyȱareȱ clearlyȱachievableȱoverȱtheȱshorterȱtermȱandȱareȱinexpensive,ȱandȱtheyȱ requireȱ legislativeȱ measuresȱ forȱ implementation.ȱ Accordingȱ toȱ theȱ WHO/UNICEFȱ Globalȱ Strategyȱ forȱ Infantȱ andȱ Youngȱ Childȱ Feeding,ȱ theȱmajorityȱofȱchildren’sȱdeathsȱfromȱmalnutritionȱcouldȱbeȱpreventedȱ throughȱlowȬcostȱinterventionsȱlikeȱthese. 235ȱ ȱ
234 The Declaration was adopted and endorsed by General Assembly Resolution 3348 (1974). 235 Global strategy for infant and young child feeding, WHO and UNICEF, Geneva (2002).
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SocioȬeconomicȱBenefitsȱofȱRealisingȱChildren’sȱRightȱtoȱAdequateȱ Nutritionȱ ȱ Inȱ additionȱ toȱ grosslyȱ violatingȱ humanȱ rights,ȱ inadequateȱ andȱ improperȱ nutritionȱ haveȱ profoundȱ negativeȱ effectsȱ onȱ nations’ȱ economicȱ growthȱ andȱ povertyȱ rates.ȱ Resultsȱ canȱ includeȱ lowȱ productivityȱasȱaȱresultȱofȱpoorȱphysicalȱcondition,ȱpoorȱschoolingȱasȱaȱ resultȱ ofȱ lowȱ cognitiveȱ function,ȱ andȱ significantȱ careȱ costsȱ resultingȱ fromȱpoorȱhealth. 236 ȱEconomicȱcostsȱcanȱincludeȱmoreȱthanȱ10ȱperȱcentȱ lossesȱinȱproductivityȱinȱlifetimeȱearningsȱandȱupȱtoȱ3ȱperȱcentȱlossesȱinȱ grossȱdomesticȱproduct.ȱFulfillingȱtheȱrightȱtoȱnutrition,ȱtherefore,ȱhasȱ aȱdirectȱeffectȱonȱreducingȱpoverty.ȱItȱisȱessentialȱtoȱreducingȱextremeȱ poverty, 237 ȱ asȱ calledȱ forȱ inȱ theȱ Millenniumȱ Developmentȱ Goalsȱ (MDGs).ȱȱ ȱ Givingȱ effectȱ toȱ children’sȱ rightȱ toȱ adequateȱ nutritionȱ beginsȱ withȱ ensuringȱ properȱ nutritionȱ inȱ uteroȱ andȱ duringȱ theȱ firstȱ twoȱ years.ȱ Itȱ alsoȱ meansȱ ensuringȱ theȱ nutritionalȱ needsȱ ofȱ girlsȱ andȱ womenȱ ofȱ childbearingȱ ageȱ andȱ pregnantȱ andȱ lactatingȱ womenȱ areȱ met.ȱ Theseȱ groupsȱareȱentitledȱtoȱadequateȱnutritionȱandȱhealthȱforȱtheirȱownȱwellȬ being,ȱasȱreflectedȱinȱArticleȱ12ȱofȱtheȱConventionȱonȱtheȱEliminationȱofȱ Discriminationȱ againstȱ Womenȱ (CEDAW).ȱ Dueȱ toȱ persistentȱ statusȱ inequities,ȱ however,ȱ girlsȱ andȱ womenȱ areȱ moreȱ likelyȱ toȱ sufferȱ fromȱ inadequateȱnutrition.ȱTheirȱchildrenȱbearȱtheȱburdenȱwithȱthemȱandȱallȱ ofȱsocietyȱsuffers.ȱȱ ȱ Children’sȱRightȱtoȱAdequateȱNutritionȱinȱInternationalȱLawȱȱ ȱ Theȱ rightȱ toȱ adequateȱ nutritionȱ isȱ establishedȱ inȱ numerousȱ internationalȱ instruments,ȱ fromȱ theȱ Universalȱ Declarationȱ ofȱ Humanȱ Rightsȱ(UDHR)ȱtoȱtheȱInternationalȱCovenantȱonȱEconomic,ȱSocialȱandȱ Culturalȱ Rightsȱ (ICESCR),ȱ theȱ Conventionȱ onȱ theȱ Rightȱ ofȱ theȱ Childȱ (CRC),ȱ andȱ CEDAW.ȱ Breastfeedingȱ isȱ anȱ essentialȱ componentȱ ofȱ children’sȱrightȱtoȱadequateȱnutritionȱandȱtoȱotherȱhumanȱrightsȱandȱisȱ protectedȱ andȱ supportedȱ inȱ severalȱ internationalȱ instruments.ȱ Theseȱ includeȱtheȱICESCR,ȱCEDAW,ȱtheȱInternationalȱCodeȱofȱMarketingȱofȱ
236 Repositioning nutrition. World Bank, Washington DC (2006); available at http://siteresources.worldbank.org/NUTRITION/Resources/281846- 1131636806329/NutritionStrategy.pdf. Accessed August 23, 2006. 237 Ibid.
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Breastmilkȱ Substitutesȱ (theȱ Code)ȱ andȱ subsequentȱ Worldȱ Healthȱ Assemblyȱ(WHA)ȱResolutions, 238 ȱtheȱ1990ȱInnocentiȱDeclarationȱonȱtheȱ Protection,ȱ Promotion,ȱ andȱ Supportȱ ofȱ Breastfeedingȱ andȱ theȱ 2005ȱ Innocentiȱ Declarationȱ onȱ Infantȱ andȱ Youngȱ Childȱ Feedingȱ (Innocentiȱ Declarations),ȱ theȱ Globalȱ Strategyȱ onȱ Infantȱ andȱ Youngȱ Feedingȱ (GlobalȱStrategy),ȱandȱtheȱILOȱMaternityȱProtectionȱConventionsȱandȱ Maternityȱ Recommendationsȱ (1919,ȱ 1952,ȱ andȱ 2000)ȱ (Maternityȱ ProtectionȱConvention).ȱȱ ȱ Togetherȱtheseȱinstrumentsȱestablishȱaȱwebȱofȱnutrition,ȱhealth,ȱsocialȱ andȱeconomicȱhumanȱrightsȱprotectionsȱthatȱobligateȱgovernmentsȱtoȱ ensureȱ theȱ rightȱ ofȱ everyȱ woman,ȱ childȱ andȱ personȱ toȱ adequateȱ nutrition.ȱ Relevantȱ provisionsȱ ofȱ theseȱ instrumentsȱ areȱ summarizedȱ below.ȱȱ ȱ
238 References in this sub-chapter to ‘the Code’ include subsequent WHA resolutions.
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ȱ
Internationalȱlegalȱ Whatȱitȱprovidesȱ instrumentȱ UDHR,ȱArt.ȱ25:ȱ rightȱofȱeveryoneȱtoȱaȱstandardȱofȱlivingȱadequateȱforȱ healthȱandȱwellȬbeing,ȱincludingȱtheȱrightȱtoȱfoodȱ ICESCR,ȱArt.ȱ11:ȱ fundamentalȱrightȱofȱeveryoneȱtoȱbeȱfreeȱfromȱhungerȱȱ
Art.ȱ12:ȱȱ rightȱofȱeveryoneȱtoȱtheȱenjoymentȱofȱtheȱhighestȱattainableȱ standardȱofȱphysicalȱandȱmentalȱhealthȱ ȱ specialȱprotectionȱshouldȱbeȱprovidedȱtoȱmothersȱduringȱaȱ Art.ȱ10:ȱ reasonableȱperiodȱbeforeȱandȱafterȱchildbirth;ȱworkingȱ mothersȱshouldȱbeȱaccordedȱpaidȱleaveȱorȱleaveȱwithȱ adequateȱsocialȱsecurityȱbenefitsȱȱ
ȱȱ CRC,ȱArt.ȱ24:ȱ rightȱofȱtheȱchildȱtoȱtheȱenjoymentȱofȱtheȱhighestȱattainableȱ standardȱofȱhealthȱȱ ȱ statesȱmustȱtakeȱappropriateȱmeasuresȱtoȱdiminishȱinfantȱ ȱ andȱchildȱmortalityȱandȱcombatȱdiseaseȱandȱmalnutritionȱ through,ȱamongȱotherȱthings,ȱtheȱprovisionȱofȱadequateȱ nutritiousȱfoodsȱandȱcleanȱdrinkingȱwaterȱ CEDAW,ȱArt.ȱ3ȱ:ȱȱȱȱȱȱ Partiesȱmustȱtakeȱappropriateȱmeasuresȱtoȱensureȱtheȱ developmentȱandȱadvancementȱofȱwomen.ȱȱ Art.ȱ11ȱandȱ12:ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ Statesȱmustȱtakeȱmeasuresȱtoȱeliminateȱdiscriminationȱ againstȱwomenȱinȱemployment,ȱwithȱregard,ȱinȱparticular,ȱ toȱsanctionsȱorȱdismissalȱonȱtheȱgroundsȱofȱpregnancyȱorȱ maternityȱleave,ȱandȱtoȱintroduceȱpaidȱmaternityȱleave.ȱ Articleȱ12ȱrequiresȱstatesȱtoȱensureȱappropriateȱservicesȱinȱ connectionȱwithȱpregnancyȱasȱwellȱasȱadequateȱnutritionȱ duringȱpregnancyȱandȱlactation.ȱ TheȱCodeȱ specificȱprovisionsȱforȱprotecting,ȱpromoting,ȱandȱ supportingȱbreastfeedingȱ(discussedȱinȱdetailȱinȱtheȱsectionȱ onȱbreastfeeding)ȱȱ ILOȱConventionȱandȱ standardsȱforȱmaternityȱleaveȱandȱbenefits,ȱemploymentȱ Recommendationsȱ protectionȱandȱnonȬdiscrimination,ȱandȱbreastfeedingȱ opportunitiesȱduringȱworkȱtoȱsupportȱtheȱabilityȱofȱ workingȱpregnantȱwomenȱandȱmothersȱtoȱbreastfeedȱandȱ otherwiseȱcareȱforȱtheirȱchildrenȱandȱthemselvesȱwithoutȱ jeopardizingȱtheirȱemploymentȱ ȱ
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Strategiesȱ andȱ targetsȱ forȱ attainingȱ children’sȱ rightȱ toȱ adequateȱ nutritionȱ areȱ containedȱ inȱ theȱ Planȱ ofȱ Actionȱ forȱ Implementingȱ theȱ Worldȱ Declarationȱ onȱ theȱ Survival,ȱ Protectionȱ andȱ Developmentȱ ofȱ Childrenȱ(1990)ȱandȱotherȱdocuments.ȱTheȱPlanȱofȱAction,ȱendorsedȱbyȱ signingȱgovernments,ȱsetsȱoutȱstrategiesȱandȱmeasurable,ȱtimeȬboundȱ targetsȱforȱaddressingȱnutrition.ȱTheseȱincludeȱreducingȱtheȱrateȱofȱlowȱ birthȱ weight,ȱ eliminatingȱ orȱ reducingȱ specifiedȱ micronutrientȱ deficiencies,ȱempoweringȱwomenȱtoȱbreastfeed,ȱpromotingȱgrowthȱandȱ itsȱ regularȱ monitoring,ȱ disseminatingȱ knowledgeȱ andȱ supportingȱ servicesȱ toȱ increaseȱ foodȱ productionȱ andȱ ensureȱ householdȱ foodȱ security.ȱȱ ȱ Finally,ȱ theȱ UNȱ Generalȱ Assembly’sȱ Millenniumȱ Developmentȱ Goalsȱ (MDGs)ȱcallȱfor,ȱamongȱotherȱthings,ȱreducingȱbyȱhalfȱtheȱproportionȱ ofȱ peopleȱ whoȱ sufferȱ fromȱ hungerȱ (MDGȱ 1)ȱ andȱ reducingȱ byȱ twoȱ thirdsȱtheȱmortalityȱrateȱamongȱchildrenȱunderȱfiveȱ(MDGȱ4).ȱBecauseȱ malnutritionȱ isȱ aȱ significantȱ causeȱ ofȱ underȬfiveȱ childȱ mortality,ȱ thisȱ goalȱcannotȱbeȱachievedȱwithoutȱensuringȱadequateȱnutritionȱtoȱinfantsȱ andȱ youngȱ children,ȱ girlsȱ andȱ womenȱ ofȱ childbearingȱ age,ȱ andȱ pregnantȱandȱlactatingȱwomen.ȱȱ ȱ LegislativeȱReform:ȱRealisingȱtheȱRightȱtoȱAdequateȱNutritionȱȱ ȱ Whileȱ manyȱ internationalȱ instrumentsȱ eitherȱ establishȱ theȱ rightȱ toȱ adequateȱnutritionȱorȱ reflectȱagreementȱonȱstrategiesȱtoȱgiveȱeffectȱtoȱ thatȱ right,ȱ legislativeȱ reformȱ willȱ beȱ neededȱ inȱ mostȱ countriesȱ toȱ implementȱandȱenforceȱtheȱright.ȱEngagingȱinȱaȱparticipatoryȱprocess,ȱ governmentsȱshouldȱestablishȱapplicableȱlegalȱrequirementsȱfor:ȱ x nutritionȱinterventions,ȱincludingȱdutiesȱ(e.g.,ȱonȱgovernments,ȱ foodȱcompanies,ȱemployers)ȱtoȱensureȱtheirȱproperȱ implementation;ȱȱ x systemsȱforȱmonitoringȱnutritionȱgoalsȱandȱtargetsȱandȱforȱ enforcingȱlegalȱrequirements;ȱȱ x mechanismsȱofȱaccountabilityȱandȱaȱlegalȱrightȱofȱredressȱinȱ nationalȱcourtsȱ(bothȱwithȱrespectȱtoȱtheȱfailureȱofȱtheȱ governmentȱtoȱmeetȱitsȱlegalȱobligationsȱandȱtoȱviolationȱofȱ specificȱobligationsȱimposedȱbyȱlawȱuponȱnonȬstateȱactors);ȱandȱȱ x theȱcommitmentȱofȱnecessaryȱresources.ȱȱȱ
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x EachȱofȱtheseȱelementsȱisȱdiscussedȱinȱtheȱsectionsȱonȱSpecificȱ InterventionsȱtoȱFulfilȱChildren’sȱRightȱtoȱAdequateȱNutrition,ȱ below.ȱȱ ȱ 1.1ȱ TechnicalȱConsiderationsȱinȱEstablishingȱLegalȱ Requirements:ȱLegislationȱorȱRegulationsȱ(Subsidiaryȱ Legislation)?ȱȱȱ ȱ Whereȱ thereȱ isȱ broadȱ legalȱ authorityȱ underȱ anȱ existingȱ foodȱ control,ȱ publicȱhealth,ȱandȱlabour,ȱorȱsimilarȱlaw,ȱlegislativeȱreformȱtoȱestablishȱ appropriateȱ legalȱ requirementsȱ forȱ nutritionȱ interventionsȱ mayȱ takeȱ theȱ formȱ ofȱ ministerialȱ regulationsȱ orȱ otherȱ subsidiaryȱ legislation.ȱ Establishingȱrequirementsȱthroughȱregulationsȱhasȱsomeȱadvantages.ȱItȱ usuallyȱ isȱ lessȱ timeȱ consumingȱ toȱ establishȱ regulationsȱ thanȱ toȱ enactȱ newȱ legislation.ȱ Whereȱ technicalȱ requirementsȱ forȱ nutritionȱ interventionsȱareȱlikelyȱtoȱchangeȱdueȱtoȱchangesȱinȱnutritionalȱstatusȱ ofȱtheȱpopulation,ȱchangesȱinȱindustryȱpractices,ȱorȱotherȱfactors,ȱitȱwillȱ beȱeasierȱandȱmoreȱefficientȱtoȱupdateȱregulationsȱthanȱlegislation.ȱȱȱ ȱ Where,ȱhowever,ȱthereȱisȱnotȱadequateȱauthorityȱinȱexistingȱlegislationȱ toȱaddressȱtheȱfullȱrangeȱofȱnutritionȱinterventions,ȱitȱwillȱbeȱnecessaryȱ toȱenactȱnewȱlegislation.ȱInȱaddition,ȱwhereȱthereȱisȱconcernȱthatȱfutureȱ Ministersȱ mayȱ notȱ fullyȱ supportȱ theseȱ nutritionalȱ programmesȱ andȱ requirements,ȱ itȱ mayȱ beȱ betterȱ toȱ enactȱ legislationȱ soȱ thatȱ theȱ legalȱ requirementsȱcannotȱbeȱasȱeasilyȱundone.ȱȱȱ ȱ Inȱ conductingȱ theȱ legislativeȱ reviewȱ discussedȱ inȱ Chapterȱ 2ȱ ofȱ theȱ Handbook,ȱ theseȱ factorsȱ shouldȱ beȱ assessedȱ toȱ determineȱ whetherȱ legislativeȱreformȱforȱnutritionȱisȱbetterȱachievedȱthroughȱlegislationȱorȱ regulations,ȱ orȱ aȱ combinationȱ ofȱ both.ȱ Theȱ lawȱ mightȱ require,ȱ forȱ example,ȱthatȱlabelsȱonȱbreastmilkȱsubstitutesȱcarryȱspecifiedȱwarningsȱ andȱmessages,ȱwithȱtheȱdetailsȱofȱexactȱwording,ȱplacement,ȱsize,ȱfontȱ characteristics,ȱandȱotherȱdetailsȱleftȱtoȱregulations.ȱDetailedȱprovisionsȱ toȱ implementȱ expressȱ legislativeȱ objectivesȱ areȱ almostȱ alwaysȱ betterȱ leftȱ toȱ regulationsȱ toȱ allowȱ forȱ flexibilityȱ toȱ makeȱ changesȱ asȱ theyȱ becomeȱnecessary.ȱȱ ȱ Asȱ governmentsȱ establishȱ legalȱ requirements,ȱ theȱ frameworkȱ forȱ implementingȱtheȱConventionȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChildȱ(CRC)ȱshouldȱ
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beȱapplied.ȱThisȱframeworkȱensures:ȱ1)ȱnonȬdiscriminationȱȬȱnutritionȱ interventionsȱ mustȱ ensureȱ thatȱ allȱ childrenȱ haveȱ accessȱ toȱ adequateȱ nutrition,ȱregardlessȱofȱgenderȱandȱotherȱstatus;ȱ2)ȱbestȱinterestȱofȱtheȱ childȱȬȱlegalȱprovisionsȱmustȱensureȱthatȱchildren’sȱrightsȱtoȱadequateȱ nutritionȱ prevailȱ overȱ corporateȱ profits,ȱ forȱ example;ȱ 3)ȱ rightȱ ofȱ life,ȱ survivalȱ development,ȱ andȱ protectionȱȬȱprotectingȱ theȱ rightȱ toȱ adequateȱnutritionȱisȱaȱpreconditionȱforȱlife,ȱsurvivalȱandȱdevelopment;ȱ andȱ4)ȱrespectȱforȱtheȱviewsȱofȱtheȱchild.ȱȱ ȱ 1.1.1ȱ ContentȱAreasȱforȱLegislativeȱReformȱforȱNutritionȱȱ ȱ 1.ȱAddressingȱmicronutrientȱmalnutritionȱ ȱ Ensuringȱ accessȱ toȱ foodsȱ containingȱ essentialȱ micronutrients 239 ȱ isȱ aȱ criticalȱcomponentȱofȱlegislativeȱreformȱtoȱfulfillȱtheȱrightȱtoȱadequateȱ nutrition.ȱ Micronutrients,ȱ suchȱ asȱ iodine,ȱ iron,ȱ andȱ Vitaminȱ A,ȱ areȱ necessaryȱinȱtheȱdietȱforȱtheȱproperȱmentalȱandȱphysicalȱdevelopmentȱ andȱ healthȱ ofȱ theȱ fetusȱ andȱ youngȱ child.ȱ Inȱ theȱ bestȱ case,ȱ childrenȱ withoutȱtheseȱandȱotherȱcriticalȱmicronutrientsȱinȱtheirȱdietsȱmayȱnotȱ developȱ toȱ theirȱ fullȱ potential.ȱ Inȱ theȱ worstȱ case,ȱ theyȱ mayȱ sufferȱ unnecessaryȱ severeȱ disability,ȱ sickness,ȱ andȱ death,ȱ discussedȱ inȱmoreȱ detailȱ inȱ theȱ section,ȱ Combatingȱ Micronutrientȱ Malnutrition.ȱ Therefore,ȱ theȱ rightȱ toȱ accessȱ foodsȱ containingȱ essentialȱ micronutrientsȱ mustȱ beȱ assuredȱifȱtheȱrightȱtoȱadequateȱnutritionȱisȱtoȱbeȱachieved.ȱȱ ȱ Aȱlargeȱproportionȱofȱpeopleȱworldwideȱlackȱsuchȱaccess,ȱhowever.ȱAsȱ statedȱ inȱ Generalȱ Assemblyȱ Resolutionȱ 58/186ȱ onȱ theȱ Rightȱ toȱ Foodȱ (2004),ȱ Para.ȱ 3,ȱ itȱ isȱ “intolerableȱ thatȱ …moreȱ thanȱ 2ȱ billionȱ peopleȱ worldwideȱsufferȱfromȱhiddenȱhungerȱorȱmicronutrientȱmalnutrition.”ȱ Para.ȱ7ȱstressesȱthatȱgovernmentsȱneedȱtoȱmakeȱeffortsȱtoȱmobiliseȱandȱ optimiseȱ theȱ allocationȱ andȱ utilisationȱ ofȱ technicalȱ andȱ financialȱ resourcesȱ fromȱ allȱ sources.ȱ Micronutrientȱ fortificationȱ isȱ oneȱ suchȱ technicalȱ resource.ȱ Itȱ isȱ aȱ practical,ȱ costȬeffectiveȱ wayȱ toȱ addressȱ micronutrientȱ deficiencies,ȱ employingȱ aȱ strategyȱ clearlyȱ withinȱ reachȱ ofȱ governments.ȱ Fortificationȱ is,ȱ alongȱ withȱ ironȱ andȱ Vitaminȱ Aȱ supplementȱ (capsule)ȱ distributionȱ andȱ otherȱ micronutrientȱ programmingȱ(e.g.,ȱimprovingȱaccessȱtoȱandȱencouragingȱpeopleȱtoȱeatȱ
239 Essential micronutrients are nutrients required in tiny amounts over a lifetime for proper physical and mental development and health.
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foodsȱ naturallyȱ richȱ inȱ micronutrientsȱ andȱ nutritionȱ education),ȱ anȱ importantȱstrategyȱforȱrealisingȱchildren’sȱrightȱtoȱadequateȱnutrition.ȱȱ ȱ Sinceȱ genderȱ inequalityȱ subjectsȱ girlsȱ andȱ womenȱ disproportionatelyȱ toȱ hunger,ȱ foodȱinsecurity,ȱ andȱ poverty,ȱ itȱ isȱ noȱ surpriseȱthatȱ aȱ largeȱ percentageȱofȱadolescentȱgirlsȱandȱwomenȱacrossȱtheȱglobeȱsufferȱalsoȱ fromȱ ironȱ deficiencyȱ andȱ anaemia.ȱ Micronutrientȱ programmesȱ areȱ important,ȱ therefore,ȱ forȱ realisingȱ theirȱ rightsȱ toȱ adequateȱ nutritionȱ andȱhealthȱandȱtoȱimprovingȱtheȱqualityȱofȱtheirȱlives,ȱasȱwellȱasȱthoseȱ ofȱ theirȱ children.ȱ Althoughȱ aȱ dietȱ thatȱ providesȱ necessaryȱ micronutrientsȱaloneȱwillȱnotȱfulfillȱtheȱrightȱtoȱadequateȱnutrition,ȱtheȱ rightȱtoȱadequateȱnutritionȱcannotȱbeȱfulfilledȱwithoutȱit.ȱȱȱȱȱ ȱ Technicalȱ aspectsȱofȱ foodȱfortificationȱ legislationȱ areȱ discussedȱ inȱtheȱ section,ȱCombatingȱMicronutrientȱMalnutrition.ȱȱ ȱ 2.ȱProtecting,ȱPromotingȱandȱSupportingȱBreastfeedingȱ ȱ Breastmilkȱprovidesȱtheȱidealȱexclusiveȱsourceȱofȱnutritionȱforȱbabiesȱ upȱ toȱ theȱ ageȱ ofȱ sixȱ months,ȱ offeringȱ healthȬprotectiveȱ effectsȱ thatȱ cannotȱbeȱmatchedȱbyȱanyȱotherȱfoodȱsource.ȱExclusiveȱbreastfeedingȱ duringȱ theȱ firstȱ sixȱ monthsȱ isȱ theȱ bestȱ wayȱ toȱ strengthenȱ infants’ȱ immunity,ȱ reduceȱ exposureȱ toȱ infectiousȱ agents,ȱ reduceȱ theȱ riskȱ ofȱ obesityȱandȱotherȱfactorsȱrelatedȱtoȱheartȱdisease,ȱhelpȱovercomeȱlowȱ birthȱ weightȱ andȱ reduceȱ stunting. 240 , 241 ȱ Breastfedȱ babiesȱ haveȱ lowerȱ ratesȱ ofȱ diarrhoea,ȱ respiratoryȱ infections,ȱ earȱ infectionsȱ andȱ otherȱ infections.ȱ Breastfeedingȱ remainsȱ aȱ criticallyȱ importantȱ sourceȱ ofȱ nutritionȱandȱhealthȱupȱtoȱtheȱageȱofȱtwoȱyears,ȱalongȱwithȱappropriateȱ complementaryȱfoods.ȱ ȱ ThereȱisȱalsoȱanȱimportantȱlinkȱbetweenȱbreastfeedingȱandȱVitaminȱA.ȱ Babiesȱ whoȱ areȱ notȱ breastfedȱ cannotȱ maintainȱ optimalȱ Vitaminȱ Aȱ statusȱforȱmoreȱthanȱaȱfewȱweeks. 242 ȱBenefitsȱofȱbreastfeedingȱextendȱtoȱ
240 Quantifying the benefits of breastfeeding: A summary of the evidence, PAHO, Washington, D.C., undated; available at www.paho.org/English/ao/fch/bobcontents.pdf (English)/www. 241 1990-2005 Celebrating the Innocenti Declaration on the Protection, Promotion and Support of Breastfeeding: Past achievements, present challenges and priority actions for infant and young child feeding, UNICEF, New York (2003). 242 Cervinskas, J. and Lotfi M. Vitamin A deficiency: Key resources in its prevention and elimination. The Micronutrient Initiative Information Paper 1 (Second ed.), Micronutrient
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theȱ motherȱ asȱ well,ȱ includingȱ bondingȱ betweenȱ motherȱ andȱ child,ȱ improvedȱ postpartumȱ recovery,ȱ reducedȱ ironȱ loss,ȱ reducedȱ riskȱ ofȱ breastȱandȱovarianȱcancersȱandȱincreasedȱchildȱspacing.ȱȱȱ ȱ Asȱ recognisedȱ inȱ theȱ 2005ȱ Innocentiȱ Declaration,ȱ “Exclusiveȱ breastfeedingȱ isȱ theȱ leadingȱ preventiveȱ childȱ survivalȱ intervention.ȱ Nearlyȱtwoȱmillionȱlivesȱcouldȱbeȱsavedȱeachȱyearȱthroughȱsixȱmonthsȱ ofȱ exclusiveȱ breastfeedingȱ andȱ continuedȱ breastfeedingȱ withȱ appropriateȱcomplementaryȱfeedingȱforȱupȱtoȱtwoȱyearsȱorȱlonger.” 243 ȱ Legislationȱ isȱ necessaryȱ toȱ protectȱ breastfeedingȱ fromȱ practicesȱ thatȱ undermineȱitȱandȱsupportȱworkingȱmothers’ȱabilityȱtoȱbothȱworkȱandȱ breastfeedȱ theirȱ babies.ȱ Theseȱ protectionsȱ areȱ essentialȱ forȱ realisingȱ children’sȱrightȱtoȱadequateȱnutrition.ȱȱ ȱ 3.ȱPromotingȱHealthyȱDietsȱandȱPhysicalȱActivityȱȱ ȱ Childhoodȱ obesityȱ isȱ anȱ alarmingȱ globalȱ trendȱ thatȱ willȱ causeȱ significantȱhealthȱ(e.g.,ȱdiabetes)ȱandȱsocialȱproblemsȱduringȱchildhoodȱ andȱadolescence,ȱandȱchronicȱdiseasesȱsuchȱasȱheartȱdiseaseȱandȱcancerȱ inȱ adultȱ life.ȱ Legislativeȱ reformȱ canȱ createȱ aȱ policyȱ environmentȱ thatȱ supportsȱ healthyȱ eatingȱ andȱ increasedȱ physicalȱ activity.ȱ Legislativeȱ measuresȱ canȱ changeȱ theȱ environmentȱ inȱ schoolsȱ andȱ inȱ theȱ communityȱ thatȱ haveȱ tendedȱ toȱ promoteȱ theȱ consumptionȱ ofȱ unhealthyȱfoods.ȱItȱalsoȱcanȱestablishȱfiscalȱpoliciesȱandȱotherȱmeasuresȱ toȱ encourageȱ healthyȱ eatingȱ andȱ increasedȱ physicalȱ activityȱ toȱ counteractȱ theȱ adverseȱ trendsȱ thatȱ haveȱ contributedȱ toȱ theȱ growingȱ globalȱproblemȱofȱchildhoodȱobesity.ȱȱ ȱ
Initiative, Ottawa (1996); available at http://www.micronutrient.org/resources/publications/pub21.htm. 243 1990-2005 Celebrating the Innocenti Declaration on the Protection, Promotion and Support of Breastfeeding: Past achievements, present challenges and priority actions for infant and young child feeding,. UNICEF, New York (2003).
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1.2ȱ SpecificȱInterventionsȱtoȱFulfillȱChildren’sȱRightȱtoȱ AdequateȱNutrition:ȱCombatingȱMicronutrientȱ Malnutritionȱȱ ȱȱ 1.2.1ȱ HealthȱEffectsȱofȱMicronutrientȱDeficienciesȱ ȱ Mildȱ orȱ moderateȱ levelsȱ ofȱ micronutrientȱ deficienciesȱ areȱ extremelyȱ commonȱinȱalmostȱallȱcountries. 244 ȱIodineȱdeficiencyȱcarriesȱtheȱriskȱofȱ neurological,ȱ neural,ȱ andȱ intellectualȱ impairments,ȱ spontaneousȱ abortion,ȱ andȱ otherȱ healthȱ effects.ȱ Theȱ singleȱ largestȱ causeȱ ofȱ mentalȱ retardationȱ andȱ brainȱ damageȱ worldwide,ȱ evenȱ subȬclinicalȱ levelsȱ ofȱ VitaminȱAȱdeficiencyȱcanȱresultȱinȱreducedȱIQȱofȱ10Ȭ15ȱpoints. 245 ȱItȱisȱ theȱ leadingȱ causeȱ ofȱ blindnessȱ throughoutȱ theȱ world.ȱ Atȱ subȬclinicalȱ levels,ȱ itȱ impairsȱ theȱ body’sȱ abilityȱ toȱ fightȱ infection.ȱ Deficienciesȱ inȱ Vitaminȱ Aȱ significantlyȱ increaseȱ illnessȱ andȱ deathȱ fromȱ measles,ȱ respiratoryȱinfectionsȱandȱdiarrhoea. 246 ȱChildrenȱwithȱmildȱVitaminȱAȱ deficiencyȱ inȱ someȱ countriesȱ haveȱ beenȱfoundȱ toȱ haveȱ 25Ȭ30ȱ perȱcentȱ higherȱdeathȱrates. 247 ȱȱ ȱ Ironȱdeficiencyȱisȱwidespreadȱacrossȱtheȱglobe,ȱwithȱwomenȱandȱyoungȱ childrenȱtheȱmostȱatȱrisk.ȱFiftyȱperȱcentȱofȱpregnantȱwomenȱandȱupȱtoȱ 50ȱ perȱ centȱ ofȱ childrenȱ underȱ theȱ ageȱ ofȱ fiveȱinȱ developingȱ countriesȱ areȱ ironȱ deficient. 248 ȱ Ironȱ deficiencyȱ andȱ anaemiaȱ areȱ associatedȱwithȱ lowȱ birthȱ weight,ȱ impairedȱ cognitiveȱ functioning,ȱ lowerȱ schoolȱ achievementȱandȱlowerȱphysicalȱcapacity.ȱItȱisȱestimatedȱthatȱinȱmostȱ developingȱ countries,ȱ ironȱ deficiencyȱ preventsȱ 40Ȭ60ȱ perȱ centȱ ofȱ childrenȱ fromȱ reachingȱ theirȱ mentalȱ potential. 249 ȱ Ironȱ deficiencyȱ alsoȱ
244 Andersen, P. Vitamin and mineral deficiency: A global progress report. Micronutrient Initiative, Ottawa, undated; available at http://www.unicef.org/media/files/vmd.pdf. Accessed August 23, 2006. 245 Enriching lives: Overcoming vitamin and mineral malnutrition in developing countries, World Bank, Washington D.C. (1995). 246 Repositioning Nutrition. World Bank, Washington, D.C. (2006); available at http://siteresources.worldbank.org/NUTRITION/Resources/281846- 1131636806329/NutritionStrategy.pdf. Accessed August 23, 2006. 247 Andersen, P. Vitamin and mineral deficiency: A global progress report. Micronutrient Initiative, Ottawa, undated; available at http://www.unicef.org/media/files/vmd.pdf. Accessed August 23, 2006. 248 ‘Micronutrients: Iodine iron and vitamin A’, UNICEF web site. Available at http://www.unicef.org/nutrition/index_iodine.html. Accessed June 20, 2006. 249 Andersen, P. Vitamin and mineral deficiency: A global progress report, Micronutrient Initiative, Ottawa, undated; available at http://www.unicef.org/media/files/vmd.pdf. Accessed August 23, 2006.
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increasesȱ theȱ riskȱ ofȱ haemorrhageȱ andȱ sepsisȱ inȱ theȱ motherȱ duringȱ childbirth.ȱ Ironȱ deficiencyȱ anaemiaȱ isȱ theȱ largestȱ causeȱ ofȱ maternalȱ deathȱduringȱchildbirth. 250 ȱȱ ȱ Givenȱtheȱeffectsȱofȱmicronutrientȱdeficiencies,ȱitȱisȱclearȱthatȱtheȱrightsȱ toȱ adequateȱ nutritionȱ andȱ healthȱ cannotȱ beȱ fulfilledȱ inȱ theȱ faceȱ ofȱ widespreadȱ globalȱ orȱ nationalȱ prevalenceȱ ofȱ theseȱ deficiencies.ȱ Micronutrientȱdeficienciesȱareȱaȱhugeȱcontributor,ȱalso,ȱtoȱtheȱeconomicȱ lossesȱandȱpovertyȱeffectsȱofȱinadequateȱnutritionȱdiscussedȱabove.ȱ ȱ 1.2.2ȱ SocioȬeconomicȱBenefitsȱofȱAddressingȱMicronutrientȱ Deficienciesȱȱ ȱ Inȱ termsȱ ofȱ costȬbenefits,ȱ micronutrientȱ interventionsȱ areȱ aȱ bargain.ȱ Theȱ Worldȱ Bankȱ hasȱ estimatedȱ thatȱ atȱ theȱ costȱ ofȱ 0.3ȱ %ȱ ofȱ grossȱ domesticȱ productȱ (GDP),ȱ sustainedȱ eliminationȱ ofȱ iodine,ȱ iron,ȱ andȱ VitaminȱAȱdeficienciesȱcouldȱcontributeȱmoreȱthanȱ5ȱperȱcentȱtoȱGDPȱ inȱ termsȱ ofȱ economic,ȱ socioȬeconomic,ȱ andȱ healthȱ benefits. 251 ȱ Accordingȱ toȱ theȱ Bank,ȱ “noȱ otherȱ technologyȱ offersȱ asȱ largeȱ anȱ opportunityȱ toȱ improveȱ lives...ȱ atȱ suchȱ lowȱ costȱ andȱ inȱ suchȱ aȱ shortȱ time...” 252 ȱ Theȱ returnsȱ onȱ investingȱ inȱ micronutrientȱ programmesȱ areȱ secondȱ onlyȱ toȱ addressingȱ HIV/AIDSȱ inȱ meetingȱ theȱ world’sȱ developmentȱ challenges. 253 ȱ Theȱ Worldȱ Bankȱ suggestsȱ thatȱ governments,ȱinȱtheirȱapproachȱtoȱaddressingȱmalnutrition,ȱpayȱspecialȱ attentionȱto,ȱamongȱotherȱthings,ȱ“scalingȱupȱmicronutrientȱprogramsȱ becauseȱ ofȱ theirȱ widespreadȱ prevalence,ȱ theirȱ effectȱ onȱ productivity,ȱ theirȱaffordability,ȱandȱtheirȱextraordinarilyȱhighȱcostȬbenefitȱratios.” 254ȱ ȱ 1.2.3ȱ TheȱCaseȱforȱFoodȱFortificationȱȱ ȱ Fortificationȱ ofȱ foodsȱ regularlyȱ consumedȱ byȱ aȱ largeȱ portionȱ ofȱ theȱ populationȱisȱaȱprimary,ȱsustainable,ȱsuccessfulȱandȱinexpensiveȱwayȱ toȱ addressȱ micronutrientȱ malnutrition.ȱ Fortification,ȱ therefore,ȱ isȱ anȱ
250 Ibid. 251 Enriching lives: Overcoming vitamin and mineral malnutrition in developing countries, World Bank, Washington, D.C. (1995). 252 Ibid. 253 Repositioning Nutrition, World Bank, Washington, D.C. (2006); available at http://siteresources.worldbank.org/NUTRITION/Resources/281846- 1131636806329/NutritionStrategy.pdf. Accessed August 23, 2006. 254 Ibid.
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importantȱ partȱ ofȱ anyȱ micronutrientȱ programme.ȱ Theȱ costȱ ofȱ fortificationȱcanȱbeȱasȱlittleȱasȱaȱfewȱcentsȱperȱpersonȱperȱyear. 255 ȱȱȱ ȱ Supplementationȱ willȱ remainȱ anȱ essentialȱ partȱ ofȱ aȱ comprehensiveȱ micronutrientȱ strategy,ȱ however,ȱ especiallyȱ forȱ thoseȱ notȱ reachedȱ byȱ fortifiedȱfoods.ȱEvenȱwhenȱthereȱisȱbroadȱaccessȱtoȱironȬfortifiedȱfoods,ȱ theseȱaloneȱoftenȱcannotȱfulfillȱtotalȱironȱneedsȱofȱadolescentȱgirlsȱandȱ women.ȱ Asȱ aȱ result,ȱ ironȱ supplementsȱ willȱ likelyȱ continueȱ toȱ beȱ necessaryȱ forȱ them.ȱ Publicȱ educationȱ andȱ healthȱ programmesȱ forȱ controllingȱ malaria,ȱ measles,ȱ diarrhoea,ȱ parasiticȱ infectionsȱ andȱotherȱ diseasesȱ thatȱ interfereȱ withȱ theȱ absorptionȱ andȱ useȱ byȱ theȱ bodyȱ ofȱ micronutrientsȱ alsoȱ areȱ necessaryȱ strategiesȱ toȱ complementȱ fortification. 256 ȱȱ ȱ Vitaminȱ Aȱ fortificationȱ ofȱ sugarȱ hasȱ virtuallyȱ eliminatedȱ Vitaminȱ Aȱ deficiencyȱ inȱ Guatemalaȱ andȱ hasȱ substantiallyȱ reducedȱ itȱ inȱ Elȱ Salvadorȱ andȱ Honduras,ȱ inȱ combinationȱ withȱ supplementation.ȱ Ironȱ fortificationȱofȱflourȱhasȱsubstantiallyȱreducedȱironȱdeficiencyȱinȱallȱofȱ Chileȱ andȱ Venezuela,ȱ andȱ ironȱ fortificationȱ ofȱ riceȱ inȱ theȱ Philippinesȱ hasȱ improvedȱ theȱ ironȱ statusȱ ofȱ schoolchildren. 257 ȱȱIodisedȱ saltȱisȱ theȱ primaryȱsourceȱofȱiodineȱinȱmanyȱcountriesȱacrossȱtheȱglobe.ȱSinceȱtheȱ initialȱpushȱinȱtheȱearlyȱ1990sȱtoȱiodiseȱallȱsaltȱforȱhumanȱandȱanimalȱ consumption,ȱ70ȱperȱcentȱofȱhouseholdsȱinȱtheȱdevelopingȱworldȱnowȱ consumeȱiodisedȱsalt,ȱupȱfromȱ20ȱperȱcent.ȱIodineȱdeficiencyȱhasȱbeenȱ virtuallyȱ eliminatedȱ inȱ manyȱ countriesȱ asȱ aȱ resultȱ ofȱ saltȱ iodization.ȱ Thereȱareȱmanyȱotherȱfortificationȱsuccessȱstoriesȱacrossȱtheȱglobe.ȱȱ ȱ 1.2.4ȱ FortificationȱIssuesȱȱ ȱ Foodȱ fortificationȱ generallyȱ hasȱ beenȱ acceptedȱ globallyȱ asȱ anȱ important,ȱ costȬeffective,ȱ andȱ safeȱ strategyȱ forȱ addressingȱ micronutrientȱ deficiencies.ȱ Becauseȱ someȱ concernsȱ haveȱ beenȱ raised,ȱ however,ȱitȱisȱgoodȱtoȱbeȱawareȱofȱthemȱandȱpreparedȱtoȱaddressȱthemȱ whenȱundertakingȱlegislativeȱreformȱforȱfoodȱfortification.ȱȱ
255 Andersen, P., Vitamin and mineral deficiency: A global progress report, Micronutrient Initiative, Ottawa, undated; available at http://www.unicef.org/media/files/vmd.pdf. Accessed August 23, 2006. 256 Ibid. 257 Repositioning Nutrition, World Bank, Washington, D.C. (2006); available at http://siteresources.worldbank.org/NUTRITION/Resources/281846- 1131636806329/NutritionStrategy.pdf. Accessed August 23, 2006.
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ȱ 1.ȱFortifiedȱFoodsȱNotȱReachingȱtheȱEntireȱPopulationȱȱ ȱ Fortifiedȱ foodsȱ haveȱ theȱ potentialȱ inȱ manyȱ countriesȱ toȱ reachȱ largeȱ segmentsȱ ofȱ theȱ population.ȱ Whileȱ theȱ wholeȱ populationȱ mayȱ notȱ beȱ reached,ȱincludingȱtheȱpoorest,ȱsupplementationȱandȱotherȱprogrammesȱ canȱ fillȱ inȱ theȱ gaps.ȱ Becauseȱ theȱ minimalȱ costsȱ ofȱ fortificationȱ areȱ absorbedȱ byȱ theȱ consumer,ȱ governmentȱ resourcesȱ areȱ freedȱ upȱ toȱ concentrateȱ onȱ thoseȱ segmentsȱ ofȱ theȱ populationȱ thatȱ doȱ notȱ haveȱ accessȱ toȱ fortifiedȱ foodsȱ andȱ whoseȱ micronutrientȱ needsȱ cannotȱ beȱ satisfiedȱbyȱfortifiedȱfoodsȱalone.ȱ ȱ 2.ȱTheȱ‘Right’ȱofȱConsumersȱtoȱChooseȱNonȬfortifiedȱFoodsȱ overȱFortifiedȱFoodsȱ ȱ Thisȱ isȱ aȱ misplacedȱ argumentȱ forȱ severalȱ reasons.ȱ First,ȱ anȱ essentialȱ requirementȱforȱmakingȱanȱinformedȱchoiceȱisȱanȱunderstandingȱofȱtheȱ devastatingȱ consequencesȱ ofȱ micronutrientȱ deficienciesȱ andȱ theȱ benefitsȱ ofȱ fortifiedȱ foods.ȱ Mostȱ individualsȱ doȱ notȱ haveȱ thisȱ understanding.ȱ Second,ȱ freeȱ choiceȱ dependsȱ onȱ theȱ availabilityȱ andȱ accessibilityȱ ofȱ foodsȱ containingȱ micronutrientsȱ inȱ theirȱ naturalȱ state.ȱ Inȱ areasȱ whereȱ micronutrientȱ deficienciesȱ areȱ prevalent,ȱ itȱ usuallyȱ isȱ becauseȱ suchȱ foodsȱ areȱ notȱ availableȱ orȱ accessible.ȱ Forȱ example,ȱ inȱ placesȱ whereȱ iodineȱ deficiencyȱ isȱ widespread,ȱ itȱ isȱ usuallyȱ becauseȱ iodineȱhasȱleachedȱoutȱofȱtheȱsoilȱandȱcropsȱgrownȱinȱiodineȱdeficientȱ soilȱ failȱ toȱ containȱ adequateȱ levelsȱ ofȱ iodine.ȱ Thereȱ usuallyȱ isȱ notȱ aȱ sufficientȱ‘natural’ȱsourceȱofȱiodineȱinȱfoodsȱinȱsuchȱcases.ȱȱ ȱ Finally,ȱanȱindividual’sȱ‘right’ȱtoȱchooseȱnonȬfortifiedȱfoods,ȱwhenȱthatȱ choiceȱisȱknowinglyȱmade,ȱmustȱbeȱbalancedȱagainstȱtheȱhumanȱrightȱ toȱadequateȱnutritionȱofȱunderservedȱandȱmarginalizedȱgroups.ȱWhenȱ analysingȱthisȱissueȱusingȱtheȱ‘bestȱinterestȱofȱtheȱchild’ȱprincipleȱofȱtheȱ CRCȱ Framework,ȱ mandatoryȱ fortificationȱ underȱ appropriateȱ conditionsȱwouldȱalmostȱalwaysȱbeȱtheȱresult.ȱFinally,ȱthereȱareȱmanyȱ examplesȱ worldwide,ȱ likeȱ mandatoryȱ vaccinationȱ andȱ primaryȱ education,ȱ whereȱ individualȱ choiceȱ isȱ balancedȱ againstȱ andȱ cedesȱ toȱ theȱpublicȱgood.ȱȱ ȱ
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3.ȱTradeȱConcernsȱ ȱ Someȱ concernsȱ haveȱ beenȱ raisedȱ aboutȱ whetherȱ mandatoryȱ fortificationȱ couldȱ violateȱ theȱ Worldȱ Tradeȱ Organizationȱ Agreementsȱ orȱ regionalȱ tradeȱ agreements.ȱ Mandatoryȱ fortificationȱ shouldȱ notȱ createȱaȱtradeȱproblemȱasȱlongȱas:ȱ1)ȱregulatoryȱmeasuresȱdoȱnotȱtreatȱ importedȱfoodsȱlessȱfavourablyȱthanȱdomesticallyȱproducedȱfoods;ȱ2)ȱȱ thereȱ isȱ soundȱ scientificȱ healthȱ justificationȱ forȱ theȱ regulatoryȱ requirements;ȱ andȱ 3)ȱ regulationsȱ areȱ notȱ moreȱ tradeȱ restrictiveȱ thanȱ necessaryȱtoȱachieveȱtheȱgovernment’sȱhealthȱandȱnutritionȱobjectives.ȱ Mostȱ governmentsȱ haveȱ adoptedȱ mandatoryȱ saltȱ iodizationȱ requirementsȱandȱmanyȱhaveȱmandatedȱironȱorȱVitaminȱAȱfortificationȱ withoutȱ beingȱ challengedȱ byȱ otherȱ governmentsȱ onȱ tradeȱ grounds.ȱ Folicȱ acidȱ fortificationȱ alsoȱ hasȱ beenȱ requiredȱ inȱ someȱ countriesȱ withoutȱgivingȱriseȱtoȱaȱtradeȱchallenge.ȱȱ ȱ 1.2.5ȱ ContentȱofȱFoodȱFortificationȱLegislationȱ ȱ 1.ȱEstablishingȱFortificationȱPolicyȱȱ ȱ Theȱ governmentȱ mustȱ decideȱ whichȱ foodsȱ shouldȱ beȱ fortifiedȱ withȱ whichȱ micronutrients.ȱ Thisȱ decisionȱ willȱ needȱ toȱ takeȱ intoȱ considerationȱ theȱ scopeȱ andȱ severityȱ ofȱ theȱ micronutrientȱ deficiency,ȱ otherȱ sourcesȱ ofȱ theȱ micronutrientȱ inȱ theȱ diet,ȱ ifȱ any,ȱ accessibilityȱ ofȱ thoseȱ sources,ȱ dietaryȱ consumptionȱ patternsȱ andȱ theȱ requirementsȱ ofȱ otherȱ countriesȱ inȱ theȱ regionȱ (inȱ orderȱ toȱ supportȱ tradeȱ inȱ fortifiedȱ foods).ȱȱ ȱ Thereȱhasȱbeenȱglobalȱconsensusȱforȱmandatoryȱiodizationȱofȱsaltȱsinceȱ theȱ Worldȱ Summitȱ forȱ Children.ȱ Consensusȱ forȱ mandatoryȱ ironȱ fortificationȱhasȱalsoȱgainedȱstrength,ȱandȱwithȱit,ȱfolicȱacidȱ(toȱpreventȱ neuralȱtubeȱdefects)ȱandȱzincȱ(toȱreduceȱtheȱincidenceȱandȱseverityȱofȱ childhoodȱinfectionsȱandȱstunting).ȱWhereȱfortificationȱwillȱbeȱsafeȱforȱ theȱ vastȱ majorityȱ ofȱ theȱ populationȱ andȱ theȱ particularȱ micronutrientȱ deficiencyȱisȱwidespread,ȱmandatoryȱfortificationȱofȱaȱspecifiedȱstapleȱ foodȱ orȱ foodsȱ willȱ provideȱ protectionȱ forȱ theȱ mostȱ people.ȱ Aȱ requirementȱforȱmandatoryȱfortificationȱalsoȱwillȱmakeȱmonitoringȱandȱ enforcementȱeasier.ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ ȱ
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Havingȱaȱlawȱthatȱauthorisesȱtheȱappropriateȱministryȱtoȱestablishȱbothȱ mandatoryȱ andȱ permissiveȱ fortificationȱ willȱ preventȱ theȱ governmentȱ fromȱ havingȱ toȱ enactȱ aȱ newȱ lawȱ forȱ eachȱ fortificationȱ activityȱ determinedȱ toȱ beȱ appropriate.ȱ Forȱ example,ȱ theȱ Philippines’ȱ Foodȱ FortificationȱActȱofȱ2000,ȱSec.ȱ6,ȱrequiresȱfortificationȱofȱriceȱ(withȱiron),ȱ wheatȱ flourȱ (withȱ Vitaminȱ Aȱ andȱ iron),ȱ andȱ sugarȱ andȱ cookingȱ oilȱ (withȱ Vitaminȱ A).ȱ Theȱ lawȱ thenȱ authorisesȱ theȱ Nationalȱ Nutritionȱ Councilȱ toȱ createȱ mandatoryȱ regulationsȱ forȱ theȱ fortificationȱ ofȱ otherȱ stapleȱfoodsȱandȱtoȱallowȱfortificationȱofȱotherȱfoods.ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ ȱ 2.ȱPublicȱEducationȱ ȱ Imposingȱ aȱ requirementȱ onȱ theȱ governmentȱ toȱ develop,ȱ disseminateȱ andȱ fundȱ aȱ publicȱ educationȱ programmeȱ willȱ helpȱ ensureȱ thatȱ suchȱ activitiesȱ areȱ carriedȱ out.ȱ Theȱ programmeȱ mightȱ includeȱ informationȱ onȱ theȱ importanceȱ ofȱ consumingȱ micronutrients,ȱ theȱ roleȱ ofȱ fortifiedȱ foods,ȱsupplementationȱandȱotherȱstrategies.ȱTheȱlawȱcanȱrequireȱthatȱ thisȱ informationȱ beȱ targetedȱ toȱ vulnerableȱ groups,ȱ beȱ culturallyȱ appropriateȱ andȱ addressȱ otherȱ particularȱ concerns.ȱ Inclusionȱ ofȱ micronutrientȱ educationȱ inȱ schoolȱ curriculaȱ hasȱ alsoȱ beenȱ popularȱ inȱ manyȱcountries.ȱPublicȱeducationȱandȱcurriculumȱrequirementsȱcanȱbeȱ decidedȱ asȱ aȱ matterȱ ofȱ policy,ȱ withoutȱ theȱ needȱ forȱ aȱ legalȱ mandate;ȱ however,ȱimposingȱaȱrequirementȱinȱtheȱlawȱshouldȱmakeȱadoptionȱofȱ theȱpolicyȱmoreȱsustainable.ȱ ȱ 3.ȱIncentivesȱȱ ȱ Governmentȱ sponsoredȱ andȱ fundedȱ publicȱ awarenessȱ andȱ mediaȱ campaignsȱ onȱ theȱ benefitsȱ ofȱ fortifiedȱ foodsȱ canȱ beȱ aȱ powerfulȱ incentiveȱ forȱ fortifiedȱ foodȱ producerȱ becauseȱ theseȱ activitiesȱ helpȱ createȱdemandȱforȱfortifiedȱproducts.ȱOtherȱincentives,ȱsuchȱasȱreducedȱ tariffsȱandȱtaxesȱonȱfortificants,ȱfortifiedȱfoodsȱandȱequipment,ȱpublicȱ investment,ȱ sharingȱ ofȱ someȱ startȱ upȱ costsȱ (e.g.,ȱ equipmentȱ andȱ fortificantȱ premixesȱ forȱ anȱ initialȱ period),ȱ andȱ anyȱ otherȱ appropriateȱ localȱ strategiesȱ shouldȱ beȱ explored.ȱ Guatemala’sȱ law,ȱ forȱ example,ȱ exemptsȱ machinery,ȱ laboratoryȱ equipment,ȱ accessories,ȱ spareȱ parts,ȱ specificȱ micronutrientsȱ andȱ chemicalsȱ neededȱ forȱ foodȱ fortificationȱ fromȱimportȱduties. 258ȱ
258 Decree Number 44-92 (1992).
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ȱ 4.ȱProductȱStandardsȱȱ ȱ Standardsȱ forȱ theȱ foodȱ (forȱ example,ȱ salt)ȱ toȱ whichȱ aȱ fortificantȱ (forȱ example,ȱ iodine)ȱ willȱ beȱ addedȱ shouldȱ beȱ basedȱ onȱ Codexȱ Alimentariusȱstandards.ȱTheȱCodexȱAlimentariusȱ(Codex)ȱisȱtheȱfoodȱ codeȱestablishedȱbyȱtheȱCodexȱAlimentariusȱCommissionȱofȱtheȱWorldȱ Healthȱ Organizationȱ (WHO)ȱ andȱ Foodȱ andȱ Agricultureȱ Organizationȱ (FAO).ȱFoodȱthatȱwillȱbeȱfortifiedȱgenerallyȱmustȱmeetȱcertainȱqualityȱ standardsȱ inȱ orderȱ toȱ retainȱ theȱ nutrientsȱ addedȱ orȱ restoredȱ throughȱ fortification.ȱ Forȱ example,ȱ moistureȱ content,ȱ particleȱ sizeȱ andȱ impuritiesȱ inȱ saltȱ canȱ affectȱ theȱ retentionȱ ofȱ addedȱ iodine.ȱ Followingȱ theȱCodexȱstandardsȱforȱfoodȱgradeȱsaltȱwillȱaddressȱtheseȱissues.ȱȱ ȱ Boxȱ39:ȱTheȱRoleȱofȱtheȱCodexȱAlimentariusȱ Theȱ Codexȱ Alimentariusȱ isȱ aȱ collectionȱ ofȱ foodȱ standards,ȱ codesȱ ofȱ practice,ȱ guidelinesȱandȱotherȱrecommendationsȱdevelopedȱbyȱtheȱWHOȱandȱFAO.ȱTheȱ standardsȱinȱtheȱCodexȱareȱdevelopedȱbyȱtheȱCodexȱAlimentariusȱCommission,ȱ createdȱinȱ1963ȱbyȱFAOȱandȱWHOȱtoȱdevelopȱfoodȱstandards,ȱguidelinesȱandȱ codesȱofȱpracticeȱunderȱtheȱJointȱFAO/WHOȱFoodȱStandardsȱProgramme.ȱTheȱ mainȱ purposesȱ ofȱ thisȱ Programmeȱareȱtoȱ protectȱ theȱ healthȱ ofȱ theȱ consumers,ȱ ensureȱ fairȱ practicesȱ inȱ theȱ foodȱ trade,ȱ andȱ promoteȱ coordinationȱ ofȱ allȱ foodȱ standards. 259ȱ ȱ Underȱ theȱ agreementsȱ ofȱ theȱ Worldȱ Tradeȱ Organizationȱ (WTO),ȱ Codexȱ standardsȱ serveȱ asȱ theȱ ‘internationalȱ standards’ȱ uponȱ whichȱ nationalȱ foodȱ regulationsȱshouldȱbeȱbasedȱinȱorderȱtoȱfallȱwithinȱrequirementsȱofȱapplicableȱ WTOȱ agreements.ȱ Theȱ Codexȱ Alimentariusȱ isȱ availableȱ atȱ http://www.codexalimentarius.net/web/standard_list.do?lang=en.ȱ ȱ Standardsȱ forȱ fortificantȱ levelsȱ inȱ theȱ finalȱ productȱ willȱ dependȱ onȱ factorsȱ likeȱ theȱ scopeȱ andȱ severityȱ ofȱ theȱ micronutrientȱ deficiency,ȱ dietaryȱ intakeȱ andȱ foodȱ consumptionȱ patternsȱ inȱ theȱ countryȱ andȱ climaticȱ conditionsȱ affectingȱ micronutrientȱ retention,ȱ amongȱ others.ȱ Becauseȱ theseȱ mayȱ varyȱ amongȱ countriesȱorȱ regions,ȱ theȱ Codexȱdoesȱ notȱelaborateȱstandardsȱforȱlevelsȱofȱfortificantsȱinȱfoods.ȱȱȱ ȱ
259 Codex Alimentarius website homepage. Available at http://www.codexalimentarius.net/web/index_en.jsp. Accessed August 23.
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5.ȱLabelingȱRequirementsȱȱ ȱ Labellingȱisȱimportantȱforȱinformingȱconsumersȱaboutȱtheȱproduct,ȱlikeȱ theȱ fortificantȱ content,ȱ directionsȱ forȱ useȱ andȱ storage,ȱ theȱ dateȱ byȱ whichȱ theȱ productȱ shouldȱ beȱ usedȱ andȱ similarȱ matters.ȱ Theȱ nameȱ ofȱ theȱmanufacturer,ȱlot/batchȱnumber,ȱplaceȱofȱmanufacture,ȱandȱsimilarȱ itemsȱ alsoȱ areȱ importantȱ componentsȱ ofȱ labelling.ȱ Thisȱ informationȱ helpsȱ governmentsȱ withȱ inspectionsȱ andȱ enforcementȱ functions,ȱ allowingȱthemȱtoȱtrackȱandȱtraceȱfoodsȱproducts.ȱTheȱCodexȱstandardsȱ forȱlabellingȱshouldȱbeȱfollowed.ȱȱ ȱ Theȱ labelȱ alsoȱ canȱ beȱ aȱ goodȱ sourceȱ forȱ informingȱ consumersȱ ofȱ theȱ importanceȱ ofȱ theȱ micronutrientȱ orȱ micronutrientsȱ supplied.ȱ Healthȱ claimsȱ aboutȱ fortifiedȱ foods,ȱ however,ȱ shouldȱ beȱ carefullyȱ regulated.ȱ Forȱexample,ȱtheȱlabelsȱofȱfortifiedȱbeastȱmilkȱsubstitutes,ȱifȱallowedȱtoȱ includeȱhealthȱclaimsȱaboutȱtheirȱfortifiedȱproperties,ȱcouldȱundermineȱ breastfeeding.ȱ Thisȱ wouldȱ beȱ detrimentalȱ toȱ infantȱ andȱ youngȱ childȱ nutritionȱandȱhealthȱandȱwouldȱrunȱcounterȱtoȱtheȱCode.ȱȱ ȱ Guatemala’sȱ regulationsȱ requireȱ labelsȱ onȱ packagesȱ ofȱ sugar,ȱ whichȱ mustȱbeȱfortified,ȱtoȱincludeȱtheȱdesignation:ȱVITAMINȱAȬFORTIFIEDȱ SUGARȱandȱaȱsymbolȱȬȱaȱgreenȱorȱredȱeyeȱinȱtheȱmiddleȱofȱtheȱpackageȱ Ȭȱthatȱallowsȱpeopleȱwhoȱcannotȱreadȱtoȱrecogniseȱit.ȱTheȱregulationsȱ alsoȱ prohibitȱ advertisingȱ thatȱ attributesȱ therapeuticȱ propertiesȱ toȱ fortifiedȱ sugarȱ orȱ thatȱ presentsȱ sugarȱ asȱ theȱ onlyȱ sourceȱ ofȱ vitaminȱ A. 260 ȱProductsȱmanufacturedȱusingȱfortifiedȱsugarȱmustȱnotȱindicateȱitȱ asȱ aȱ specialȱ qualityȱ ofȱ thatȱ product.ȱ Southȱ Africa’sȱ flourȱ fortificationȱ regulationsȱ authoriseȱ theȱ useȱ ofȱ theȱ claimȱ ‘Fortifiedȱ forȱ betterȱ health’ȱ alongȱ withȱ aȱ governmentȱ logoȱ onlyȱ onȱ theȱ foodsȱ specifiedȱ inȱ theȱ regulations. 261 ȱȱ ȱ 6.ȱPackagingȱRequirementsȱȱ ȱ Packingȱ canȱ beȱ importantȱ forȱ retentionȱ ofȱ micronutrients,ȱ protectingȱ themȱfromȱmoisture,ȱdirectȱlight,ȱandȱotherȱelementsȱthatȱmightȱcauseȱ theirȱloss.ȱRegulationsȱshouldȱprovideȱdetailsȱforȱpackagingȱmaterial,ȱ size,ȱ andȱ similarȱ requirementsȱ thatȱ willȱ helpȱ protectȱ micronutrientȱ
260 Regulation for Vitamin A Sugar Fortification, Government Agreement 497-93 (1993). 261 Regulations Relating to the Fortification of Certain Foodstuffs (2003), Sec. 12.
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content,ȱasȱapplicable.ȱForȱexample,ȱiodisedȱsaltȱusuallyȱisȱrequiredȱtoȱ beȱ packagedȱ inȱ highȱ densityȱ polyethyleneȱ orȱ polypropyleneȱ bagsȱ orȱ lowȱdensityȱpolyethyleneȱlinedȱjuteȱbagsȱnoȱlargerȱthanȱ50kgȱ(soȱthatȱ theyȱcanȱbeȱliftedȱwithoutȱhooksȱwhichȱmightȱtearȱtheȱbagsȱandȱexposeȱ theȱiodineȱtoȱdamagingȱelements).ȱTheȱCodexȱStandardȱforȱFoodȱGradeȱ Salt,ȱCodexȱStanȱ150,ȱspecificallyȱaddressesȱpackagingȱforȱiodisedȱsalt,ȱ recommendingȱessentiallyȱtheȱaboveȱrequirements.ȱ ȱ 7.ȱRequirementsȱforȱStorage,ȱSalesȱandȱDistributionȱPracticesȱȱ ȱ Storageȱ conditionsȱ alsoȱ canȱ affectȱ micronutrientȱ retentionȱ basedȱ onȱ exposureȱ toȱ theȱ elements.ȱ Therefore,ȱ legalȱ provisionsȱ shouldȱ specifyȱ storageȱconditions.ȱAsȱaȱgeneralȱrule,ȱtheȱ‘FirstȱInȬFirstȱOut’ȱprincipleȱ shouldȱ applyȱ toȱ dispatch,ȱ distribution,ȱ andȱ saleȱ ofȱ fortifiedȱ foods.ȱ Southȱ Africa’sȱ regulationsȱ requireȱ thatȱ manufacturersȱ followȱ strictȱ stockȱrotationȱproceduresȱtoȱpreventȱoldȱstockȱfromȱlosingȱpotencyȱandȱ toȱcomplyȱwithȱtheȱshelfȱlifeȱexpiryȱdate. 262 ȱȱ ȱ 8.ȱRequirementsȱforȱQualityȱAssuranceȱPracticeȱȱ ȱ Routineȱpracticeȱofȱqualityȱassuranceȱ(QA)ȱproceduresȱwillȱhelpȱensureȱ theȱ efficacyȱ andȱ safetyȱ ofȱ fortifiedȱ foodȱ products.ȱ Therefore,ȱ theȱ lawȱ shouldȱ requireȱ thatȱ manufacturersȱ establishȱ aȱ QAȱ Programmeȱ andȱ maintainȱrecordsȱofȱtheirȱQAȱactivities,ȱmakingȱthemȱavailableȱtoȱtheȱ governmentȱ onȱ request.ȱ Theseȱ recordsȱ canȱ helpȱ informȱ theȱ government’sȱ monitoringȱ andȱ inspectionȱ processesȱ andȱ helpȱ theȱ governmentȱidentifyȱproblemȱareasȱwhereȱassistanceȱmayȱbeȱneeded.ȱȱȱȱȱ ȱ Boxȱ40:ȱStepsȱinȱQualityȱAssuranceȱProgrammesȱȱȱ 1)ȱ Productȱ specifications:ȱ Forȱ fortificants,ȱ foodȱ vehicle,ȱ andȱ anyȱ otherȱ ingredients,ȱ specificationsȱ mustȱ beȱ documentedȱ asȱ met,ȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ acceptableȱ deviations.ȱ Theseȱ includeȱ specificationȱ ofȱ particleȱ size,ȱ colour,ȱ potency,ȱ andȱ levelȱ ofȱ fortification,ȱ asȱ wellȱasȱanyȱotherȱrequirementȱwhichȱmightȱbeȱdeemedȱnecessary.ȱȱ 2)ȱProductȱsafetyȱassessment:ȱTheȱassessmentȱshouldȱaddressȱmicrobiological,ȱchemicalȱ andȱphysicalȱhazardsȱforȱallȱingredientsȱandȱofȱtheȱfinishedȱproduct.ȱ 3)ȱ Productȱ analysis:ȱ Samplingȱ andȱ testingȱ proceduresȱ forȱ allȱ ingredientsȱ andȱ theȱ finishedȱproductȱmustȱbeȱexplicitlyȱstated.ȱȱ 4)ȱDeterminationȱofȱcriticalȱandȱqualityȱcontrolȱpoints:ȱBasedȱonȱfirstȬhandȱknowledgeȱofȱ theȱtotalȱprocessȱ(includingȱtheȱplantȱfacility,ȱequipmentȱandȱenvironment),ȱstagesȱatȱ whichȱinadequateȱcontrolȱcouldȱleadȱtoȱunacceptableȱhealthȱriskȱorȱadverselyȱaffectȱ
262 Regulations Relating to the Fortification of Certain Foodstuffs (2003), Annexure 1(3).
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productȱqualityȱareȱidentified.ȱTheȱsystemȱofȱcontrolsȱandȱactionsȱtoȱbeȱtakenȱatȱeachȱ controlȱpointȱisȱdocumented.ȱȱ 5)ȱRecallȱsystem:ȱTheȱmechanismȱforȱproductȱrecallȱisȱoutlined,ȱifȱnecessary.ȱȱ 6)ȱQAȱaudit:ȱPeriodicȱchecksȱareȱnecessaryȱtoȱverifyȱthatȱtheȱQAȱsystemȱisȱeffectiveȱ andȱproductȱqualityȱisȱmaintainedȱtoȱtheȱtimeȱofȱconsumerȱpurchase.ȱȱ 7)ȱ Feedbackȱ mechanism:ȱ Thereȱ shouldȱ beȱ anȱ establishedȱ mechanismȱ toȱ respondȱ toȱ consumersȱandȱotherȱrelevantȱgroupsȱandȱcorrectȱanyȱdeficienciesȱdiscovered.ȱ 8)ȱDocumentationȱofȱQAȱsystem:ȱDetailsȱofȱtheȱQAȱprogrammeȱusedȱinȱtheȱproductionȱ ofȱ theȱ fortifiedȱ foodȱ mustȱ beȱ readilyȱ availableȱ toȱ relevantȱ individualsȱ andȱ organisations.ȱ ȱ Source:ȱ FAO.ȱ Micronutrient fortification of food: technology and quality control.ȱ Availableȱ atȱ http://www.fao.org/docrep/w2840e/w2840e0b.htm#5.%20quality%20assurance%20and%20con trol.ȱ ȱ 9.ȱLicensureȱorȱRegistrationȱȱ ȱ Theȱ lawȱ shouldȱ requireȱ licensureȱ orȱ registrationȱ ofȱ allȱ manufacturersȱ andȱimportersȱofȱtheȱfoodȱthatȱmustȱorȱmayȱbeȱfortified.ȱLicensureȱofȱ manufacturersȱ andȱ importersȱ ofȱ fortificantsȱ alsoȱ shouldȱ beȱ required.ȱ Theseȱ requirementsȱ willȱ helpȱ theȱ governmentȱ keepȱ aȱ recordȱ ofȱ businessesȱitȱneedsȱtoȱmonitorȱandȱtraceȱnonȬcomplaintȱfoodsȱthroughȱ theȱ licensureȱ orȱ registrationȱ numberȱ onȱ theȱ label.ȱ Legalȱ authorityȱ toȱ suspendȱorȱrevokeȱtheȱlicenseȱorȱregistrationȱinȱappropriateȱcasesȱcanȱ beȱanȱeffectiveȱenforcementȱtool.ȱȱ ȱ Southȱ Africa’sȱ regulationsȱ requireȱ registrationȱ byȱ anyȱ personȱ whoȱ manufacturers,ȱ imports,ȱ orȱ suppliesȱ aȱ fortificationȱ mix.ȱ Foodȱ manufacturersȱ andȱ importersȱ mayȱ onlyȱ purchaseȱ fortificationȱ mixesȱ fromȱ registeredȱ companies. 263 ȱ Guatemala’sȱ lawȱ requiresȱ sugarȱ importers,ȱsubȬdividers,ȱandȱmarketersȱtoȱobtainȱaȱhealthȱregistrationȱ numberȱ andȱ aȱ licenseȱ fromȱ theȱ Ministryȱ ofȱ Healthȱ toȱ operate.ȱ Theȱ moneyȱ collectedȱ isȱ depositedȱ inȱ theȱ Ministryȱ ofȱ Healthȇsȱ Foodȱ RegistrationȱandȱControlȱDepartmentȱaccountȱandȱmustȱbeȱusedȱonlyȱ forȱVitaminȱAȱsugarȱfortificationȱcontrolȱactivitiesȱandȱcosts. 264 ȱȱ ȱ
263 Regulations Relating to the Fortification of Certain Foodstuffs (2003), Sec. 8(a). 264 Regulation for Vitamin A Sugar Fortification, Governmental Agreement No. 497-93, Article 2.
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10.ȱInspectionȱandȱEnforcementȱPowersȱandȱDutiesȱ ȱ Broadȱ inspectionȱ powersȱ andȱ clearȱ dutiesȱ ofȱ enforcementȱ inȱ theȱ lawȱ willȱ helpȱ withȱ ensuringȱ compliance,ȱ especiallyȱ whereȱ multipleȱ ministriesȱ orȱ agenciesȱ willȱ haveȱ inspectionȱ andȱ enforcementȱ roles.ȱ Inspectionȱ powersȱ mightȱ includeȱ theȱ rightȱ toȱ enterȱ premisesȱ duringȱ reasonableȱhours,ȱexamineȱandȱcopyȱdocumentsȱandȱseizeȱgoodsȱandȱ testȱproducts,ȱamongȱothers.ȱForȱeffectiveȱenforcement,ȱtheȱlawȱshouldȱ provideȱaȱrangeȱofȱappropriateȱpenaltiesȱforȱviolations,ȱincluding,ȱforȱ example,ȱ licensureȱ orȱ registrationȱ suspensionȱ orȱ cancellation,ȱ fines,ȱ adverseȱ publicity,ȱ andȱ confiscationȱ ofȱ nonȬcompliantȱ products,ȱ materials,ȱ equipment,ȱ orȱ otherȱ items.ȱ Inȱ casesȱ whereȱ theȱ governmentȱ takesȱ anȱ enforcementȱ actionȱ andȱ wins,ȱ theȱ lawȱ canȱ provideȱ forȱ recoveryȱofȱtheȱcostsȱofȱtakingȱtheȱaction.ȱȱ ȱ Guatemala’sȱ Decreeȱ providesȱ forȱ aȱ broadȱ rangeȱ ofȱ penalties.ȱ Theseȱ include:ȱaȱwrittenȱwarning;ȱaȱfineȱwhichȱcanȱrangeȱfromȱ2ȱtoȱ150ȱtimesȱ theȱ monthlyȱ minimumȱ wage,ȱ upȱ toȱ 100ȱ perȱ centȱ ofȱ theȱ valueȱ ofȱ theȱ goodsȱ orȱ services;ȱ forȱ repeatȱ violations,ȱ publicationȱ ofȱ theȱ reasonȱ forȱ theȱ sanctionȱ inȱ atȱ leastȱ twoȱ newspapersȱ withȱ aȱ highȱ circulation;ȱ suspensionȱ ofȱ businessȱ orȱ commercialȱ activitiesȱ andȱ suspensionȱ ofȱ licensesȱ andȱ healthȱ registrations;ȱ closureȱ ofȱ theȱ establishment,ȱ business,ȱ orȱ enterpriseȱ withȱ annulmentȱ ofȱ registrationsȱ andȱ healthȱ licenses;ȱandȱconfiscationȱofȱrawȱmaterials,ȱfoods,ȱtools,ȱmaterials,ȱandȱ objectsȱ relatedȱ toȱ theȱ violationȱ committed.ȱ Sugarȱ thatȱ doesȱ notȱ meetȱ regulatoryȱ requirementsȱ willȱ beȱ auctionedȱ forȱ industrialȱ useȱ inȱ productsȱ forȱ export.ȱ Fundsȱ raisedȱ throughȱ thisȱ processȱ willȱ becomeȱ partȱofȱtheȱFoodȱRegistrationȱandȱControlȱDepartmentȇsȱprivateȱfundsȱ toȱbeȱusedȱexclusivelyȱforȱtheȱsugarȱfortificationȱcontrolȱprocess. 265 ȱȱ ȱ Legalȱrequirementsȱrelatedȱtoȱmicronutrientȱinterventionsȱalsoȱshouldȱ includeȱfundingȱandȱaȱmandateȱtoȱimplementȱsupplementȱprogramsȱtoȱ targetȱ populationsȱ notȱ reachedȱ byȱ fortifiedȱ foods.ȱ Alternatively,ȱ supplementȱ programmesȱ canȱ beȱ implementedȱ basedȱ onȱ aȱ policyȱ decision.ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ ȱ
265 Regulation for Vitamin A Sugar Fortification, Governmental Agreement No. 497-93, Article 17.
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1.3ȱ PromotingȱOptimalȱNutritionȱandȱHealthȱduringȱ InfancyȱandȱEarlyȱChildhood:ȱAdoptingȱandȱStrengtheningȱ theȱInternationalȱCodeȱofȱMarketingȱofȱBreastmilkȱ Substitutesȱȱ ȱ 1.3.1ȱ HealthȱBenefitsȱofȱBreastfeedingȱ ȱ Exclusiveȱbreastfeedingȱduringȱtheȱfistȱsixȱmonthsȱandȱtheȱappropriateȱ useȱofȱcomplementaryȱfoodsȱhaveȱtheȱpotentialȱtoȱpreventȱmoreȱthanȱ twiceȱ asȱ manyȱ deathsȱ inȱ childrenȱ underȱ fiveȱ asȱ anyȱ otherȱ intervention. 266 ȱ Theȱ benefitsȱ ofȱ breastfeedingȱ toȱ bothȱ theȱ childȱ andȱ motherȱhaveȱbeenȱhighlightedȱearlierȱinȱtheȱsubȬchapter.ȱ ȱ 1.3.2ȱ RisksȱwithȱBottleȬFeedingȱ ȱ Becauseȱ breastfeedingȱ providesȱ unrivalledȱ nutritional,ȱ health,ȱ andȱ developmentalȱ benefits,ȱ bottleȬfeedingȱ isȱ aȱ clearlyȱ inferiorȱ infantȱ andȱ youngȱ childȱ feedingȱ practice.ȱ Inȱ addition,ȱ bottleȬfeedingȱ canȱ beȱ dangerousȱ andȱ deadly.ȱ Inȱ manyȱ partsȱ ofȱ theȱ worldȱ whereȱ waterȱ isȱ unsafe,ȱ mixingȱ itȱ withȱ powderedȱ formulaȱ canȱ causeȱ infection,ȱ diarrhoea,ȱ andȱ resultingȱ dehydration,ȱ malnutritionȱ andȱ death.ȱ Improperȱsterilizationȱofȱbottlesȱandȱteats,ȱaȱproblemȱcompoundedȱbyȱ lowȱ levelsȱ ofȱ literacy,ȱ canȱ alsoȱ causeȱ infectionȱ withȱ seriousȱ andȱ potentiallyȱdeadlyȱresults.ȱAdditionally,ȱpoweredȱformulaȱcanȱcontainȱ microbiologicalȱ contaminantsȱ (e.g.,ȱ E.ȱ sakazaki,ȱ Salmonella)ȱ thatȱ canȱ causeȱsicknessȱandȱdeath.ȱȱ ȱ Sinceȱ formulaȱ isȱ expensive,ȱ poorȱ familiesȱ mayȱ notȱ beȱ ableȱ toȱ affordȱ adequateȱ amountsȱ ofȱ itȱ andȱ mayȱ addȱ waterȱ toȱ makeȱ itȱ lastȱ longer.ȱ Whereȱtheȱwaterȱisȱunsafe,ȱtheȱbadȱhealthȱeffectsȱdiscussedȱaboveȱwillȱ beȱcompounded.ȱEvenȱwhereȱtheȱwaterȱisȱsafe,ȱdilutedȱformulaȱwillȱnotȱ provideȱ theȱ babyȱ withȱ adequateȱ nutrition,ȱ potentiallyȱ leadingȱ toȱ malnutrition.ȱ Incomeȱ spentȱ onȱ formula,ȱ whenȱ breastmilkȱ isȱ aȱ moreȱ nutritiousȱresourceȱthatȱisȱfreelyȱavailable,ȱpotentiallyȱdivertsȱresourcesȱ awayȱfromȱotherȱfoodsȱorȱneededȱitems.ȱȱ ȱ
266 Repositioning Nutrition,.World Bank, Washington, D.C (2006); available at http://siteresources.worldbank.org/NUTRITION/Resources/281846- 1131636806329/NutritionStrategy.pdf. Accessed August 23, 2006.
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1.3.3ȱ TheȱNeedȱforȱtheȱCode: 267 ȱPracticesȱUnderminingȱBreastfeedingȱ ȱ Whenȱ infantȱ formulaȱ companiesȱ beganȱ aggressivelyȱ marketingȱ theirȱ productsȱ inȱ theȱ earlyȬȱ andȱ midȬ1900s,ȱ worldwideȱ declinesȱ inȱ breastfeedingȱ followed.ȱ Medicalȱ professionalsȱ atȱ theȱ timeȱ lackedȱ adequateȱ knowledgeȱ ofȱ theȱ enormousȱ benefitsȱ ofȱ breastfeeding.ȱ Asȱ aȱ result,ȱtheyȱunderminedȱbreastfeedingȱthroughȱtheirȱownȱpractices,ȱforȱ example,ȱ byȱ separatingȱ motherȱ andȱ babyȱ afterȱ birthȱ andȱ limitingȱ breastfeedingȱ times.ȱ Thisȱ helpedȱ setȱ theȱ stageȱ forȱ mothers’ȱ receptivenessȱ toȱ breastmilkȱ substitutesȱ andȱ theirȱ intensiveȱ marketing. 268 ȱȱ ȱ Toȱ addressȱ theȱ practicesȱ contributingȱ toȱ theȱ decliningȱ ratesȱ ofȱ breastfeedingȱ andȱ theȱ resultingȱ increasingȱ ratesȱ ofȱ infantȱ andȱ youngȱ childȱ malnutrition,ȱ morbidityȱ andȱ mortality,ȱ theȱ Worldȱ Healthȱ Assemblyȱ adoptedȱ theȱ Codeȱ inȱ 1981.ȱ Theȱ Codeȱ aimsȱ toȱ limitȱ companies’ȱmarketingȱpracticesȱthatȱinterfereȱwithȱtheȱprotectionȱandȱ promotionȱ ofȱ breastfeedingȱ byȱ prohibitingȱ advertisingȱ andȱ allȱ otherȱ formsȱofȱpromotionȱofȱbreastmilkȱsubstitutes,ȱfeedingȱbottlesȱandȱteats.ȱ Itȱ alsoȱ aimsȱ toȱ preventȱ inappropriateȱ healthȱ systemȱ practicesȱ thatȱ amountȱtoȱendorsementsȱofȱbottleȱfeeding,ȱamongȱotherȱthings.ȱȱ ȱ Marketingȱ practicesȱ atȱ theȱ timeȱ theȱ Codeȱ wasȱ developedȱ wereȱ andȱ continueȱ toȱ beȱ aggressive,ȱ misleadingȱ andȱ deceptive.ȱ Aȱ particularlyȱ popularȱ andȱ successfulȱ marketingȱ strategyȱ hasȱ beenȱ toȱ promoteȱ breastmilkȱ substitutesȱ throughȱ theȱ healthȱ careȱ system.ȱ Someȱ ofȱ theseȱ marketingȱpracticesȱareȱdiscussedȱbelow.ȱ ȱ 1.ȱ Donatingȱ freeȱ orȱ reducedȱ costȱ suppliesȱ andȱ samplesȱ ofȱ infantȱ formula.ȱ Donatedȱ productsȱ areȱ usedȱ inȱ facilitiesȱ andȱ healthȱ workersȱ passȱtheȱsamplesȱonȱtoȱmothers.ȱThisȱtendsȱtoȱserveȱasȱaȱhealthȱsystemȱ endorsementȱ ofȱ formulaȱ feedingȱ inȱ generalȱ andȱ ofȱ theȱ brandȱ usedȱ inȱ theȱfacilityȱinȱparticular.ȱBabiesȱthatȱareȱbottleȱfedȱinȱtheȱhospitalȱareȱ unlikelyȱ toȱ beȱ breastfedȱ atȱ homeȱ becauseȱ breastmilkȱ productionȱ isȱ dependentȱ onȱ suckling,ȱ whichȱ bottleȱ feedingȱ prevents.ȱ Additionally,ȱ bottleȱuseȱcanȱcauseȱnippleȱconfusion.ȱTheseȱthingsȱmakeȱbreastfeedingȱ moreȱdifficult,ȱpotentiallyȱcausingȱmothersȱtoȱloseȱconfidenceȱinȱtheirȱ
267 References to the Code include subsequent WHA resolutions. 268 Ibid.
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abilityȱ toȱ breastfeedȱ andȱ makingȱ bottleȱ feedingȱ theȱ moreȱ attractiveȱ option.ȱȱȱȱȱ ȱ 2.ȱEmployingȱ‘motherȱcraftȱnurses.ȱTheseȱwereȱemployeesȱofȱformulaȱ companiesȱ workingȱ inȱ hospitalsȱ toȱ teachȱ newȱ mothersȱ aboutȱ infantȱ careȱ andȱ toȱ handȱ outȱ samplesȱ andȱ sellȱ formula.ȱ Thisȱ practiceȱ wasȱ stoppedȱ afterȱ aȱ successfulȱ campaignȱ inȱ theȱ 1970s,ȱ butȱ itȱ hasȱ evolvedȱ intoȱotherȱstrategiesȱbyȱwhichȱcompaniesȱprovideȱmothersȱwithȱinfantȱ careȱ andȱ nutritionȱ advice,ȱ suchȱ asȱ throughȱ ‘babyȱ clubs,’ȱ discussedȱ below.ȱ ȱȱ 3.ȱ Makingȱ giftsȱ toȱ healthȱ workers.ȱ Giftsȱ suchȱ asȱ officeȱ suppliesȱ andȱ otherȱitemsȱbearingȱtheȱbrandȱorȱcompanyȱnameȱorȱlogoȱgetȱdisplayedȱ inȱ healthȱ facilities,ȱ servingȱ toȱ promoteȱ theȱ product.ȱ Thisȱ practiceȱ continuesȱtoday.ȱ ȱ 4.ȱ Sponsoringȱ healthȱ workers.ȱ Payingȱ healthȱ workers’ȱ expensesȱ toȱ attendȱprofessionalȱconferences,ȱprovidingȱresearchȱgrantsȱandȱgivingȱ otherȱ perquisitesȱ isȱ anotherȱ popularȱ practiceȱ thatȱ theȱ Codeȱ seeksȱ toȱ limit,ȱbutȱfailsȱtoȱprohibit.ȱThisȱpracticeȱisȱincreasingȱinȱintensityȱandȱisȱ ofȱseriousȱconcernȱbecauseȱitȱconstitutesȱaȱconflictȱofȱinterest.ȱȱȱ ȱ Labellingȱ alsoȱ hasȱ beenȱ andȱ continuesȱ toȱ beȱ anotherȱ popularȱ wayȱ ofȱ promotingȱ theȱ useȱ ofȱ breastȱ milkȱ substitutes.ȱ Commonȱ labellingȱ practicesȱ atȱ theȱ timeȱ theȱ Codeȱ wasȱ adoptedȱ included,ȱ amongȱ otherȱ things,ȱ idealisingȱ breastmilkȱ substitutesȱ byȱ comparingȱ themȱ favourablyȱtoȱbreastmilk,ȱmakingȱclaimsȱaboutȱtheirȱbenefitsȱtoȱhealth,ȱ printingȱ picturesȱ ofȱ healthy,ȱ thrivingȱ babiesȱ onȱ labels,ȱ andȱ similarȱ practices.ȱ Moreȱ sophisticatedȱ practicesȱ haveȱ followed,ȱ includingȱ makingȱ misleadingȱ healthȱ claims,ȱ suchȱ asȱ theȱ benefitsȱ ofȱ fattyȱ acidsȱ addedȱtoȱformulaȱtoȱenhanceȱintelligence. 269ȱ ȱ Aȱ summaryȱ ofȱ theȱ Code’sȱ provisionsȱ toȱ addressȱ theseȱ andȱ otherȱ practicesȱisȱcontainedȱinȱAnnexȱ1.ȱȱȱ ȱ
269 Breaking the rules, stretching the rules. IBFAN, Penang, Malaysia (2004); available at http://www.ibfan.org/english/codewatch/btr04/btr04contents.html. Accessed August 23, 2006.
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1.3.4ȱ IssuesȱRelatedȱtoȱtheȱCodeȱ ȱ 1.ȱHIVȱandȱBreastfeedingȱ ȱ Itȱisȱestimatedȱthatȱ5Ȭ20ȱperȱcentȱofȱchildrenȱwhoȱbreastfeedȱfromȱHIVȬ infectedȱ mothersȱ becomeȱ infectedȱ throughȱ breastfeeding. 270 ȱ Whileȱ avoidingȱ breastfeedingȱ mightȱ lowerȱ theȱ riskȱ ofȱ HIVȱ transmissionȱ throughȱthisȱchannel,ȱbottleȬfeedingȱcanȱincreaseȱtheȱriskȱofȱillnessȱandȱ deathȱdueȱtoȱhigherȱratesȱofȱotherȱinfections,ȱasȱalreadyȱdiscussed.ȱAȱ sixȬfoldȱincreaseȱinȱchildȱmortalityȱcanȱresultȱfromȱartificialȱfeedingȱinȱ someȱ countriesȱ andȱ thisȱ mustȱ beȱ weighedȱ againstȱ theȱ risksȱ ofȱ HIVȱ transmissionȱthroughȱbreastmilk. 271 ȱȱ ȱ UNȱ policyȱ onȱ HIVȱ andȱ breastfeedingȱ recommendsȱ exclusiveȱ breastfeedingȱ byȱ HIVȬinfectedȱ mothersȱ forȱ theȱ firstȱ monthsȱ ofȱ lifeȱ whereȱ artificialȱ feedingȱ isȱ notȱ acceptable,ȱ feasible,ȱ affordable,ȱ sustainableȱandȱsafe.ȱWhereȱtheseȱconditionsȱcannotȱbeȱmet,ȱavoidanceȱ ofȱallȱbreastfeedingȱisȱrecommended.ȱTheȱpolicyȱalsoȱrecommendsȱthatȱ HIVȬpositiveȱ mothersȱ beȱ counselledȱ aboutȱ theȱ risksȱ andȱ benefitsȱ ofȱ feedingȱoptionsȱbasedȱonȱlocalȱassessments.ȱMothersȱalsoȱshouldȱhaveȱ accessȱ toȱ informationȱ onȱ followȬupȱ careȱ andȱ support,ȱ includingȱ nutritionalȱ andȱ familyȱ planningȱ support.ȱ Exclusiveȱ breastfeedingȱ forȱ sixȱ monthsȱ isȱ recommendedȱ forȱ womenȱ whoȱ doȱnotȱ knowȱ theirȱHIVȱ status. 272ȱ ȱ 2.ȱTheȱCodeȱandȱWorldȱTradeȱAgreementsȱ ȱ Nationalȱ lawsȱ orȱ regulationsȱ incorporatingȱ theȱ Codeȱ shouldȱ notȱ beȱ consideredȱ illegalȱ tradeȱ barriersȱ forȱ similarȱ reasonsȱ mandatoryȱ fortificationȱ lawsȱ orȱ regulationsȱ wouldȱ notȱ (discussedȱ inȱ theȱ micronutrientȱ malnutritionȱ sectionȱ above).ȱ Inȱ addition,ȱ theȱ relevantȱ provisionsȱ ofȱ theȱ Codeȱ wouldȱ likelyȱ beȱ consideredȱ toȱ establishȱ ‘internationalȱ standards.’ȱ Sinceȱ theȱ relevantȱ WTOȱ Agreementȱ onȱ TechnicalȱBarriersȱtoȱTradeȱrequiresȱthatȱinternationalȱstandardsȱserveȱ asȱ theȱ basisȱ forȱ domesticȱ regulations,ȱ regulatoryȱ provisionsȱ basedȱ onȱ
270 1990-2005 Celebrating the Innocenti Declaration on the Protection, Promotion and Support of Breastfeeding: Past achievements, present challenges and priority actions for infant and young child feeding, UNICEF, Florence (2005). 271 Ibid. 272 Ibid.
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theȱ Codeȱ shouldȱ notȱ violateȱ tradeȱ rules. 273 ȱ Itȱ isȱ notȱ asȱ clearȱ thatȱ exceedingȱ theȱ minimumȱ standardsȱ ofȱ theȱ Codeȱ wouldȱ enjoyȱ thisȱ protection.ȱHereȱagain,ȱasȱwithȱfortificationȱrequirements,ȱthereȱshouldȱ beȱaȱsoundȱbasisȱforȱdemonstratingȱthatȱanyȱtradeȬrestrictiveȱmeasureȱ isȱnecessaryȱtoȱpromoteȱaȱlegitimateȱpurposeȱofȱtheȱgovernment.ȱWithȱ regardȱtoȱadvertisingȱrestrictions,ȱtheȱWTOȱjudicialȱbodyȱinȱanȱearlierȱ case,ȱtheȱThaiȱCigaretteȱCase, 274 ȱsuggestedȱthatȱadvertisingȱrestrictionsȱ didȱnotȱviolateȱtheȱGeneralȱAgreementȱonȱTariffsȱandȱTrade.ȱȱȱ ȱ 3.ȱContentȱofȱLegislativeȱProvisionsȱtoȱAdoptȱtheȱCodeȱȱ ȱ Theȱ Codeȱ representsȱ aȱ significantȱ globalȱ publicȱ healthȱ policyȱ achievement.ȱStill,ȱitȱisȱonlyȱaȱrecommendationȱfromȱtheȱWorldȱHealthȱ Assembly.ȱ Asȱ aȱ result,ȱ itȱ mustȱ beȱ implementedȱ throughȱ nationalȱ legislationȱorȱregulationsȱtoȱgiveȱitȱtheȱforceȱofȱlaw.ȱItȱisȱworthȱnotingȱ thatȱtheȱCodeȱwasȱadoptedȱasȱaȱminimumȱstandardȱandȱcountriesȱcanȱ adoptȱ andȱ haveȱ adoptedȱ legislationȱ goingȱ beyondȱ thisȱ minimumȱ standardȱ inȱ orderȱ toȱ protectȱ breastfeedingȱ adequately.ȱ Thisȱ sectionȱ concentratesȱ onȱ makingȱ recommendationsȱ toȱ preventȱ knownȱ orȱ anticipatedȱ evasionȱ tacticsȱ atȱ theȱ nationalȱ level.ȱ Examplesȱ ofȱ strongȱ provisionsȱfromȱdifferentȱcounties’ȱlawsȱalsoȱareȱpresentedȱasȱpossibleȱ guidance,ȱasȱapplicable.ȱAȱModelȱLaw,ȱdevelopedȱbyȱtheȱInternationalȱ Codeȱ Documentȱ Centerȱ forȱ implementingȱ theȱ Code,ȱ isȱ anȱ excellentȱ resourceȱforȱlegislativeȱdraftingȱandȱisȱcontainedȱinȱAnnexȱ1.ȱȱ ȱ 4.ȱScopeȱofȱtheȱLawȱ ȱ TheȱCodeȱappliesȱtoȱproductsȱ‘forȱuseȱasȱaȱpartialȱorȱtotalȱreplacementȱ ofȱbreastmilk.’ȱSomeȱcompaniesȱclaimȱtoȱinterpretȱthisȱphraseȱtoȱmeanȱ thatȱ theȱ Codeȱ appliesȱ onlyȱ toȱ infantȱ formula. 275 ȱȱCompaniesȱ alsoȱ exploitȱ theȱ Code’sȱ definitionȱ ofȱ ‘infantȱ formula,’ȱ whichȱ refersȱ toȱ breastmilkȱ substitutesȱ formulatedȱ toȱ satisfyȱ ‘normalȱ nutritionalȱ requirements’ȱofȱinfants.ȱCompaniesȱexploitȱthisȱdefinitionȱbyȱmakingȱ ‘specialised’ȱformulasȱmarketed,ȱforȱexample,ȱasȱhighȱenergyȱformulaȱ orȱ lowȱ birthȱ weightȱ formula.ȱ Theyȱ claimȱ theseȱ areȱ notȱ subjectȱ toȱ theȱ
273 Mathis, J. WTO trade issues related to the International Code of Marketing Breastmilk Substitutes: Labeling and marketing restrictions (unpublished) (2003). 274 Breaking the rules, stretching the rules, IBFAN, Penang, Malaysia (2004); available at http://www.ibfan.org/english/codewatch/btr04/btr04contents.html. Accessed August 23, 2006. 275 Ibid.
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Code’sȱ restrictions.ȱ Anotherȱ tacticȱ isȱ marketingȱ productsȱ asȱ ‘growingȱ upȱ milk’ȱ suitableȱ forȱ olderȱ childrenȱ and,ȱ therefore,ȱ fallingȱ outsideȱ ofȱ theȱscopeȱofȱtheȱCode.ȱAnotherȱproduct,ȱ‘mothersȱmilk,’ȱisȱmarketedȱtoȱ pregnantȱ andȱ lactatingȱ women,ȱ soȱ itȱ clearlyȱ doesȱ notȱ fallȱ withinȱ theȱ scopeȱofȱtheȱCode.ȱTheȱproblemȱwithȱtheseȱproductsȱisȱthatȱtheyȱoftenȱ createȱ anȱ associationȱ withȱ productsȱ thatȱ areȱ coveredȱ byȱ theȱ Codeȱ byȱ usingȱ theȱ sameȱ orȱ similarȱ brandȱ namesȱ andȱ logos,ȱ orȱ similarȱ techniques. 276 , 277ȱ ȱ Botswana’sȱ Marketingȱ ofȱ Foodsȱ forȱ Infantsȱ andȱ Youngȱ Childrenȱ Regulationsȱ(2005)ȱprovideȱaȱgoodȱexampleȱforȱaddressingȱtheseȱtacticsȱ byȱ definingȱ coverageȱ ofȱ theȱ lawȱ broadly.ȱ Theȱ regulationsȱ applyȱ toȱ ‘designatedȱproducts,’ȱdefinedȱbroadlyȱas:ȱinfantȱformula;ȱformulasȱforȱ specialȱ medicalȱ purposesȱ intendedȱ forȱ infants;ȱ followȬupȱ formulas;ȱ complementaryȱfoods;ȱbeveragesȱforȱinfantsȱandȱyoungȱchildren;ȱanyȱ productȱ marketedȱ orȱ otherwiseȱ presentedȱ asȱ suitableȱ forȱ feedingȱ infantsȱ andȱ youngȱ children;ȱ feedingȱ bottles;ȱ teats;ȱ pacifiersȱ andȱ dummies;ȱ breastȱ pumps,ȱ cupsȱ withȱ spoutsȱ orȱ similarȱ receptaclesȱ forȱ feedingȱ infantsȱ andȱ youngȱ children;ȱ andȱ suchȱ otherȱ productsȱ designatedȱ byȱ theȱ Minister.ȱ 278 ȱ Givingȱ theȱ Ministerȱ authorityȱ toȱ designateȱ otherȱ productsȱ isȱ anȱ effectiveȱ safeguard,ȱ providingȱ theȱ governmentȱwithȱflexibilityȱtoȱrespondȱrelativelyȱquicklyȱtoȱimproperȱ marketingȱ practices.ȱ Brazil’sȱ provisionsȱ alsoȱ provideȱ broadȱ coverage.ȱ Theyȱ applyȱ toȱ infantȱ formulas,ȱ followȱ upȱ formulasȱ forȱ infantsȱ andȱ youngȱchildren,ȱmilks,ȱtransitionalȱfoodsȱandȱcerealȱbasedȱfoodsȱwhenȱ marketedȱ orȱ presentedȱ asȱ suitableȱ forȱ infantsȱ andȱ youngȱ children,ȱ nutrientȱ formulasȱ presentedȱ asȱ suitableȱ forȱ highȬriskȱ newborns,ȱ feedingȱbottles,ȱteats,ȱandȱdummies. 279ȱ ȱ
276 Ibid. 277 Sokol, E., The Code Handbook, International Code Documentation Centre, Penang, Malaysia (2005). 278 Marketing of Foods For Infants and Young Children Regulations, 2005, Sec. 2. 279 Decree No. 2051 of 8 November 2001 and Resolution RDC No. 222, 5 August 2002, Art. 1.
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Boxȱ41:ȱSuggestionsȱforȱProvisionsȱonȱtheȱScopeȱofȱtheȱLawȱ Nationalȱ legislationȱ orȱ regulationsȱ couldȱ strengthenȱ theȱ Code’sȱ provisionsȱ byȱ applyingȱto:ȱ x allȱtypesȱofȱinfantȱformulasȱ(notȱjustȱthoseȱforȱmeetingȱ‘normal’ȱ nutritionalȱneeds)ȱ;ȱ x allȱotherȱfoodsȱmarketedȱasȱsuitableȱforȱinfantsȱorȱyoungȱchildrenȱ (underȱaȱspecifiedȱage)ȱandȱfoodsȱthatȱareȱlikelyȱtoȱcreateȱanȱimpressionȱ ofȱsuchȱsuitabilityȱorȱthatȱareȱcommonlyȱusedȱtoȱfeedȱinfantsȱorȱyoungȱ children;ȱ x anyȱfoodsȱthatȱareȱmarketedȱinȱaȱwayȱthatȱcreateȱanȱassociationȱwithȱ foodsȱcoveredȱbyȱtheȱCode,ȱforȱexample,ȱbyȱusingȱtheȱsameȱorȱsimilarȱ logo,ȱpackageȱdesign,ȱorȱotherȱproductȱindicia;ȱȱ x teats,ȱpacifiers,ȱandȱitemsȱusedȱforȱfeedingȱinfantsȱandȱyoungȱchildrenȱ andȱȱ x otherȱfoodsȱorȱitemsȱdesignatedȱbyȱtheȱrelevantȱMinister.ȱ ȱ 5.ȱInformationȱandȱEducationȱ ȱ Theȱ Codeȱ doesȱ allowȱ companiesȱ toȱ provideȱ ‘scientific’ȱ orȱȇfactual’ȱ informationȱ toȱ healthȱ professionals,ȱ creatingȱ aȱ significantȱ loophole.ȱ Brazil’sȱ measuresȱ largelyȱ avoidȱ thisȱ pitfallȱ byȱ prohibitingȱ manufacturers,ȱ importers,ȱ andȱ distributorsȱ fromȱ producingȱ orȱ sponsoringȱeducationalȱmaterialsȱthatȱdealȱwithȱinfantȱfeeding. 280 ȱTheyȱ alsoȱ prohibitȱ educationalȱ andȱ technicalȬscientificȱ materials,ȱ includingȱ thoseȱofȱhealthȱprofessionalsȱorȱhealthȱauthorities,ȱfromȱcontainingȱanyȱ picturesȱorȱtextȱthatȱrecommendȱtheȱuseȱofȱdummies,ȱteatsȱandȱfeedingȱ bottlesȱ orȱ theȱ useȱ ofȱ breastmilkȱ substitutes,ȱ orȱ thatȱ mayȱ leadȱ toȱ theirȱ use.ȱȱ ȱ Theȱ regulationsȱ inȱ Botswanaȱ andȱ Ghanaȱ includeȱ aȱ requirementȱ forȱ governmentȱapprovalȱofȱinformationalȱandȱeducationalȱmaterialsȱpriorȱ toȱ theirȱ distribution. 281 , 282 ȱ Botswana’sȱ regulationsȱ alsoȱ includeȱ aȱ prohibitionȱ onȱ anyȱ referenceȱ orȱ inclusionȱ inȱ informationalȱ orȱ educationalȱ materialsȱ toȱ theȱ brandȱ name,ȱ name,ȱ logo,ȱ trademarkȱ orȱ otherȱ wordsȱ orȱ graphicȱ associatedȱ withȱ theȱ product,ȱ brand,ȱ manufacturerȱ orȱ distributor.ȱ Yemen’sȱ lawȱ prohibitsȱ anyȱ authorityȱ orȱ institutionȱ fromȱ issuingȱ anyȱ informationȱ orȱ educationalȱ materialsȱ onȱ infantȱ andȱ youngȱ childȱ nutritionȱ orȱ onȱ coveredȱ products.ȱ Theȱ regulationsȱ alsoȱ prohibitȱ informationȱ onȱ nutritionȱ forȱ pregnantȱ andȱ
280 Decree No. 2051, Art. 9. 281 Marketing of Foods For Infants and Young Children Regulations (2005), Sec. 15(1). 282 Breastfeeding Promotion Regulations, 2005, Sec. 7(3).
248 Handbook on Legislative Reform lactatingȱ womenȱ unlessȱ theyȱ haveȱ beenȱ previouslyȱ clearedȱ byȱ theȱ Ministry. 283ȱ ȱ Boxȱ42:ȱSuggestionsȱforȱProvisionsȱonȱInformationȱandȱEducationȱ NationalȱlawȱcouldȱstrengthenȱtheȱCode’sȱprovisionsȱbyȱprohibitingȱmanufacturersȱ andȱ distributorsȱ ofȱ coveredȱ productsȱ orȱ anyoneȱ actingȱ onȱ theirȱ behalfȱ fromȱ publishing,ȱ distributing,ȱ orȱ otherwiseȱ providingȱ toȱ orȱ throughȱ anyȱ healthȱ facility,ȱ healthȱworker,ȱcommunityȱworker,ȱorȱsimilarȱpersonȱorȱentityȱany:ȱ x informationȱthatȱaddressesȱorȱincludesȱnutrition,ȱdiet,ȱorȱfeedingȱduringȱ pregnancyȱorȱpreparationȱforȱpregnancy,ȱafterȱbirthȱinȱrelationȱtoȱeitherȱtheȱ motherȱorȱtheȱchild,ȱorȱtoȱchildrenȱbelowȱaȱspecifiedȱage;ȱadditionally,ȱanyȱ informationȱthatȱincludesȱnutrition,ȱdiet,ȱorȱfeedingȱrelatedȱtoȱolderȱ childrenȱmustȱspecifyȱthatȱitȱdoesȱnotȱpertainȱtoȱchildrenȱunderȱthatȱage,ȱinȱ aȱmannerȱspecifiedȱbyȱtheȱMinister;ȱ x promotional,ȱscientificȱorȱeducationalȱinformationȱorȱmaterialsȱofȱanyȱkindȱ thatȱcontainȱanyȱreferenceȱtoȱaȱcoveredȱproduct,ȱbrand,ȱlogo,ȱtrademark,ȱorȱ otherȱindiciaȱofȱtheȱproduct,ȱbrand,ȱmanufacturerȱorȱdistributor;ȱandȱ x usingȱanyȱpersonȱorȱmethod,ȱotherȱthanȱspecifiedȱinformationȱonȱlabels,ȱtoȱ provideȱanyȱpersonȱwithȱinformationȱorȱinstructionsȱaboutȱtheȱuseȱofȱaȱ coveredȱproduct.ȱ ȱ 6.ȱMarketingȱ ȱ Whileȱ theȱ Codeȱ allowsȱ ‘appropriateȱ marketing’ȱ ofȱ breastmilkȱ substitutes,ȱ bottlesȱ andȱ teats,ȱ itȱ prohibitsȱ allȱ formsȱ ofȱ promotionȱ orȱ advertisingȱofȱtheseȱproducts.ȱItȱis,ȱthus,ȱvitalȱthatȱnationalȱlegislationȱ orȱregulationsȱcarefullyȱdefineȱ‘advertising’,ȱ‘promotion’,ȱ‘marketing’,ȱ andȱ similarȱ termsȱ toȱ avoidȱ anyȱ misunderstandingȱ orȱ confusion. 284 ȱ Inȱ
283 Prime Minster Decree No. 18/2002 on Regulation of Breastfeeding Promotion and Protection, Art. 21. 284 Drawing from the field of tobacco control, where evasion of legal requirements, especially those related to advertising, sponsorship, and promotion, has been perfected to an art by a industry very skilled at evading regulation, definitions suggested for tobacco control regulation might provide guidance, for example: “advertising”: any commercial communication through any media or means, that is intended to have, or is likely to have, the direct, indirect, or incidental effect of: (i) creating an awareness of a tobacco product, brand, manufacturer, or seller, or (ii) promoting the purchase or use of a tobacco product or brand. An advertisement includes, but is not limited to, words, names, messages, mottos, slogans, letters, numbers, pictures, images, colors, trademarks, and other graphics, sounds, and any other auditory, visual, or sensory matter, in whole or part, that is or are: (i) commonly identified or associated with a product, brand, manufacturer, or seller, or (ii) otherwise an indicia of product, brand, manufacturer, or seller identification. “brand stretching”: any non-tobacco product or service that contains, either on the product, or in any advertisement of the product, any writing, picture, image, graphic, trademark, message, or other matter, in whole or part, that is commonly identified or associated with, or
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developingȱ provisionsȱ toȱ addressȱ marketingȱ andȱ promotion,ȱ draftersȱ shouldȱ keepȱ inȱ mindȱ lessȱ overtȱ formsȱ ofȱ promotion,ȱ likeȱ ‘mother’sȱ clubs’ȱandȱ‘babyȱclubs,’ȱformulaȱlogosȱorȱtrademarksȱonȱnonȬformulaȱ products,ȱandȱotherȱtacticsȱhighlightedȱinȱCodeȱmonitoringȱreportsȱandȱ publicationsȱlikeȱBreakingȱtheȱRules,ȱStretchingȱtheȱRules.ȱ 285 ȱȱ ȱ Botswana’sȱ regulationsȱ defineȱ ‘marketing’ȱ comprehensively,ȱ asȱ promoting,ȱ distributing,ȱ selling,ȱ orȱ advertisingȱ aȱ designatedȱ product.ȱ Alsoȱincludedȱinȱtheȱtermȱareȱproductȱpublicȱrelationsȱandȱinformationȱ services,ȱ includingȱ theȱ useȱ ofȱ professionalȱ serviceȱ representativesȱ orȱ anyȱpersonȱactingȱonȱbehalfȱofȱaȱmanufacturerȱorȱdistributor.ȱ‘Promote’ȱ isȱdefinedȱasȱincluding:ȱȱ
(a)ȱanyȱdirectȱorȱindirectȱmethodȱofȱintroducingȱaȱ designatedȱproductȱorȱencouragingȱtheȱpurchaseȱorȱuseȱ ofȱaȱdesignatedȱproduct;ȱ(b)ȱsaleȱdevicesȱsuchȱasȱrebates,ȱ specialȱdisplaysȱtoȱpromoteȱsales,ȱtieȬinȱsales,ȱlossȱ leaders,ȱgrantȱofȱrewards,ȱdiscountȱcoupons,ȱpremiums,ȱ specialȱsales,ȱprizes,ȱgifts,ȱandȱgivingȱofȱsamplesȱtoȱ mothers;ȱ(c)ȱdirectȱorȱindirectȱcontactȱbetweenȱmarketingȱ personnelȱandȱmembersȱofȱtheȱpublicȱinȱfurtheranceȱofȱorȱ forȱtheȱpurposeȱofȱpromotingȱtheȱbusinessȱofȱdesignatedȱ products,ȱincludingȱtelevisionȱandȱradio,ȱtelephoneȱorȱ internetȱhelpȱlines,ȱmotherȱandȱbabyȱclubs,ȱandȱbabyȱ competitions;ȱ(d)ȱelectronicȱcommunication,ȱincludingȱ website,ȱinternetȱandȱelectronicȱmail;ȱ(e)ȱpromotionalȱ itemsȱsuchȱasȱclothing,ȱstationery,ȱorȱitemsȱthatȱreferȱtoȱaȱ designatedȱproductȱorȱtoȱaȱbrandȱnameȱofȱaȱdesignatedȱ product;ȱ(f)ȱoutdoorȱadvertisementsȱsuchȱasȱbillboards;ȱ (g)ȱplacardȱandȱnewspaperȱorȱmagazineȱinserts;ȱ(h)ȱ
is likely or intended to be identified or associated with a tobacco product, brand, or manufacturer. “promote” includes any commercial act or practice that is intended to or is likely to encourage, directly or indirectly, the purchase or use of any tobacco product or brand or create an awareness of or association with a tobacco product, brand, manufacturer or seller. (Source: Nathan, R., Model Legislation for Tobacco Control: A Policy Development and Legislative Drafting Manual; available at www.fctc.org and www.gphls.org). 285 Breaking the rules, stretching the rules, IBFAN, Penang, Malaysia (2004); available at http://www.ibfan.org/english/codewatch/btr04/btr04contents.html. Accessed August 23, 2006.
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practicesȱthatȱcreateȱanȱassociationȱbetweenȱaȱ manufacturerȱorȱdistributorȱandȱbreastfeeding. 286 ȱȱȱ
Brazil’sȱmeasuresȱincludeȱaȱbanȱonȱtheȱcommercialȱpromotionȱofȱ infantȱformulasȱandȱfollowȬupȱformulasȱforȱinfants,ȱspecialȱ nutrientȱformulas,ȱdummies,ȱteats,ȱbottles,ȱandȱnippleȱshields,ȱ byȱanyȱmeansȱofȱcommunication,ȱincludingȱmerchandising,ȱ electronic,ȱwritten,ȱorȱaudioȬvisualȱmeans,ȱpromotionalȱ strategiesȱaimedȱatȱincreasingȱretailȱsales,ȱsuchȱasȱspecialȱ displays,ȱdiscountȱcoupons,ȱbelowȱcostȱpricing,ȱprizes,ȱgifts,ȱ salesȱlinkedȱtoȱproductsȱnotȱcoveredȱbyȱtheȱregulation,ȱandȱ specialȱpresentations. 287 ȱȱ
Boxȱ43:ȱSuggestionsȱforȱProvisionsȱonȱMarketingȱ Nationalȱlawsȱshould,ȱatȱaȱminimum:ȱ x carefullyȱandȱcomprehensivelyȱdefineȱ‘advertising’,ȱ‘promotion’,ȱ ‘marketing’,ȱandȱsimilarȱtermsȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ x prohibitȱallȱdirectȱandȱindirectȱformsȱofȱpromotion,ȱincludingȱadvertisingȱ andȱmarketing,ȱinȱallȱformsȱofȱmedia,ȱusingȱanyȱmeans,ȱandȱinȱanyȱplaceȱinȱ relationȱtoȱcoveredȱproducts,ȱbrands,ȱmanufacturers,ȱandȱdistributorsȱ (keepingȱinȱmindȱindirectȱformsȱofȱpromotion,ȱsuchȱasȱthoseȱcoveredȱinȱtheȱ Botswana’sȱandȱBrazil’sȱlaws,ȱespeciallyȱtheȱpopularȱformsȱofȱdirectȱmail,ȱ telephoneȱhelpȱlines,ȱnewslettersȱassociatedȱwithȱbabyȱclubs,ȱandȱsimilarȱ methods)ȱ 288 ȱȱ Ifȱaȱbanȱisȱnotȱpossibleȱonȱallȱcoveredȱproducts,ȱnationalȱmeasuresȱshouldȱimposeȱ stringentȱ restrictionsȱ onȱ marketingȱ andȱ promotionȱ ofȱ foodsȱ thatȱ complementȱ breastfeedingȱ afterȱ sixȱ monthsȱ ofȱ ageȱ toȱ ensureȱ thatȱ promotionȱ ofȱ theseȱ productsȱ doesȱ notȱ undermineȱ exclusiveȱ orȱ sustainedȱ breastfeeding. 289 ȱ Restrictionsȱ onȱ theseȱ productsȱ mightȱ include,ȱ forȱ example,ȱ limitsȱ onȱ content, 290 ȱ whereȱ promotionȱ isȱ allowed, 291 ȱandȱtheȱmediumȱorȱformȱofȱpromotion. 292 ȱȱȱ ȱ
286 Marketing of Foods For Infants and Young Children Regulations, Sec. 8. 287 Decree No. 2051, Art. 4, and Resolution RDC No. 222, Art. 4.1. 288 Sokol E., The Code Handbook, International Code Documentation Centre, Penang, Malaysia (2005). 289 Some laws, such as India’s Infant Milk Substitutes, Feeding Bottles and Infant Foods (Regulation of Production, Supply and Distribution) Act , No. 41 of 1992 (as amended 2003), No. 41 of 1992, prohibit the promotion of complementary foods. 290 For example, they must not be promoted as suitable for infants under six months and must include a statement to this effect. In addition, they should include a statement on continued breastfeeding (the government should prescribe the required statements). The IBFAN model law provides two options for provisions on the marketing of complementary foods: One that prohibits their marketing and one that places restrictions on their marketing. 291 For example, no promotion should be allowed in health facilities. 292 For example, no samples or promotional gifts should be allowed.
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7.ȱObligationsȱofȱHealthȱCareȱSystemsȱȱ ȱ Inȱ responseȱ toȱ marketingȱ andȱ improperȱ practicesȱ inȱ healthȱ facilities,ȱ UNICEFȱandȱWHOȱintroducedȱtheȱ‘BabyȬFriendlyȱHospitalȱInitiative’ȱ inȱ 1989ȱ toȱ educateȱ healthȱ workersȱ andȱ promoteȱ andȱ supportȱ breastfeedingȱ inȱ hospitals.ȱ Aȱ fewȱ yearsȱ later,ȱ afterȱ adoptingȱ twoȱ previousȱ resolutionsȱ onȱ theȱ subject,ȱ theȱ Worldȱ Healthȱ Assemblyȱ adoptedȱ Resolutionȱ WHAȱ 45.34ȱ (1992),ȱ callingȱ onȱ companiesȱ toȱ stopȱ givingȱ freeȱ orȱ lowȱ costȱ suppliesȱ ofȱ formulaȱ toȱ healthȱ facilitiesȱ providingȱ maternityȱ services.ȱ Becauseȱ theȱ practiceȱ continuedȱ andȱ expandedȱ toȱ providingȱ freeȱ suppliesȱ toȱ paediatricȱ wardsȱ andȱ otherȱ healthȱ services,ȱ theȱ WHAȱ adoptedȱ anotherȱ resolution,ȱ WHAȱ 47.5ȱ (1994),ȱ callingȱ onȱ Memberȱ Statesȱ toȱ ensureȱ noȱ donationsȱ ofȱ freeȱ orȱ subsidisedȱ suppliesȱ ofȱ breastmilkȱ substitutesȱ andȱ otherȱ productsȱ coveredȱ byȱ theȱ Codeȱ inȱ anyȱ partȱ ofȱ theȱ healthcareȱ system. 293 ȱ Despiteȱ theseȱefforts,ȱcompaniesȱcontinueȱtoȱprovideȱfreeȱorȱlowȱcostȱformulaȱ whereȱ nationalȱ provisionsȱ doȱ notȱ prohibitȱ theȱ practice. 294 ȱ Itȱ is,ȱ therefore,ȱ importantȱ forȱ nationalȱ measuresȱ toȱ banȱ freeȱ andȱ lowȱ costȱ supplies.ȱȱ ȱ Toȱ addressȱ giftsȱ andȱ sponsorships,ȱ WHOȱ adoptedȱ WHAȱ Resolutionȱ 49.15ȱ(1996),ȱstatingȱthatȱfinancialȱsupportȱtoȱhealthȱworkersȱshouldȱnotȱ createȱ aȱ conflictȱ ofȱ interest.ȱ Thisȱ Resolutionȱ isȱ notȱ strongȱ enough,ȱ however,ȱandȱtheȱpracticeȱisȱincreasingȱinȱintensity.ȱConcernȱremainsȱ thatȱ theseȱ substantialȱ benefitsȱ influenceȱ healthȱ workersȱ toȱ endorseȱ companies’ȱ products.ȱ Resolutionȱ 58.32ȱ ofȱ 2005ȱurgedȱ governmentsȱtoȱ ensureȱthatȱfinancialȱsupportȱandȱotherȱincentivesȱforȱprogrammesȱandȱ healthȱprofessionalsȱworkingȱinȱinfantȱandȱyoungȬchildȱhealthȱdoȱnotȱ createȱconflictsȱofȱinterest.ȱBanningȱgiftsȱandȱdonationsȱtoȱhealthȱandȱ communityȱ workers,ȱ whereȱ enforced,ȱ shouldȱ eliminateȱ theȱ practice,ȱ andȱwithȱit,ȱtheȱconflictȱofȱinterest.ȱ ȱ TheȱCodeȱalsoȱaddressesȱcompanyȱpracticesȱofȱgivingȱhealthȱworkersȱ officeȱsuppliesȱandȱotherȱitemsȱbearingȱtheȱbrandȱorȱcompanyȱnameȱorȱ logo,ȱbutȱnotȱinȱaȱwayȱthatȱpreventsȱpromotionȱofȱproductsȱcoveredȱbyȱ theȱCode.ȱArticleȱ6.3ȱprovidesȱthatȱhealthȱsystemȱfacilitiesȱshouldȱnotȱ
293 Until these Resolutions, the Code allowed free supplies but placed restrictions on the practice. 294 Breaking the rules, stretching the rules, IBFAN, Penang, Malaysia (2004); available at http://www.ibfan.org/english/codewatch/btr04/btr04contents.html. Accessed August 23, 2006.
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beȱusedȱtoȱdisplayȱcoveredȱproducts,ȱpostersȱofȱtheseȱproducts,ȱorȱtheȱ distributionȱ ofȱ materialȱ providedȱ byȱ companies.ȱ However,ȱ Art.ȱ 6.8ȱ allowȱ companiesȱ toȱ donateȱ equipmentȱ andȱ materialsȱ toȱ healthȱ careȱ systemsȱthatȱbearȱaȱcompany’sȱnameȱorȱlogo,ȱsoȱlongȱasȱtheseȱitemsȱdoȱ notȱ includeȱ referenceȱ toȱ aȱ proprietaryȱ product.ȱ Becauseȱ advertising,ȱ labelling,ȱ andȱ otherȱ formsȱ ofȱ promotionȱ tendȱ toȱ associateȱ productsȱ withȱ theirȱ manufacturersȱ and/orȱ aȱ brandȬidentifyingȱ logo,ȱ thisȱ Codeȱ provisionȱ allowsȱ aȱ hugeȱ avenueȱ forȱ evasion.ȱ Displaysȱ ofȱ productȱ trademarks,ȱ mascots,ȱ andȱ theȱ likeȱ continueȱ toȱ beȱ seenȱ healthȱ facilities. 295 ȱ Banningȱ theseȱ donationsȱ isȱ theȱ onlyȱ effectiveȱ wayȱ toȱ preventȱcontinuedȱdisplaysȱinȱhealthȱfacilities.ȱȱ ȱ Art.ȱ 7.2ȱ containsȱ anotherȱ bigȱ loopholeȱ byȱ permittingȱ companiesȱ toȱ provideȱ informationȱ onȱ theirȱ productsȱ toȱ healthȱ professionals.ȱ Althoughȱthisȱinformationȱshouldȱbeȱrestrictedȱtoȱscientificȱandȱfactualȱ matters,ȱ andȱ shouldȱ containȱ informationȱ onȱ theȱ benefitsȱ andȱ superiorityȱofȱbreastfeedingȱandȱwarningsȱaboutȱtheȱnegativeȱeffectȱofȱ bottleȱfeeding,ȱthisȱrarelyȱisȱtheȱcase.ȱTheȱmaterialsȱtendȱtoȱbeȱhighlyȱ promotional,ȱ oftenȱ containingȱ picturesȱ ofȱ happy,ȱ healthy,ȱ ‘moreȱ intelligent’ȱ babiesȱ andȱ areȱ notȱ restrictedȱ toȱ scientificȱ andȱ factualȱ information.ȱHealthȱprofessionalsȱoftenȱpassȱtheseȱmaterialsȱonȱtoȱtheȱ trueȱ intendedȱaudienceȱȬȱpregnantȱ womenȱ andȱ mothers.ȱ Byȱallowingȱ theseȱmaterials,ȱtheȱCodeȱprovidesȱaȱlegitimateȱavenueȱforȱcompaniesȱ toȱ promoteȱ theirȱ productsȱ toȱ healthȱ workersȱ underȱ theȱ pretenceȱ ofȱ scientificȱ orȱ factualȱ information.ȱ Indeed,ȱ companiesȱ provideȱ largeȱ volumesȱ ofȱ attractiveȱ materialsȱ toȱ healthȱ facilities. 296 ȱ Toȱ stopȱ thisȱ practice,ȱthisȱtypeȱofȱdistributionȱofȱinformationȱtoȱhealthȱprofessionalsȱ orȱanyoneȱelseȱshouldȱnotȱbeȱpermitted.ȱȱ ȱ Botswana’sȱ regulationsȱ addressȱ theȱ conflictȱ ofȱ interestȱ createdȱ byȱ sponsorshipsȱofȱhealthȱworkersȱcomprehensively.ȱTheyȱprohibitȱhealthȱ workersȱ fromȱ acceptingȱ anyȱ gift,ȱ financialȱ assistance,ȱ fellowships,ȱ studyȱ tours,ȱ researchȱ grants,ȱ fundingȱ forȱ conferenceȱ attendance,ȱ samplesȱofȱcoveredȱfoods,ȱorȱquantitiesȱofȱfoodȱforȱinfantsȱandȱyoungȱ childrenȱpricedȱatȱlessȱthanȱwholesaleȱorȱ80ȱperȱcentȱofȱretailȱprice.297 ȱ Theȱ regulationsȱ alsoȱ prohibitȱ displayingȱ designatedȱ productsȱ inȱ anyȱ healthȱfacilityȱandȱimposeȱcorrespondingȱobligationsȱonȱmanufacturersȱ
295 Ibid. 296 Ibid. 297 Marketing of Foods for Infants and Young Children Regulations, Art. 9(2).
253 Handbook on Legislative Reform andȱ distributors.ȱ Inȱ addition,ȱ theyȱ prohibitȱ manufacturersȱ andȱ distributorsȱ fromȱ selling,ȱ donating,ȱ orȱ distributing,ȱ orȱ causingȱ theȱ distributionȱ ofȱ anyȱ equipment,ȱ materials,ȱ orȱ otherȱ servicesȱ withȱ anyȱ referenceȱ toȱ aȱ designatedȱ productȱ orȱ containingȱ theȱ nameȱ orȱ logoȱ ofȱ anyȱmanufacturerȱorȱdistributorȱinȱanyȱhealthȱfacility. 298 ȱȱȱȱ ȱ Ghana’sȱ regulationsȱ prohibitȱ freeȱ distributionȱ ofȱ samplesȱ ofȱ aȱ designatedȱ productȱ toȱ anyȱ person.ȱ Theyȱ alsoȱ prohibit,ȱ amongȱ otherȱ things,ȱdonatingȱanyȱequipmentȱorȱmaterialȱthatȱbearsȱtheȱname,ȱlogo,ȱ graphic,ȱ trademarkȱ orȱ anyȱ otherȱ descriptionȱ ofȱ aȱ designatedȱ productȱ forȱuseȱwithinȱaȱhealthȱcareȱfacility.ȱ ȱ Boxȱ44:ȱSuggestionsȱforȱProvisionsȱAddressingȱObligationsȱofȱHealthȱCareȱ Systemsȱ Nationalȱ lawȱ couldȱ strengthenȱ theȱ Code’sȱ provisionsȱ byȱ prohibitingȱ anyȱ manufacturerȱorȱdistributorȱofȱanyȱcoveredȱproduct,ȱorȱanyoneȱactingȱtheȱbehalfȱofȱ either,ȱfrom:ȱ x donatingȱsuppliesȱorȱprovidingȱdiscountedȱsuppliesȱofȱanyȱcoveredȱ productȱtoȱanyȱpartȱofȱtheȱhealthȱsystem;ȱ x providingȱsamplesȱofȱanyȱcoveredȱproductsȱinȱhealthȱfacilitiesȱorȱtoȱhealthȱ orȱcommunityȱworkersȱforȱanyȱpurpose,ȱincludingȱforȱprofessionalȱ evaluationȱorȱresearch;ȱandȱ x giving,ȱoffering,ȱorȱsponsoring,ȱanyȱgift,ȱgrant,ȱsponsorshipȱorȱanyȱotherȱ contribution,ȱloan,ȱorȱperquisiteȱtoȱanyȱfacilityȱofȱtheȱhealthȱsystemȱorȱtoȱ anyȱhealthȱorȱcommunityȱworker.ȱ ȱ Nationalȱ lawȱ couldȱ furtherȱ prohibitȱ anyȱ healthȱ orȱ communityȱ worker,ȱ orȱ anyȱ representativeȱofȱanyȱfacilityȱofȱtheȱhealthȱsystemȱfrom:ȱ x acceptingȱanyȱdonations,ȱdiscountedȱsupplies,ȱorȱsamplesȱofȱanyȱcoveredȱ product;ȱȱ x distributingȱorȱdisplayingȱanyȱcoveredȱproductȱinȱanyȱhealthȱcareȱfacility;ȱ x acceptingȱanyȱgift,ȱgrant,ȱsponsorship,ȱorȱanyȱotherȱcontributionȱfromȱanyȱ manufacturerȱorȱdistributorȱorȱanyȱpersonȱactingȱonȱbehalfȱofȱeither;ȱandȱ x accepting,ȱdisplaying,ȱorȱdistributingȱanyȱmaterials,ȱequipment,ȱorȱitemsȱofȱ anyȱkindȱfromȱaȱmanufacturerȱorȱdistributor,ȱorȱanyoneȱactingȱonȱtheirȱ behalf,ȱȱincludingȱinformationalȱandȱeducationalȱmaterials,ȱutensils,ȱ equipmentȱandȱsimilarȱitems.ȱȱ ȱ Theȱlawȱalsoȱcouldȱrequireȱhealthȱandȱcommunityȱworkersȱandȱanyȱrepresentativeȱ ofȱanyȱhealthȱfacilityȱtoȱreportȱinȱwritingȱtheȱprovisionȱorȱofferȱofȱtheȱsameȱbyȱanyȱ manufacturer,ȱdistributorȱorȱanyȱpersonȱactingȱonȱbehalfȱofȱeither.ȱ ȱ
298 Marketing of Foods for Infants and Young Children Regulations, Art. 8.3.
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8.ȱEmployeesȱofȱManufacturersȱandȱDistributorsȱ ȱ Althoughȱ theȱ daysȱ ofȱ ‘motherȱ craftȱ nurses’ȱ haveȱ passed,ȱ companies’ȱ employeesȱstillȱfindȱwaysȱtoȱhaveȱdirectȱcontactȱwithȱpregnantȱwomen,ȱ newȱmothers,ȱtheirȱfamilies,ȱandȱothersȱwhoȱmightȱinfluenceȱthem.ȱTheȱ Code’sȱ restrictionsȱ onȱ contactȱ withȱ theȱ publicȱ andȱ theȱ provisionȱ prohibitingȱeducationalȱfunctionsȱapplyȱonlyȱtoȱcompanies’ȱmarketingȱ personnel.ȱ Companiesȱ getȱ aroundȱ theseȱ restrictionsȱ byȱ creatingȱ ‘educationalȱ departments’ȱ toȱ handleȱ questionsȱ andȱ developȱ materialsȱ forȱmothers’ȱandȱbabies’ȱclubs. 299 ȱȱȱȱ ȱ Boxȱ45:ȱSuggestionsȱforȱProvisionsȱAddressingȱEmployeesȱofȱManufacturersȱandȱ Distributorsȱ NationalȱlawsȱcouldȱstrengthenȱtheȱCode’sȱprovisionsȱbyȱprohibitingȱanyȱemployeeȱ orȱotherȱpersonȱactingȱonȱbehalfȱofȱaȱmanufacturerȱorȱdistributor,ȱfromȱdirectlyȱorȱ indirectlyȱsolicitingȱorȱinitiatingȱcontactȱwithȱany:ȱ x memberȱofȱtheȱpublicȱ x anyȱemployeeȱofȱtheȱhealthȱsystemȱȱ x orȱanyȱcommunityȱworkerȱȱ toȱ promoteȱ aȱ coveredȱ productȱ orȱ provideȱ anyȱ educational,ȱ scientific,ȱ orȱ similarȱ informationȱrelatedȱtoȱaȱcoveredȱproductȱorȱtoȱfeedingȱorȱnutritionȱofȱinfants,ȱyoungȱ childrenȱ(underȱaȱspecifiedȱage),ȱorȱpregnantȱorȱlactatingȱwomen.ȱȱȱ ȱ 9.ȱLabelingȱ ȱ TheȱCodeȱaddressesȱtheȱtypeȱofȱinformationȱthatȱshouldȱbeȱpartȱofȱ labellingȱonȱinfantȱformulaȱcontainers.ȱTheseȱincludeȱnoticeȱaboutȱtheȱ superiorityȱofȱbreastfeedingȱandȱrelatedȱinformation,ȱpreparationȱ instructions,ȱwarningȱaboutȱtheȱhazardsȱofȱinappropriateȱpreparation,ȱ and,ȱwhereȱapplicable,ȱrisksȱofȱcontaminationȱwithȱmicroȱorganisms.ȱItȱ isȱnecessary,ȱhowever,ȱforȱnationalȱregulationsȱtoȱprescribeȱdetailsȱasȱtoȱ preciseȱwording,ȱplacementȱofȱtheȱinformationȱonȱtheȱcontainer,ȱsizeȱofȱ messagesȱinȱrelationȱtoȱtheȱsizeȱofȱtheȱcontainer,ȱdetailsȱonȱfontȱsize,ȱ colour,ȱandȱstyle,ȱandȱcontrastȱofȱtextȱcolourȱinȱrelationȱtoȱbackgroundȱ colour.ȱȱ ȱ Specifyingȱtheȱdetailedȱwordingȱandȱgraphicsȱthatȱmustȱbeȱusedȱforȱ messagesȱisȱoneȱwayȱtoȱbeȱsureȱtheȱinformationȱisȱproperlyȱconveyed.ȱ Forȱexample,ȱIndia’sȱlawȱrequiresȱthatȱtheȱstatement,ȱ‘MOTHER’Sȱ
299 Ibid.
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MILKȱISȱBESTȱFORȱYOURȱBABY’ȱmustȱappearȱonȱallȱinfantȱfoods. 300 ȱ Yemen’sȱregulationsȱrequireȱaȱlabelȱthatȱstatesȱ“Breastmilkȱisȱaȱ completeȱfoodȱcontainingȱallȱtheȱessentialȱelementsȱforȱinfantsȱandȱitȱ improvesȱtheȱimmunityȱofȱinfantsȱagainstȱdiseases,ȱespeciallyȱ diarrhoea.”ȱ 301ȱ ȱ Brazil’sȱlawȱrequiresȱfollowȬupȱformulaȱforȱyoungȱchildrenȱandȱ specifiedȱmilksȱtoȱincludeȱtheȱfollowing:ȱ‘Breastfeedingȱpreventsȱ infectionsȱandȱallergiesȱandȱisȱrecommendedȱupȱtoȱtwoȱyearȱofȱageȱorȱ more.” 302 ȱItȱalsoȱrequiresȱthatȱtransitionȱfoodsȱandȱcerealȱbasedȱfoodsȱ andȱotherȱfoodsȱorȱbeveragesȱmarketedȱasȱsuitableȱforȱinfantsȱorȱyoungȱ childrenȱstate,ȱ“Afterȱtheȱfirstȱsixȱmonthsȱcontinueȱbreastfeedingȱyourȱ babyȱinȱadditionȱtoȱgivingȱnewȱfoods.” 303 ȱȱ ȱ Prescribingȱinȱnationalȱregulationsȱtheȱparticularsȱasȱtoȱtheȱplacement,ȱ fontȱtype,ȱsize,ȱandȱcolour,ȱbackgroundȱcolour,ȱsizeȱofȱtheȱmessageȱinȱ relationȱtoȱtheȱsizeȱofȱtheȱpackageȱpanel,ȱandȱotherȱmattersȱwillȱhelpȱ assureȱtheȱmessagesȱtrulyȱareȱ‘conspicuous,’ȱasȱrequiredȱbyȱtheȱCode.ȱ Withoutȱtheseȱspecifications,ȱwhatȱisȱ‘conspicuous’ȱisȱaȱsubjectiveȱ judgmentȱthatȱisȱdifficultȱtoȱenforce.ȱByȱanalogy,ȱtheȱFrameworkȱ ConventionȱonȱTobaccoȱControlȱ(FCTC)ȱrequiresȱthatȱtobaccoȱproductȱ packagesȱcontainȱaȱwarningȱcomprisingȱatȱleastȱoneȱthirdȱofȱtheȱmainȱ displayȱpanelsȱofȱtheȱpackage.ȱTheȱFCTCȱurgesȱratifyingȱpartiesȱtoȱ requireȱwarningsȱthatȱcompriseȱ50ȱperȱcentȱofȱtheȱmainȱpanels.ȱȱ ȱ Nationalȱgovernmentsȱshouldȱconsiderȱprohibitingȱlabelsȱfromȱ containingȱȱnothingȱotherȱthanȱtheȱlabellingȱinformationȱprovidedȱinȱ theȱCodexȱAlimentariusȱandȱanyȱrequiredȱmessagesȱandȱwarnings.ȱ ProhibitingȱadditionalȱtextȱorȱimagesȱwillȱgiveȱfullȱforceȱtoȱtheȱCode’sȱ prohibitionȱagainstȱtextȱthatȱidealisesȱtheȱuseȱofȱformula.ȱ Accompanyingȱthisȱprohibitionȱshouldȱbeȱaȱbanȱnotȱonlyȱonȱpicturesȱofȱ infants,ȱasȱrequiredȱbyȱtheȱCode,ȱbutȱonȱanyȱimagesȱorȱdesigns.ȱIran’sȱ law,ȱforȱexample,ȱallowsȱonlyȱgenericȱlabelling. 304 ȱAlthoughȱtheȱlawsȱofȱ
300 Infant Milk Substitutes, Feed Bottles and Infant Foods (Regulation of Production, Supply and Distribution) Act, 1992 (as amended), Sec. 6(1)(a). 301 Prime Minister Decree No. 18 on Regulation of Breastfeeding Promotion and Protection, Art. 7(1)(a). 302 Resolution RDC No. 222, Art. 4.2. 303 Resolution RDC No. 222, Art. 4.2.2. 304 The International Code, UNICEF, New York, undated; available at http://www.unicef.org/programme/breastfeeding/code.htm. Accessed August 23, 2006.
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BrazilȱandȱBangladeshȱdoȱnotȱimposeȱaȱgenericȱlabellingȱrequirement,ȱ theirȱprohibitionȱonȱphotographs,ȱillustrationsȱorȱotherȱgraphicȱ representationsȱhasȱbeenȱsuccessfulȱinȱgettingȱtheȱGerberȱbabyȱandȱtheȱ IsomilȱandȱSimilacȱbearȱoffȱlabelsȱofȱcoveredȱproducts. 305 ȱȱ
ȱ
Gerber changes its labels in Brazil and Bangladesh but not elsewhere
Bangladesh Malaysia ȱ
SlidesȱprovidedȱbyȱtheȱInternationalȱCodeȱDocumentationȱCentre.ȱȱ
Labellingȱrequirementsȱunderȱnationalȱlawȱforȱcomplementaryȱfoodsȱ andȱotherȱsimilarȱfoodsȱwillȱbeȱdifferentȱthanȱthoseȱforȱinfantȱformulaȱ sinceȱproperȱuseȱofȱcomplementaryȱfoodsȱplaysȱanȱimportantȱroleȱinȱ youngȱchildȱnutrition.ȱBotswana’sȱregulationsȱrequireȱthatȱlabelsȱonȱ followȬupȱformulaȱstateȱthatȱtheȱproductȱshallȱnotȱbeȱusedȱforȱinfantsȱ youngerȱthanȱsixȱmonths. 306 ȱȱTheyȱalsoȱprovideȱthatȱmilksȱmustȱcontainȱ theȱstatement,ȱ“THISȱPRODUCTȱISȱNOTȱSUITABLEȱFORȱFEEDINGȱ BABIES.” 307 ȱAȱrequirementȱlikeȱBotswana’sȱcouldȱbeȱstrengthenedȱ evenȱfurtherȱwithȱaȱwarningȱofȱtheȱharmfulȱeffectsȱofȱfeedingȱtheseȱ productsȱtoȱinfantsȱunderȱaȱcertainȱage.ȱ ȱ Boxȱ46:ȱSuggestionsȱforȱProvisionsȱonȱLabeling NationalȱregulationsȱcouldȱstrengthenȱtheȱCode’sȱprovisionsȱby:ȱ x prescribingȱtheȱpreciseȱsizeȱandȱplacementȱofȱtheȱwarningsȱandȱmessagesȱ (e.g.,ȱonȱtheȱtopȱonȬhalfȱofȱtheȱmainȱpanel,ȱorȱeachȱmainȱpanel,ȱifȱmoreȱthanȱ one),ȱandȱrequiringȱthemȱtoȱbeȱinȱtheȱlanguageȱorȱlanguagesȱspecifiedȱinȱ regulations;ȱ x prescribingȱcolour(s)ȱofȱtheȱtextȱinȱrelationȱtoȱtheȱbackgroundȱandȱtheȱsizeȱ andȱstyleȱofȱtheȱfont;ȱ x prohibitingȱtheȱlabelȱorȱpackageȱfromȱcontainingȱanyȱtext,ȱpictures,ȱ drawing,ȱlogo,ȱtrademark,ȱorȱgraphicsȱofȱanyȱkind,ȱotherȱthanȱthatȱ
305 Resolution RDC No. 222, 5 August 2002, Art. 4.3.1. 306 Marketing of Foods for Infants and Young Children Regulations, Art. 11. 307 Marketing of Foods for Infants and Young Children Regulations, Art. 13.
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prescribedȱorȱallowed;ȱ x prescribingȱlabellingȱrequirementsȱforȱcoveredȱproductsȱlikeȱfollowȬupȱ formulas,ȱcomplementaryȱfoods,ȱfoodsȱmarketedȱforȱpregnantȱandȱlactatingȱ women,ȱbottles,ȱteats,ȱandȱdummies;ȱ x forȱcomplementaryȱfoods,ȱclearlyȱstatingȱtheȱageȱofȱproperȱuse,ȱwithȱaȱ warningȱaboutȱtheȱȱhealthȱeffectsȱofȱuseȱatȱearlierȱagesȱorȱasȱaȱreplacementȱ forȱbreastmilk;ȱ x prohibitingȱanyȱhealthȱclaimȱorȱclaimsȱwithȱregardȱtoȱanyȱcoveredȱproduct,ȱ orȱalternatively,ȱrequiringȱapprovalȱbyȱtheȱMinistryȱofȱanyȱclaimsȱandȱ providingȱtheȱevaluationȱcriteriaȱtheȱMinistryȱshouldȱuseȱinȱgrantingȱ approval;ȱandȱ x prohibitingȱanyȱmisleadingȱclaimsȱbyȱmanufacturersȱorȱdistributors.ȱȱ ȱ Additionally,ȱgovernmentsȱmightȱconsiderȱprovidingȱaȱtemplateȱthatȱmustȱbeȱusedȱ forȱallȱcoveredȱwarningsȱandȱmessages.ȱ ȱ 10.ȱImplementationȱandȱmonitoringȱ ȱ Theȱlawȱshouldȱimposeȱclearȱauthoritiesȱandȱresponsibilitiesȱonȱtheȱ government,ȱonȱmanufacturersȱandȱdistributors,ȱhealthȱfacilitiesȱandȱ workers,ȱandȱonȱagentsȱofȱanyȱofȱtheseȱandȱanyoneȱworkingȱonȱtheirȱ behalf.ȱAdditionally,ȱitȱisȱimportantȱtoȱensureȱthatȱeachȱrequirementȱ underȱtheȱlawȱhasȱaȱcorrespondingȱpenaltyȱorȱpenaltiesȱforȱitsȱ violation.ȱTheȱauthoritiesȱandȱdutiesȱrelatedȱtoȱinspectionsȱandȱ enforcementȱalsoȱneedȱtoȱbeȱclearlyȱspelledȱout.ȱ(Seeȱdiscussionȱonȱ inspectionsȱandȱenforcementȱinȱtheȱsectionȱonȱfoodȱfortification,ȱ above.)ȱ ȱ Monitoringȱisȱcriticalȱbecauseȱitȱallowsȱtheȱgovernmentȱtoȱtakeȱactionȱ toȱenforceȱtheȱlaw.ȱThroughȱmonitoring,ȱtheȱgovernmentȱandȱ interestedȱorganizationsȱalsoȱwillȱbeȱawareȱofȱtheȱlatestȱindustryȱ practicesȱthatȱviolateȱorȱevadeȱtheȱlawȱinȱtheirȱcountries.ȱWithȱthisȱ knowledge,ȱtheȱgovernmentȱcan,ȱwhereȱnecessary,ȱamendȱlegalȱ requirementsȱtoȱcloseȱloopholesȱasȱwellȱasȱtakeȱenforcementȱactionȱinȱ responseȱtoȱclearȱviolations.ȱNGOsȱcanȱplayȱanȱimportantȱmonitoringȱ role,ȱenhancingȱtheȱgovernment’sȱabilityȱtoȱmonitorȱandȱenforceȱtheȱ law.ȱ ȱ BotswanaȱandȱIndia,ȱforȱexample,ȱcreatedȱaȱroleȱforȱsuchȱorganizationsȱ inȱtheirȱlegalȱframeworks.ȱBotswana’sȱRegulations 308 ȱgaveȱtheȱ
308 Marketing of Foods for Infants and Young Children Regulations, Art. 4.
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PermanentȱSecretaryȱpowerȱtoȱdesignateȱspeciallyȱtrainedȱmonitorsȱtoȱ investigate,ȱobserveȱandȱrecordȱinformationȱregardingȱmarketingȱ practicesȱatȱpointsȱofȱsale,ȱinȱhealthȱcareȱfacilities,ȱborderȱpostsȱandȱ offices,ȱthroughȱtheȱmedia,ȱandȱelsewhere.ȱMonitorsȱareȱvestedȱwithȱ inspectionȱandȱinvestigativeȱauthorityȱandȱtheirȱreportsȱcanȱserveȱasȱ evidenceȱinȱcourt.ȱIndia,ȱthroughȱMinisterialȱregulations, 309 ȱauthorizedȱ specifiedȱvoluntaryȱorganizationsȱengagedȱinȱtheȱfieldȱofȱchildȱwelfare,ȱ development,ȱandȱnutritionȱtoȱmakeȱaȱcomplaintȱinȱwritingȱunderȱ nationalȱlawȱadoptingȱtheȱCode.ȱ ȱ 11.ȱAdditionalȱmeasuresȱ ȱ Additionalȱprovisionsȱtoȱprotect,ȱpromote,ȱandȱsupportȱbreastfeedingȱ mightȱincludeȱsuchȱthingsȱas:ȱ
x registrationȱ ofȱ coveredȱ products,ȱ asȱ isȱ requiredȱ inȱ Nigeria,ȱ orȱ licensureȱ ofȱ manufacturersȱ andȱ distributorsȱ ofȱ coveredȱ products;ȱ x aȱspecificȱrequirementȱforȱtheȱgovernmentȱtoȱbothȱfund,ȱasȱwellȱ asȱimplement,ȱprogrammesȱforȱpublicȱeducationȱandȱtrainingȱofȱ communityȱandȱhealthȱworkersȱȱonȱappropriateȱinfantȱandȱchildȱ feedingȱpractices;ȱandȱȱ x aȱ requirementȱ forȱ inclusionȱ ofȱ suchȱ informationȱ inȱ theȱ curriculumȱofȱappropriateȱeducationalȱinstitutions,ȱespeciallyȱinȱ theȱ curriculumȱ forȱ medicalȱ professionals.ȱ These,ȱ alternatively,ȱ couldȱ beȱ takenȱ asȱ aȱ policyȱ decisionȱ withoutȱ necessarilyȱ incorporatingȱtheȱrequirementȱintoȱlaw.ȱȱȱ
1.4ȱ AccompanyingȱSocialȱPoliciesȱtoȱProtect,ȱPromoteȱ andȱSupportȱBreastfeedingȱ ȱ Theȱ1990ȱInnocentiȱDeclarationȱaffirmedȱimprovedȱbreastfeedingȱ practicesȱasȱaȱmeansȱtoȱfulfilȱchildren’sȱrightȱtoȱtheȱhighestȱattainableȱ standardȱofȱhealth,ȱcallingȱonȱgovernmentsȱtoȱimplementȱtheȱBabyȬ FriendlyȱHospitalȱInitiativeȱandȱtheȱCode,ȱappointȱaȱBreastfeedingȱ CoordinatorȱandȱestablishȱaȱmultiȬsectoralȱBreastfeedingȱCommittee,ȱ andȱenactȱlegislationȱprotectingȱtheȱbreastfeedingȱrightsȱofȱworkingȱ
309 Ministry of Human Resource Development (Department of Women and Child Development) Notifications of 27 June 1994 and 27 July 1995.
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womenȱandȱestablishȱaȱmeansȱforȱitsȱenforcement.ȱTheȱGlobalȱStrategyȱ forȱInfantȱandȱYoungȱChildȱFeeding,ȱadoptedȱbyȱtheȱWorldȱHealthȱ AssemblyȱandȱendorsedȱbyȱUNICEF’sȱExecutiveȱBoardȱinȱ2002,ȱ expandsȱtheȱInnocentiȱtargetsȱandȱincorporatesȱtheȱlatestȱscientificȱ evidence.ȱThisȱincludesȱtheȱoptimalȱdurationȱofȱexclusiveȱbreastfeedingȱ forȱsixȱmonthsȱandȱtheȱminimalȱdurationȱforȱcontinuedȱbreastfeeding,ȱ accompaniedȱbyȱsafeȱandȱappropriateȱcomplementaryȱfoods,ȱforȱtwoȱ yearsȱorȱlonger.ȱȱ ȱ TheȱInnocentiȱDeclarationȱ2005ȱreinforcesȱtheȱ1990ȱDeclarationȱandȱ GlobalȱStrategyȱtargetsȱasȱtheȱfoundationȱforȱactionȱtoȱimproveȱinfantȱ andȱyoungȱchildȱfeedingȱpracticesȱandȱexpandsȱonȱthem.ȱForȱexample,ȱ theȱ2005ȱDeclarationȱcallsȱonȱpartiesȱtoȱalsoȱensureȱtheȱhealthȱandȱ nutritionalȱstatusȱofȱwomenȱthroughoutȱallȱstagesȱofȱlifeȱandȱtoȱgiveȱ urgentȱattentionȱtoȱfacilitatingȱbreastfeedingȱforȱwomenȱemployedȱinȱ theȱnonȬformalȱsector,ȱamongȱotherȱsupports.ȱTheseȱdocumentsȱ togetherȱprovideȱtheȱframeworkȱforȱsocialȱpoliciesȱforȱtheȱprotection,ȱ promotionȱandȱsupportȱofȱbreastfeeding.ȱȱ ȱ 1.4.1ȱ TheȱNeedȱforȱMaternityȱProtectionȱasȱanȱAccompanyingȱSocialȱ Policyȱȱ ȱ Unlessȱ maternityȱ protectionȱ rightsȱ areȱ providedȱ inȱ nationalȱ law,ȱ womenȱinȱpaidȱemploymentȱwhoȱdecideȱtoȱbreastfeedȱfaceȱcompetingȱ demandsȱ thatȱ canȱ makeȱ breastfeedingȱ impossible.ȱ Additionally,ȱ aȱ returnȱ toȱ workȱ tooȱ earlyȱ canȱ jeopardiseȱ theȱ mother’sȱ health.ȱ Consequencesȱ canȱ includeȱ anaemia,ȱ malnutrition,ȱ urinaryȱ tractȱ infections,ȱ uterineȱ prolapse,ȱ andȱ physicalȱ andȱ emotionalȱ stress.310 ȱ Maternityȱ protectionȱ asȱ aȱ matterȱ ofȱ right,ȱ therefore,ȱ isȱ aȱ necessaryȱ componentȱ ofȱ legislativeȱ reformȱ toȱ protectȱ children’sȱ andȱ women’sȱ rightsȱtoȱadequateȱnutritionȱandȱhealth.ȱItȱalsoȱreflectsȱrecognitionȱthatȱ breastfeedingȱ isȱ aȱ socialȱ functionȱ andȱ itsȱ protection,ȱ promotionȱ andȱ supportȱareȱaȱsocialȱresponsibility.ȱȱȱȱȱȱ ȱ Essentialȱ elementsȱ ofȱ maternityȱ protectionȱ include,ȱ atȱ aȱ minimum,ȱ eliminatingȱ workplaceȱ discriminationȱ onȱ theȱ basisȱ ofȱ pregnancyȱ andȱ
310 Maternity protection coalition statement. IBFAN Press Release 5 June 2000, IBFAN, Penang, Malaysia, 200. Available at http://www.ibfan.org/english/news/press/press5june00.html. Accessed August 23, 2006.
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maternity,ȱ ensuringȱ incomeȱ andȱ jobȱ securityȱ andȱ providingȱ adequateȱ facilitiesȱforȱbreastfeedingȱandȱexpressionȱofȱmilk. 311 ȱȱ ȱ 1.4.2ȱ TheȱMaternityȱProtectionȱConventionȱandȱRecommendationsȱ ȱ TheȱILOȱadoptedȱtheȱMaternityȱProtectionȱConventionȱinȱ1919,ȱandȱ amendedȱitȱinȱ1952ȱandȱ2000.ȱAlthoughȱtheȱmajorityȱofȱcountriesȱhaveȱ notȱratifiedȱtheȱConvention,ȱtheȱvastȱmajorityȱhaveȱadoptedȱmaternityȱ protectionȱlegislationȱthatȱmeetsȱorȱexceedsȱtheȱlevelsȱofȱprotectionȱ elaboratedȱinȱtheȱConventionȱandȱRecommendations.ȱAȱsummaryȱofȱ theȱMaternityȱConventionȱandȱRecommendationsȱisȱcontainedȱinȱ Annexȱ2.ȱȱȱ ȱ 1.4.3ȱ IncorporatingȱtheȱMaternityȱConventionȱandȱRecommendationsȱ intoȱNationalȱLawȱ ȱ LegislativeȱprovisionsȱimplementingȱtheȱMaternityȱProtectionȱ ConventionȱandȱRecommendationsȱwillȱbeȱconcernedȱmainlyȱwithȱ providingȱsufficientȱscope,ȱquantityȱandȱqualityȱofȱbenefitsȱtoȱprotectȱ andȱsupportȱbreastfeeding,ȱalongȱwithȱstrongȱprovisionsȱforȱnonȬ discrimination.ȱȱ ȱ 1.ȱScopeȱ ȱ AȱglaringȱgapȱinȱtheȱConventionȱandȱRecommendationsȱisȱthatȱtheyȱdoȱ notȱapplyȱtoȱwomenȱworkingȱinȱtheȱinformalȱeconomyȱandȱinȱruralȱ farmingȱwhoȱoftenȱleadȱtheȱmostȱeconomicallyȱfragileȱlives.ȱItȱisȱ important,ȱtherefore,ȱforȱgovernmentsȱtoȱensureȱmechanismsȱforȱ protecting,ȱpromotingȱandȱsupportingȱtheȱbreastfeedingȱrightsȱofȱ womenȱinȱinformal,ȱruralȱandȱdomesticȱemployment.ȱThisȱmightȱbeȱ accomplished,ȱforȱexample,ȱthroughȱtheȱprovisionȱofȱsocialȱsecurity,ȱ publicȱassistance,ȱorȱotherȱgovernmentȱfundsȱtoȱwomenȱworkingȱinȱ theseȱsectors.ȱTheȱgovernmentȱalsoȱcouldȱfundȱbenefitsȱforȱsuchȱ workersȱthoroughȱprogramsȱlikeȱcooperativesȱandȱmutualȱbenefitȱ societies. 312 ȱȱ ȱ
311 Without frequent expression of milk, a sufficient milk supply becomes jeopardised. 312 Key elements of maternity protection at work: Maternity Protection Campaign Kit. WABA, Penang, Malaysia; undated; available at www.waba.org.my/womenwork/mpckit.htm. Accessed June 25, 2006.
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Forȱexample,ȱtheȱIndianȱgovernmentȱsubsidisesȱtheȱSelfȱEmployedȱ Women’sȱAssociationȱ(SEWA)ȱIntegratedȱInsuranceȱScheme,ȱwhichȱ providesȱaȱrangeȱofȱsocialȱbenefits,ȱincludingȱaȱsmallȱmaternityȱbenefit.ȱ SEWAȱisȱaȱmembershipȱorganisationȱforȱwomenȱwhoȱareȱselfȬ employed,ȱregularȱwageȱearnersȱandȱcasualȱlabourers.ȱInȱBangladesh,ȱ socialȱsecurityȱcoverageȱisȱextendedȱtoȱdifficultȬtoȬreachȱworkersȱ throughȱmicroȬhealthȱinsuranceȱschemes,ȱpromotedȱthroughȱ partnershipsȱwithȱvoluntaryȱorganisationsȱandȱtheȱgovernment. 313ȱ ȱ 2.ȱMaternityȱLeaveȱȱȱ ȱ Guaranteedȱleaveȱisȱnecessaryȱtoȱallowȱwomenȱtoȱtakeȱtimeȱoffȱaroundȱ aȱbirthȱeventȱwithoutȱfearȱofȱlosingȱtheirȱjobsȱorȱsufferingȱ discrimination.ȱNearlyȱoneȱhalfȱofȱcountriesȱforȱwhichȱdataȱareȱ availableȱmeetȱtheȱConvention’sȱrequirementȱofȱ14ȱorȱmoreȱweeksȱofȱ leave. 314 ȱInȱsomeȱcountries,ȱleaveȱisȱprovidedȱforȱextendedȱperiodsȱofȱ time.ȱTwelveȱcountriesȱprovideȱ26ȱorȱmoreȱweeksȱofȱmaternityȱleave. 315 ȱ Korea’sȱlawȱmandatesȱtheȱavailabilityȱofȱaȱmaternityȱleaveȱofȱupȱtoȱoneȱ yearȱandȱrequiresȱtheȱprovisionȱofȱnursingȱfacilitiesȱforȱinfants. 316 ȱIraq’sȱ lawȱprovidesȱmaternityȱleaveȱforȱanȱofficialȱtoȱbeȱfullyȱpaidȱforȱtheȱfirstȱ sixȱmonthsȱandȱhalfȬpaidȱforȱtheȱsecondȱsixȱmonths. 317 ȱSlovakia’sȱlawȱ grantsȱmaternityȱleaveȱforȱ28ȱweeksȱ(37ȱweeksȱifȱtheȱwomanȱgaveȱbirthȱ toȱtwoȱorȱmoreȱchildrenȱatȱtheȱsameȱtimeȱorȱifȱsheȱisȱaȱsingleȱmother). 318ȱ Governmentsȱshouldȱconsiderȱscalingȱupȱleaveȱoverȱtime,ȱifȱnotȱ immediately,ȱtoȱsixȱmonths,ȱwithȱfullȱpaymentȱandȱcontinuationȱofȱallȱ benefitsȱtoȱaccommodateȱandȱsupportȱexclusiveȱbreastfeedingȱforȱtheȱ CodeȬrecommendedȱperiodȱofȱsixȱmonths.ȱAtȱtheȱleast,ȱRȱ191’sȱ recommendationȱofȱaȱminimumȱofȱ18ȱweeksȱshouldȱbeȱrequired.ȱȱ ȱȱ
313 Social Protection Sector implementation report 2000-2001, ILO, Geneva (2001); available at www.ilo.org/public/english/protection/info/imprep2k-01/1c.htm. Accessed August 19, 2006. 314 Maternity at work: A review of national legislation, ILO, Geneva (2005); available at http://www.ilo.org/public/english/protection/condtrav/pdf/wf-iogpt-05.pdf. Accessed June 25, 2006. 315 Status of maternity protection by country, WABA, Penang, Malaysia (2006); available at http://www.waba.org.my/womenwork/MaternityProtectionChart21May2006.pdf. Accessed August 23, 2006. 316 Equal Employment Act No. 3989 (1987) (as amended). 317 Revolutionary Command Council Resolution No. 882 (1988). 318 Notification No. 190/2002 of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs on the Adoption of the Convention of the International Labour Organization No. 183/2000 concerning the Revision of the Maternity Protection Convention (Revised), 1952.
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3.ȱBenefitsȱȱ ȱ NinetyȬsevenȱpercentȱofȱcountriesȱstudiedȱbyȱtheȱILOȱprovideȱthatȱ womenȱmustȱbeȱpaidȱduringȱmaternityȱleave. 319 ȱThirtyȬsixȱpercentȱofȱ 153ȱcountriesȱstudiedȱmeetȱtheȱminimumȱrequirementȱofȱtwoȱthirdsȱofȱ earningsȱpaidȱforȱaȱminimumȱofȱ14ȱweeks.ȱTwentyȬsevenȱpercentȱpayȱ atȱ100ȱperȱcentȱofȱpreviousȱearnings.ȱNorway’sȱlaw,ȱforȱexample,ȱ providesȱforȱ100ȱperȱcentȱpayȱforȱupȱtoȱ44ȱweeksȱofȱparentalȱleaveȱorȱ80ȱ perȱcentȱofȱpayȱforȱ52ȱweeksȱupȱtoȱaȱmaximumȱbasedȱonȱparentalȱ income. 320 ȱSenegal’sȱlawȱrequiresȱ100ȱperȱcentȱpaymentȱbasedȱonȱtheȱ dailyȱwageȱpaidȱonȱtheȱlastȱpaydayȱpriorȱtoȱmaternityȱleave.ȱInȱPeru,ȱ theȱrateȱofȱpaymentȱisȱbasedȱonȱtheȱaverageȱdailyȱwageȱforȱtheȱfourȱ monthsȱprecedingȱtheȱstartȱofȱbenefits.ȱPeru,ȱFinland,ȱIreland,ȱandȱ Portugalȱprovideȱaȱminimumȱcompensationȱforȱlowȱwageȱearners. 321 ȱȱȱȱȱ Inȱ91ȱofȱ165ȱcountriesȱsurveyedȱbyȱtheȱILO,ȱbenefitsȱareȱpaidȱbyȱ nationalȱsocialȱsecurityȱschemes,ȱasȱcalledȱforȱbyȱRȱ191,ȱtoȱpreventȱ discriminationȱbyȱemployersȱbasedȱonȱhavingȱtoȱbearȱtheȱcostȱofȱtheȱ payment.ȱThereȱisȱaȱmixedȱsystemȱofȱpaymentȱinȱaboutȱ26ȱcountries. 322 ȱ Unlessȱtheȱleaveȱisȱpaidȱorȱcoveredȱbyȱsocialȱsecurity,ȱcoverageȱhasȱ beenȱshownȱtoȱbeȱineffective. 323 ȱGovernmentsȱalsoȱshouldȱstriveȱtoȱ requireȱpaidȱleaveȱatȱaȱrateȱofȱ100ȱperȱcentȱofȱearningsȱforȱtheȱpreviousȱ period,ȱasȱprovidedȱinȱR191.ȱȱ ȱ 4.ȱEmploymentȱProtectionȱandȱNonȬdiscriminationȱ ȱ Allȱbutȱthreeȱofȱtheȱ56ȱcountriesȱforȱwhichȱILOȱhasȱinformationȱonȱthisȱ matterȱprotectȱemploymentȱduringȱmaternity.ȱCountriesȱprohibitȱ dismissalȱduringȱpregnancyȱandȱleaveȱandȱforȱaȱprescribedȱperiodȱafterȱ leave.ȱMongoliaȱandȱEstoniaȱprohibitȱdismissalȱfromȱtheȱtimeȱofȱ pregnancyȱuntilȱtheȱchildȱisȱthreeȱyearsȱold. 324 ȱȱȱ Someȱcountriesȱprohibitȱdismissalȱduringȱmaternityȱwithoutȱexceptionȱ whileȱothersȱallowȱdismissalȱforȱcauseȱunrelatedȱtoȱmaternity.ȱTheȱ mostȱcommonȱgroundsȱforȱdismissalȱinclude:ȱseriousȱfault,ȱreasonsȱ
319 Maternity at work: A review of national legislation, ILO, Geneva (2005); available at http://www.ilo.org/public/english/protection/condtrav/pdf/wf-iogpt-05.pdf. Accessed June 25, 2006.html. 320 Ibid. 321 Ibid. 322 Ibid. 323 Ibid. 324 Ibid.
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stipulatedȱinȱlaw,ȱcessationȱofȱtheȱundertakingȱorȱtheȱwork,ȱcauseȱforȱ dismissalȱthatȱpreȬdatesȱtheȱpregnancy,ȱworkȱforȱanotherȱundertakingȱ whileȱonȱleave,ȱandȱfailureȱtoȱreturnȱtoȱworkȱonȱtheȱexpirationȱofȱleave.ȱ ManyȱcountriesȱplaceȱtheȱburdenȱofȱprovingȱaȱnonȬmaternityȱrelatedȱ reasonȱforȱdismissalȱonȱtheȱemployer,ȱasȱrequiredȱbyȱtheȱConvention.ȱ Someȱlawsȱrequireȱjudicialȱorȱadministrativeȱauthorisationȱbeforeȱ givingȱnoticeȱofȱdismissal. 325 ȱSomeȱcountriesȱprovideȱforȱcompensationȱ inȱtheȱcaseȱofȱdiscriminatoryȱdismissal.ȱForȱexample,ȱtheȱlawsȱinȱ ArgentinaȱandȱEcuadorȱprovideȱforȱaȱyear’sȱsalaryȱasȱcompensation.ȱ Belgiumȱprovidesȱforȱsixȱmonths’ȱsalaryȱandȱDominicanȱRepublicȱ providesȱforȱfiveȱmonthsȱcompensatoryȱpay. 326 ȱManyȱcountriesȱalsoȱ addressȱrightsȱuponȱreturnȱtoȱworkȱfollowingȱmaternityȱleave,ȱ commonlyȱtheȱrightȱtoȱreturnȱtoȱtheȱsameȱorȱequivalentȱpostȱpaidȱatȱtheȱ sameȱrateȱasȱbeforeȱtheȱleave.ȱȱȱȱȱ ȱȱ 5.ȱBreastfeedingȱMothersȱ ȱ Breastfeedingȱbreaksȱallowȱmothersȱtoȱfeedȱtheirȱbabiesȱorȱexpressȱ theirȱmilkȱforȱlaterȱfeedings.ȱExpressionȱofȱbreastmilkȱisȱimportantȱforȱ maintainingȱtheȱsupplyȱofȱbreastmilk.ȱLegislationȱinȱatȱleastȱ92ȱ countriesȱprovidesȱforȱbreastfeedingȱbreaksȱinȱadditionȱtoȱregularȱ breaks,ȱusuallyȱofȱ30Ȭminuteȱduration,ȱtwoȱtimesȱperȱday.ȱLegislationȱ inȱmoreȱthanȱtwoȱthirdsȱofȱcountriesȱforȱwhichȱtheȱILOȱhasȱdataȱ providesȱforȱpaymentȱduringȱbreastfeedingȱbreaks,ȱasȱrequiredȱbyȱtheȱ Convention. 327 ȱTheȱlawȱinȱEstoniaȱprovidesȱbreaksȱforȱfeedingȱchildrenȱ youngerȱthanȱ18ȱmonthsȱatȱleastȱeveryȱthreeȱhoursȱforȱ30ȱminutesȱeach.ȱ Colombianȱlawȱprovidesȱforȱtwoȱ30ȱminuteȱbreaksȱbutȱallowsȱforȱ additionalȱbreaksȱwhereȱthereȱisȱaȱmedicalȱcertificateȱindicatingȱtheȱ need.ȱInȱEcuador,ȱwhenȱaȱworkplaceȱdoesȱnotȱprovideȱaȱnursery,ȱaȱ nursingȱmotherȱisȱentitledȱtoȱworkȱonlyȱsixȱhours/dayȱduringȱtheȱfirstȱ nineȱmonthsȱafterȱconfinement.ȱInȱsomeȱcountriesȱwhereȱleaveȱisȱ unpaid,ȱatȱaȱveryȱminimumȱbreastfeedingȱbreaksȱareȱpaid.ȱȱȱȱ ȱ Colombianȱlawȱrequiresȱthatȱeveryȱemployerȱestablishȱinȱorȱnextȱtoȱtheȱ premisesȱaȱroomȱforȱnursingȱorȱaȱsuitableȱplaceȱforȱchildcare. 328 ȱTheȱ lawȱinȱEcuadorȱrequiresȱthatȱanyȱemployerȱwithȱ50ȱorȱmoreȱemployeesȱ
325 Ibid. 326 Ibid. 327 Ibid. 328 Ibid.
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provideȱnursingȱorȱdayȱcareȱfacilities. 329 ȱInȱCambodia,ȱemployersȱwithȱ 100ȱorȱmoreȱfemaleȱemployeesȱmustȱsetȱupȱaȱnursingȱroomȱandȱ daycareȱcentreȱinȱtheirȱestablishmentsȱorȱnearby.ȱAȱnursingȱroomȱmustȱ beȱprovidedȱinȱorȱnearȱanyȱplaceȱofȱemploymentȱwithȱmoreȱthanȱ25ȱ womenȱemployees. 330 ȱToȱaddressȱhygienicȱconcerns,ȱmoreȱworkplacesȱ areȱprovidingȱfacilitiesȱforȱexpressingȱandȱstoringȱmilk. 331 ȱȱ Governmentsȱshouldȱrequireȱemployersȱtoȱprovideȱpaidȱbreastfeedingȱ breaksȱoftenȱenoughȱforȱwomenȱtoȱmeetȱtheirȱbabies’ȱfeedingȱneeds.ȱ Paymentȱshouldȱbeȱoutȱofȱtheȱsocialȱsecurityȱfund,ȱasȱitȱisȱforȱpaymentȱ ofȱleave,ȱsoȱthatȱthereȱisȱnotȱaȱfinancialȱincentiveȱforȱemployersȱtoȱ discriminate.ȱȱȱȱ ȱ 1.4.4ȱ SuggestionsȱforȱAdditionalȱProvisionsȱ ȱ Governmentsȱshouldȱestablishȱandȱfundȱmechanismsȱforȱreceiving,ȱ investigatingȱandȱresolvingȱcomplaints.ȱAsȱalways,ȱclearȱenforcementȱ powersȱandȱdutiesȱneedȱtoȱbeȱspecifiedȱinȱtheȱlaw.ȱFinally,ȱtheȱlawȱ couldȱrequireȱtheȱgovernmentȱtoȱfundȱpublicȱeducationȱprogrammesȱ andȱmaterialsȱforȱinformingȱwomenȱofȱtheirȱrightsȱunderȱtheȱlaw.ȱȱȱ ȱ 1.5ȱ EstablishingȱaȱPolicyȱEnvironmentȱtoȱProtectȱagainstȱ ChildhoodȱObesityȱandȱPromoteȱPhysicalȱActivityȱȱ ȱ 1.5.1ȱ IntroductionȱtoȱtheȱProblemȱofȱOverweightȱChildrenȱandȱ Obesityȱ ȱ Developingȱcountriesȱareȱexperiencingȱanȱincreaseȱinȱoverweightȱandȱ obesityȱinȱchildrenȱunderȱ5ȱyearsȱofȱage.ȱThisȱisȱtheȱcaseȱevenȱinȱ countriesȱwithȱlowȱgrossȱnationalȱproductȱperȱcapitaȱandȱwhereȱchildȱ andȱmaternalȱunderȬnutritionȱisȱwidespread. 332 ȱRiskȱforȱobesityȱstartsȱ inȱuteroȱandȱisȱassociatedȱwith,ȱamongȱotherȱfactors,ȱbothȱmaternalȱ underȬnutritionȱandȱoverweightȱmothers. 333 ȱPopulationsȱinȱcountriesȱ undergoingȱincreasedȱurbanisationȱandȱeconomicȱtransitionȱareȱ
329 Ibid. 330 Ibid. 331 Ibid. 332 Repositioning Nutrition, World Bank, Washington, D.C. (2006); available at http://siteresources.worldbank.org/NUTRITION/Resources/281846- 1131636806329/NutritionStrategy.pdf. Accessed August 23, 2006. 332 Ibid. 333 Ibid.
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consumingȱdietsȱhighȱinȱenergyȱdensity,ȱfat,ȱsugar,ȱandȱrefinedȱgrains,ȱ andȱlowȱinȱcereals,ȱfruitsȱandȱvegetables.ȱCombinedȱwithȱdecreasedȱ physicalȱactivityȱamongȱchildrenȱdueȱtoȱmoreȱtelevisionȬviewingȱandȱ otherȱsedentaryȱactivities,ȱaȱfavourableȱenvironmentȱisȱcreatedȱforȱ childrenȱtoȱbecomeȱoverweightȱorȱobese. 334 ȱȱ Overweightȱandȱobesityȱincreaseȱtheȱriskȱforȱdyslipidemia,ȱ hypertension,ȱhyperpinsulinism,ȱinsulinȱresistanceȱandȱdiabetes.ȱ These,ȱinȱturn,ȱsignificantlyȱincreaseȱtheȱriskȱforȱcardiovascularȱdiseaseȱ andȱsomeȱformsȱofȱcancer. 335 , 336 ȱAȱUSȱstudyȱfoundȱthatȱanȱobeseȱpersonȱ experiencesȱaȱ50ȱperȱcentȱreductionȱinȱproductivityȱandȱvisitsȱaȱdoctorȱ 88ȱperȱcentȱmoreȱoftenȱthanȱaȱhealthyȱpersonȱduringȱaȱsixȬyearȱperiod.ȱ Obesityȱcontributesȱtoȱabsenteeismȱandȱreducesȱproductivityȱofȱtheȱ population. 337 ȱConsequentlyȱthisȱreducesȱtheȱcountry’sȱdevelopmentȱ potential,ȱfeedingȱtheȱviciousȱcycleȱofȱpovertyȱandȱtheȱongoingȱdenialȱ ofȱhumanȱrightsȱforȱbothȱchildrenȱandȱadultsȱthatȱpovertyȱcreates.ȱ ȱ 1.5.2ȱ TheȱNeedȱforȱLegislationȱȱ ȱ Worldwide,ȱ155ȱmillionȱschoolȬageȱchildrenȱareȱoverweight,ȱincludingȱ approximatelyȱ40ȱmillionȱwhoȱareȱobese.ȱDevelopingȱcountriesȱoverallȱ haveȱseenȱaȱsevenȱperȱcentȱincreaseȱinȱchildhoodȱobesityȱprevalenceȱ rates.ȱAfricaȱhasȱseenȱanȱastoundingȱ58ȱperȱcentȱincrease. 338 ȱTheȱ growingȱincidenceȱofȱTypeȱIIȱdiabetesȱinȱchildrenȱisȱsoundingȱanȱalarmȱ thatȱcallsȱforȱactionȱnowȱtoȱchangeȱsocialȱandȱphysicalȱenvironmentsȱ thatȱpromoteȱoverweightȱandȱobesity.ȱLegislativeȱreformȱisȱnecessaryȱ toȱcreateȱenvironmentsȱthatȱpromoteȱchildren’sȱaccessȱandȱexposureȱtoȱ healthyȱfoods,ȱdecreaseȱaccessȱandȱexposureȱtoȱunhealthyȱfoodsȱ throughȱmarketing,ȱandȱencourageȱincreasedȱphysicalȱactivity.ȱȱȱ
334 Hoffman, D., Obesity in developing countries: Causes and implications, FAO, Rome, undated; available at www.fao.org/DOCREP/003/Y0600M/y0600m05.htm. Accessed June 25, 2006. 335 Ibid. 336 Repositioning Nutrition, World Bank, Washington, D.C. (2006); available at http://siteresources.worldbank.org/NUTRITION/Resources/281846- 1131636806329/NutritionStrategy.pdf. Accessed August 23, 2006. 337 Hoffman, D., Obesity in developing countries: Causes and implications, FAO, Rome, undated; available at www.fao.org/DOCREP/003/Y0600M/y0600m05.htm. Accessed June 25, 2006. 338 Repositioning Nutrition, World Bank, Washington, D.C. (2006); available at http://siteresources.worldbank.org/NUTRITION/Resources/281846- 1131636806329/NutritionStrategy.pdf. Accessed August 23, 2006.
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Inȱadditionȱtoȱtheȱindividual,ȱpublicȱhealth,ȱandȱsocioȬeconomicȱ consequencesȱofȱobesity,ȱthereȱisȱtheȱissueȱofȱmanipulatingȱchildrenȱ throughȱtheȱmarketingȱofȱjunkȱfoods.ȱȱ Childrenȱlackȱtheȱcognitiveȱabilityȱtoȱunderstandȱadvertisingȱandȱ promotionȱorȱtoȱdistinguishȱprogrammeȱcontentȱfromȱadvertisement.ȱ Theyȱalsoȱcannotȱappreciateȱtheȱconsequencesȱofȱestablishingȱbadȱ eatingȱhabitsȱthatȱcanȱpersistȱoverȱaȱlifetimeȱandȱincreaseȱtheȱriskȱofȱ chronicȱdiseases. 339 ȱYet,ȱchildrenȱinȱmanyȱcountriesȱareȱbombardedȱbyȱ directȱandȱindirectȱfoodȱadvertisingȱandȱpromotion,ȱusuallyȱofȱtheȱ unhealthyȱvariety.ȱȱ ȱ Foodȱcompaniesȱandȱfastȱfoodȱrestaurantsȱspendȱbillionsȱmarketingȱ unhealthyȱandȱjunkȱfoodsȱtoȱkids. 340 ȱWorseȱyet,ȱschoolsȱinȱmanyȱplacesȱ allowȱthemselvesȱtoȱbeȱvehiclesȱforȱmarketingȱtheseȱproductsȱtoȱtheȱ childrenȱinȱtheirȱcare.ȱAtȱtheȱsameȱtimeȱthatȱschoolsȱteachȱnutritionȱandȱ healthȱeducation,ȱmanyȱundermineȱtheseȱeducationalȱeffortsȱbyȱsellingȱ highȬsugarȱsodasȱandȱhighȬsugarȱandȱȬfatȱsnacksȱinȱvendingȱmachinesȱ orȱschoolȱcanteens.ȱManyȱallowȱunhealthyȱfastȱfoodȱtoȱcompeteȱwithȱ schoolȬprovidedȱmeals,ȱwhichȱinȱmanyȱcasesȱareȱalsoȱunhealthy.ȱTheȱ CRCȱrecognisesȱtheȱneedȱtoȱprotectȱchildrenȱfromȱinformationȱandȱ materialsȱinjuriousȱtoȱtheirȱwellȬbeing.ȱThisȱshouldȱincludeȱprotectionȱ againstȱmarketingȱofȱjunkȱfoodsȱtoȱchildren.ȱWhenȱtheȱstateȱbecomesȱaȱ partyȱtoȱthisȱmarketingȱthroughȱtheȱpublicȱeducationȱsystem,ȱforȱ exampleȱbyȱallowingȱsponsorshipsȱofȱschoolȱprogramsȱandȱmaterials,ȱ theȱcaseȱforȱlegislativeȱreformȱinȱthisȱareaȱbecomesȱevenȱstronger.ȱ ȱ 1.5.3ȱ Issuesȱ ȱ 1.ȱScantȱevaluationȱdataȱ ȱ Mostȱlegislativeȱandȱprogrammaticȱinitiativesȱinȱthisȱareaȱhaveȱnotȱyetȱ beenȱevaluatedȱforȱimpactȱonȱreducingȱobesity.ȱForȱexample,ȱthereȱisȱ noȱdirectȱevidenceȱthatȱincreasedȱtaxationȱonȱunhealthyȱfoodsȱaffectsȱ ratesȱofȱobesity,ȱalthoughȱstudiesȱhaveȱlinkedȱfoodȱpricingȱwithȱ
339 Mello, M. et. Al, “Obesity - The New Frontier of Public Health Law”, New England Journal of Medicine, vol. 354 (June 15, 2006), p. 2601-2610; available at http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/354/24/2601?query=TOC. 340 Nestle, M., “Food Marketing and Childhood Obesity - A Matter of Policy”, New England Journal of Medicine, vol 354 (June 15, 2006), p. 2527-2529; available at http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/354/24/2527?query=TOC.
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consumptionȱpatterns.ȱThereȱareȱclearȱstudies,ȱbyȱanalogy,ȱshowingȱ thatȱhigherȱcigaretteȱtaxesȱreduceȱtobaccoȱconsumption. 341 ȱAȱrecentȱ studyȱshowsȱtheȱrelationshipȱbetweenȱadvertisingȱinȱParents’ȱMagazineȱ andȱaȱreductionȱinȱbreastfeedingȱrates. 342 ȱStudiesȱalsoȱareȱlackingȱtoȱ demonstrateȱtheȱeffectivenessȱofȱadvertisingȱrestrictionsȱ(asȱcomparedȱ toȱadvertisingȱbans).ȱDrawingȱagainȱfromȱtheȱtobaccoȱcontrolȱexample,ȱ studiesȱhaveȱshownȱthatȱinȱcountriesȱwhereȱdirectȱandȱindirectȱtobaccoȱ advertisingȱhasȱnotȱbeenȱbannedȱbutȱmerelyȱrestricted,ȱtheȱtobaccoȱ industryȱsubstitutedȱitsȱpromotionalȱactivitiesȱtoȱpermittedȱforms. 343 ȱȱȱ ȱ 2.ȱContentȱofȱlegislationȱ ȱ Becauseȱgovernmentsȱhaveȱonlyȱfairlyȱrecentlyȱbegunȱtakingȱlegislativeȱ actionȱinȱthisȱarena,ȱglobalȱguidanceȱforȱspecificȱpolicyȱandȱlegislativeȱ contentȱhasȱnotȱyetȱbeenȱdisseminatedȱinȱtheȱsameȱwayȱasȱforȱtheȱotherȱ nutritionalȱtopicsȱdiscussedȱinȱthisȱsubchapter.ȱȱNationalȱlegislativeȱ activityȱhasȱnotȱoccurredȱinȱtooȱmanyȱcountries,ȱandȱeffectivenessȱ evaluationȱdataȱareȱnotȱyetȱavailableȱwhereȱitȱhas.ȱAsȱaȱresultȱofȱtheseȱ factors,ȱthisȱsubsectionȱwillȱsimplyȱhighlightȱtheȱareasȱforȱpolicyȱandȱ legislativeȱdevelopmentȱproposedȱbyȱsomeȱinternationalȱandȱregionalȱ healthȱorganisationsȱandȱconsumerȬȱandȱhealthȬbasedȱNGOs.ȱȱ ȱ Legislativeȱtopicsȱapplicableȱtoȱobesityȱpreventionȱandȱphysicalȱ activityȱpromotionȱmightȱinclude:ȱȱ ȱ 3.ȱMandatingȱandȱfundingȱeducationȱandȱpublicȱawarenessȱȱ ȱ AccordingȱtoȱWHO’sȱGlobalȱStrategyȱonȱDiet,ȱPhysicalȱActivityȱandȱ Health,ȱarticulatedȱinȱWHAȱ57.17ȱ(2004),ȱtheȱpublicȱneedsȱtoȱ understand,ȱamongȱotherȱthings,ȱtheȱrelationshipsȱamongȱdiet,ȱ physicalȱactivityȱandȱhealth,ȱandȱbetweenȱenergyȱintakeȱandȱoutputȱ needs.ȱWithoutȱthisȱknowledge,ȱhealthyȱfoodȱchoicesȱcannotȱbeȱmade.ȱ Becauseȱchildrenȱareȱexposedȱtoȱfoodȱadvertisingȱandȱpromotionȱ almostȱeverywhereȱtheyȱturn,ȱstartingȱatȱaȱveryȱearlyȱage,ȱmediaȱ
341 Jha, P. and F. Chaloupka, Curbing the epidemic: Governments and the economics of tobacco control, World Bank, Washington, D.C. (1999). 342 Foss, K. and B. Southwell, “The relationship between advertising in Parents Magazine and breastfeeding 1972-2000”, International Breastfeeding Journal, 1:10 (2006); available at http://www.internationalbreastfeedingjournal.com/content/1/1/10. Accessed August 30, 2006. 343 Ibid.
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educationȱ(theȱskillȱofȱunderstandingȱtheȱnatureȱofȱmassȱmediaȱ communicationsȱandȱemployingȱcriticalȱthinkingȱinȱinterpretingȱthem)ȱ shouldȱbeȱintroducedȱinȱschoolsȱearlyȱon. 344 ȱTheȱgovernmentȱwillȱneedȱ toȱprovideȱfundingȱforȱtheseȱactivitiesȱandȱforȱinitiativesȱlikeȱmassȱ mediaȱcampaigns,ȱschoolȬbasedȱnutritionȱeducation,ȱworkplaceȱ healthyȱeatingȱandȱphysicalȱactivityȱpromotionȱinitiatives,ȱandȱsimilarȱ strategies.ȱȱȱȱ ȱ 4.ȱBanningȱmarketingȱtoȱchildrenȱ ȱ Foodȱadvertisingȱaffectsȱfoodȱchoicesȱandȱinfluencesȱdietaryȱchoices. 345 ȱ Manyȱgovernmentsȱprohibitȱorȱrestrictȱadvertisingȱduringȱtelevisionȱ programsȱtargetingȱchildren. 346 ȱȱEightyȬfiveȱperȱcentȱofȱ73ȱcountriesȱ surveyedȱbyȱWHOȱwereȱfoundȱtoȱregulateȱtelevisionȱadvertisingȱtoȱ childrenȱwithȱrespectȱtoȱtimingȱandȱcontent.ȱTwoȱcountriesȱhadȱbannedȱ advertisingȱtoȱkids. 347 ȱTheȱfoodȱindustryȱmarketsȱandȱpromotesȱitsȱ productsȱthroughȱmanyȱmedia,ȱbothȱdirectlyȱandȱindirectly.ȱTacticsȱ includeȱadvertisements,ȱproductȱplacementsȱinȱtoys,ȱgames,ȱ educationalȱmaterials,ȱsongs,ȱmovies,ȱcharacterȱlicensing,ȱcelebrityȱ endorsements,ȱinternetȱandȱmobileȱphoneȱtextȱmessaging,ȱdisplaysȱatȱ retailȱoutletsȱ(includingȱproductȱdisplays),ȱandȱstockingȱorȱslottingȱ policiesȱthatȱmakeȱjunkȱfoodsȱaccessibleȱtoȱchildren,ȱtoȱnameȱjustȱaȱ few. 348 , 349 ȱAllȱformsȱofȱdirectȱandȱindirectȱadvertisingȱandȱpromotionȱ willȱneedȱtoȱbeȱaddressedȱinȱaȱcomprehensiveȱway.ȱMarketingȱandȱ promotionȱinȱschoolsȱisȱaȱgrowingȱtrendȱand,ȱasȱdiscussedȱabove,ȱ shouldȱbeȱprohibited.ȱȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
344 Global Strategy on Diet, Physical Activity and Health, WHA 57.17 WHO, Geneva (2004); available at http://www.who.int/child-adolescent- health/New_Publications/NUTRITION/gs_iycf.pdf. Accessed August 23, 2006. 345 Ibid. 346 Hawkes, C., Marketing food to children: The global regulatory environment, WHO, Geneva (2004); available at http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2004/9241591579.pdf. 347 Ibid. 348 Nestle, M., “Food Marketing and Childhood Obesity - A Matter of Policy”, New England Journal of Medicine; 354:2527-2529 (June 15, 2006). Available at http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/354/24/2527?query=TOC. 349 “Obesity: How is the food industry responding?” Investor Responsibility. Accessed June 29, 2006.
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5.ȱLabelingȱȱ ȱ Foodȱlabellingȱshouldȱprovideȱconsumersȱwithȱaccurate,ȱstandardisedȱ andȱunderstandableȱinformationȱonȱcontentȱtoȱenableȱthemȱtoȱmakeȱ healthyȱchoices. 350 ȱLabellingȱrequirementsȱalsoȱcanȱmandateȱanȱ indicationȱofȱtheȱnutritionalȱdisadvantagesȱofȱaȱproductȱ(aȱwarning).ȱȱ Inȱaddition,ȱmisleadingȱclaimsȱwillȱneedȱtoȱbeȱaddressed.ȱForȱexample,ȱ foodsȱlabelledȱasȱ’90ȱperȱcentȱfatȱfree’ȱareȱmisleadingȱbecauseȱ10ȱperȱ centȱfatȱcontentȱisȱstillȱfairlyȱhigh. 351 ȱȱUnderȱtheȱproposedȱEuropeanȱ UnionȱRegulationȱonȱNutritionȱandȱHealthȱClaimsȱMadeȱonȱFoods,ȱ claimsȱlikeȱ‘highȱfibre’ȱwillȱhaveȱminimumȱamountȱofȱfibreȱperȱunitȱ defined.ȱToȱmakeȱhealthȱclaims,ȱcompaniesȱwillȱhaveȱtoȱprovideȱ scientificȱevidenceȱandȱgetȱpreȬmarketingȱapproval.ȱAȱpositiveȱlistȱofȱ wellȬestablishedȱhealthȱclaimsȱwillȱbeȱdeveloped. 352 ȱȱ ȱ 6.ȱFiscalȱPoliciesȱ
Pricingȱinfluencesȱfoodȱconsumptionȱchoices. 353 ȱInfluencingȱpricingȱofȱ healthyȱfoodsȱrelativeȱtoȱunhealthyȱfoodsȱcanȱbeȱaccomplishedȱthroughȱ measuresȱlikeȱtaxesȱ(higherȱonȱjunkȱfoods,ȱlowerȱonȱhealthyȱfoodsȱlikeȱ freshȱfruitsȱandȱvegetables),ȱsubsidiesȱ(lowerȱforȱproductsȱthatȱare,ȱforȱ example,ȱhighȱinȱfatȱandȱhigherȱforȱhealthyȱfoods),ȱandȱreducedȱtariffsȱ onȱfruitsȱandȱvegetables.ȱȱ
7.ȱSchoolȱPoliciesȱ ȱ Creatingȱaȱhealthyȱeatingȱenvironmentȱinȱschoolsȱhasȱmeant,ȱinȱsomeȱ jurisdictions,ȱbanningȱsalesȱofȱjunkȱfoodsȱandȱsugaryȱsodasȱ(e.g.,ȱ England,ȱsodasȱandȱhighȱsugarȱsnacks;ȱFrance,ȱsodas;ȱandȱNewȱSouthȱ Whales,ȱsodas)ȱandȱestablishingȱnutritionalȱrequirementsȱforȱschoolȬ providedȱmealsȱ(England).ȱNutritionȱeducation,ȱasȱdiscussedȱabove,ȱ alsoȱisȱanȱimportantȱcomponentȱofȱschoolȱpolicies,ȱasȱareȱrequirementsȱ forȱphysicalȱeducationȱinȱtheȱcurriculum.ȱ ȱ
350 Global Strategy on Diet, Physical Activity and Health, WHA 57.17 WHO, Geneva (2004); available at http://www.who.int/child-adolescent- health/New_Publications/NUTRITION/gs_iycf.pdf. Accessed August 23, 2006. 351 “Obesity: How is the food industry responding?” Investor Responsibility. Accessed June 29, 2006. 352 Ibid. 353 Ibid.
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ȱ ȱ 8.ȱPhysicalȱactivityȱpromotionȱ ȱ Manyȱinitiativesȱforȱpromotingȱphysicalȱactivity,ȱsuchȱasȱprovidingȱ pathsȱforȱcyclingȱandȱwalking,ȱandȱpublicȱtransportationȱpoliciesȱareȱtoȱ beȱundertakenȱatȱtheȱlocalȱlevel.ȱNationalȱgovernmentȱcanȱestablishȱ policyȱguidanceȱandȱprovideȱfundingȱtoȱlowerȱlevelsȱofȱgovernmentsȱ forȱnewȱinitiativesȱinȱthisȱarea.ȱȱȱȱȱ ȱȱ 1.6ȱ Participatoryȱprocessesȱȱ ȱ AnȱimportantȱcomponentȱofȱaȱrightsȬbasedȱapproachȱtoȱnutritionȱisȱaȱ participatoryȱprocessȱinvolvingȱallȱstakeholders,ȱwithȱspecialȱoutreachȱ toȱ populationȱ groupsȱ mostȱ affectedȱ byȱ inadequateȱ nutrition.ȱ Inȱ theȱ micronutrientȱ realm,ȱ nationalȱ alliancesȱ involvingȱ governments,ȱ foodȱ producers,ȱ healthȱ andȱ nutritionȱ professionals,ȱ academicsȱ andȱ researchers,ȱ civilȱ societyȱ andȱ internationalȱ agenciesȱ haveȱ beenȱ keyȱ toȱ theȱsuccessesȱachieved. 354 ȱTheseȱalliancesȱhaveȱbeenȱinvolvedȱinȱpolicyȱ development,ȱ programmeȱ implementation,ȱ monitoringȱ andȱ evaluation.ȱ Similarȱ alliancesȱ wouldȱ beȱ wellȱ equippedȱ toȱ addressȱ obesityȱ preventionȱ andȱ physicalȱ activityȱ promotion.ȱ Theȱ conflictȱ ofȱ interestȱ withȱ involvingȱ theȱ foodȱ industryȱ inȱ addressingȱ obesityȱ mustȱ beȱborneȱinȱmind,ȱhowever.ȱ ȱ Withȱ regardȱ toȱ breastfeeding,ȱ theȱ Innocentiȱ Declarationȱ callsȱ forȱ aȱ breastfeedingȱ coordinatorȱ andȱ aȱ multisectoralȱ nationalȱ breastfeedingȱ committee.ȱParticipatoryȱprocessesȱforȱmaternityȱprotectionȱwillȱneedȱ toȱ includeȱ theȱ involvementȱ ofȱ employers,ȱ tradeȱ unions,ȱ workers,ȱ especiallyȱfromȱinformalȱandȱruralȱeconomies,ȱandȱhealthȱandȱnutritionȱ NGOs.ȱ Itȱ alsoȱ willȱ beȱ essentialȱ toȱ includeȱ NGOsȱ involvedȱ withȱ breastfeedingȱ promotion,ȱ healthȱ promotion,ȱ andȱ women’sȱ rightsȱ inȱ maternityȱprotectionȱefforts.ȱOfȱcourse,ȱtheȱroleȱofȱchildrenȱofȱsufficientȱ ageȱ inȱ theȱ processȱ shouldȱ beȱ assured,ȱ asȱ appropriate,ȱ inȱ accordanceȱ withȱtheȱCRCȱframework.ȱAȱparticipatoryȱapproachȱshouldȱbeȱtakenȱinȱ allȱphasesȱofȱlegislationȱreformȱforȱnutrition,ȱfromȱanalysingȱtheȱneedȱ
354 Andersen P., Vitamin and mineral deficiency: A global progress report, Micronutrient Initiative, Ottawa, undated; available at http://www.unicef.org/media/files/vmd.pdf. Accessed August 23, 2006.
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forȱ reform,ȱ toȱ planningȱ legislativeȱ andȱ programmeȱ interventions,ȱ toȱ implementingȱandȱmonitoringȱtheirȱeffectiveness.ȱ ȱ 1.7ȱ CreatingȱJusticiableȱRightsȱȱ ȱ Creatingȱ aȱ justiciableȱ rightȱ ofȱ redressȱ empowersȱ individualsȱ andȱ membersȱofȱcivilȱsocietyȱwithȱaȱmeansȱforȱclaimingȱtheirȱrights.ȱInȱthisȱ regard,ȱ theȱ lawȱ canȱ provideȱ forȱ aȱ privateȱ rightȱ ofȱ actionȱ byȱ anyȱ individualȱharmedȱasȱaȱresultȱofȱnonȬcomplianceȱbyȱanyȱdutyȬbearer,ȱ governmentalȱ andȱ nonȬgovernmentalȱ alike.ȱ Anȱ individual,ȱ therefore,ȱ wouldȱnotȱbeȱrequiredȱtoȱrelyȱonȱtheȱgovernmentȱforȱprotectingȱhisȱorȱ herȱrights.ȱRather,ȱanȱindividualȱwouldȱbeȱableȱtoȱbringȱactionȱagainstȱ theȱ governmentȱ forȱ failingȱ toȱ fulfillȱ anyȱ ofȱ itsȱ directȱ obligationsȱ ofȱ implementationȱandȱenforcement.ȱAnȱindividualȱalsoȱwouldȱbeȱableȱtoȱ bringȱ legalȱ actionȱ directlyȱ againstȱ aȱ privateȱ dutyȱ bearerȱ (e.g.,ȱ foodȱ company,ȱemployer)ȱforȱanyȱfailureȱtoȱcomplyȱwithȱanyȱdutyȱimposedȱ onȱitȱbyȱlaw.ȱ ȱ Aȱrightȱtoȱbringȱpublicȱlitigationȱbyȱcivilȱsocietyȱorganisationsȱshouldȱ beȱestablishedȱinȱtheȱlaw,ȱwhereȱappropriate.ȱInȱtheȱcaseȱwhereȱaȱdutyȱ bearerȱ failsȱ toȱ fulfillȱ itsȱ duty,ȱ representativeȱ organisationsȱ canȱ beȱ empoweredȱtoȱbringȱanȱactionȱonȱbehalfȱofȱanyȱintendedȱbeneficiaryȱtoȱ seekȱ aȱ courtȱ orderȱ forȱ fulfillmentȱ ofȱ thatȱ dutyȱ andȱ theȱ awardȱ ofȱ anȱ establishedȱ civilȱ penalty,ȱ alongȱ withȱ recoveryȱ ofȱ costsȱ andȱ waiverȱ ofȱ filingȱfees.ȱȱ ȱ 1.8ȱ MechanismsȱforȱMonitoringȱandȱAccountabilityȱ ȱ Forȱ allȱ ofȱ theȱ programmesȱ discussedȱ inȱ thisȱ subȬchapter,ȱ theȱ lawȱ shouldȱ chargeȱ theȱ governmentȱ withȱ aȱ clearȱ dutyȱ toȱ establishȱ andȱ implementȱ processesȱ forȱ periodicallyȱ monitoringȱ theȱ effectivenessȱ ofȱ itsȱ nutritionȱ interventions,ȱ includingȱ theȱ effectivenessȱ ofȱ legalȱ provisionsȱ andȱ theirȱ implementationȱ andȱ enforcement.ȱ Thisȱ way,ȱ programmaticȱ adjustmentsȱ andȱ legislativeȱ amendmentsȱ canȱ beȱ undertakenȱ asȱ appropriate.ȱ Differentȱ modelsȱ forȱ doingȱ thisȱ include,ȱ amongȱ others,ȱ monitoringȱ byȱ theȱ state,ȱ specialȱ rapporteurs,ȱ ombudspersonsȱorȱcivilȱsociety.ȱȱȱ ȱ InȱChina,ȱforȱexample,ȱtheȱgovernmentȱundertakesȱaȱfiveȬyearȱreviewȱ
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processȱ designedȱ toȱ monitorȱ progress,ȱ budgets,ȱ trainingȱ andȱ bestȱ practicesȱtoȱrenewȱhighȬlevelȱpoliticalȱcommitmentȱtoȱitsȱuniversalȱsaltȱ iodizationȱprogram. 355 ȱAsȱmentionedȱinȱtheȱsectionȱonȱtheȱCode,ȱabove,ȱ Botswana’sȱ implementingȱ regulationsȱ authoriseȱ theȱ designationȱ ofȱ speciallyȱ trainedȱ monitorsȱ toȱ investigate,ȱ observeȱ andȱ reportȱ onȱ marketingȱ practicesȱ andȱ presentȱ evidenceȱ inȱ court.ȱ Theȱ Brazilianȱ Departmentȱ ofȱ Justice,ȱ inȱ collaborationȱ withȱ NGOs,ȱ establishedȱ theȱ positionȱ ofȱ aȱ nationalȱ rapporteurȱ forȱ monitoringȱ theȱ rightȱ toȱ food,ȱ waterȱ andȱ ruralȱ land.ȱ Thisȱ endeavourȱ wasȱ initiatedȱ byȱ aȱ nationalȱ networkȱofȱcivilȱsocietyȱorganisations. 356 ȱȱȱ ȱ 1.9ȱ Issuesȱchecklistȱ ȱ x EstablishȱorȱreinvigorateȱmultiȬsectoralȱcoordinatingȱ committeesȱ(orȱsimilarȱbodies)ȱcomposedȱofȱbroadȬbasedȱ governmentalȱandȱcivilȱsocietyȱrepresentatives,ȱespeciallyȱthoseȱ responsibleȱforȱchildȱwellȬbeing,ȱon:ȱȱ - micronutrientȱmalnutrition;ȱ - breastfeedingȱ promotionȱ andȱ accompanyingȱ socialȱ policies;ȱ andȱ - childhoodȱoverweightȱandȱobesity.ȱ ȱȱ Coordinationȱ amongȱ theseȱ committeesȱ willȱ beȱ importantȱ becauseȱ micronutrientȱ malnutrition,ȱ breastfeedingȱ andȱ obesityȱ areȱ allȱ interconnected.ȱ Lessonsȱ learned,ȱ forȱ example,ȱ fromȱ theȱ Code’sȱ marketingȱ restrictionsȱ canȱ beȱ applied,ȱ withȱ someȱ adaptation,ȱtoȱmeasuresȱregulatingȱtheȱmarketingȱofȱjunkȱfoods.ȱȱȱȱ ȱ x Conductȱaȱlegislativeȱreviewȱofȱnutritionȱpolicies,ȱlawsȱandȱ regulations,ȱspecificallyȱrelatedȱtoȱmicronutrientȱmalnutrition,ȱ breastfeedingȱprotection,ȱpromotionȱandȱsupport,ȱandȱ childhoodȱoverweightȱandȱobesity,ȱwithȱspecialȱinquiryȱinto:ȱ - whetherȱexistingȱmeasuresȱmeetȱorȱexceedȱtheȱinternationalȱ standardsȱ ofȱ theȱ Codex,ȱ theȱ Codeȱ andȱ theȱ Maternityȱ Protectionȱ Conventionȱ andȱ Recommendationsȱ andȱ whetherȱ
355 Ibid. 356 Report of the Intergovernmental Working Group for the Elaboration of a Set of Voluntary Guildelines to Support the Progressive Realization of the Right to Adequate Food in the Context of National Food Security, FAO, Rome (2004); available at http://www.fao.org/docrep/meeting/008/j1877e.htm.
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theyȱimplementȱtheȱframeworksȱofȱtheȱInnocentiȱDeclarationȱ andȱtheȱGlobalȱStrategyȱonȱInfantȱandȱYoungȱChildȱfeeding;ȱ - whetherȱ groupsȱ mostȱ affectedȱ orȱ atȱ riskȱ ofȱ nutritionalȱ deficiencies,ȱ especiallyȱ childrenȱ andȱ adolescentȱ girlsȱ andȱ womenȱ ofȱ childbearingȱ age,ȱ areȱ fullyȱ protectedȱ byȱ existingȱ measures;ȱ ifȱ not,ȱ whatȱ gapsȱ existȱ andȱ whatȱ strategicȱ plansȱ areȱnecessaryȱtoȱfillȱthem;ȱȱȱ - whetherȱ existingȱ measuresȱ protectȱ andȱ promoteȱ theȱ bestȱ interestȱ ofȱ theȱ child,ȱ includingȱ givingȱ priorityȱ toȱ children’sȱ bestȱ interestsȱ overȱ competingȱ interestsȱ (forȱ example,ȱ mandatoryȱ fortificationȱ toȱ addressȱ deficienciesȱ thatȱ areȱ widespreadȱ andȱ thatȱ especiallyȱ affectȱ childrenȱ andȱ adolescentȱ girlsȱ andȱ womenȱ ofȱ childȱ bearingȱ age,ȱ banningȱ marketingȱofȱjunkȱfoodsȱtoȱchildren);ȱ - whetherȱexistingȱmeasuresȱadequatelyȱprotectȱchildrenȱfromȱ intentionalȱ orȱ unintentionalȱ discriminationȱ (forȱ example,ȱ highȱratesȱofȱironȱdeficiencyȱinȱgirlsȱandȱwomen);ȱ - whetherȱ existingȱ measuresȱ adequatelyȱ protectȱ children’sȱ rightȱ ofȱ life,ȱ survival,ȱ developmentȱ andȱ protectionȱ (forȱ example,ȱ whereȱ thereȱ areȱ lowȱ ratesȱ ofȱ breastfeedingȱ andȱ highȱratesȱofȱchildȱmalnutritionȱand/orȱsicknessȱandȱdeath);ȱȱȱ - whetherȱexistingȱlawsȱhaveȱtakenȱintoȱaccountȱtheȱviewsȱofȱ childrenȱ(forȱexample,ȱwithȱregardȱtoȱfortification,ȱmarketingȱ ofȱjunkȱfoods);ȱandȱȱȱ - whetherȱ dutyȱ bearersȱ areȱ clearlyȱ identifiedȱ andȱ justiciableȱ rightsȱandȱremediesȱareȱcreatedȱforȱeachȱbreachȱofȱduty.ȱ x Conductȱaȱsituationȱanalyses,ȱincluding:ȱ - ratesȱ inȱ theȱ entireȱ populationȱ andȱ inȱ subpopulationsȱ ofȱ micronutrientȱ malnutrition,ȱ breastfeeding,ȱ childhoodȱ overweightȱ andȱ obesity,ȱ physicalȱ activity,ȱ infantȱ andȱ childȱ malnutrition,ȱ morbidity,ȱ andȱ mortality,ȱ andȱ theȱ factorsȱ influencingȱtheseȱratesȱȱȱ - identificationȱofȱtheȱgroupsȱaffectedȱbyȱinadequateȱnutritionȱ andȱ theȱ groupsȱ mostȱ vulnerable,ȱ barriersȱ toȱ theirȱ accessȱ toȱ adequateȱandȱappropriateȱfoodsȱand,ȱasȱapplicable,ȱadequateȱ protectionȱofȱbreastfeeding;ȱandȱȱ - identificationȱofȱadditionalȱnutritionȱandȱotherȱpublicȱhealthȱ interventionsȱ thatȱ mayȱ beȱ necessaryȱ toȱ reachȱ childrenȱ andȱ
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adolescentȱgirls,ȱwomenȱofȱchildbearingȱage,ȱandȱanyȱotherȱ underservedȱpopulations.ȱȱ x Developȱstrategicȱplansȱwithȱmeasurable,ȱtimeȬboundȱ objectivesȱandȱclearȱrolesȱwithȱrespectȱto:ȱ - eliminatingȱ deficienciesȱ inȱ iodineȱ andȱ Vitaminȱ Aȱ andȱ reducingȱironȱdeficiency;ȱ - increasingȱ theȱ ratesȱ ofȱ exclusiveȱ andȱ continuingȱ breastfeeding;ȱandȱ - reducingȱorȱatȱleastȱcontainingȱtheȱrateȱofȱchildhoodȱobesity;ȱ usingȱ aȱ childȱ impactȱ analysisȱ inȱ developingȱ theȱ planȱ andȱ monitoringȱindicators.ȱȱȱ x Ensureȱanȱadequateȱbudgetȱforȱnutritionȱandȱbreastfeedingȱ protectionȱandȱpromotionȱinterventions,ȱincludingȱforȱtheirȱ monitoringȱandȱenforcement.ȱȱ x Assessȱinstitutionalȱcapacityȱinȱregardȱto:ȱ - implementing,ȱmonitoringȱandȱevaluatingȱinterventionsȱandȱ theȱeffectivenessȱofȱlegislativeȱmeasures;ȱandȱ - inspectingȱandȱenforcingȱlegalȱrequirements.ȱȱ x DevelopȱprogrammesȱforȱcapacityȬbuildingȱwhereȱgapsȱareȱ identified.ȱ x Conductȱanȱanalysisȱtoȱidentifyȱpotentialȱunintendedȱ consequences,ȱincludingȱthoseȱonȱotherȱrightsȱguaranteedȱbyȱ theȱCRCȱandȱotherȱhumanȱrightsȱinstruments,ȱofȱplannedȱ legislativeȱreform.ȱȱ x Developȱmechanismsȱforȱmonitoringȱandȱperiodicȱreportingȱonȱ legislativeȱmeasuresȱandȱnutritionȱprogrammeȱinterventions,ȱ withȱcivilȱsocietyȱinvolvement.ȱȱȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
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Chapterȱ5:ȱAnnexȱ1ȱ SummaryȱofȱtheȱCode’sȱProvisionsȱ ȱ Scopeȱ (Art.2):ȱ Theȱ Codeȱ appliesȱ toȱ productsȱ marketedȱ orȱ otherwiseȱ representedȱtoȱbeȱsuitableȱforȱuseȱasȱaȱpartialȱorȱtotalȱreplacementȱofȱ breastmilk,ȱfeedingȱbottles,ȱandȱteats.ȱȱ ȱ InformationȱandȱEducationȱ(Art.ȱ4):ȱTheȱgovernmentȱisȱresponsibleȱforȱ planning,ȱ providing,ȱ andȱ disseminatingȱ informationȱ onȱ infantȱ andȱ youngȱchildȱfeeding,ȱorȱcontrollingȱitȱtoȱensureȱobjectiveȱandȱconsistentȱ information,ȱwhichȱincludes:ȱ ȱ x theȱbenefitsȱandȱsuperiorityȱofȱbreastfeedingȱ x maternalȱnutritionȱandȱpreparationȱforȱandȱmaintenanceȱofȱ breastfeedingȱ x negativeȱeffectȱofȱintroducingȱpartialȱbottleȱfeedingȱonȱ breastfeedingȱȱ x difficultyȱofȱreversingȱaȱdecisionȱnotȱtoȱbreastfeedȱ x properȱuseȱofȱinfantȱformulaȱwhereȱneeded,ȱsocialȱandȱfinancialȱ implications,ȱhazardsȱofȱinappropriateȱuseȱofȱbreastmilkȱ substitutes,ȱandȱnoȱtextȱorȱpicturesȱthatȱidealiseȱbreastmilkȱ substitutesȱ Distributionȱofȱinformationalȱorȱeducationalȱequipmentȱorȱmaterialsȱisȱ allowedȱthroughȱtheȱhealthȱcareȱsystemȱifȱmadeȱatȱtheȱrequestȱofȱtheȱ governmentȱandȱitȱdoesȱnotȱreferȱtoȱaȱproprietaryȱproduct.ȱȱ ȱ Theȱgeneralȱpublicȱandȱmothersȱ(Art.ȱ5):ȱȱThereȱshouldȱbeȱno:ȱ ȱ x advertisingȱorȱotherȱpromotionȱofȱcoveredȱproductsȱtoȱtheȱ generalȱpublicȱȱ x directȱorȱindirectȱprovisionȱofȱsamplesȱȱ x pointȱofȱsaleȱadvertising,ȱsamples,ȱotherȱpromotionalȱdevicesȱatȱ retail,ȱsuchȱasȱspecialȱdisplays,ȱdiscountȱcoupons,ȱpremiums,ȱ specialȱsales,ȱlossȬleaders,ȱorȱtieȬinȱsalesȱ x distributionȱofȱarticlesȱorȱutensilsȱwhichȱmayȱpromoteȱtheȱuseȱ ofȱbreastmilkȱsubstitutesȱ x directȱorȱindirectȱcontactȱwithȱpregnantȱwomenȱorȱmothersȱbyȱ marketingȱpersonnelȱ ȱȱȱ
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Healthȱ careȱ systemsȱ (Art.ȱ 6;ȱ WHAȱ 47.5):ȱ Noȱ facilityȱ ofȱ aȱ healthȱ careȱ systemȱshouldȱbeȱusedȱforȱpromotingȱcoveredȱproducts,ȱincluding:ȱȱ ȱ x displayingȱproducts,ȱplacardsȱorȱposters,ȱorȱdistributionȱofȱ materialȱfromȱaȱmanufacturerȱorȱdistributorȱotherȱthanȱ scientificȱandȱfactualȱinformationȱȱprovidedȱbyȱcompaniesȱtoȱ healthȱprofessionalsȱȱ x usingȱ‘professionalȱserviceȱrepresentatives’,ȱ‘mothercraftȱ nurses’,ȱorȱsimilarȱpersonnelȱprovidedȱorȱpaidȱforȱbyȱ manufacturersȱorȱdistributorsȱ x allowing,ȱifȱnecessary,ȱdemonstrationȱofȱinfantȱformulaȱbyȱ anyoneȱotherȱthanȱhealthȱworkersȱorȱcommunityȱworkersȱ x donationsȱorȱlowȱpriceȱsalesȱofȱsuppliesȱofȱbreastmilkȱ substitutesȱinȱanyȱpartȱofȱtheȱhealthȱsystemȱ x donatedȱequipmentȱorȱmaterialsȱthatȱreferȱtoȱanyȱproprietaryȱ productȱcoveredȱbyȱtheȱCodeȱȱȱȱ ȱ Healthȱ workersȱ (Art.ȱ 7;ȱ WHAȱ 58.32):ȱ Healthȱ workersȱ shouldȱ encourageȱandȱprotectȱbreastfeedingȱandȱshouldȱnot:ȱ ȱ x acceptȱfinancialȱorȱmaterialȱinducementsȱtoȱpromoteȱcoveredȱ productsȱfromȱmanufacturersȱorȱdistributorsȱ x giveȱsamplesȱofȱinfantȱformulaȱorȱotherȱcoveredȱproductsȱtoȱ pregnantȱwomen,ȱmothers,ȱorȱmembersȱofȱtheirȱfamiliesȱ x ȱ Healthȱ workersȱ shouldȱ discloseȱ anyȱ contributionsȱ madeȱ byȱ aȱ manufacturerȱ orȱ distributorȱ ofȱ anyȱ fellowship,ȱ studyȱ tour,ȱ researchȱ grant,ȱattendanceȱatȱaȱprofessionalȱconference,ȱandȱtheȱlike.ȱ ȱ Memberȱ statesȱ shouldȱ ensureȱ thatȱ financialȱ supportȱ andȱ otherȱ incentivesȱforȱprogrammesȱandȱhealthȱprofessionalsȱworkingȱinȱinfantȱ andȱchildȱhealthȱdoȱnotȱcreateȱconflictsȱofȱinterest.ȱ ȱ Employeesȱ ofȱ manufacturersȱ andȱ distributorsȱ (Art.ȱ 8):ȱ Salesȱ incentivesȱforȱmarketingȱpersonnelȱshouldȱnotȱbeȱbasedȱonȱvolumeȱofȱ salesȱandȱsalesȱquotasȱshouldȱnotȱbeȱset.ȱMarketingȱpersonnelȱshouldȱ notȱ performȱ educationalȱ functionsȱ inȱ relationȱ toȱ pregnantȱ womenȱ orȱ mothersȱ ofȱ infantsȱ andȱ youngȱ children.ȱ Theyȱ shouldȱ haveȱ writtenȱ approvalȱofȱtheȱappropriateȱgovernmentalȱauthorityȱtoȱperformȱotherȱ functions.ȱȱȱ
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ȱ Labellingȱ(Art.ȱȱ9;ȱWHAȱ58.32):ȱLabelsȱshouldȱbeȱdesignedȱtoȱprovideȱ necessaryȱ informationȱ aboutȱ appropriateȱ useȱ andȱ shouldȱ notȱ discourageȱbreastfeeding.ȱLabelsȱonȱinfantȱ formulaȱcontainersȱshouldȱ haveȱaȱclear,ȱconspicuous,ȱeasilyȱreadableȱandȱunderstandableȱmessageȱ printedȱinȱtheȱappropriateȱlanguageȱthatȱincludesȱtheȱfollowingȱwordsȱ orȱstatements:ȱȱ ȱ x ‘ImportantȱNotice’ȱorȱtheȱequivalentȱ x theȱsuperiorityȱofȱbreastfeedingȱ x shouldȱbeȱusedȱonlyȱonȱtheȱadviceȱofȱaȱhealthȱworkerȱasȱtoȱtheȱ needȱforȱitsȱuseȱandȱtheȱproperȱmethodȱofȱuseȱ x instructionsȱforȱappropriateȱpreparationȱandȱwarningȱofȱtheȱ healthȱhazardsȱofȱinappropriateȱpreparationȱ x informationȱthatȱpoweredȱformulaȱmayȱcontainȱpathogenicȱ microȱorganismsȱandȱmustȱbeȱpreparedȱandȱusedȱappropriatelyȱ x ȱ Thereȱshouldȱbeȱnoȱpicturesȱofȱinfantsȱorȱpicturesȱorȱtextȱwhichȱmayȱ idealiseȱ formulaȱ useȱ orȱ whichȱ containsȱ theȱ termsȱ ‘humanised’ȱ orȱȱ ‘maternalised’ȱorȱsimilarȱterms.ȱ ȱ Nutritionȱandȱhealthȱclaimsȱshouldȱnotȱbeȱpermittedȱunlessȱspecificallyȱ providedȱforȱinȱnationalȱlegislation.ȱȱ ȱ Qualityȱ(Art.ȱ10):ȱCoveredȱproductsȱshouldȱmeetȱCodexȬrecommendedȱ standards.ȱȱ ȱ Implementationȱ andȱ monitoringȱ (Art.ȱ 11):ȱ Governmentsȱ shouldȱ implementȱ theȱ Codeȱ throughȱ appropriateȱ legal,ȱ policy,ȱ orȱ otherȱ measures.ȱ Governmentsȱ haveȱ anȱ obligationȱ toȱ monitor,ȱ inȱ collaborationȱ withȱ UNȱ agencies,ȱ NGOs,ȱ andȱ civilȱ society.ȱ ManufacturersȱandȱdistributorsȱshouldȱabideȱbyȱtheȱCodeȱirrespectiveȱ ofȱwhetherȱtheȱnationalȱgovernmentȱhasȱtakenȱstepsȱtoȱimplementȱtheȱ Codeȱthroughȱnationalȱmeasures.ȱȱȱȱ ȱȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
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Chapterȱ5:ȱAnnexȱ2ȱ SummaryȱofȱtheȱILOȱMaternityȱConventionȱ andȱRecommendationsȱ
Scopeȱ (Articlesȱ 1ȱ andȱ 2):ȱ Theȱ Conventionȱ appliesȱ toȱ allȱ employedȱ women,ȱ butȱ ratifyingȱ membersȱ mayȱ excludeȱ limitedȱ categoriesȱ ofȱ workersȱ whenȱ coveringȱthemȱwouldȱ“raiseȱspecialȱproblemsȱofȱaȱsubstantialȱnature.”ȱȱ
Maternityȱ leaveȱ (Articleȱ 4):ȱ Womenȱ coveredȱ underȱ theȱ Conventionȱ areȱ entitledȱ toȱ maternityȱ leaveȱ ofȱ notȱ lessȱ thanȱ 14ȱ weeks.ȱ Maternityȱ Recommendationȱ (R)ȱ 191:ȱ membersȱ shouldȱ endeavourȱ toȱ extendȱ theȱ leaveȱ periodȱtoȱatȱleastȱ18ȱweeks.ȱȱ
Benefitsȱ (Articlesȱ 6ȱ andȱ 7;ȱ Rȱ 191):ȱ Cashȱ benefitsȱ shallȱ beȱ providedȱ forȱ maternityȱleaveȱandȱleaveȱdueȱtoȱillnessȱorȱcomplications.ȱBenefitȱlevelsȱshallȱ beȱatȱaȱlevelȱthatȱensuresȱtheȱwomanȱcanȱmaintainȱherselfȱandȱchildȱinȱproperȱ conditionsȱofȱhealthȱandȱwithȱaȱsuitableȱstandardȱofȱliving:ȱȱ
x Cashȱbenefitsȱbasedȱonȱpreviousȱearningsȱshallȱbeȱnoȱlessȱthanȱ twoȱthirdsȱofȱpreviousȱearningsȱorȱcomparableȱamount.ȱWhereȱ practicable,ȱcashȱbenefitsȱshouldȱbeȱraisedȱtoȱtheȱfullȱamountȱofȱ previousȱearnings.ȱȱ x Aȱlargeȱmajorityȱofȱcoveredȱwomenȱmustȱbeȱableȱtoȱsatisfyȱtheȱ conditionsȱforȱqualifyingȱforȱcashȱbenefits.ȱ x Whereȱaȱwomanȱdoesȱnotȱmeetȱtheȱconditionsȱtoȱqualifyȱforȱ cashȱbenefits,ȱsheȱshallȱbeȱentitledȱtoȱadequateȱbenefitsȱoutȱofȱ socialȱassistanceȱorȱpublicȱfundsȱuponȱmeetingȱanyȱrequiredȱ meansȱtest.ȱȱ x Toȱprotectȱagainstȱdiscrimination,ȱcashȱbenefitsȱshallȱbeȱ providedȱthroughȱcompulsoryȱsocialȱinsuranceȱorȱpublicȱfunds.ȱ x Inȱcountriesȱwhereȱtheȱeconomyȱandȱsocialȱsecurityȱsystemȱareȱ notȱsufficientlyȱdeveloped,ȱbenefitsȱmayȱbeȱpaidȱatȱleastȱatȱtheȱ levelȱprovidedȱforȱsicknessȱorȱtemporaryȱdisability.ȱȱȱ
Employmentȱ protectionȱ andȱ nonȬdiscriminationȱ (Articlesȱ 8ȱ andȱ 9;ȱ Rȱ 191):ȱȱ
x Anȱemployerȱmayȱnotȱterminateȱaȱwomanȱduringȱpregnancyȱorȱ leaveȱorȱfollowingȱherȱreturnȱtoȱworkȱforȱaȱprescribedȱperiod,ȱ
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exceptȱonȱgroundsȱunrelatedȱtoȱtheȱpregnancy,ȱbirth,ȱorȱ nursing.ȱTheȱburdenȱofȱproofȱrestsȱwithȱtheȱemployer.ȱȱ x Aȱwomanȱisȱguaranteedȱtheȱrightȱtoȱreturnȱtoȱworkȱtoȱtheȱsameȱ orȱequivalentȱpositionȱpaidȱatȱtheȱsameȱrate.ȱTheȱperiodȱofȱleaveȱ shouldȱbeȱconsideredȱasȱaȱperiodȱofȱserviceȱforȱtheȱ determinationȱofȱrights.ȱȱ x Ratifyingȱmembersȱmustȱadoptȱmeasuresȱtoȱpreventȱ discriminationȱbasedȱonȱmaternity,ȱincludingȱnotȱrequiringȱaȱ pregnancyȱtestȱorȱcertificationȱofȱnonȬpregnancyȱuponȱ applicationȱforȱemployment,ȱunlessȱnationalȱlawȱprohibitsȱorȱ restrictsȱemploymentȱofȱpregnantȱorȱnursingȱwomenȱorȱwhereȱ thereȱisȱaȱrecognisedȱorȱsignificantȱriskȱtoȱtheȱhealthȱofȱtheȱ womanȱorȱchild.ȱ
Breastfeedingȱmothersȱ(Articleȱ10;ȱRȱ191):ȱWomenȱshouldȱhaveȱoneȱorȱmoreȱ dailyȱ breaksȱ orȱ aȱ dailyȱ reductionȱ ofȱ hoursȱ forȱ breastfeeding,ȱ adaptedȱ toȱ particularȱneeds.ȱTheseȱareȱtoȱbeȱcountedȱandȱpaidȱasȱworkingȱtime.ȱWhereȱ practicable,ȱ cleanȱ andȱ safeȱ facilitiesȱ forȱ nursingȱ atȱ orȱ nearȱ theȱ workplaceȱ shouldȱbeȱestablished.ȱȱ
Periodicȱ Reviewȱ (Articleȱ 11):ȱ Eachȱ memberȱ mustȱ examineȱ periodically,ȱ inȱ consultationȱ withȱ theȱ prescribedȱ organisations,ȱ theȱ appropriatenessȱ ofȱ extendingȱtheȱperiodȱofȱleaveȱorȱincreasingȱtheȱrateȱofȱcashȱbenefits.ȱȱȱȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
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