On Its Characteristics and Relationships to the Visual Fine Arts Curtis Carter Marquette University, Curtis.Carter@Marquette.Edu

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10-1-1981 Industrial Design: On Its Characteristics and Relationships to the Visual Fine Arts Curtis Carter Marquette University, [email protected]

Published version. Leonardo, Vol. 14, No. 4 (Fall 1981): 283-289. DOI. © 1981 Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press (MIT Press). Used with permission. Leonardo, Vol. 14, No. 4, pp. 283-289, 1981 0024-094X/81 /040283-07$02.00/0 Printed in Great Britain Pergamon Press Ltd.

INDUSTRIALDESIGN: ON ITS CHARACTERISTICSAND RELATIONSHIPSTO THE VISUAL FINE ARTS

Curtis L. Carter*

Abstract-Industrial design and the visual arts share a commonaesthetic basis as demonstratedby their common use of aesthetic principles and by designers who are also visual artists. The author examines the rationalefor exhibiting industrialproducts in art museums and the similarities and differences between industrial design and the fine arts. He argues that industrial design shares important theoretical concepts (expression, representationand style) with the visualfine arts.

I. INTRODUCTION goods and people [2]. It was divided into two parts, an outdoor exhibit of Visual artists have attempted to interpret industry trucks, automobiles, recreational vehicles and farm and construction in various ways for quite a long time. In the 20th equip- of smaller century, for example, the Italian futurists Balla and ment (Fig. 1) and an indoor exhibit for of control and Russolo and the painters Leger and Picabia in products, example engines, etc. The indoor France introduced machine elements and interpreta- processing equipment, (Fig. 2). exhibit also included of tions of power and speed provided by machines into displays design drawings and models to the and mode their artworks; Duchamp exhibited Ready-mades, explain design process of of the and an 55 such as an ordinary shovel bearing his signature, and operation products original minute sound Yehuda some artists have exhibited imaginary machines as 'collage' by composer Yannay entitled 'Milwaukee Brew based on sounds sculpture. During this period artists also found a Project', in industrial environments. new role as industrial designers. More recently, artists, for example in the U.S.A. those such as Jack The products in the outdoor and indoor exhibits functional Burnham, Frank J. Malina and many others, were arranged loosely into groupings of scale and entered into projects that involve the collaboration according to their features shape, color into the divisions: construction of artists and engineers. Parallel to these develop- following eight service recreational ments is the practice of exhibiting industrial machinery, vehicles, vehicles, electric motors and products designed for functional purposes in fine agricultural machines, gen- art museums of several countries. These three erators, machine components, electric controls converging developments, which I shall refer to as (Fig. 3) and accessories. A monumental 75,000 kg industrial design and its relations to the visual fine red-orangecolored earthexcavator made by Koehring arts, have been given little attention by aestheticians. The intent of this article will be to demonstrate that the visual arts and industrial design share a common aesthetic basis. This basis, however, does not imply a complete assimilation of one to the other, nor the acceptance of a division between the aesthetic and the practical, as was done, for example by Immanuel Kant [1]. My interest in the aesthetic questions posed by industrial products was intensified by the Art and Industry Exhibition that I prepared in 1979 for Marquette University. It consisted of industrial products from 36 companies in the U.S.A. and was devoted to the transport of materials, consumer Fig. 1. Viewof outdoorexhibit of vehicles at the 'Art and Industry: *Aesthetician, Dept. of Philosophy, Charles L. Coughlin Hall, The Art of Industrial Design' exhibition, Marquette University, Marquette University, Milwaukee, WI 53233, U.S.A. (Received Milwaukee, Wisconsin, U.S.A., 1979. (Photo: A. Lovinescu, 11 Feb. 1980) Shorewood, WI, U.S.A.)

283 . ' X

284 Curtis L. Carter

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Fig.4. View of earth excavator produced by the Koehring Co., Milwaukee, WI, U.S.A., at an entry way to the Exhibition. (See Fig. 1)

Fig. 5. View of the automobile 'Excalibur' designed by Brooks Stevens (Photo: A. Lovinescu, Shorewood, WI, U.S.A.) (See Fig. 1)

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Fig. 3. View of magnet controller,produced by the Square D. Co., Milwaukee, WI, U.S.A. (Photo: A. Lovinescu, Shorewood, WI, U.S.A. (See Fig. 1)

(Fig. 4) formed an arch over an entry way to the outdoor exhibit, where the custom-built sports car 'Excalibur', designed by Brooks Stevens (Fig. 5), was juxtaposed against the recently designed starkly Fig. 6. View of the garbage truck produced by the Heil Co., white garbage truck made by the Heil Company Milwaukee, WI, U.S.A. (Photo: A. Lovinescu, Shorewood, WI, (Fig. 6). In the indoor exhibit, stainless steel U.S.A.) (See Fig. 1) Industrial Design 285 processing arteries made by Ladish vied for atten- II. A RATIONALE FOR EXHIBITING tion with the gray-colored electric motors and INDUSTRIAL OBJECTS AS ARTWORKS generators from the Louis Allis Co. Industrial products are periodically, though not A survey of museum catalogues of industrial frequently, exhibited in art museums. In Great design exhibitions in the U.S.A. from the 1920s to Britain, the British Institute of Industrial Art, the 1980s showed that a relatively narrow range of founded in 1914, organized exhibitions and estab- objects such as chairs, lamps, cameras, typewriters, lished a modest permanent collection of industrial clocks and automobiles were displayed. In contrast products at the Victoria and Albert Museum, and to earlier exhibitions of industrial products in there are earlier precedents [3]. Philip Johnson's museums, which had been influenced by the exhibition entitled Machine Art at the New York Bauhaus approach, no attempt was made to select City Museum of Modern Art in 1934 [4] marked the either products possessing 'precious' or 'the most beginning in the U.S.A. of critical and public unique' design features. Priority was given to the recognition that industrialproducts can be exhibited suggestions of manufacturers to present what they for their aesthetic qualities. There have been considered relevant. subsequent exhibitions at the Museum of Modern The exhibition Marquette of industrial products Art and elsewhere. Nevertheless nearly 50 years gave priority to their aesthetic characteristicsinvolv- after Johnson's exhibition at the Museum of form and color. ing Simple white pedestals were Modern Art the permanent display of selected used to support smaller products, and the larger industrial products there remains miniscule. An products were exhibited free standing. Museum- exhibition of industrial products in an art museum type signs were used to identify the products and continues to puzzle many visitors, artists and their makers. scholars of art, and agencies in the U.S.A. that The intent of the exhibition was to examine the provide funds to art museums question the value of relation of visual fine art to contemporaryindustrial such exhibitions on the grounds that they lack products. It raised for discussion such questions as artistic significance. these: Who are the visual artists in in industry the The painter Ad Reinhardt asserted, for example, U.S.A.? What features of industrial productswarrant that the function of an art museum is to preserve their display in an art exhibition? What has been the visual fine art only. 'Any disturbance of the contribution of visual artists to the design of museum's soundlessness, airlessness,and lifelessness industrial What is the state products? present and is a disrespect' [5]. I contend, however, that many the future of industrial design? industrial products are suitable for display in Lectures and symposia to consider these questions museums because of their family resemblance to were held in with conjunction the Exhibition. Jack some artworks and because their appearance is also Burnham, sculptor and art critic, presented a paper often based on aesthetic considerations. I shall note entitled Engineering and Avant Garde Art in important differences that separate fine art and which he traced the development of works by artists industrial design. in the U.S.A. 20th involving century engineering In order to establish the rationale for exhibiting His lead concepts. study might industries to make industrial products in fine art settings, without more use of visual artists. Composer Yehuda compromising either an institution or the products, a entitled Yannay gave paper Industrial Sounds and it is necessary to examine first the emergence of the New Music. He told how he had used sounds discipline of industrial design. Uncertainties over recorded in industrial to settings make the sound the designation of those who design in particularthe commissioned for the 'collage' Exhibition, and he exterior appearance of industrial products was discussed the need to take into account the problems resolved in the U.S.A. early in this century by of undesirable noise in industrial processes. adopting the special term industrial designer. Industrial designers Brooks Stevens and William Consciousness of a missing aesthetic factor in the Porter the industrial represented design profession. exterior appearance of industrial products led to a who also Stevens, served as guest consultant for the new role for visual artists. They were invited, or on The Relation Exhibition, spoke of Art to chose, 'to go into the factories' to participate in the Industry from the perspective of a free-lance design of products. One of the first to be called an industrial designer. He emphasized the importance industrial designer was Peter Behrens, who was of the aesthetic of qualities products. Porter, a hired in 1907 by a company in Germany to serve for the General designer Motors Corp., discussed both as architect and graphic designer [6]. Among the industrial designer's role as a member of the the pioneers of industrial design in the U.S.A. in the team. Both of corporate them noted the importance 1930s were Walter Dorwin Teague, Henry Dreyfuss, of their in architecture training (Stevens) and Norman Bell Geddes and Raymond Loewy. They for their work in painting (Porter) industrial design. came from backgrounds in theatrical design and Stevens and were Porter, Yannay joined by Philip architecture, and they affected the exterior appear- Lewis, landscape architect at the University of ance of automobiles, trains, steamships, clocks, and Wisconsin-Madison, Jack Waldheim, teacher thermostats and numerous other objects [7]. of at design the Universityof Wisconsin-Milwaukee, One view of industrial design was that it was in a symposium entitled Art and Industry:Designing concerned with ornament or decoration to be for the Future. applied to a product to make it more visually 286 Curtis L. Carter

appealing after its engineering design had been planning stage of an artefact. Industrial designers determined [8]. This view closely resembles the provide sketches, drawings and models for the ornamental approach to craft in the 19th century exterior design of products, though their role [9], and fell into disrepute because of the demands compared to sculptors encompasses a wider range of mass production. of technical considerations. Norman Bel Geddes The other view of industrial design is that a said: 'Charcoal, paint and clay, to be sure, are much designer must begin to work concurrently with more sensitive to the subtleties of individual expres- product engineers, material specialists and market- sion than sheet metal... on the other hand, steam- ing experts [Ref. 3, p. 28]. The dominant aesthetic of ships, airplanes, and radios present the same this approach to industrial design, one which organic problems of design as do architecture, incorporated traditional ideas of beauty (order, sculpture, and literature' [15]. harmony, balance, proportion, unity and simplicity), These same artistic qualities can stimulate an was functionalism, which frequently led to machine- aesthetic response in viewers, whether they are inspired values such as precision, smoothness, present in an artwork or in an industrial product. reproducibility and economy [3, p. 227 and 4, p. 5]. Seeing such a product in an art museum allows its Suitability for use, good materials, good workman- artistic qualities to be appreciated, which is less ship and innovative structural and visual design likely to happen when it is in use or when it is shown were the goals of well designed products. in a museum of technology. The practice of industrial design along the lines of functionalism led the early 20th centurypractitioners III. SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES to become aware of the need to explain the new BETWEEN INDUSTRIAL DESIGN AND THE Gilbert Seldes defined industrial design discipline. FINE ARTS as the application of taste and logic to the products of machinery [10]. Dreyfuss said that 'industrial There is a larger issue to be examined. Only a design is a means of making sure the machine small number of writings in English on the general created attractive commodities that work better topic of art and industry exists. Some of them are because they are designed better. It is coincidental, listed in Ref. 16. None'of these writers, except but equally important', he adds, 'that they sell Rudolf Arnheim [16], has examined extensively the better' [10, p. 21]. relation of industrial products to fine art or the Recently the International Congress of Societies broad aesthetic questions posed by industrial of Industrial Design adopted the following descrip- design. tion of an industrialdesigner: 'One who is qualified ... I wish to make some preliminary considerations to determine the materials, construction, mech- of whether industrial design shares important anisms, shape, colour, surface finishes and decora- theoretical concepts with fine art. Arnheim has tion of objects which are reproduced in quantity by provided persuasive examples to demonstrate that industrial processes... The industrial designer may the major aesthetic concepts of expression, repre- also be concerned with the problems of packaging, sentation and style of fine art apply also to advertising, exhibiting and marketing...' [11]. industrial products. He says: 'What we see ... is the Other descriptions have been proposed that are expressive behavior of a pattern of visual forces. even broader in scope [11, 12]. Critics of the This pattern is related to the pattern of physical profession question whether industrial design is in forces that constitutes the function of the object ... fact a distinct art; for example, Victor Papanek The correspondence is never complete. The external asserted: 'Design at present operates only as a shape selects for visual presentation and interpreta- marketing tool of big business' [13]. However, I tion only a few among the actual physical features believe my discussion above supports the claim that of the object. These features may not be faithfully industrial design involves the aesthetics of visual portrayed; they may be intensified or weakened... fine art. In fact the appearance may present features not It remains to be shown that selected industrial physically contained in the object [16, p. 209]. products are suitable for exhibit in spaces ordinarily These aspects of industrial products parallel certain reserved for works of fine art. If industrial designers features of sculpture and painting. And further, receive virtually the same training as painters, portrayal of function acquires aesthetic quality by sculptors and design architects, then there is a serving symbolically for one's perception of the rationale for displaying industrial products in product' [Arnheim, 16, p. 209 and 17]. There was a museums. In the past, artists produced both art- product in the Marquette University Art and works and utilitarian objects. Leonardo da Vinci, Industry Exhibition that I find supports Arnheim's for example, made paintings and also carved point that industrial products can share qualities of buttons for a pope's mantle and designed machines. fine art works. It was the processing artery shown in Walter Gropius, Moholy Nagy and Paul Klee were Fig. 7. Its order, balance and simplicity echo those practicing artists and members of the Bauhaus of a piece of sculpture. School of Design. More recently, Arne Jacobsen The Swiss sculptor Max Bill has pointed out exercised with equal facility the roles of painter, 'Designers who realize new forms are consciously or industrial designer and architect [14]. unconsciously reacting to trends in contemporary As in any of the visual arts, design refers to the art because it is in art that the intellectual and Industrial Design 287

Fig. 8. View of the industrialcrane produced by HarnishfegerCo., Milwaukee, WI, U.S.A. (See Fig. 1)

Fig. 7. View of processing arteries produced by Ladish Co., Milwaukee, WI, U.S.A. (Photo: A. Lovinescu, Shorewood, WI, industrial to be sold must work well and its U.S.A. (See Fig. 1) product external appearance is also important. Unlike the industrial designer, however, an artist is not obliged spiritual currents of every epoch find their visible to make works that sell. If an industrial item is to be expression. Works of art may often be ridiculed or sold in large numbers as a consumer product, the misunderstood when first produced but their almost responsibility for its design extends to the product's immediate influence on every branch of design soon manufacturerand investors in the business and also becomes apparent... A glance from the sculpture to the buyers who expect efficient and safe products of any of these phases to the best motorcar models at low cost. brought out about the same time at once reveals the Reproducibility and low production costs are closeness of this involuntary connection between necessary constraints in industrial design, whereas forms in art and forms in use, or, as we might call uniqueness (except for lithographs, etc.) is a goal in them, "product forms"' [18]. the fine arts and cost of materials (with exceptions) Papanek too shares the point of view that and of an artist's time are generally not constraints. aesthetics and function are conjoined when he Since manufacturers in 'consumer' societies often observes that an ordinary piece of wall board, deliberately make use of planned obsolescence to whose primary use is to cover a wall, must also increase sales [Stevens, Ref. 2; Loewy, Ref. 3; 19, fulfill the aesthetic aspect of function by offering a 20], industrial designers are pressed to make variety of choices of texture and color [13, pp. 18, 'innovations', many of a trivial character. Of course 19]. unplanned technicalobsolescence occurs in industrial Despite the similarities between fine art and products because of the application of new scientific industrial design, there are obvious differences knowledge, inventions, materials, etc. [21]. between them. That the differences consist simply in By contrast, artistic creativity and innovation function and in appearance seems to me an does not render obsolete artworks of the past. inadequate estimate. Function often influences the Although artistic innovation in industrial societies shape of an industrial product, but, as in fine art, has been particularlystressed since the 19thcentury, style evidently plays a role. Function does not its most vigorous advocates, such as the futurists preclude aesthetic appeal in a product, any more and constructivists, have not succeeded in their than the aesthetic value of an artwork precludes its efforts to establish a point of view of the obsolescence use in a decorator's scheme. Nor does appearance in of artworks of the past. Only the philistines in the itself distinguishfine artworksand industrialproducts, commercial art market and self-serving promotors as I pointed out above. Another example is the of 'new' art encourage this point of view. There is crane shown in Fig. 8, to which constructivist not a positive endorsement by the general public of sculptures bear resemblance. innovation in the fine arts, as there seems to be in In regard to the differences it is worth recalling production of consumer products. On the other the description of industrial design given above: An hand, in the commercial and curatorial art worlds 288 Curtis L. Carter

innovative styles of fine art go in and out of fashion laser technology, xerography, cybernetics, bionics, as do innovative designs of industrial products. etc. offer new challenges to artists and industrial These considerations suggest that the principal designers. Will the application of these new develop- difference between industrial design and fine art is ments produce parallel developments in fine art and one of direction. I have noted that appearance and industrial design? Clearly, industrial designers must function do not in themselves differentiate fine art cope with them, whereas artists need not, although and industrial products. Nevertheless, the primary there are quite a number who are using them to orientation of industrial design is toward the make artworks and operators of museums and manufacture of efficient low cost products, for commercial galleries are slowly learning to deal example, of a crane. A crane is not intended for with them. Max Bill asserted that trends in the fine display, but to be used for lifting and transporting arts are the source of new forms in industrial design. heavy objects. Its display in a museum is in a sense a Perhaps this was true earlier in the century, but I violation of the end for which it has been con- think his assertion can be called into question in structed. However, an industrial designer may view of the kind of artworks that are dominant in make its external appearanceaesthetically satisfying the art world at present and of the reverse influence without interfering with its functioning and increas- of innovative industrial processes that artists adopt ing its cost. for their own purposes. Dewey characterizes the main difference between Changes in the role of industrial designers from fine art and industrial products thus: 'The work of specialist to generalist (Nelson), especially in regard art... unlike the machine, is not only the outcome to urban environmental problems, may have altered of imagination, but operates imaginatively rather the relation of the fine arts to industrial design. than in the realm of physical existences. What it However, the consciousness of whole environments, does is to concentrate and enlarge an immediate rather than of isolated parts, has also influenced experience.The formed matterof aestheticexperience artists in industrial societies, as readers of Leonardo directly expresses, in other words, the meanings that are well aware. Earth Art, environmental installa- are imaginativelyevoked; it does not, like the material tions, Performance Art and multi-theatrical art- brought into new relations in a machine, merely works reflect this influence. provide means by which purposes over and beyond Accompanying advances in technology and the existence of the object may be executed' [22]. roles for industrialdesigners are changes in aesthetic Paintings and sculpture may, of course, have a values expressed in such terms as precision, smooth- function or utilitarian role, for they can serve as ness and reproducibility, and new processes, tech- components in a decorator'sscheme and as objects of niques and materials. The traditional aesthetic commerce. However, they are most valued for values of order, balance and simplicity seem to be aesthetic reasons when artists do not take these fundamental, and yet even these aesthetic values functions into account. On the other hand, an may need to be reexamined. A prevailing attitude of industrial designer is not permitted to impose today's industrial designers is expressed by Archer aesthetic features on a product that would conflict who says: 'It is my personal belief that there are no with its use. Platonic values, no permanent rules of good design, Although I have argued that appearance is not, of which stand outside man' [11, p. 110]. itself, a sufficient answer to the question of The views of the pioneers of industrial design difference, it must necessarily be a dominant factor have been called into question. Papanek, for in any object whose appeal is visual. I have also example, asserts that: 'The concept of what works argued that an artwork is directed primarily well of necessity looks well, has been the lame towards being displayed as an object of aesthetic excuse for all the sterile operating-room-like contemplation. Appearance thus is the vehicle for furniture and implements of the twenties and aesthetic expression that enables viewers to compre- thirties' [13, p. 15]. Such designs are lacking in hend formal qualities, iconography and subject human value, he contends. matter of artworks. By contrast, the primary The recent expression of concern by industrial direction of industrial designers is to provide for the designers for social and moral responsibility points external appearance of a product an aesthetic to another dramatic shift of values, as pointed out appeal that complements its functioni. by Archer, Nelson and Papanek. Does this recent concern indicate an abandonment of past aesthetic values? Or does it signal a closer union of aesthetic IV. CONCLUSIONS values and social-moral values? At the moment in My previous discussion has been based on the the U.S.A. there does not seem to be a heightening notion that artists and industrial designers alike are of social and moral concern among visual involved in the aesthestic qualities of, first, paint- artists. ings, sculptures, etc, and second the external Where then has my investigation led? I believe it appearance of machines, machine parts, etc. It is has provided a rationale for exhibiting selected important to ask, nevertheless, how new technology industrial products in art museums and galleries and the changing roles of artists and of industrial because industrial designers are often also artists designers affect the relationship of fine art and and they approach the design of products by industrial design. Electronics, computers, plastics, relating aesthetics to their functional purposes. Industrial Design 289

Furthermore, while industrial products are func- 10. Quoted in H. Dreyfuss, Designing for People (New York: tional objects first and some of them for art displays Simon and Schuster, 1955) p. 22. artworks are intended for aesthetic 11. L. B. Archer, Design Awareness and Planned Creativity second, primarily of Commerce and It is not therefore to (Ottawa: Department Industry, Trade, contemplation. possible the Design Council of Great Britain, 1974) p. 19. substitute industrial products for artworks without 12. G. Nelson, George Nelson on Design (London: Whitney substantial loss of meaning. However, artists and Library of Design, 1979) p. 8. the general public can benefit from the examination 13. V. Papanek, Designfor the Real World:Human Ecology and of the aesthetic features of industrial in the Social Change (New York: Pantheon, 1971) p. 91. products 14. R. Hackney, Arne Jacobsen: Architecture and Fine Art, reflective environment of a museum [23]. Leonardo 5, 107 (1972). 15. N. B. Geddes, Horizons (Boston: Little, Brown, 1932) p. 8. See also Ref. 7. REFERENCES AND NOTES 16. H. Read, Art andIndustry(London: Faber, 1944);S. and M. Cheyney, Art and the Machine (New York: McGraw Hill, 1. I. Kant, The Critique of Judgement, J. C. Meredith, trans. 1936); R. Arnheim, From Function to Expression, in (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1952, 1969) pp. 41-90. See also Aesthetic Inquiry:Essays on Art Criticismand the Philosophy H.-G. Gadamer, Truth and Method (New York: Seabury of Art, M. C. Beardsley and H. M. Schueller, eds. (Belmont, Press, 1975) pp. 39-90. CA: Dickenson Publishing, 1967) pp. 199-214; G. Paulson, 2. C. Carter and B. Stevens, Art and Industry: The Art of Design and Mass Production, in Design and Industry Industrial Design, exhibition catalogue (Milwaukee: Mar- Association Quarterly, XVI (1931); Refs. 3, 4. quette Univ., 1979). 17. R. Arnheim, TheDynamics of ArchitecturalForm (Berkeley: 3. J. Gloag, Industrial Art Explained (London: Allen and Univ. California Press, 1977) pp. 257-262. Unwin, 1934, 1946. N. Pevsner, An Enquiryinto Industrial 18. M. Bill, Form (Basel: K; Werner, 1952) p. 11. Art in England (New York: Macmillan, 1937). 19. J. Oliver, Take Your Choice, catalog (New York: Cooper 4. P. Johnson, Machine Art (New York: Museum of Modern Hewitt Museum, 1979) p. 1. Art, 1934) and (New York: Arno Press, 1969). 20. T. Veblen, The Instinct of Workmanshipand the State of the 5. A. Reinhardt, Art and Art, in Esthetics Contemporary,R. Industrial Arts (New York: A. M. Kelly, 1964); The Kostelanetz. ed. (Buffalo, NY: Prometheus Books, 1978) Economic Theory of the Woman's Dress, in Essays in Our p. 213. Changing Order (New York: A. M. Kelly, 1964);The Theory 6. Industrial Design, in Encyclopedia Britannica (Chicago: of the Leisure Class (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin, 1973). D. William Benton, 1958) Vol. XII, p. 284. Bush, Thorsten Veblen's Economic Aesthetic, Leonardo9, 7. D. J. Bush, Streamlining and American Industrial Design, 281 (1976). Leonardo 7, 309 (1974), and D. J. Bush, The Streamlined 21. P. J. Grills, Form, Function and Design (New York: Dover, Decade (New York: George Braziller, 1975). 1960) p. 11. 8. Oxford CompanionofArt, H. Osborne, ed. (Oxford: Oxford 22. J. Dewey, Art as Experience (New York: Capricorn, 1934, Univ. Press, 1970) p. 61. 1958) p. 273. 9. C. Bradley, Design in the IndustrialArts(Peoria, IL: Charles 23. My colleague, William Dooley, has provided helpful A. Bennet, 1952) p. 32. editorial suggestions to an earlier version of this article.