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Indo-U.S. Relations, 1965-1975 University of Massachusetts Amherst ScholarWorks@UMass Amherst Doctoral Dissertations 1896 - February 2014 1-1-1982 Indo-U.S. relations, 1965-1975. Rita, Braz University of Massachusetts Amherst Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.umass.edu/dissertations_1 Recommended Citation Braz, Rita,, "Indo-U.S. relations, 1965-1975." (1982). Doctoral Dissertations 1896 - February 2014. 1845. https://scholarworks.umass.edu/dissertations_1/1845 This Open Access Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by ScholarWorks@UMass Amherst. It has been accepted for inclusion in Doctoral Dissertations 1896 - February 2014 by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks@UMass Amherst. For more information, please contact [email protected]. INDO - U.S. RELATIONS: 1965-1975 A Dissertation Presented By Rita Braz Submitted to the Graduate School of the University of Massachusetts in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY February 1 , 1 982 POLITICAL SCIENCE INDO - U.S. REUTIONS (1965 - 1975) A Dissertation by Rita Braz Approved as to style and content by; Anwar Syed, Chairperson '1 .'T ,' / Ferenc Vali, Member Surinder Mehca, 'Member / Glen "Gordon, Department Head, Political Science Department . ABSTRACT A discussion of relations between tlrie United States and Indjiia is dependent, on an investigation into the structure of super power relationships, because only from such relationships, can there issue any real threat to the national security and power positions of any country. The two countries' policies towards each other have been primarily influenced by other concerns. Each has had different per- ceptions of the key issues in world affairs. A consideration of major trends in world affairs is essential for they profoundly influence not only what the United States does on the subcontinent but also how Americans view their role and responsibilities in the world. Accordingly the major variables in this analysis would be a) units comprising the system, b) environment surrounding the units, c) rela- tionship between the units and the environment, i.e., inputs and out- puts. Conceptual tools like national interest, foreign aid and balance of power have been frequently used. We shall be using the Systems Analysis approach to the study of Indo-U.S. relations. This paradigm has its limitations in the sense that it cannot account for certain intervening variables between the onset of an environmental distxirbance, and the formation of a national decision. We shall however make some intuitive projections by focusing on a few historical trends One of the ironies of international politics in the time period under study i.e. 1965-75, is that India along with many other countries ii comprising the non-aligned community, worked endlessly for detente, but when it came, it was found to be not an unmixed blessing. It aroused the suspicion that detente between big powers would not necessarily mean world peace. It led to fears that great powers while relaxing tensions among themselves, might like to pursue their global objectives through perpetuation of tension in other regions. There are superficial similarities between the political systems of India and the United States, but there has been a psychological rejec- tion by the United States of India, and a corresponding inability in the United States to accept India as a country worthy of serious attention. The work discusses the differences in the economic and social perspectives of the two countries and the contradictions in their politi- cal beliefs. It also discusses in the paranthesis the basic impulses of India's foreign policy and its evolution, the decline of non-alignment, and the ritualistic allegiance to it, the obscuring of India in the world arena by China and the effect on India of the end of the bi-polar confrontation in the world. iii To my loving father ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I have been greatly influenced by the work of Professor A. Syed. As my sponsor and teacher, he served as a model for objective thinking in a field beset by national feelings. His personal influence on this work has been important, especially in developing my critical abilities, and raising my standards for scientific research. I would also like to express appreciation to the other members of my committee, for helping me find ways to improve my work. I am grateful to my friends for the emotional support extended to me, and very especially to my friend Dr. Harold Davis for being a source of constant encouragement. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page APPROVAL I TITLE PAGE II DEDICATION Ill ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ABSTRACT ^ INTRODUCTION ^ IMPORTANCE OF INDIA TO THE UNITED STATES 7 WHY THIS PERIOD (1965-75) ^ MAJOR IRRITANTS ^2 AN END OF ANTAGONISM 15 METHODOLOGY I7 DIRECTION OF CHAPTERS I9 CHAPTER I CHANGE AND CONTINUITY IN THE FOREIGN POLICIES OF INDIA AND THE UNITED STATES INTRODUCTION 20 INDIAN FOREIGN POLICY: THE NEHRU ERA 25 IMPACT OF CHINESE WAR ON INDIAN POLITICS 37 EXPECTANCY OF A REORIENTATION OF INDIA'S POLICY 41 "DUAL ALIGNMENT WITH WASHINGTON AND MOSCOW" SHASTRI ERA 44 POLICY CHANGES IN THE SIXTIES AND SEVENTIES 45 NONALIGNMENT IN A CHANGING CONTEXT 47 CHANGE AND CONTINUITY IN AMERICA: FOREIGN POLICY 51 CONCLUSION 61 1 CHAPTER II U.S. POLICY ON THE SUBCONTINENT TRUMAN ADMINISTRATION . 66 THE EISENHOWER ADMINISTRATION (1952-60) 7^ THE KENNEDY-JOHNSON ERA (1960-63; 1963-64) 75 CONFRONTATION BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND CHINA 79 AFTER NEHRU 81 PAKISTAN AS A DETERMINANT IN UNITED STATES POLICY TOWARDS THE SUBCONTINENT INDIA IN SOVIET POLICIES SINO-PAKISTAN RELATIONS .,01 RELATIONS BETWEEN INDIA AND PAKISTAN 104 INDO-PAKISTAN WAR OF 1965 108 UNITED STATES REACTIONS 1 1 THE EMERGENCE OF BANGLADESH 114 SOVIET RUSSIA AND CHINA ON BANGLADESH 126 CONCLUSION 130 CHAPTER III ECONOMIC RELATIONS OF INDIA AND THE UNITED STATES INTRODUCTION 131 COLD WAR AND U.S. AID 134 PURPOSE OF U.S. AID 142 WHY AID TO INDIA 144 U.S. ECONOMIC ASSISTANCE AND PAKISTAN 153 MAGNITUDE OF AID 155 (a) U.S. Agency for International Development 159 (b) Pxiblic Law 480 (Food for Peace) Program 159 (c) Fertilizer 160 (d Agricultural Universities 161 (e Exchange of Personnel 161 (f Irrigation 161 (g Water Resources Development 161 (h Improved Seeds 162 (i Agricultural Research 162 (j Education 162 (k Power Development |^g2 (1 Transportation (m The Export-Import Bank 2_g3 (n Other Projects (o Indian Rupee Settlement Agreement 164 CHANGING PERSPECTIVES 165 CONCLUSION 3_g9 CHAPTER IV SOME IRRITANTS IN INDO-U.S. RELATIONS CIA 177 INDIAN REACTIONS ON AMERICAN INVOLVEMENT IN VIETNAM 180 PAKISTAN AS IRRITANT IN INDO-U.S. RELATIONS 186 INDO-SOVIET TREATY ' 194 DECLARATION OF EMERGENCY IN INDIA, JULY, 1975 206 INDIA, UNITED STATES AND THE BOMB 210 CONCLUSION 217 BIBLIOGRAPHY 225 INTRODUCTION A Study of relations between India, and the United States, is an attempt to take a close look at the paradox of relationships be- tween two countries, their divergent perspectives, and common aspirations, which through a perversion of circumstcinces have been in discord. Foreign policy is an instrument by which nations conduct their relations, but it is a dependent variable to be explained by certain independent variables, such as strategic considerations, ideologies, economic conditions, super-power positions, and others. Thus an examination of foreign policy issues alone is not always useful for gaining an insight into relations between countreis. U.S. foreign policy towards a given country has derived its logic not in reference to that country as such, but in reference to one or more super-powers. The basic thesis of this work is that Americcin foreign policy towcurds India, must be understood in the light of the universal ap- plication of the grand strategy rooted in the structure of super-power relationships. U.S. policy towards India is merely the application of this global strategy, which has nothing to do with India specifically, except in so far as India is seen as an available instrximent, or an unnecessary obstacle in the execution of that strategy. Relations between the two countries were first conducted under cold war conditions, and then against a background of a decline in biopolarity, and a weakening of the Soviet and Western alliance systems. 1 2 India with no foreign policy experience, soon after independence, was forced to discover and further her national interests, in a fast and changing international environment, through the policy of non- ^ alignment . The universal application of American global strategy, in re- lation to India, is unrelieved by the presence of any particular factors that may have significance for the American elite. There is no influential group in the domestic policits of the U.S., as in relation to Israel, that would make for any modification in respect of India. Americam foreign policy towards India, is consequently exclu- sively governed by its universal grand design; no particular factors inherent in India, other than India's own attitude towards the structure of super-power relationships , seem so far to have had any bearing on Americcui foreign policy. That both India, cuid the United States have been political democracies over the post-war period has been largely irrelevant to American decision makers. It will be the second thesis of this work to prove that U.S. foreign policy has been one or Realpolitik, designed basically to serve its own national interests , its own national se- curity and power position, its own economic welfare, and the preserva- tion of its own socio-political patterns, not to their tramsfer to or maintenance in other lands. Boston; ^Norman D. Paler, South Asia and United States Policy , Houghton Miffline Co., 1966; also see william J. Bamds, India , Publishers, 1972; Pakistan, and the Great Powers , New York; Praeger July Chester Bowles, "America and Russia in India." Foreign Affairs , October 1971; Internview with Professor Howards Wriggins, India Abroad, 1, 1972, p.
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