Durham E-Theses Power as peace. Change and continuity among Darfuri refugees in Tchad Sansculotte-Greenidge, Kwesi How to cite: Sansculotte-Greenidge, Kwesi (2009) Power as peace. Change and continuity among Darfuri refugees in Tchad, Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/2084/ Use policy The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-prot purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in Durham E-Theses • the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. Please consult the full Durham E-Theses policy for further details. Academic Support Oce, Durham University, University Oce, Old Elvet, Durham DH1 3HP e-mail: [email protected] Tel: +44 0191 334 6107 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk 2 Power as Peace Change and continuity among Darfuri refugees in Tchad KwesI Sansculotte-Greenidge The copyright of this thesis rests with the author or the university to which it was submitted. No quotation from it, or information derived from it may be published without the prior written consent of the author or university, and any information derived from it should be acknowledged. submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Anthropology 2009 This copy has been supplied for the purpose of research or private study on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement.. @i ' 8 MA'' 201)9 CONTENTS List of Tables iii List of Figures iv Abstract 2 Preface 3 Acknowledgements 5 SECTION A: 1. Introduction 6 2. Lit Review D 3. Methodologv 34 4. Research Setting 50 4.1 Physical Setting 51 4.2 Ouaddai and Wadi Fita 53 4.3 The Camps 57 4.4 Research Site 63 a. Mile 63 b. AmNabak 67 SECTION B: A Historical Suivey of the Greater Ouaddai-Daifur Region 70 5.1 Pre Colonial Links in the Greater Ouaddai-Datfur Region 70 5.2 The BeRa 79 Traditional Forms of Leadership and Authorit>^ in the Region 105 6.1 Land Tenure in the Greater Ouaddai-Daifur Region 105 a. Land Ownership in Sultanate of Darfur 106 b. The Creation of ;Native Administration' 113 c. Post-Independence Changes to Land Tenure 119 6.2 Traditional Leadership in Eastern Tchad 131 6.3 Traditional Leadership in Darfun Dar Zaghawa: D7 6.4 Idara Ahalia in the BeRi Diaspora 160 a the Case of Adar, Kepkabia Province 163 b. the Case of Dar Hotiyya, Dar Masaalit 174 7. Judiyya and the Middle Ground 190 7.1 Pre- and Post-Islamic Conflict Resolution 190 7.2 Judiyya and Ajawid in Pre-War Datfur 196 a. government-sponsored Judiyya 197 b. communally-sponsored Judiyya 201 7.3 Conflict Resolution in other Islamic Societies 205 a. Hezbollah as Lebanese arbitrator and enforcer 205 b. the Beja conflict resolution system 209 7.4 Daifuri Case Studies 212 8. Judiyya among Refugees 227 8.1 Darfiiri Judiyya in Tchad 227 8.2 Mahkama Case Studies 231 9. Conclusion and Recommendations 264 Appendices 2Z8 1. Neighbours of the BeRa 278 2. BeRa Kinship 287 3. BeRa Life Cycle Rituals 291 4. Glossary 295 Bibliography 301 11 LIST OF TABLES AND CHARTS Table 1 Major Refugee Populations 13 Table 2. Major DDP Populations 14 Table 3. Key EDP Facts 15 Table 4 Key Residents Interviewed 39 Table 5 Administrative System in Wadi Fira 55 Table 6 BeRa Regional Groups 87 Table 7 BeRa Self Ascription Terms 90 Table 8 Social Organization of Dar Galla 141 Table 9 Idara Ahalia in Dar Zaghawa 157 Table 10 Idara Ahalia in Dar Masaalit 179 Table 11 Taniya System in Dar Galla 194 Table 12 Judiyya Meeting in Darfur 246 Chart 1 BeRa Social Organization 86 Chart 2 Taxation system in Dar Galla 158 Charts Idara Ahalia in Adar 172 UsT OF FIGURES Map 1 Sudan and Tchad 7 Map 2 Sudan and Tchad BDPs and Refugees 17 Map 3 Greater Ouaddai-Darfur Region 50 Map 4 Ethnic Groups in Ouaddai and Wadi Fira 54 Map 5 Refugee Ethnicity 59 Map 6 Mile Refugee Camp 65 Map 7 Location of the BeRa 89 Map 8 BeRa Cultural Zones 91 Map 9 Sultanic Darfur 110 Map 10 Location of the Tama 132 Map 11 Cantons of Dar Tama 133 Map 12 Dar Galla 139 Map 13 BeRa Diaspora 162 Map 14 Girgo and Kepkabia Area 165 Map 15 Dar Masaalit 174 Map 16 Ethnic Groups in Dar Masaalit 175 Map 17 Historical Dar Masaalit 175 Map 18 Sireaf and Saref Omra region 176 IV A. ABSTRACT The thesis examines resilience and change in traditional systems of authority, with a specific focus on traditional systems of administration and conflict resolution. The aim is to examine social change and social continuity among the BeRa refugees in Tchad by looking at the effects of conflict and conflict induced migration on their traditional forms of leadership. The thesis focuses on leadership expressed through the ability of elders to be Ajawd (mediators) and thus to achieve Judiyya (amelioration). This work will theorize conflict and conflict resolution without removing it from its environmental, historical, cultural and political setting. The thesis will also historicize regional conflict and examine how current conflicts affect the lives of Darfuri refugees and their leadership in Eastem Tchad. This kind of analysis can best be accomplished if one takes a broader look at regional phenomena before trying to decipher the meaning of locally or culturally unique elements. Key findings of this work include the fact that Judiyya has continued in spite of four years in the refugee camps. Figures in Idara Ahdia [Native Administration] from Darfur, though unable to form reliable links with counterparts in Tchad due to ethnic rivalries and tensions, have been able to establish working links with Tchadien civil authorities, much as existed in Darfur prior to the war. B. PREFACE This thesis is the cuhnination of close to eight years of engagement with the Horn of Africa as a whole and Darfur in particular. I initially travelled to Egypt and the Sudan to hone my Arabic skills in summer of 2001. However, what began as a short trip to Egypt and the Sudan during the final year of my undergraduate degree at Durham, soon evolved into a research career long engagement with the region. My time in north Darfur laid the foundations for much of my post-graduate research. Embarking on this PhD was no small task. Many of the universities I had applied to told me bluntly, that no umjersity would send a reseanher to Darfur or Tdxtd isith the situation beir^ vhat it ms. Others had claimed my research was not 'anthwpdogkal enou^', and belonged in the halls of a stuffy smoke filled political sciences department, sonvuhere ebe. Both of these had been recuning themes I had been dealing during my Master's research in Ethiopia in 2002. Refused a research permit for the Sudan in 2002; I decided to do my Master's research in Ethiopia instead. My hope was that the research on ethnic federation would be useful to both Sudan and Ethiopia. To make sure it was useful to planners and thinkers in both sides of the border I decided to cross this border illegally and share my findings with SPLA commanders and Sudanese dissidents. Thus, I began honing some of my more clandestine research skills: forging documents, dealing with gatekeepers and crossing borders (Ulegall)^. Less than a year later, even before I had finished my master's, Darfur was engulfed in flames as the central govenmient utilized a combination of scorched earth and ethnic cleansing to deal with a regional rebellion. In 2004 I enrolled on a PhD m program at Durham University and became even more determined to return to Darfur to document the local tradition of conflict before it was totally wiped out. Looking back now I am not sure that the university really understood what I was proposing to do: enter a oorfiict zone to doamsnt a system cf corfiia resdutian and local adrrimtration by interdewr^ r^i^es. I assumed they thought I would do a library based study, if the situation in Darfur did not change for the better. The situation did not change and as a result, my supervisors and I agreed that a cross border study would probably be impossible. The plan was for me to travel to Tchad and conduct research there if the situation in Darfur did not improve. None cf us rmlistiadly expected the situation to char^. As a result, this research has dual focus on both Tchad and Darfur. During my time in Tchad I faced numerous hardships, including, but not limited to: knifings, hijackings and being shot at. Numerous colleagues were kidnapped and others seriously injured. It seemed I had arrived in Tchad at a particularly inopportune point in time. The period 2005-2006 saw Tchad convulsed by violence as nvunerous rebel groups tried to overthrow the ruling party. Like the Darfuri refugees I was a reluctant spectator. Without ethnic, tribal or clan alliance in Tchad, both I and the refugees among whom I worked, were at times ui^ets of various competing groups. Immediately prior to leaving for Tchad I co-authored a report on conflict resolution in the Sudan.