International Journal of Social Science & Interdisciplinary Research______ISSN 2277 3630 IJSSIR, Vol. 2 (10), OCTOBER (2013) Online available at indianresearchjournals.com

FEMALE PATRONAGE OF BUDDHIST ROCK CUT CAITYAS AT KĀRLE AND BHĀJE

RUPALI MOKASHI

ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY, R. K. TALREJA COLLEGE, ULHASNAGAR ,, . PERMANENTLY AFFILIATED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF .

ABSTRACT: People of western Deccan were familiar with Buddhism since the pre Mauryan times. Buddhist tradition identifies a wealthy merchant converted monk Puṇṇa of Śūrpāraka. It was evidently in the Mauryan period that Buddhism emer ged as a distinct religion with great potentialities for expansion. A Yavana called Yona Dharmarakṣita was then sent to Aparāṃta where he is said to have successfully converted a large number of people including women and nobles to Buddhism. Early Buddhist missionaries must have naturally gravitated to the niches in Sahyadri Mountains to suit the needs of their ideas of asceticism and the monastic life. As a result of the expressions of faith in Dhamma, rock cut Caityas like Kārle and Bhāje nestled in the Sahyadri ranges since 2nd Century BCE. The conversion of simple caves to magnificent structures required highly skilled artisans and craftsmen as well as finances for their construction and maintenance. This paper will try to analyze the finances provided by female devotees who belonged to different stratas of the society.

KEY-WORDS: Buddhism, Karle, Bhaje, Female Patronage, inscriptions

The Western are a mountain range in India that run parallel along the western frame of the and separate it from a narrow coastal plain along the Arabian Sea. Located in the mountain range of , Sahyadrii Mountains are not just a geographical form and silent on looker for the state of Maharashtra in India but has been an active partaker in the making of its history in general & Buddhism in particular. People of Deccan were familiar with Buddhism since the pre Mauryan times. Buddhist tradition identifies a wealthy merchant converted monk Puṇṇa of Śūrpārakaii as the great evangelist who introduced Buddhism to the land of Sroṇaaparāṃtaka. Literary accounts suggest that Buddhism had been launched in Western ghats by Bāvarī and his sixteen disciplesiii. It was evidently in the Mauryan period that Buddhism emerged as a distinct religion with great potentialities for expansion. Emperor Aśoka’s generous patronage contributed to the spread of Buddhism not only within the empire but also to the distant lands within his lifetime. Third Buddhist Council was convened by Emperor Aśoka at Pāṭalīputra under the leadership of the monk Mogalīputta Tissa. Elders came to a decision to send missionaries to preach Buddhism at several places in India and far flung places abroad. A Yavana called Yona Dharmarakṣita iv was

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International Journal of Social Science & Interdisciplinary Research______ISSN 2277 3630 IJSSIR, Vol. 2 (10), OCTOBER (2013) Online available at indianresearchjournals.com then sent to Aparāṃta where he is said to have successfully converted a large number of people including women and nobles to Buddhism. Early Buddhist missionaries must have naturally gravitated to the niches in Sahyadri Mountains to suit the needs of their ideas of asceticism and the monastic life. The Western Ghats’ topography with its flat-topped basalt hills, deep ravines and sharp cliffs, was suited to their natural inclinations. As a result of the expressions of faith in Dhamma, rock cut Caityas like Kārle and Bhāje nestled in the Sahyadri ranges since 2nd Century BCE. The commencement of missionary movement in coastal Maharashtra coincided with several favorable factors. From 4th century BCE, climatic conditions became favorable for Indian peninsula. The second wake of urbanization experienced rise of urban centersv like , Ter, Pratiṣṭhāna etc. in Deccan. Greek sailor Hippalusvi discovered the monsoon around c. 45 A.D. and since then the business of western coast flourished with Roman Empire. During this era the Arabian coast was dotted with excellent ports between Baroach and Muziris. As a result of thriving overseas trade with the western world, the traders, skilled artisans and farmers prospered in Deccan till c. 3rd Century AD. The cushion of political stability necessary to sustain the commercial activities was offered by the Sātavāhana dynastyvii in Maharashtra. There are all around 1500 rock cut caves found in India. Out of these 1200 are carved in this era. 1000 are only in Maharashtra and 800 are carved in the Sātavāhana era. Sahyadri ranges pose as a barrier of communication between the ports on the Arabian coast and the plateau except a few passes. Most of these sites are located near such passes just before the caravans entered the difficult terrain.viii Monasteries became stopovers for the caravan traffic. Concurrently the laws of Dhamma willingly embraced everyone in the society, even those who were placed at the lower levels of hierarchy as per the orthodox norms of Hinduism. Thus the chaitys and Vihāras suited the commercial as well as the ecclesiastical needs of the newly emerged mercantile class who willingly financed for the construction of the same. Deccan monasteries of the early phase received less royal patronage and more donations from the wider lay community who benefitted from the flourishing overseas trade, directly or indirectly. It must be noted that the trader class who favored Buddhism was not only indigenous but also traders of Yavana descent. Fortunately the Sātavāhana rulers also unreservedly financed and supported for these monasteries though their personal religious inclinations were different. As their lay, mercantile and royal endowments grew, cave interiors changed from simple monastic dwellings and became more elaborate with interior walls decorated with paintings, reliefs and intricate carvings. Facades were added to the exteriors as the interiors became designated for specific uses as monasteries (vihāra) and worship halls (caityas). Over the centuries simple caves became magnificent structures, needing to be formally designed and requiring highly skilled artisans and craftsmen to complete and acquiring finances for construction and maintenance. In this superstructure of power and patronage, the role of women as benefactors of Buddhism is often neglected. Buddhist literature often extols women as part of Saṃgha and who were contemporaneous of Buddha.ix At a later date the narrations of women in the Therīgāthā has attracted scholarly appreciation as well as religious attention. But a large number of women who embraced Dhamma during these crucial and formative centuries of spread of Buddhism after 3rd century BCE have largely remained neglected. Women who were real and had independently chosen the path of Buddhism as lay followers as well as nuns. They have contributed their share in constructing the monastic establishments in the niches of Sahyadri

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International Journal of Social Science & Interdisciplinary Research______ISSN 2277 3630 IJSSIR, Vol. 2 (10), OCTOBER (2013) Online available at indianresearchjournals.com ranges. They also have shown vision to immortalize the details of their donations by engraving it in the Caityas and vihāras by selecting visually more accessible surfaces. The credit of popularizing the art of engraving inscriptions goes to Mauryan Emperor Aśoka in India in 3rd century BCE, which became extremely popular thereafter. Although the origin of Buddhism predates the period from which the inscriptions are available, inscriptions constitute a significantly important source for the history of Buddhism in India from early times that act as corroborative, supportive and supplementary evidences. A large number of Buddhists votive inscriptions help to reconstruct a much more precise framework of history. Votive inscriptions can be read by the posterity and give immortality to the donor. For those who do not bury, it is good way to be remembered. Inscriptions also mark a transition from orality to literacy. Votive Prakrit - Brahmi inscriptions in the rock cut Caityas at Kārle and Bhāje in Sahyadri Mountains have been assessed in this paper to understand the role of women as benefactors of Buddhism during the early phase. Kārle -Bhāje is a duet carved in the Sahyadri Mountains. Bhāje x is one of the important and oldest Buddhist centers of Hinayāna faith in Maharashtra.xi The group consists of twenty two excavations and located on a hill near Bhāje village, in district .xii The donor inscriptions noticed here do not attribute to any particular ruling family or dynasty or sectoral affiliation. Only one female donor has recorded her donation. Bādhā, wife of a ploughman has donated a cave with two cells at Bhāje .xiii As this inscription is undated, paleography helps to place it around c. 250 BC- 175 BC.xiv During this early period, when architecture, used to wooden art had just switched over to more durable material, wife of a plough-man Bādhā had donated a hall with two cells. This lay woman shares space with a feudatory Mahārathī Viṣṇudatta xv at Bhāje . Bādhā is the sole female donor and perhaps the earliest in western India who followed the path of Dhamma. Her assertion of faith should not go unnoticed. This short inscription does not furnish us with more details like the place of residence or her sectoral beliefs. Bādhā has not recorded the name of her husband and only provides us with his occupation. Following Buddhism could be Bādhā’s personal choice. Inscriptions of later date have illustrated that Buddhism flourished in such liberal atmosphere that women could not only decide on religion of their choice, per say Buddhism, but also finance for that construction of the Caityas and Vihāras while the rest of the family remained within the realm of Hinduism. We are not sure about the mode of payment but it’s possible that money was entrusted in the hands of Chief Pontiff appointed. The commemorative stupas of Dhayamita Āṃpinika xvi and Bhaymatxvii confirmed the existence of senior monks at Bhāje. The donation of Bādhā was definitely an outcome of the surplus money of this agricultural family. This fine link between flourishing economy, stable political power and nurturing Dhamma in the environs of Sahyadri continued at Kārle xviii, just ten kilometers opposite Bhāje . The monastic establishment at Kārle has sixteen excavations of which the grand Caitya hall is most exquisite.xix Kārle is a continuation of Bhāje in grandeur however it was in operation in Mahāyāna period too. The main Caitya can be dated c. 150 B.C. – 40 B.C.xx Unlike Bhāje , a strong influence of Mahasanghika can be experienced at Kārle .xxi Most of the donative inscriptions at Kārle are clustered the main Caitya out of which ten are female donors. There is scope to assume that these women also belonged to the Mahāsaṃghika sect. Though Kārle received benefaction for maintenance from the warring Sātavāhana king Vasiṣṭhīputra Puḻumāvī and son-in-law of Kṣaharāta Kṣatrapa Uṣavadāta xxii, it

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International Journal of Social Science & Interdisciplinary Research______ISSN 2277 3630 IJSSIR, Vol. 2 (10), OCTOBER (2013) Online available at indianresearchjournals.com could not get donation from any royal woman, though they have donated in the neighbouring monasteries such as Nasik.xxiii But the donation of wife of a Mahāmātra xxiv has recorded her donation on the tenth pillar in the left row in the main Caitya. This inscription requires attention as she is from Dhenukākat. Unfortunately she neither furnishes us with her personal name nor her husband’s details apart from the high sounding administrative post. As the donations of these women were meant for the construction of vital components of the main Caitya like pillars, they too can be placed in the above mentioned early period. The female donors at Kārle can be grouped into two categories, laywomen and nuns. The donation of Bhayila has been engraved on the pillar of the open screen in front of the verandah of the main Caitya.xxv Like Bādhā, Bhāyila has identified herself as the mother of Mahādevaṇakas, but does not give the name of her husband. The donation of Dhamādevī, a relative of Gahapatī (householder) Āsek has been recorded. This donation records that she was a resident of Dhenukākaṭa . The identification of Dhenukākaṭa has attracted deliberations but resulted in differences of opinions. No less than eight residents of Dhenukākaṭa have donated at Kārle .xxvi Five more residents of Dhenukākaṭa have also recorded their donations in the main Caitya and are described as ‘Yavana’.xxvii The exact identification of this group has also not satisfactorily been achieved. But they can be a group of people of European or west Asian descent. But no Yavana woman has recorded her donation. In the absence of any record one cannot make a comment about Dharmādevī’s descent. Women from Dhenukākaṭa have also recorded their donations elsewhere such as Kanheri.xxviii Inscriptions at the monastic establishment at Kārle give an interesting insight in the monastic order of the day. There is a donation of Bhikṣuṇī Āṣāḍhamitā.xxix The donations made by the nuns have been made out of their individual accumulations. Naturally, after renouncing the worldly possessions these nuns have recorded their donations. These donations raise certain questions like the amount that they perhaps were allowed to carry at the time of initiation, any sustained share in their ancestral propertyxxx or the permission to make one point donation at the time of ordination. In spite of the strong presence of the nuns there are no indications of any nunnery at Kārle.xxxi Inscriptions suggest that after taking the vows, some nuns apparently have maintained ties with their families. While making donations they have identified themselves with their family members. The donation of Bhikṣuṇī Koṭī xxxii falls in the same category. Koti has identified herself as Bhikṣuṇī and mother of Ghuṇika. Women disciples (antevāsinī) of a Bhadaṃta donated a cave and a poḍhī (cistern) at Kārle .xxxiii This inscription gives evidence about the teacher disciple tradition in the Saṃgha. In the absence of records the sectoral leanings of these nuns cannot be ascertained, the Mahasanghika was a dominant group at Kārle. The donation of water cistern indicated that this monastery was occupied throughout the year as Kārle receives heavy rainfall as well as encounters stark summer. Thus the donative inscriptions at Bhāje and Kārle unfold the world and contributions of followers of Dhamma during the early centuries of the Christian era. Both served as a nodal points for the propagation of Buddhism and attracted large number of followers lay as well as monks and nuns, Indians as well as Yavanas. It must be remembered that Kārle and Bhāje surfaced as a result of the geographic obstruction for the trade routes created by the Sahyadri ranges. As such the ranges of Sahyadri served as a boon in disguise for the women eager to follow the path of Dhamma.

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International Journal of Social Science & Interdisciplinary Research______ISSN 2277 3630 IJSSIR, Vol. 2 (10), OCTOBER (2013) Online available at indianresearchjournals.com

i The range starts south of the near the border of Gujarat and Maharashtra, and runs approximately 1600 km through the states of Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu, to Cape Comorin or Kanyakumari, the southern tip of the Indian peninsula. The average elevation is around 900 meters. This range is known as the Sahyadri Mountains in Maharashtra and Karnataka and Malabar region in Kerala. ii Thich Nhat Hanh,Buddha Mind, Buddha Body: Walking Toward Enlightenment, USA, 2008. iii Ray H. P., Sinopoli Carla, Archaeology as history in early South Asia, Aryan Books International 2004, p. 115. iv "The thera Dhammarakkhita the Yona, being gone to Aparantaka and having preached in the midst of the people the Aggikkhandhopama-sutta (of Anguttarnikāy) gave to drink of the nectar of truth to thirty-seven thousand living beings who had come together there, lie who perfectly understood truth and untruth. A thousand men and yet more women went forth from noble families and received the pabbajja" (Mahāvaṃśa XII, Dīpavaṃśa VIII.7) v Max Weber accepted the basic idea of a city as, predominantly, a center of trade and commerce separate from feudal or other rural arrangements (i.e., the definition of a population that was not primarily responsible for its own food production). But in addition to this basis, a settlement also had to possess several other features in order to be a true city. These elements were: a fortification; a market; a court that could apply at least partially independent law. vi De Lacy O’Leary, Arabia before Muhammad, Routledge, Great Britain, 2000. p.79 A most important development took place in AD 45 or thereabouts when the pilot Hippalus discovered the theory of the monsoons and found that the wind blew steadily for six months from east to west and then for six months in the opposite direction. From this time onward a regular and steady sea trade commenced between India and the West. vii This dynasty sprung up in Maharashtra after the disintegration of Mauryan Empire around c. 230 BCE and continued up to c. 220 AD. The introduction of “ship-type coins" has been attributed to the Sathavahana kings. Vasishthiputra Pulumavi and Yajna Sri Satakarni have issued Ship-type coins depicting two-mast ships. viii The Sher and Tal (pass) connect Sopara with Nashik; and then inland. The links Kalyan to Junnar and then to Paithan. ghat connects Kalyan to Karle and then to Ter. In addition there are smaller passes near Bhor ghat that lead to the port of Chaul. Naturally they received liberal patronage from the mercantile class. The intimate connection between the caves and the trade routes has long been recognized. Rev. Abbot discovered the excavations at Nadsur as he was convinced of the existence of caves along the route linking Chaul to the interior.

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International Journal of Social Science & Interdisciplinary Research______ISSN 2277 3630 IJSSIR, Vol. 2 (10), OCTOBER (2013) Online available at indianresearchjournals.com ix Mahāprajāpatī Gautamī, Āmrapālī the courtesan, Queen Mallikā, Paṭācārā, Bhadā Kuṃḍalakeśā, Khajuttārā, Khemā etc. x 18°44’ N; 73°29’ E xi This purer architectural form largely remains untempered during the Mahāyāna period. xii The importance of Bhāje is further enhanced by the presence of two more monastic complexes namely Bedsa located on the south face of the same hill in which Bhāje is situated and Karle, directly opposite north of Bhāje nearly 5 Km from the latter. Bhāje was under occupation up to 5-6th century AD as attested from some of the painted Buddha images in the caityagrha. xiii Lüder’s List no. 1084 It reads as ‘Badhaya halikajayaya danam’ xiv Nagaraju S., Buddhist Architecture of Western India, Agam Kala Prakashan, Delhi, 1980, pp. 55-56. xv Lüder’s List no. 1079 Maharathi Kosikiputra Vishnudata donated a cistern xvi Lüder’s List no. 1081 xvii Lüder’s List no. 1083 xviii Bhor pass in the sahyadri ranges connects Kalyan to Karle and then to Ter. In addition there are smaller passes near Bhor ghat that lead to the port of Chaul. xix An inscription in the Chaitya states that this is the best cave in the entire Jambudvipa and was completed by the moneylender Bhutapala of Vaijayanti ‘Vejayamtito sethina Bhutapalena selaghara parinithapita Ja(m)budipamni uthama(m) xx Nagaraju S., Buddhist Architecture of Western India, Agam Kala Prakashan, Delhi, 1980, pp. 55-56. xxi Lüder’s List no. 1105 A Minister of Māmāḍa donated a village called Karajak for the support of monks of Mahāsaṃghika school staying in Vāluraka. xxii Lüder’s List no. 1099 Usavadata identifies himself as the son in law of King Nahapāna of Kṣaharāta Śaka Kṣatrapa dynasty. After giving details of his donations of cows, gold to the Brāhmaṇas and making provisions for their marriages at Prabhāsa Kṣetra, he donated a village called Karajak for the monks staying at Vāluraka caves during the vassāvāsa or rainy season. xxiii Lüder’s List no. 1132, The cave no 10 or the Nahapāna vihara has six inscriptions in total, three of Uṣavadāta, Nahapāna’s son in law , two of Uṣavadāta’s wife Dakhamitrā and one of

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Abhira Isvarasena . Dakhamitrā, the daughter (dhitu) of king (raño) Nahapāna donated an Ovarika (a cell). xxiv Nagaraju S., Buddhist Architecture of Western India, Agam Kala Prakashan, Delhi, 1980, p. 339. Tenth pillar on the left row. It reads dhenukākaṭa mahāmata ghariṇiya xxv Lüder’s List no. 1090 It reads as ‘Gahatas Mahadevnakas matu Bhayilaya Danam’ xxviIsālaka, Somilaka, Culayakha, Rohamita, the traders community, Mitadevaṇaka, Sāmīla, Siṃhadatta xxvii Yasavdhanān,Simhadhay, Dhamadhay, Vitasamagat of Umehānakaṭa and Dhamm xxviii Epigraphia Indica - X, p. 107, n. 1020 and Ghokhale Shobhana, Kanheri Inscriptions, no. 33. , pp., 87-88.In the cave no. 65 at Kanheri, The donation of Pavaitika (nun) Sāpā , the lay disciple of Bhadaṃta Bodhika has been recorded. Sāpā was the daughter of Upāsaka Kulapiya Dhamanaka, a resident of Dhenukakata. Sāpā along with Antevāsinī (woman lay disciple) Bodhika and sister Ratanika along with all other relatives (savenā nātīsaṃbaṃdhī) donated a cave and tank at Kanheri for the monks of Aparāsaila. Apart from this donation Sāpā has also donated a permanent donation, the details of which are not available. The characters of this inscription belong to 2nd Century A.D. Sāpā dedicated the merit of this donation to her parents whose names are not given. xxix Lüder’s List no. 1098, Āṣāḍhamitāye bhikhunī(ye) xxx Nuns were not cut off from the family as there are joint donations. xxxi Corpus Inscriptinum Indicarum, II-I, n. LXXIV and Epigraphia Indica, XXVIII, p. 43 An inscription records the endowment of a bhikhunī upāya (nunnery) of the dharmottariyas in the town of Nasik. This inscription also mentions the nunnery of Sivayapalika which closely reminds us of the Sui Vihar Copper Plate Inscriptions and the donation of Princess Puṣyadatta. Both the donors refer to the vihāra financed by them as their property. xxxii Lüder’s List no. 1104, koḍiya bhikhuṇiya ghuṇika mātu veyika dāno nadikena ka(tā) xxxiii Lüder’s List no. 1107

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