Dedication 1

I dedicate this Standard Essay to my beloved parents and my sister whom without their help, support, advices, cooperation, motivation, and prayers, I would not have taken up this study nor completed it.

I also dedicate this work to all my friends who have supported me throughout the process. Also, to my teacher of secondary school “Mr. Moubarek” I’m thankful for all that he have done.

Thank you all.

Kenadessa Marwa

I

Dedication 2

I dedicate this work to the dearest, greatest and closest person to my heart, to my dear mother who passed away seven years ago. May Allah send his mercy upon her soul

This was her dream; dear mother I did this work just for you.

Goreini Amina

II

Acknowledgments First and foremost, all our gratitude, gratefulness, and thankfulness are directed to “ALLAH” for enabling us to complete this work.

We would like to express our deepest gratitude to our supervisor “Dr. Zeghoudi Yahia”, who has gone with us through the ups and downs of this work and been invaluable source of knowledge and thoughtful advice. Thank you for giving us a wealth of ideas and generosity of time.

Our utmost gratitude goes to Mr. Rahmoun Omar for his support and help. Personally, me Goreini amina, I would to thank you for your encouragement and due to your motivating words that I reach this stage of success.

Special thanks go to our wonderful and greatest teacher Dr. Mouro Wassila for her assistance and guidance who without her help and support this work would not be done

Great thanks to our teachers ‘Dr.Bensafa Abdelkader’, ‘Mr Kamech Mohamed’, ‘Benmeki Amine’ for their helpful advices We were fortunate to have been taught by such outstanding teachers during all the five years Finally, we would like to thank our beloved friends and families for their sustainment and their prayer for us without forgetting any name, thank you all.

III

Abstract

In this Standard Essay, we shed light on the strained relations between the United States and the Soviet Union and the effective role of President Ronald Reagan in bringing an absolute end to Soviet Union and socialist world. We focus on his objectives achieved due to his new foreign policy in which he initiated his desire for the strategic defence initiative, his massive American military build-up, and his decision to support the anti-communism movements around the world. Bring the Soviet Union to its knees via political and economic pressure. In addition, we discuss the fall of Berlin as a turning point in the collapse of the Soviet empire. This dissertation aims to explain the real reasons that prevent the world from a third world war.

IV

Table of contents: Dedication 1 ...... I Dedication 2 ...... II Acknowledgments ...... Erreur ! Signet non défini. Abstract ...... IV List of Abbreviations: ...... VII List of maps : ...... VIII

List of figures: ...... VIII General Introduction: ...... Erreur ! Signet non défini. Chapter One: The United States and the Cold War 1.1 Introduction: ...... 4 1.2 Background to the War : ...... 5 1.3 The Clash between the Two Powers (US and USSR) ...... 7 1.3.1 Introduction to the Cold War: ...... 7 1.3.2 Reasons behind the Cold War: ...... 8 1.3.3 The Main Phases of the Cold War: ...... 9 1.3.4 Effects of the Cold War: ...... 15 1.4 Reagan and Gorbachev ended the Cold War: ...... 17 1.5 Conclusion: ...... 19 Chapter Two: Reagan and the end of the Cold War 2.1 Introduction: ...... 22 2.2 Biography of Ronald Reagan (1911-2004) ...... 23 2.3 The beginning of Ronald Reagan’s Political Involvement ...... 25 2.4 Reagan’s Presidency 1981 ...... 29 2.5 Reagan’s Foreign Policies : Towards the End of the Cold War ...... 30 2.5.1 Reagan’s Plans Against the USSR ...... 30 2.5.2 The Use of Force Against Aligned USSR’s Nations ...... 33 2.5.3 The Iran-Contra Affair :a Worst Scandal of Reagan ...... 35 2.6 The Platform of Peace between the Two Leaders ...... 39 2.6.1 The Geneva Summit 1985 ...... 39 2.6.2 The Reykjavik Summit 1986 ...... 39

V

2.6.3 The Washington Summit ...... 40 2.6.4 The Moscow Summit 1988 ...... 41 2.6.5 Governors Island meeting:...... 41 2.7 The fall of Berlin Wall ...... 41 2.8 Conclusion: ...... 43 General Conclusion: ...... 47 Bibliography: ...... 50

Books: ...... 50

Articles and Magazines: ...... 50

Web sites: ...... 53

VI

List of Abbreviations:

ANZUS: Australia New Zealand United States Security

CENTO: Central Treaty Organisation

CIA: Central Intelligence Agency

FMLN: the Farabundo Marti National Liberation Front

INF: intermediate-range nuclear forces

MEDO: Middle East defence organisation

NATO: North Atlantic Treaty Organisation

NSC: National Security Council

PATCO: Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization

SALT: Strategic Arms Limitation Talks

SDI: Strategic Defence Initiative

SEATO: Southeast Asia Treaty Organisation

UNO: United Nations Organisation

US: United State

USSR: Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

VII

List of Maps:

Map 01: Cold War World Map 1980……………………………………………...17

List of figures:

Figure 01: Iran contra-affaires……………………………………………………..37

Figure 02: Gorbachev and Reagan signing the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces…………………………………………………………………………………..40

Figure 03: West Berliners crowd in front of the Berlin Wall on Nov. 11, 1989 as they watch East German border guards demolishing a section of the wall to open………………………………………………………………………………….…43

VIII

General Introduction

General Introduction

The world has witnessed great changes during the post-World War II era which led to the division of the world into two great superpowers; the Capitalist US and the Communist USSR. The clash between these two powers was due to their mistrust, different ideologies, strategic goals and national interests.

Each one considered the other as a threat to its existence and adopted strategies to maintain their positions. The two powers never fought each other directly in this period, but they had been engaged in many conflicts over the world. Hence, this conflict is named as the Cold War rather than a hot war. There were a lot of occasions when it appeared that a hot war would break out between the Superpowers, but thankfully this was avoided due to the successful US foreign policy.

The previous policies adopted by US presidents to calm down hostilities of the war did not give satisfactory results until the election of Ronald Reagan in 1981. He played a great role in the progress in the relations of the two superpowers that gave a favour to US in ending the cold war and transforming world into unipolar power.

This dissertation represents the role of US foreign policy to defeat Communism and allowed Capitalism to become the primary government in the modern world. This research explains the importance of Ronald Reagan’s efforts to end the cold war and avoid a third world war from happening , by which he opposed the policy of detente and stood firm against the USSR, calling it the ‘Evil Empire’ and telling Mikhail Gorbachev to “tear down this wall” in Berlin. This dissertation shows his Strategic Defence Initiative against the USSR and gave support to anti-communism movements around the world. As a result, those efforts led to the collapse of the Soviet Empire and basically ended the Cold War.

The problematics of this research turns around Ronald Reagan’s new ideologies and effective foreign policy towards the USSR and how it helped in accelerating the end of the Cold War. Thus, one could ask the questions: Did the

1

General Introduction arm race and the nuclear program of America frightened the USSR and affect the relations between the two superpowers? Did Ronald Reagan’s foreign policy succeed to defeat Communism?

The two superpowers which once were allies became bitter enemies due to the mutual mistrust and the different ideologies between Capitalism and Communism. Each side attempted to achieve its goals and preserved its position as leader of the world.

Ronald Reagan ‘the actor’ presented himself as a leader who would restore national self-confidence. He defeated communism owing to his new foreign policy that previous presidents were could not achieve.

This research work has been divided into two chapters, the first one deals with the historical background of the cold war ,then, the reasons and effects behind the clash between the US and the USSR .The second chapter is devoted to the major achievements of Ronald Regan and will focus on his role in ending the cold war.

2

Chapter One: The United States and the Cold War

Chapter One: The US and the Cold War: Historical background

1.1 Introduction:

During World War II1 , the United States and the USSR were allies, but after the war and the division of Germany, the communist USSR and the capitalist US soon viewed each other with increasing suspicion. This feeling led to mutual mistrust and Cold War so they became enemies. Each side attempted to be the world’s top super power. Their political differences created a climate of icy tension that plunged both countries into an era of bitter rivalry known as the Cold War.

The ‘Cold War’ was a kind of economical, ideological, political and military tension and fierce competition between the US and the USSR for power without direct confrontation.

Both powers were scared of fighting each other directly. In a ‘hot war’, the development of nuclear weapons might demolish everything and threatened the existence of the human race. Thus, instead, the US and the USSR fought each other indirectly. They supported contrasting sides in conflicts in different parts of the world. They also used words as weapons. They threatened and denounced each other.

The competition between the two superpowers led to many proxy wars. There was never a direct military engagement between the two powers, but there was half a century of military build-up as well as political battles for support around the world.

The terms of competing ideologies (Democracy versus Communism) and modes of economic organization (free market capitalism versus central planning) can explain the Cold War.

These competing approaches have been applied not only to the development of the cold war as a whole , but also to the development of specific US foreign

1 A war (1939–45) in which the Axis Powers (Germany, Italy, and Japan) were defeated by an alliance eventually including the United Kingdom and its dominions, the Soviet Union, and the United States. http://www.oxforddictionaries.com (accessed in December 2015)

4

Chapter One: The US and the Cold War: Historical background

policies during this period in which the US established itself as a universal leader in the creation of international institutions, engaged itself for the first time in membership of collective security arrangements , and its enormous economic resources were deployed on a global scale never before seen .The result was four and half decades of military , political, economic and ideological confrontation with the Soviet Union ,which broke out in several proxy wars, the creation of a nuclear arsenal capable of assuring the mutual destruction of the US , the Soviet Union and the rest of the world .

The term ‘cold war’ was first presented to the world from the book of the American journalist Walter Lippmann (1989-1974), “the cold war” (1947). He first perceived this term in a Congressional debate in the same year by Bernard Baruch, the multimillionaire financier and adviser to presidents from Woodrow Wilson to Harry S. Truman (1870-1965) who used the term to refer to the bipolar political and military completion between the nuclear superpowers, US and USSR. Let us not be deceived;” Baruch said, “we are today in the midst of a Cold War. Our enemies are to be found abroad and at home. Let us never forget this: Our unrest is the heart of their success” “Bernard M. Baruch: The Adventures of a Wall Street Legend,” by James Grant (1997).

The tension between the United State and Soviet Union lasted until the breakup of USSR in 1991’s.

1.2 Background to the War :

Lots of events had changed once World War II was over. Much of Europe and Eastern Asia had been ruined by the aerial bombing and heavy firearms that had taken place over many years. Also, many countries’ borders needed to be set and governments renewed where Germany or Japan had taken over.

Germany had conquered most of Europe during World War II. Many of the countries in the West returned to the same governments and boundaries they had prior to the war. However, Germany was partitioned into Eastern and Western Germany. The Eastern part was under the leadership of the USSR (Russia) and the Western part under the Allies (US, British and French forces).

5

Chapter One: The US and the Cold War: Historical background

The USSR also dominated many of the countries in Eastern Europe where they had fought the Germans. These included Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Hungary and Czechoslovakia. Europe was destroyed by years of conflict during World War II, it was much needed to a financial aid to recuperate and re-establish, and for that The United States offered help in the form of the Marshall Plan to assist Europe recover.

In Eastern Asia, The US and the Allies colonized Japan. They maintained control as Japan cured from the war. Japan would become an independent nation again in 1952

In Korea, the Allies and the USSR (Russia) split the country into North and South Korea. Russia planned to dominate the North, and the Allies intended to govern the South pending a free election could be held for the entire country. This never happened as Russia later rejected the election and the country is still divided to this day with North Korea controlled by communists.

After the war, several leaders from Japan and Germany were brought to court for judgement. They had violated the rules of war according to the “Geneva Convention” and had also perpetrated crimes against humanity. These crimes included the Holocaust, slave labour, and the terrible treatment and torture of prisoners of war. Many of these leaders were executed for their crimes.

In October 24, 1945 , the Allies established the United Nations in order to avoid and prevent World War III from happening. There were 51 original member nations including five permanent Security Council members: China, France, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and the United States.

Europe became partitioned into the Eastern Block of nations and the West. The divisions between the Eastern Block and Western Bloc grew, due to their mutually unfriendly policies .The Eastern community was led and controlled by Russia. These countries were governed by communist governments and had their

6

Chapter One: The US and the Cold War: Historical background

own coalition called the “Warsaw Pact”2. The Western countries, including the United States, constituted an alliance against communism called NATO3.

The NATO and the Warsaw Pact would take part in an arms race war called the “Cold War”. The Cold War never rose into full war due to the fear of atomic bombs, it lasted forty five years.

1.3 The Clash between the Two Powers (US and USSR) 1.3.1 Introduction to the Cold War: Two superpowers, the US and the USSR, emerged from the war; the two powers had fought together as allies to defeat their common threat of Nazi Germany, Hitler. Following the end of the Second World War, their relationship had begun to crumble even before the fighting ceased. The tension between the two powers started to grow. There was a great deal of mistrust; both of them had different ideologies, strategic goals and national interests this unease laid at the root of the Cold War.

The ‘Cold War’ refers to the period of clash and conflict between the US and USSR from 1945-1991. Each of the Superpowers considered the other as a threat to its existence and adopted strategies to preserve their positions. The two powers never fought each other directly in this period, but it had been engaged in conflicts such as the Korean War. Therefore, this conflict was named the Cold War, rather than a conventional hot war. There were a lot of opportunities when it appeared that a hot war would burst between the Superpowers, but thankfully this was avoided.

2 The Warsaw Pact (1955 – 91) was a post-World War II military alliance composed of the USSR and the Soviet-dominated Eastern European countries, referred to as "Soviet satellites." The pact formerly began in 1955 following admittance of West Germany into NATO. The Warsaw Pact was the principal rival to NATO during the Cold War, but its weakness was demonstrated by the invasion of pact members Hungary and Czechoslovakia in 1956 and 1968, respectively, by other members to prevent anti- communist political reforms. http://www.chegg.com/(accessed in December 2015)

3An organization formed in Washington, D.C. (1949), comprising the 12nations of the Atlantic Pact toget her with Greece, Turkey, and theFederal Republic of Germany, for the purpose of collective defence against aggression. http://www.dictionary.com/(accessed in December 2015)

7

Chapter One: The US and the Cold War: Historical background

1.3.2 Reasons behind the Cold War: July 17th, 1945, as World War II came to an end, the American president Harry Truman, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin convened in Potsdam to decide the fate of Europe. The talks were marked by the ideological and geopolitical disputes between the USSR and the western alliance. Finally, agreements were reached to divide defeated Germany into zones of occupation. Leaders shake hands as a show of solidarity, but the USSR and Western Powers found themselves bitter enemies in a dangerous broad wild confrontation known as the Cold War.

Then, over the next four decades it progressed to threatening annihilation. Each side of this conflict believed that the survival of the respective economic and political system is at stack. The Soviets were convinced that America intends to destroy Communism, but potentially through the use of Atomic weapons. Americans fear that the spread of communism threatens their freedom and way of life with a system of government based on terror oppression.

In the years after the end of WWII, Stalin engineered elections in Poland, Hungary, Romania and Bulgaria and Czechoslovakia which bring communist governments to power. By 1948, the Soviet Union effectively controlled all of the Eastern Europe. And within another year, communists controlled the mainland of China.

In June 1948, Stalin ordered a blockade of West Berlin. No food or a fuel went to the city from the surrounding Soviet territories. The western airlines begin a daring airlift to supply the city. Eleven months later, Stalin backed down and ended the Berlin blockade4.

The Berlin Blockade was an attempt in 1948 by the Soviet Union to limit the ability of France, Great Britain and the 4 United States to travel to their sectors of Berlin, which lay within Russian-occupied East Germany. Eventually, the western powers instituted an airlift that lasted nearly a year and delivered much-needed supplies and relief to West Berlin. Coming just three years after the end of World War II, the blockade was the first major clash of the Cold War and foreshadowed future conflict over the city of Berlin.

http://www.history.com/(accessed in January 2016) 8

Chapter One: The US and the Cold War: Historical background

The US, Canada and ten European nations signed the North Atlantic Treaty in April 4th, 1949 creating collective security arrangements against the Soviet Union. Then, in August 29th, 1949 the Soviet Union successfully tests the Atomic Bomb. The US nuclear monopoly has been the only assurance against the Soviet Union’s conventional military superiority. Suddenly, the US lost its domination instead of the success of the USSR nuclear tests.

In June 1950, a new war started in Korea putting the rest of the World at risk. Western Nations knew they were too weak to prevent Stalin from swallowing up the rest of Europe in the same way. America and European Leaders turned to General Dwight D. Eisenhower to provide leadership as the first supreme commander of NATO. For the first time, a collective military force would not be a symbol of war but to keep peace for all the duration of the Cold War.

1.3.3 The Main Phases of the Cold War: The period of the Cold War had witnessed several phases between the United State and the Soviet Union from 1946 to 1987. Starting with the first period (1945-1949), although the Alliance between the United States (Franklin Roosevelt and after his death Harry Truman) and Soviet Russia (Joseph Stalin) helped to win the WWII, their relationship quickly started to get worse.

In April 1945, with the death of President Franklin Roosevelt, he left his inexperienced vice president, Harry Truman, in charge of a nation with unique economic and military might. The US was by far the most powerful country in the world in which the war had drained the power and resources of all potential competitors. America’s enemies Germany and Japan would soon be defeated; the struggle had weakened America’s allies: Britain and Russia. Around 30 million Russians had died in the Second World War. Much of western Russia’s industry and agriculture had been severely destroyed by the German occupation, opposite to US territory, which (with the exception of Pearl Harbour) had remained untouched.

9

Chapter One: The US and the Cold War: Historical background

The end of the Second World War witnessed the victory of the USSR due to the help of America over the two traditional threats, Germany and Japan, which were destroyed, and Poland, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary and the Soviet zone of occupied Germany had been dominated by Communist Soviet Union . In spite of that, the USSR came in a distant second to the US in the great power rankings. The phenomenal economic power of the US was horrifying enough, but American possession of the atomic bomb left Stalin terrified. The world balance of power had dramatically changed. The year 1947 marked the collapse of the Great Alliance and the start of the Cold War. America and the Soviet Union distrusted each other; both sides wanted to take position as superpowers in a post-war era. The US always tried to control the Russian powers.

There were tensions over Stalin’s creation of a Communist Eastern Europe, Iranian oil, the Allied occupation of Germany, and Greece and Turkey. The civil war in Greece helped the growth of the Cold War. Despite the Western conviction to the contrary, Stalin did not help the Greek Communists.

On 12 March 1947, in response to a communist rebellion in Greece, pressure on Turkey, and Britain’s growing economic weakness, US President Truman announced the Truman Doctrine. When he made his speech to Congress the Soviet–American relations crumbled. An excerpt from Truman’s speech to Congress, 12 March 1947: One way of life is based upon the will of the majority, and is distinguished by free institutions, representative government, free elections, and guarantees of individual liberty, freedom of speech and religion, and freedom from political oppression. The second way of life is based upon the will of a minority forcibly imposed upon the majority. It relies upon terror and oppression, a controlled press and radio, fixed elections and the suppression of personal freedoms. I believe that it must be the policy of the United States to support free peoples who are

10

Chapter One: The US and the Cold War: Historical background

resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures (Geoffrey Roberts, 1999, p. 22) America assisted Greece in order to reduce the USSR dominance; Truman went before Congress to obtain 300 million dollars for Greece and 100 million dollars for Turkey, so that those countries could fight the Communist threat. This was followed in June by the Marshall Plan5, which presented financial support to Western Europe countries in order to facilitate the US involvement in Europe, which was declared on 5 June, 1947; 13 billion dollars were given to West European nations.

An excerpt from General Marshall’s speech to Harvard University on 5 June 1947: It is already evident that before the United States Government can proceed further to alleviate the situation and help start the European world economy, there must be some agreement among the countries of Europe as to the requirements of the situation and the part those countries themselves will take in order to give proper effect to whatever action might be undertaken by this Government. It would be neither fitting nor efficacious for this government to undertake to draw up unilaterally a programme to place Europe on its feet economically.

Fearing that the strategy would enable the US to interfere with the economies of Eastern Europe, Stalin established the Cominform6 and vetoed any acceptance of the Marshall Plan by the eastern European states. The USSR also began to consolidate its grip on these states. In reaction to this, western European states looked increasingly to the US for economic aid and military protection.

5 The Marshall Plan, also known as the European Recovery Program, channelled over $13 billion to finance the economic recovery of Europe between 1948 and 1951[…] the plan is named for Secretary of State George C. Marshall, who announced it in a commencement speech at Harvard University on June 5, 1947. http://www.history.com/ (accessed in January 2016) 6 Short for Communist Information Bureau: established 1947 to exchange information among nine European Communist parties and coordinate their activities; dissolved in 1956. http://www.dictionary.com/(accessed in January 2016)

11

Chapter One: The US and the Cold War: Historical background

In 1949, there was the creation of NATO which was a response to Stalin’s blockade of the American, British and French zones of Berlin, which lay within the Soviet zone of Germany. The West overcame the blockade by a sustained airlift of supplies to West Berlin during 1948–9. The Berlin blockade sped up the development of a West German state that was politically and militarily integrated into the Western anti-Soviet alliance.

In this phase, the Cold War became more furious because of non-retreat of USSR army from Iran and the Berlin blockade, etc. but after the establishment of NATO in 1949, the Cold War took a pause. Soon after, a new phase began (1949-1953) in which America signed a set of treaties. The first one signed with Australia, New Zealand in September, 1957 known as ANZUS and the other with Japan on 8 September, 1951.

At the end of the Second World War, the two main protagonists, the US and the USSR agreed that the Japanese surrender in Korea would be taken by the USSR in the north and the Americans in the south. The origins of the Korean War owed much to these military decisions, which became highly significant because of the development of the Cold War. As Soviet–American relations crumbled during 1945–6, they failed to agree on Korean reunification. As both powers had troops stationed in Korea, the USA attempted to create a southern Korean state in its own image, and the USSR did as well in the north.

The UN-supervised elections (1948) helped to create separate Korean governments in which in the South, the United States supported ‘Syngman Rhee’ as the elected leader of the newly established Republic of Korea (ROK), while in the north the USSR supported ‘Kim IL Sung’ as head of the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (DPRK). The creation of two Korean nations worsened to the Cold War, the two powers the US and the Soviet Union made a Korean war likely, especially as both Rhee and Kim desired reunification, though each ruled with a different ideological vision.

12

Chapter One: The US and the Cold War: Historical background

During 1951, North Korea declared war against South Korea by taking armaments from Russia and army from China.

Due to the assistance in UNO, America sent military aid to South Korea. However, both North Korea and South Korea signed a peace treaty in 1953 and ended the war. America spent a massive amount of dollars in propaganda against Communism in order to reduce the spread of Soviet Communism. As a response, the Soviet Union rivalled America by testing atomic bomb.

Furthermore, another period started from 1953 till1957; when Eisenhower won the presidential election of 1952 against Truman he declared that he had a ‘mandate for change’. Although he claimed that his foreign policy was different from Truman’s, there was little that was new. As Truman, Eisenhower was militantly anti-Communist. Eisenhower’s ‘New Look’ defence policy aimed to save money by depending on the nuclear deterrent. Khrushchev became the President of Russia following the death of Stalin in 1953.

The US tried to diminish the Soviet Union’s impact by forming SEATO in 1954 and MEDO in Middle East in 1955. During a short period, military assistance was given by America to 43 countries and 3300 military bases were established around the USSR. At that time the Vietnam War began in 1955. But the threat of nuclear arms was not used.

The USSR tried to be equal with America by signing Warsaw Pact in 1955 and a defence pact with 12 countries to reduce America’s power. In 1956, America and Russia signed an agreement concerning the Suez Crisis. America did not accept to assist her allies such as England and France. In fact West Asia was kept from a serious danger.

Moreover, another phase took place during 1957 until 1962; when the Soviet President Khrushchev went on a historical tour to America in 1959. Both

13

Chapter One: The US and the Cold War: Historical background

countries were annoyed for U-2 accident7 and for Berlin Crisis. A Berlin wall of 25 kilometres was built by the Soviet Union on 13 August 1961 in order to avoid the migration from Easter Berlin to Western Berlin. In 1962, Cuba’s Missile Crisis contributed a lot to the cold war.

Even though the Cuban Missile Crisis8 was a direct clash between the United States and the Soviet Union, involving neither NATO nor the Warsaw Pact, it had a profound influence on the Cold War both in Europe and throughout the world. Both sides came to the brink of war, but a nuclear conflict was prevented. This accident created conversation between American President Kennedy and Soviet President Khrushchev. The US assured the USSR that she would not attack Cuba and the USSR also retreat the missile station from Cuba.

In addition, the fifth phase started in 1962 and marked great suspicion and doubt between the two superpowers. Both believed that possessing nuclear weapons would stop the other power from going to war. At that time, a hot line was formed between the US and the USSR. This forced both sides to refrain from nuclear war, and for years, this brought stability to the world. Despite all that, the cold war between the US and the USSR was kept in by the Vietnam problem and the problem in Germany. Next, another period commencing from 1969 to 1978 was marked by Detente between the US and the Soviet Union; the American President Richard Nixon and former Soviet president Leonid Brezhnev had played a leading role to put an end to the cold war. The US and the Soviet Union became closer after signing a set of agreements as SALT in 1972, the summit Conference on Security’ of 1975 in Helsinki and Belgrade Conference of 1978.

7 An international diplomatic crisis erupted in May 1960 when the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) shot down an American U-2 spy plane in Soviet air space and captured its pilot, Francis Gary Powers (1929-77). http://www.dictionary.com/(accessed in January 2016) 8 Is a confrontation between the United States and the Soviet Union in 1962 over the presence of missile sites in Cuba; one of the “hottest” periods of the cold war. The Soviet leader, Nikita Khrushchev, placed Soviet military missiles in Cuba, which had come under Soviet influence after the success of the Cuban Revolution three years earlier. Ibid (accessed in January 2016)

14

Chapter One: The US and the Cold War: Historical background

In 1971, a secret visit to China was paid by the American Foreign Secretary Henry Kissinger to explore the possibilities of rapprochement with China. Diego Garcia was converted into a military base by the Americans. He was primarily designed to check the Soviet presence in the Indian Ocean. Through the Bangladesh crisis of 1971 and the Egypt-Israel War of 1973 the two super powers gave an extended sustain to the opposite sides. Finally, the last period which started from 1979 to 1987, also marked various changes in the cold war. For that the historians call this phase the ‘New Cold War’.

In 1979 SALT II9 was signed by the American President Carter and the Soviet President Brezhnev. However, in 1979 a sudden development in Afghanistan impacted the possibility of reducing Cold War. Success was brought by Vietnam (1975), Angola (1976), Ethiopia (1972) and Afghanistan (1979) issues to Russia which was intolerable for America. Russia criticised American President Carter’s Human Rights and Open Diplomacy.

After that, the SALT II was not signed by the US Senate and in 1980 America boycotted the Olympics held at Moscow. In 1983, Russia retreated from a talk on missiles with America. In 1984 Russia interrupted the Olympic Games held at Los-Angeles. The USSR was annoyed by The Star War of the American President Ronald Regan. In this way the ‘New Cold War’ between America and Russia continued till 1987.

1.3.4 Effects of the Cold War: During the Cold War, the world was bipolar. The US and the USSR both controlled the world as two word superpowers. After the Cold War, the international system changed and the US became the sole world superpower.

9 Negotiations started in Helsinki, Finland, in 1969 between the United States and the Soviet Union to limit the countries' stock of nuclear weapons. The treaties resulting from these negotiations are called SALT I and SALT II. These treaties have led to START (Strategic Arms Reduction Talks). START I (a 1991 agreement between the United States and the Soviet Union) and START II (a 1993 agreement between the United States and Russia) placed specific caps on each side's stock of nuclear weapons. http://www.dictionary.com/ (accessed in February 2016)

15

Chapter One: The US and the Cold War: Historical background

The Cold War affected the entire world affairs. It gave rise to the manufacture of more advanced weaponry. Various alliances like NATO, SEATO, WARSAW PACT, CENTO, ANZUS etc. were created and amplified the world tension. Also, the Cold War rendered the UNO useless because both super powers attempted to fight the actions proposed by the adversary. This deviation caused the Korean Crisis, Cuban Missile Crisis, Vietnam War etc. In addition, due to the Cold War, a Third World was created. A large number of nations of Africa, Asia and Latin America decided to keep away from the military alliances of the two super powers, and to stay neutral. As a result, the Non-Alignment Movement appeared.

As a consequence, he effects of the Cold War went more than that. The USSR economy suffered and stopped military spending which increased the number of unemployed persons. Capitalist economies knew a severe failure which affected the standard of living.

In addition to the loss of life by uniformed soldiers, millions died in the superpowers' proxy wars around the globe, most notably in Southeast Asia. Most of the proxy wars and subsidies for local conflicts ended along with the Cold War; the incidence of interstate wars, ethnic wars, revolutionary wars, as well as refugee and displaced persons crises have declined sharply in the post-Cold War years.10

Moreover, due to the Cold War nearly 100,000 Americans lost their lives in the wars in Korea and Vietnam, and millions died as a result of other wars throughout the world between the US and the Soviet Union.

The foundation of national defense during the Cold War affected the post- Cold War. The world faces a greater risk of deliberate, accidental, or unauthorized nuclear devastation because of the remaining inventories of nuclear weapons.

10 “The Cold War's Costs and Consequences” Boundless U.S. History, 21 Jul. 2015. www.boundless.com (accessed in February 2016)

16

Chapter One: The US and the Cold War: Historical background

Cold War World Map: 1980

Source: historybysue.wordpress.com/

1.4 Reagan and Gorbachev ended the Cold War:

The end of the Cold War was indicated by the most important event “the fall of the Berlin Wall”. In his famous speech near the Berlin Wall, Reagan claimed for destroying the wall and ceasing the War:

General Secretary Gorbachev, if you seek peace, if you seek prosperity for the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, if you seek liberalization: come here to this gate! Mr. Gorbachev, open this gate! Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall! President (Ronald Reagan - June 12, 1987)

Reagan and Gorbachev played big roles in ending the Cold War even if American conservatives believed that the Cold War’s end is due to the American leader Ronald Reagan who changed the American foreign policy during this era.

17

Chapter One: The US and the Cold War: Historical background

Gorbachev, who is the fourth leader during Reagan’s presidency, decreased the pressure and strain between the two superpowers; knowing that the relations were strained before he undertook the leadership on the head of Russian presidency in 1985. As the 1988 presidential election approached, the Democrats believe that they would win.

In 1986, in Reykjavik, Reagan and Gorbachev nearly decided to reject nuclear arsenals of their countries. In 1987, they signed the historic intermediate- range Nuclear Forces Treaty which was the first agreement to reduce nuclear weapons between the two powers.

Reagan challenged Gorbachev to tear down the Berlin Wall. At that time, this challenge received minor media coverage. At the same time, Gorbachev played a big role in the liberation of Eastern Europe from Soviet domination in 1989. After that, he indicated that he would no longer apply the Brezhnev Doctrine11, which had been used to justify military involvement and intervention of Soviets in satellite countries.

Afterwards, in December 1988, Gorbachev delivered a speech in which he rejected the idea of “international class struggle” that had reinforced Soviet foreign policy. He rejected the Brezhnev Doctrine, and renounced the use of force to resolve conflicts,

Today I can inform you of the following: The Soviet Union has made a decision on reducing its armed forces. In the next two years, their numerical strength will be reduced by 500,000 persons, and the volume of conventional arms will also be cut considerably. These reductions will be made on a unilateral basis, unconnected with negotiations on the mandate for the Vienna meeting. By agreement with our allies in the Warsaw Pact, we have made the decision to withdraw six tank divisions from the GDR,

11 The Brezhnev Doctrine was a Soviet foreign policy outlined in 1968 which called for the use of Warsaw Pact forces to intervene in any Eastern Bloc nation which was seen to compromise communist rule and Soviet domination, either by trying to leave the Soviet sphere of influence or even moderate its policies. http://europeanhistory.about.com/ (accessed in February 2016)

18

Chapter One: The US and the Cold War: Historical background

Czechoslovakia, and Hungary, and to disband them by 1991. (Mikhail Gorbachev, December 7, 1988)

Gorbachev announced acts to decrease the armed forces of the country by 500,000 troops and to retreat 50,000 soldiers from Eastern Europe. A Soviet scholar Archie Brown said that Gorbachev “willed the end of communist regimes in Eastern Europe”.

Reagan’s role to ending the Cold War was very important. Indeed, his military build-up was intended to create incentives for the Soviets to negotiate how to decrease arms by eliminating or reducing their advantage in various weapons categories. Once Gorbachev became the first leader of Soviets to engage him directly, Reagan changed his view about “the evil empire” and dealt with Gorbachev with more respect.

There is no doubt that the two leaders played a big role to avoid a Third World War. The enmity which lasted for long decades originated from the very core of their national identities; however, the two men looked further away their expected roles in protecting and preserving the adversarial relationship between the two superpowers and their opposed ideologies and took enormous steps toward peace and cooperation for the sake of their own people and the world.

1.5 Conclusion:

The Cold War was a seminal period in history that had influenced both powers; the two nations that had united toward a single aim and which had fought side by side during WWII became enemies and each nation attempted to reduce the power of other indirectly, their completion shaped the birth of a new war that would never break out in the open, which lasted from the mid-1940s to the early 1990s.

19

Chapter One: The US and the Cold War: Historical background

A main change in the Cold War would take place in nineteen eighty-five, when Mikhail Gorbachev became a president of the USS, he met four times with the American President Ronald Reagan.

Gorbachev withdrew Soviet forces from Afghanistan and signed an agreement with the United States to demolish all nuclear missiles.

By nineteen-eighty-nine, there was widespread disorder in Eastern Europe, Gorbachev did not interfere as one eastern European country after another cut its ties with the Soviet Union.

The major symbol of communist persecution was the Berlin Wall that was torn down in November of that year. In less than a year, East and West Germany reunited and became one nation again. After a short period, the Alliance was officially ended by Warsaw Pact countries. As the 1990s began, the Cold War was finally over and the United States was the first superpower in the world.

20

Chapter Two: Reagan and the end of the Cold War

Chapter Two: Reagan and the End of the Cold War

2.1 Introduction:

After the Cuban Missile Crisis and economic travails which threatened to escalate into nuclear war between the great power the US and the USSR in 1962, both side were ready to deem negotiations on arms control and to co-operate more closely to prevent a conflict between them and their allies in Europe. Development towards this was halted by the Vietnam War and the Soviet occupation of Czechoslovakia, but in late 1969 efforts resumed. In 1971, a new policy served as the basis for marked policy departures called ‘détente’ which is a French word meaning release from tension. It was adopted by Richard Nixon, the first American president who tried to improve America’s relation with the USSR and China.

In 1977, President Jimmy Carter was Nixon’s successor and in the talks, he supported SALT II, but also pressed a military reinforcement and a human rights campaign, which froze the relations between the countries.

By 1979, during the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, and its refusal to withdraw, the United States under the control of Jimmy Carter stopped certain key exports to the USSR, including grain and advances technology, and boycotted the 1980 Moscow Olympics. The Carter government also began providing economic and military assistance for anti-Soviet fighters in Afghanistan. Using weapons supplied by the CIA, the Afghan rebel forces eventually overcame the Soviets. This plan was successful in helping to expel the Soviet Union, but it also gave rise to the repressive Taliban regime and other anti-American Islamic terrorists.

The greatest successes and failures of Carter in foreign policy took place in the Middle East. In 1978, he succeeded to calm tension between Israel and Egypt by signing the Camp David Accords. However, his failure can be seen in the Iran hostage crisis when he allowed the head of Iranian “Muhammad Reza Pahlavi” to come in the United States for medical treatment. As reaction for permitting the exiled leader to enter the US, hundreds of angry Iranians stormed

22

Chapter Two: Reagan and the End of the Cold War the US embassy in Teheran and captured 58 American hostages. The Iran hostage crisis and the Soviet Occupation of Afghanistan had presented many examples of American weakness.

By election of Ronald Reagan in 1980, he preferred a more aggressive anti-Communist foreign policy, offered a counter to this feeling of malaise and generated support for increased American persistence in international relations. He refused any notion of American decline and promised to restore America to its rightful place as the strongest nation on Earth. He nicknamed the USSR as the “evil empire”12 and believed it was America’s liability to save the world from Soviet oppression. He dramatically increased U.S. defence spending and reinforced the nuclear weapons race with the Soviets, whose stumbling economy ultimately banned them from keeping pace. The Soviet Union collapsed in 1991.

2.2 Biography of Ronald Reagan (1911-2004)

Ronald Wilson Reagan was born on February 6th, 1911 in Tampico, Illinois (West of Chicago). Then, Reagan’s family settled in Dixon where he had grown up and always considered it as his hometown. He was the son of Jack, a shoe salesman and Nelle Reagan. His mother played a big role in Reagan’s life because she was the first one who encouraged him for acting. When Jack Reagan saw his new son, he said, “He looks like a fat little Dutchman!” As a result, Ronald Reagan had the boyhood nickname “Dutch”. After that, he graduated from Dixon High School in 1928, where he was interested in dramas, drawing, and journalism. Ronald Reagan enrolled at Eureka College, near Peoria and he was the first one in his family who had a higher education. At Eureka College, Ronald Reagan was on the football team, and was the star of the swimming and track teams as well. He worked his way through college with dishwashing and other jobs, also sending money home and inducing his brother to enrol at Eureka.

12 Reagan. Remarks to Evangelicals, Public Papers 1983,55

23

Chapter Two: Reagan and the End of the Cold War

Ronald Reagan attended Eureka College from the fall of 1928, graduated with a Bachelor’s degree in economics and sociology in the middle of the world economic crisis known as the Great Depression13 (1929-1939). After that, Reagan sooner found a job in Davenport, Iowa, as a sports announcer for a radio station called WHO station in Des Moines. In 1937 Reagan persuaded WHO to send him to cover the Cubs' spring training games in California. However, his real motive was to try to launch an acting career in Hollywood; he had the chance and opportunity to do a screen test at Warner Brothers and for four years played in what is called B-films. He continued his career as an actor where he played in movies until he joined the army when the USA took part of World War II. He was part of the Army Reserve and was called to active responsibility after Pearl Harbour. Reagan stayed in the Army from 1942-45 until he became a Captain. However, he never participated or took part in combat. But, he served at the Army Air Corps film unit. They were making army morale films. During the next twenty years, Reagan made 50 films14, beginning with Love Is on The Air in 1937 and ending with Hellcats of the Navy in 1957. In 1938, while filming Brother Rat, Reagan met his first wife. He married his co-star Jane Wyman in Hollywood two years later (1940). Then, they had a daughter, Maureen, in 1941 and adopted a son, Michael, in 1945. However, their marriage ended in divorce in 1948. Reagan was the only president to have been divorced. Later, Reagan was involved in the SAG (Screen Actors Guild). He was the president of this guild which is the labour union for movie from 1947 till 1952. In this time he also became well known for his strong anti-Communist views

13 In the United States, the Great Depression began soon after the stock market crash of October 1929, which sent Wall Street into a panic and wiped out millions of investors. Retrieved from http://www.history.com/topics/great-depression 14 Ronald Reagan Biography (2004) Retrieved http://www.biography.com/people/ronald-reagan-9453198

24

Chapter Two: Reagan and the End of the Cold War

In 1952 Reagan married again, the actress Nancy Davis. They had two children together, Patricia and Ronald Prescott. Ronald Reagan said, “I think my life really began when I met Nancy.”15

Two years later, in 1954, he became spokesman for the General Electric Company series and delivering corporate speeches. By 1962, his employment at General Electric was abruptly ended by the company and Reagan returned to playing television and film roles. Then, he was elected as the 33rd Governor of California in 1966 since the voters believed in his ability to help people. He succeeded in the elections of 1980 and became the 40th president of United States. Finally, on June 5th 2004 former President Ronald Reagan died of Alzheimer's disease.

2.3 The beginning of Ronald Reagan’s Political Involvement Ronald Reagan was the fortieth president of the United States; His acting career prepared him well for politics. The acting profession did not just teach him how to carry himself on a stage or play to the camera. It prepared him for the presidency in much more masterful ways and for the bad reviews and cruel criticism that are part of public life. He never complained about the hard attacks against him and his wife Nancy Reagan throughout his years in office.

In his youthful years, Ronald Reagan was one of the Democratic Party’s members and campaigned for Democratic candidates; however, his vision grew more conservative over time, and in the early 1960s he officially became a Republican.

In 1964, when Reagan gave a well-received televised speech for a conservative Republican presidential candidate Barry Goldwater (1909-1998), “A Time for Choosing,”16 that David Salzer Broder , a journalist from The

15 Hannaford, P. (1994). Remembering Reagan Retrieved from https://books.google.dz (p.40) 16 The Speech (October 27, 1964) Retrieved from https://reaganlibrary.archives.gov/archives/reference/timechoosing.html

25

Chapter Two: Reagan and the End of the Cold War

Washington Post , described as “the most successful political debut since William Jennings Bryan electrified the 1896 Democratic convention with his ‘Cross of Gold’ speech.”17 Reagan’s talk, resulted in one million dollars in campaign contributions for Republican candidates, stepped him into the national political stage and made him the man of the Republican right. Two years later, in his first competition for public office, Reagan proclaimed his nomination for governor of California in 1966. The existing serving, Democrat Edmund G. “Pat” Brown, who had overcame Nixon’s challenge in 1962, Mocked Reagan’s lack of experience. But Reagan turned this apparent responsibility into an asset by portraying himself as a normal citizen who was bored with a state government that had become ineffectual and inexplicable. The public also responded well to Reagan’s personality, in particular to his apparent authenticity, amiability, and self-deprecating sense of humour. When he was asked by a journalist how he would perform in office, Reagan replied, “I don’t know. I’ve never played a governor.”18 Reagan overcame Edmund G. “Pat” Brown by one million votes to win the presidency of California. Reagan was re-elected to a second term in 1970. During the eight years of his serving as governor (1967–75), Reagan deleted a considerable budget deficit inherited from the Edmund Brown’s administration, through the greatest tax increase in the history of any state to that time, and set up reforms in the state’s welfare programs. ‘As some observers have noted, Reagan’s administrative style as governor was essentially the same as the one he would later adopt as president: he left most of the day-to-day business of government to assistants and department heads, preferring to focus

17 Kristol, W.( 2001). In His Heart, He Knew He Was Right. The New York Times 18Ronald Reagan. (2016). In Encyclopaedia Britannica Retrieved from http://www.britannica.com/biography/Ronald-Reagan

26

Chapter Two: Reagan and the End of the Cold War on larger issues of policy and vision. Reagan followed a rigid schedule, which his aides would prepare and type up for him daily.’19 After making unsuccessful attempts for the Republican presidential nomination in 1968 and 1976, during his lasting years as governor, he made tactics for a more serious run for the presidency, expecting that his luck would come in 1976, at the end of Nixon’s second term. But Nixon’s departure in 1974 put his Vice Gerald Ford in the Oval Office. Unwilling to wait another eight years, Reagan confronted Ford with intense critique of his policies and appointments but lost the candidacy by 60 votes. In 1980, Reagan dominated the Republican primary elections. Though his strongest competitor, George Bush, won an upset victory in the Iowa caucuses, Reagan got back after a noteworthy performance in a discussion with other Republican candidates in Nashua, New Hampshire. The debate was subsidized by a newspaper, and was first extended to only Reagan and Bush, but Reagan determined to pay for the discussion and invited the rest of the candidates. While all the candidates took the stage that evening, the Bush team seemed surprised, and, as Reagan began to explain the situation, the moderator from the newspaper ordered that Reagan’s microphone be turned off. Reagan reacted remarkably with an angry line he recalled from a Spencer Tracy movie: “I am paying for this microphone!”20 Reagan continued to win New Hampshire and most of the other main primaries and got in the convention with a strong command; he won the candidacy with 1,939 votes and 37 for John Anderson and 13 for George H.W. Bush, who had retreated from the race before the vote. After some tense and eventually ineffective negotiations with representatives of Gerald Ford, Reagan selected Bush as his running mate, and both faced against Democratic Jimmy Carter and his Vice Walter Mondale , promising to cut taxes , increase in defence spending, a balanced budget, and a constitutional modification . Carter commenced the campaign in a helpless position. Distension had increased from 6 percent to more than 12 percent since his first year in office,

19 Ibid. 20 Ibid.

27

Chapter Two: Reagan and the End of the Cold War and joblessness and interest rates were also high. And even more important feature than the economy. However, Carter’s apparent powerlessness resolved the Iran hostage crisis, which had continued for roughly a year at the time of the election. On November 4th, 1979, crowd of Iranian students had stormed the US consulate in Tehran, and taken the political staff there as hostages, then in April 1980, after months of useless negotiations with students and officials of Iran’s activist government, Jimmy Carter ordered a military saving operation, which failed dramatically. The hostage crisis led to a general public awareness of the Carter administration as weak and inconclusive, and the failed saving mission fortified Reagan’s charge that the Democrats had authorized the country’s military to decline badly. In their only discussion of the campaign, Reagan notably reminded his national television audience of the country’s economic problems by asking, “Are you better off now than you were four years ago?” Carter, for his part, attempted to make the most of Reagan’s image among some of the voters as a radical and a warmonger, charging that as President Reagan would remove social programs and threaten world peace. Reagan’s smiling response to such accusation ‘There you go again, did not directly address the point, but it did convey a disarming image of sincerity, self-confidence, and friendliness, which most voters found appealing’.21 On the day of elections, Reagan overcame Carter and John Anderson with more than half the popular vote, in which, Carter received forty one per cent and Anderson seven per cent. The vote in the Electoral College was forty hundred eighty nine and to Carter’s forty nine. Reagan’s sixty-ninth birthday came right at the commencement of the primary season, although the campaign staffs were anxious that voters would think him too old to be president, he was the oldest person chosen to be the US presidency.

21 Ibid.

28

Chapter Two: Reagan and the End of the Cold War

2.4 Reagan’s Presidency 1981

On January 20, 1981, Reagan was sworn into office. In his inaugural speech, Reagan famously said of America’s then-troubled economy, “In this present crisis, government is not the solution to our problems; government is the problem.”22

His presidency started on a dramatic note, in which, after the inaugural ceremony, he proclaimed at a luncheon that Iran had agreed to free the remaining American hostages. The timing of Iran’s declaration led to suspicions, which were never proved, that the Reagan campaign had made a secret agreement with the Iranians to avoid the Carter administration from unveiling a so-called “October surprise” the release of the hostages in October 1980, before Election Day.

On March 30, 1981, just two months after his inauguration, Reagan and several others survived a murder attempt by John Hinckley Jr., a man with a history of psychiatric problems.

In Washington, D.C., outside the Hilton hotel , Reagan was shot just after finishing his speech about the Building and Construction Workers Union of the AFL-CIO and left the hotel. The gunman fired six shots from a .22-calibre revolver at Reagan when a bullet entered one of the president’s lungs and missed his heart. Secret Service agents and police stopped the gunman and managed an extensive investigation about the accident.

Reagan, known for his good-natured humour, told his wife, “Honey, I forgot to duck.”23 And in George Washington University Hospital for emergency surgery, Reagan joked with doctors as he said: “I hope you’re all Republicans.”24 After 12 days of leaving hospital, President Reagan made a series of carefully staged public appearances intended to give the impression that he was

22 Inaugural Address.(1981). Retrieved from https://reaganlibrary.archives.gov/archives/speeches/1981/12081a.htm

23 The Reagan wit. (2014). Retrieved from http://www.cbsnews.com/news/the-reagan-wit/ 24 Ibid.

29

Chapter Two: Reagan and the End of the Cold War recovering quickly, although in fact he remained gravely weakened for months and his workload was roughly curtailed. Within several weeks of the shooting, Reagan was back to his duty. His humour and cleverness during the dangerous incident caused his popularity to soar. In August 1981, thirteen thousand members of the National Union of Air traffic controllers (PATCO), one of the few unions to endorse Reagan in the 1980 elections, stopped their jobs, demanding higher pay and better working conditions. As federal workers, the PATCO members were banned by law to strike, and Reagan, on the advice of Transportation Secretary Drew Lewis, rejected to negotiate and gave those 48 hours to return to work. Most of the striking controllers ignored the warning and were instantly fired. Although the firings caused delays and diminution in air traffic until replacements were hired and trained, the public generally responded positively to Reagan’s action, seeing it as a symbol of decisiveness and satisfaction. As he later wrote, it “convinced people who might have thought otherwise that I meant what I said.”25

2.5 Reagan’s Foreign Policies : Towards the End of the Cold War When Ronald Reagan became President, he had only one foreign policy target which is containing the USSR or the "evil empire" as he once called it. He mainly wanted to stop the USSR from growing larger and to keep other non- Communist countries from being Communist. During his first term in office, he believed that the U.S. had grown weak militarily and had lost her respect in the world affairs. Aiming to restore the power of the country as well as military pre- eminence in the world, he called for massive increases in the troops, defence budget, weapons, and urged a more aggressive technique to combat communism. 2.5.1 Reagan’s Plans Against the USSR Reagan was the strongest opponent to Communism, combined with his tendency for harsh anti-Soviet oratory, was one of many reasons that contributed to worsening the relations with the USSR in the first years of his presidency. At

25 Reagan, R. (2011) An American Life: The Autobiography. New York : Simon & Schuster Audio

30

Chapter Two: Reagan and the End of the Cold War his first press conference as president, Reagan bravely questioned the legitimacy of the Soviet government; two years later, in a brilliant speech in Florida, he dubbed the USSR Union as “an evil empire” and “the focus of evil in the modern world.”26 The Soviets reacted by saying that Reagan’s remarks showed that his administration “can think only in terms of confrontation and bellicose, lunatic anticommunism.”27 The behaviour of the USSR itself also stressed the relations, especially in December 1981, when the communist government of Poland, under strong pressure from Moscow, forced martial law on the country to subdue the independent labour movement Solidarity ; and in September 1983, when the USSR shot down a Korean plane in route from Alaska to Seoul as it lost over strategically sensitive territory on Sakhalin Island. More than 269 people aboard were killed, including 61 Americans. Therefore, Reagan’s immense military spending program which was the largest in American peacetime history. A major component of Reagan’s military build-up was his 1983 suggestion for a space-based missile defence system that would use lasers and other as-yet-undeveloped killing technologies to demolish incoming Soviet nuclear missiles well before they could arrive at their goals in the United States. The Strategic Defence Initiative (SDI) nicknamed “Star Wars”28 after the popular science-fiction movie of the late 1970s was denounced by the USSR. Gorbachev saw it as a dangerous boom of the arms race. A position, also, taken by many critics at home. Although, they argued that the project was technologically not possible, it was also potentially a “black hole” in the country’s defence budget. In later years, however, previous Soviet officials cited SDI as a factor in the eventual decline of their country; the Russians spent so much money attempting to counter this shield, that it contributed to the collapse of the Soviet

26 Evil Empire Speech. (March 8, 1983).Retrieved from http://www.nationalcenter.org/ReaganEvilEmpire1983.html 27 Moscow Calls Reagan 'Bellicose'.(1983).Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics

28 Reagan Proposes ‘Star Wars’ Missile Defence System. (2012). Retrieved from http://learning.blogs.nytimes.com

31

Chapter Two: Reagan and the End of the Cold War system, for it showed that the Soviet Union was politically not ready for and economically unable of challenging in a new weaponry race with the United States, especially one led by someone as strict as Reagan. Though Ronald Reagan never abandoned his backing for SDI, it was ultimately reconsidered as a much smaller and more conventional protective system than the one he originally proposed. The president Reagan did lead the US to victory in the Cold War, but his greatest success came during his second term when he won the re-election as president in 1984 and Gorbachev took office of USSR in March 1985, The United states and Soviet relations enhanced considerably because Gorbachev was a different kind of Communist dictator, he attempt to revive Soviet Communism by reforming it. He proclaimed new policies of glasnost "openness" and perestroika "restructuring", which pledged to end the worst abuses of the USSR police state by granting its citizens better political and economic freedoms. Simultaneously, Gorbachev sought to calm down Cold War hostilities by negotiating an end to the weapons race with the US. Reagan saw the possibility of rapprochement with the USSR as Gorbachev introduced his reformations, and attempted to soften his relations with him. Reagan found victory when he found the bravery to compromise. In November 1985, Reagan and Gorbachev met for the first time in Geneva to discuss reductions in nuclear weaponry. And in October 1986 , at a summit meeting in Reykjavik, Iceland, Gorbachev suggested a 50 percent decrease in the nuclear arsenals of both sides, and for a time it seemed as though a historic accord would be reached. Although, the summit had breakdown at the end due to differences over SDI, it was followed up in December 1987 by an agreement eliminating intermediate-range nuclear forces (INF) on European soil. The INF Treaty was the first arms-control pact to oblige an actual reduction in nuclear weapons rather than merely restricting their proliferation.

32

Chapter Two: Reagan and the End of the Cold War

In June 1987, when Reagan visited Berlin, he delivered a speech at the Berlin Wall in which he urged the Soviet Leader Gorbachev, tear down this wall29 , twenty-nine months later , the wall came down. In 1988, when Regan visited Moscow, he was asked by a Russian Journalist whether he still saw the Soviet Union as an ‘evil empire’. ‘No’ Reagan replied. ‘I was talking about another time another era.’30 2.5.2 The Use of Force Against Aligned USSR’s Nations The previous presidents of the 1970s often refused to involve themselves in force following the Vietnam War disaster. Reagan, however, believed that the US needed to change the legacy of the war and re-establish itself as a power in the world. As a result, American military action was used against the USSR’s aligned nations, such as Lebanon, Grenada and Libya. In Lebanon, President Reagan supported Israeli forces that were fighting Lebanese Muslims who aligned with the USSR and communist Syria. Reagan view that the Israelis were unable to defeat the Lebanese Muslims .Thus, in 1982; he deployed 1,400 marines to the region. Unfortunately, Reagan's first test of force was met with a severe loss. In 1983, suicide bombers from the Lebanese Muslim forces drove a truck loaded with explosives into the Marine complex at the Beirut airport, killing more than 241 Marines and injuring 100 others. Although later investigations reprimanded the Marine chain of command for weak security at the base and “serious errors in judgment,”31 Reagan determined to accept full blame for the tragedy himself, saying that the Marine leaders had “suffered enough.”32 In February 1984, Reagan retreated the Marines from Lebanon. In the Caribbean Islands nation of Grenada, when Prime Minister Maurice Bishop was overthrown and executed in a bloody coup by revolutionary elements of his leftist New Jewel Movement, and only one day after the bombing of the

29Reagan's Famous "Tear Down This Wall".(2007). Retrieved from http://www.dw.com/en/ronaldreagans 30 McMahon, R.(2003). The Cold War: a very short introduction. New York : Oxford University Press (p.163) 31 Britannica, E.(2008). The Encyclopaedia Britannica guide to the 100 most influential Americans.UK: Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc (p.367) 32 Ibid.

33

Chapter Two: Reagan and the End of the Cold War

Marine in Lebanon, Reagan ordered an occupation of Grenada, which he justified as necessary to avoid the country from becoming a dangerous USSR outpost and to keep safe American students at the medical school there. Joined by a group of troops from neighbouring Caribbean countries, the United States forces quickly calmed down elements of the Grenadian army and a small number of Cuban soldiers and construction workers. Critics instantly charged that the administration had staged the occupation to turn public attention from the bombing in Lebanon. Libya was considered as an early battleground against terrorism. The Middle East was known with the spread of terrorism and kidnapping during the 1980s, especially against Americans. Reagan was informed that many of the attacks were being supported by Libyan leader Muammar al-Quaddafi who was accused to be an adherent of the Soviet Union with supporting acts of international terrorism, including the December 1985 aggressions on offices of the Israeli airline in Rome and Vienna. As a reaction, Reagan proclaimed the imposition of economic punishment on Libya and froze the country’s assets in the U.S. He declared war on 15April 1986, in which, he committed retaliatory bombing raids on “terrorist-related targets”33, including an attack on Qaddafi’s residential complex in Tripoli. In keeping with the present Ronald Reagan’s belief that the U.S. should do more to avoid the spread of communism , his administration expanded military and economic support to friendly Third World governments battling leftist rebellions , and he actively encouraged guerrilla movements and "FREEDOM FIGHTERS"34 opposing Communism everywhere in the world . This policy, known as the Reagan Doctrine, was applied in Latin America.

33 US bombs Libya. (2010) . Retrieved from http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/u-s-bombs-libya 34 Ingersoll, G.(2013). That Time Ronald Reagan Hosted Those 'Freedom Fighters' At The Oval Office. Retrieved from http://www.businessinsider.com/

34

Chapter Two: Reagan and the End of the Cold War

During the 1980s the U.S. supported military-dominated governments in El Salvador in a bloodstained civil war with the Farabundo Marti National Liberation Front (FMLN), providing the state with some four billion dollars in military and economic assistance and helping to arrange and prepare elite units of the Salvadoran army. In Nicaragua, following the removal of the Somoza dictatorship by the Sandinista National Liberation Front in 1979, the Sandinista administration strengthened its ties to Cuba and other countries of the socialist block , a move that the Reagan government regarded as a warning to the national security of the United States. In 1981 Reagan allowed twenty million dollars to enlist and train a band of anti-Sandinista guerrillas, many of whom were ex supporters of Somoza, to depose the Sandinista government. Numbering about fifteen thousand by the mid-1980s, the ‘Contras’ as they came to be named , were never a serious military risk to the Sandinistas, though they did cause millions of dollars in harm to the Nicaraguan economy through their aggressions on farms and cooperatives, infrastructure, and other civilian goals . Using its impact in international loan agencies as the World Bank, the U.S. was able to block most Nicaraguan lending requests from 1982, and in 1985 the government declared a trade embargo. These measures, combined with Contra attacks and the Sandinista’s own misdirection, successfully damaged the Nicaraguan economy by the end of the 1980s. 2.5.3 The Iran-Contra Affair :a Worst Scandal of Reagan During the period of the presidential election of 1984, Ronald Reagan was at the top of his popularity. Using his famous slogans such as “It’s morning in America”35 and “America is back,”36 his re-election campaign assured the country’s economic growth and its renewed leadership position in world affairs. On Election Day Ronald Reagan and George Walker Bush easily overcame their

35 Smith, T. (2012), America's mission: the United States and the worldwide struggle for democracy in the twentieth century. Princeton : Princeton University Press (P.271) 36 Ibid.

35

Chapter Two: Reagan and the End of the Cold War

Democratic opponents, Walter Frederick Mondale and Geraldine Ferraro, by the great number of electoral votes of any candidate in history. With most of the country supporting him, Ronald Reagan’s prospects in his second stage appeared bright. Only two years later, however, he would become involved in the worst scandal of his political profession, one that would cost him much public and party support and considerably impair his capability to lead the country. The Iran-Contra Affair37 of 1984-1987 was two separate covert foreign policy issues about two different problems, in two separate nations, that were dealt with two very different ways. Under the administration of the same few officials, both the Iran and the Contra policies connected at certain significant points giving rise to the singular title, Iran-Contra Affair.

Reagan had to maintain the secrecy of his efforts to train and fund the Contras from Congress because a ban on American aid had been established. Therefore, he had to find a way to pay for the American effort in Nicaragua. This is where the event took an interesting turn.

The first secret foreign policy initiative was the continued assistance for the democratic rebel anti-Sandinista known as Contras against the communist Sandinistas in Nicaragua, 1984, in a time when Congress, US’s main anti- communist group, prohibited any funnel funds to the Contras.

The second secret foreign policy initiative was the selling of weapons to Iran in exchange for the release of American hostages held by extremist Iranian groups in Lebanon. The two policies connected when profits from the weapons sales to Iran were used to assist the Contras through third parties and private funds.

Despite the strong disagreement of the Ronald Reagan administration, the Democratic-controlled Congress enacted legislation, known as the Boland

37 Draper, T.(1991). A very thin line the Iran-contra affairs. US: New York Hill and Wang (p.459)

36

Chapter Two: Reagan and the End of the Cold War amendments that banned the Defence Dept, the Central Intelligence Agency, or any other government agency from supplying military support to the contras. The Reagan administration attempted to find a way for these limitations by using the National Security Council, which was not explicitly covered by the law, to supervise covert military support to the contras. Under Robert McFarlane (1983– 85) and John Poindexter (1985–86), the NSC raised private and foreign funds for the contras. This operation was led by NSC staffer Marine Oliver North. McFarlane and North were also the central figures in the plan to secretly ship arms to Iran despite a United State trade and arms ban.

Figure 1 : Iran contra-affaires

Source: irancontrascandal.weebly.com (access in April 2016)

37

Chapter Two: Reagan and the End of the Cold War

On November 3, 1986, two Lebanese newspapers debunked the story of the Iran arms deal, and rapidly the entire scandal started to unravel in the United States which was marked by an increasing crisis of confidence in the government as facts rapidly became public. By December 1986 everything from the Contra affair to the diversion plan found its way into the press. On November 13, President Ronald Reagan made his speech to the Nation on the Iran arms deal, and again addressed the nation in a press conference on 19 November. On the 13th, Reagan said that the Unites State was working with the Iranian government, but on the 19th, he confessed to working with a “particular group,”38 which meant he dealt with terrorist organizations. More contradictions were made on the 19th during the press conference when Reagan said that, “we did not condone and do not condone the shipment of arms from other countries.”39 This was said after by Donald Regan, Chief of Staff, who had already confessed that the White House allowed an Israeli shipment of Arms to Iran in September 1985. By the 19th, almost everything about the Iran side of the affair had been revealed, missiles and spare parts to Iran, the role of Israel, McFarlane’s mission to Tehran, North, Ghorbanifar, etc.40 Reagan’s mistakes during the November 19th conference set into motion public discourse on the President’s trustworthiness and role in the whole affair. As a consequence of Walsh’s investigations of the scandal , a number of criminal condemnations resulted, including those of McFarlane, North, and Poindexter, however, North's and Poindexter's were vacated on appeal for the reason that testimony given at their trials had been affected by information they had provided to Congress under a limited grant of immunity. Reagan accepted responsibility for the arms-for-hostages deal but denied any knowledge of the transformation. Although no proof came to light to indicate that he was more deeply involved, many in Congress and the public stayed

38 Ibid. , p 482. 39 Ibid. ,p 482. 40 Ibid. , p 498.

38

Chapter Two: Reagan and the End of the Cold War sceptical. Even so, most of the public eventually appeared willing to pardon him for whatever they thought he had done, and his status, which had diminished dramatically during the first months of the crisis, gradually recovered. 2.6 The Platform of Peace between the Two Leaders When Gorbachev took office in 1985 and introduced many reformations in the USSR, he sought to calm down Cold War hostilities by negotiating an end to the armaments race with the US. For that he worked with Reagan toward ending the Cold War, and developed a warm relationship. Between 1986 and 1988, the two leaders held a series of summit meetings, surprising the world by forging not only a strong working partnership but even a close personal friendship. The two presidents reached a series of agreements on arms control.

2.6.1 The Geneva Summit 1985

The first meeting between Reagan and Gorbachev was held in November 1985 in Geneva41, Switzerland where Reagan and Gorbachev discussed all areas of U.S.- Soviet relations. In this meeting, the two leaders held talks in international diplomatic relations and the arms race . Though no significant agreements were made, the two leaders agreed for meeting again. The Geneva Summit is seen today as a success as Reagan and Gorbachev could start the process that led to reduce Cold War tensions, and signing the INF Treaty in 1987.

2.6.2 The Reykjavik Summit 1986

Arms control negotiations between the Soviet Union and the United States were stopped following the Geneva Summit. Gorbachev proposed to President Reagan in September 1986 to meet the next month to negotiate about the stalled arms control. President Reagan immediately agreed. After two-days of meetings in October 1986, the two leaders failed to reach any arms control agreements; when General Secretary Gorbachev and Reagan seemed to have an accord to control arms that would in principle work towards the complete elimination of nuclear weapons. President Reagan did not agree to the deal because Gorbachev

41 Njolstad, O.(2004). Last Decade of the Cold War : From Conflict Escalation to Conflict Transformation. London : Frank Cass (p.34)

39

Chapter Two: Reagan and the End of the Cold War insisted that any agreement incorporates limits on testing of the Strategic Defence Initiative. The Reykjavik Summit42 is now considered as a turning point in arms control negotiations. Reagan and Gorbachev did agree on the necessity to reduce their nuclear arsenals without negotiating SDI. After the next two months, Gorbachev dropped his insistence to integrate SDI in any arms control agreement.

2.6.3 The Washington Summit

In December 1987, Gorbachev came to Washington to sign the INF Treaty documents and to convince President Reagan to agree another arms control agreement ‘START’. The START negotiations began from the principle that the two sides would remove half of their offensive ballistic missiles. To achieve this objective, however, Gorbachev insisted that Reagan agree to delay deployment of SDI until both sides had eliminated their offensive arms. This way, Gorbachev argued, one side would not have an advantage over the other. Reagan, however, insisted that SDI could not be part of any arms control negotiations. After the Washington Summit, Reagan encouraged his advisers to continue to seek a START agreement, but on condition not to make any agreement limiting SDI

Figure 2: Gorbachev and Reagan signing the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces

Source: www.Britannica.com (accessed in April 2016)

42 Ibid. , p109.

40

Chapter Two: Reagan and the End of the Cold War

2.6.4 The Moscow Summit 1988

In May 1988, President Reagan travelled to Moscow to meet General Secretary Gorbachev who wanted to use the Summit as an opportunity to agree about the START Treaty. However, when Reagan arrived it seemed very clear that he was not interested in more arms control agreements. The US president spent most of the Summit talking about human rights. The Summit is best remembered for the declaration of Ronald Reagan, outside the Kremlin, that he no longer called the Soviet Union as an “evil empire.”

The Moscow summit43 meeting remained as a victory of style over substance. Both leaders kept up positive fronts in their public declarations but the meeting was a great disappointment for both sides. No further agreements on arms limitation were made, and Reagan’s efforts to push the human rights issue met an unsatisfied response from Gorbachev. The summit showed that despite the progress made in improving relations between US and Soviet Union in the past years, serious differences still existed.

2.6.5 Governors Island meeting:

Reagan and Gorbachev had a short visit in December 1988 on Governor's Island in New York City. President-elect George H.W. Bush was also present. No practical issues were discussed. The meeting is most significant for the lack of Bush participation’s. Though Bush had been involved with Reagan's most important foreign policy decisions, when he took the office he decided to freeze negotiations between the United States and Soviet Union until he had a chance to develop his own approach. Unlike Reagan, Bush was not convinced that the Soviet Union was no longer an ‘evil empire’. It took over three years for Bush and Gorbachev to sign the START Treaty44, which was reached in 1991.

2.7 The fall of Berlin Wall As the occasion of the 750th anniversary of the founding of Berlin, the President Reagan visited the city in 1987. The visits of the British queen and the

43Ibid. , p 34. 44Ibid. , p108.

41

Chapter Two: Reagan and the End of the Cold War

president of France were intended to reaffirm the Allies' commitment to the city's freedom, a token statement rather than a major policy decision. The president Reagan used the opportunity to sum up his administration's policies on intermediate nuclear weapons in Europe, on discussions with the Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev, and on the changes that were slowly rising in the USSR.

He challenges Soviet leader to tear down the Berlin Wall which separate the Western capitalism from Eastern communism in Berlin, in his famous speech at the Brandenburg Gate of the Berlin Wall, West Berlin, June12, 1987. Reagan affirmed, “There is one sign the Soviets can make that would be unmistakable, that would advance dramatically the cause of freedom and peace.”45 which means that the Berlin Wall offered the USSR and their president an opportunity to make a sign of their sincerity, and advance dramatically the cause of freedom and peace. The “sign” Reagan suggested was simple: “Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall!”

“Secretary General Gorbachev, if you seek peace–if you seek prosperity for the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe–if you seek liberalization: come here, to this gate. Mr. Gorbachev, open this gate. Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall:”46

This speech appeared to be one of the president's most dramatic moments. two years later on November 9, 1989 the declaration was made. The borders between the two Germanys were finally open and people could freely move between Eastern and Western Germany.

The fall of the Wall indicated the end of an era in world politics. The events of November 9th, 1989 not only led to the fall of East Germany, but also to German reunification on October 3, 1990, into a single country. The Cold War was over.

45 Arnold, J.& Wiener, R.(2012). Cold War : the essential reference guide. Santa Barbara, Calif. : ABC- CLIO. (p.350) 46 Ibid.

42

Chapter Two: Reagan and the End of the Cold War

Thus, the collapse of the Berlin Wall symbolized a key turning point in diplomatic and government powers as it showed the end of communist rule and the domination of the capitalist government system which became the primary government in the modern world. After the wall had fallen the Unites States imposed larger military powers to protect the Westerners in Berlin.

Figure 3: West Berliners crowd in front of the Berlin Wall on Nov. 11, 1989 as they watch East German border guards demolishing a section of the wall to open

Source: bowiesongs.files.wordpress.com/2012/06/berlinwall1989

43

Chapter Two: Reagan and the End of the Cold War

2.8 Conclusion:

The year of 1991 marked the collapse of the Soviet Union and all what remained from the Cold war. By this time, the former president Reagan retired from the office two years later. His policies led to the end of the US-Soviet conflicts and helped the United States emerge victorious and the most powerful country in the globe.

When he was in office he challenged the Soviet Union by increasing US military spending and backing anti-communists efforts around the world. As reaction, the USSR also increased their own military spending which weakened their economy.

By taking the office in 1985 as the new soviet leader, Gorbachev improved relations with the west and sought to revive Soviet Communism by reforming it.

On June 12, 1987, President Ronald Reagan made a speech in West Berlin "Tear down this wall!", calling for the leader of the USSR, Mikhail Gorbachev, to open up the wall which had divided democratic West Berlin and East Berlin since 1961. Two years later the barrier would come down, soon after that, the reformations of Gorbachev led to unravelling the Soviet Empire.

By working with Gorbachev rather than being his enemy, Ronald Reagan helped to reinforce the growing spirit of reform within the USSR. In the end, that reform movement developed a momentum all its own, pushing far beyond even Gorbachev's objectives, leading to the peaceful collapse of the Soviet Union and the rapid dismantling of the Soviet empire in Eastern Europe between 1989 and 1991. Ronald Reagan's role in that great victory should never be denied. He played a key role in bringing an end of the Cold War.

44

General Conclusion

General conclusion

General Conclusion: In this memoir we attempted to shed light on the cold war and Reagan‘s brilliant role to end it. The Cold War (1945-1991) was a long struggle between the United States and the Soviet Union that started in the aftermath of the defeat of Hitler’s Germany. In 1941, Nazi aggression against the USSR shifted the Soviet regime into an ally of the Western democracies. However, in the post-war world, their relations began to change increasingly and created a binary conflict between those who had once been allies.

The US and the USSR gradually built up their own zones of power, dividing the world into two opposing ideologies: West capitalism and East Communism. The Cold War was, therefore, not a struggle between the two powers but a global conflict that affected many countries.

Although the two Great Powers never fought directly, they pushed the world to the brink of a nuclear war on several occasions. Nuclear deterrence was the only effective means of preventing a military confrontation. Ironically, this ‘balance of terror’ actually served as a motivation for the arms race. Political expert Raymond Aron well defined the Cold War system by ‘impossible peace, improbable war’. The Cold War finally came to an end in 1989 with the fall of the Berlin Wall and the collapse of the Communist regimes in Eastern Europe.

In fact, the aftermath of the Cold War continues to affect world affairs. After the breakup of the Soviet Union, the post-Cold War world was widely considered as unipolar, with the US the only remaining superpower. That war defined the political role of the United States in the post–World War II world; by 1989 the US held military alliances with 50 countries, and had 526,000 troops posted abroad in dozens of countries, with 326,000 in Europe and about 130,000 in Asia.

The Cold War also marked the peak of peacetime military-industrial complexes, especially in the US, and large-scale military funding of science. These complexes, though their origins may be found as early as the 19th century, have grown considerably during the Cold War. The military-industrial complexes

47

General conclusion have great impact on their countries and helped shape their society, policy and foreign relations.

‘New world order’ was a term that defined the world power after post- Cold War. The Presidents Mikhail Gorbachev and George Bush used that concept to define the nature of the post-Cold War era

Thus ,the Cold War outlined the foreign policies for two blocks through the second half of the twentieth century as both challenged for accomplices to defend and broaden their respective realms of sovereignty around the globe. However, they prevented an apocalyptic World War II.

48

Bibliography

Bibliography:

Books:

 Abshir, D. & Richard E., N. (2005). Saving the Reagan presidency: trust is the coin of the realm. College Station: Texas A&M University Press.  Adelman, K. (May 11, 2014). How an unproven, widely mocked technology scared the Soviets into ending the Cold War. Retrieved from http://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2014/05/the-phantom-menace- 106551#ixzz49raaikyP.  Arnold, J. & Wiener, R.(2012). Cold War: the essential reference guide. Santa Barbara, Calif : ABC-CLIO.

Articles and Magazines:  Bilsland, J. (2015). The president, the state and the Cold War: comparing the foreign policies of Truman and Reagan. Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon New York: NY Rutledge, Taylor & Francis Group.

 Britannica, E.(2008). The Encyclopaedia Britannica guide to the 100 most influential Americans.UK: Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc (p.367)  Craft, P. (March 26, 2009). Did Ronald Reagan Win the Cold War? Retrieved from http://stanfordreview.org/article/did-ronald-reagan-win- the-cold-war/  Draper, T.(1991). A very thin line the Iran-contra affairs  Edwards, O. (1997). THE USA and the COLD WAR, 1945–63. London : Hodder &Stoughton.  Fischer, Beth A. (1997). The Reagan reversal: foreign policy and the end of the Cold War. Columbia: University of Missouri Press.  Hannaford, P. & Hobbs, C. (1994). Remembering Reagan. Washington: D.C Regency Pub.  http://adst.org/2013/08/cain-and-abel-splitting-up-north-and-south-korea/ (accessed in January 2016)

50

 http://learning.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/03/23/march-23-1983-reagan- proposes-star-wars-missile-defense-system/?_r=0 (accessed in April 2016)  http://learning.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/12/11/student-crossword-the-cold- war/?_r=0 (accessed in January 2016)  http://learningenglish.voanews.com/content/american-history-the-cold-war- 130292758/116228.html (accessed in December 2015)  http://learningenglish.voanews.com/content/american-history-the-cold-war- 130292758/116228.html (accessed in February 2016)  http://listpdf.com/ro/ronald-reagan-berlin-wall-pdf.html (accessed in May 2016)  http://study.com/academy/lesson/the-cold-war-definition-causes-early- events.html (accessed in January 2016)  http://tdl.org/txlor- dspace/bitstream/handle/2249.3/231/13_cart_cld_wr.htm?sequence=6 (accessed in March 2016)  http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/u-s-russia-detente-ends (accessed in March 2016)  http://www.historydiscussion.net/essay/essay-on-the-cold-war-its-origin- causes-and-phases/1905 (accessed in February 2016)  http://www.historynet.com/ronald-reagan (accessed in December 2015)  http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/biography/reagan- gorbachev/ (accessed in April 2016)  http://www.politico.com/story/2010/04/bernard-baruch-coins-term-cold-war- april-16-1947-035862 (accessed in December 2015)  http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/war_stories/2004/06/ron_an d_mikhails_excellent_adventure.html (accessed May 2016)  http://www.sparknotes.com/biography/reagan/section9.rhtml (accessed in January 2016)  http://www.sparknotes.com/history/american/coldwar/terms.html (accessed in December 2015)

51

 http://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2011/07/the-best-and-worst- foreign-policy-presidents-of-the-past-century/242781/ (accessed in April 2016)  http://www.voanews.com/content/fall-of-berlin-wall-marked-end-of-cold- war/2512606.html (accessed in May 2016) https://books.google.dz/books?id=MlNaN_k4YtcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=the +cold+war&hl=fr&sa=X&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=the%20cold%20war&f=f alse

https://books.google.dz/books?id=YcDfO5V4C_YC&printsec=frontcover&d q=the+cold+war&hl=fr&sa=X&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=the%20cold%20 war&f=false

 https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/textbooks/boundless-u-s-history- textbook/the-conservative-turn-of-america-1968-1989-30/reagan-s-foreign- policy-and-the-end-of-the-cold-war-1467/the-end-of-the-cold-war-1301- 2269/ (accessed in May 2016)  McMahan, J. (1985). Reagan and the world imperial policy in the new Cold War. United States: New York Monthly Review Press.  McMahon, R.(2003). The Cold War: a very short introduction. New York : Oxford University Press  Njolstad, O. (2005). The last decade of the Cold War: From conflict escalation to conflict transformation. Retrieved from  Noonan, P. (Monday, Apr. 13, 1998). Ronald Reagan: He brought Big Government to its knees and stared down the Soviet Union. And the audience loved it. Retrieved from http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,988167,00.html  Phillips, S. (2001). The Cold War: Conflict in Europe and Asia. Retrieved from  Smith, T. (2012). America's mission: the United States and the worldwide struggle for democracy in the twentieth century. Princeton : Princeton University Press

52

Web sites:

 Weisberg, J.(1999 .Cold War without End. Retrieved from journal http://www.nytimes.com/1999/11/28/magazine/cold-war-without- end.html?pagewanted=all  Williams, B. (2003). The fall of the Berlin Wall: 10 November 1989. London, England: Cherry tree Books.  Williamson, D. (2013). The Cold War. London: Hodder Education.

53