Current Ecological Status and Identification of Potential Ecologically Sensitive Areas in the Northern Western Ghats

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CURRENT ECOLOGICAL STATUS AND IDENTIFICATION OF POTENTIAL ECOLOGICALLY SENSITIVE AREAS IN THE NORTHERN WESTERN GHATS

OCTOBER 2010

INSTITUTE OF ENVIRONMENT EDUCATION AND RESEARCH BHARTI VIDYAPEETH DEEMED UNIVERSITY PUNE, MAHARASHTRA

TABLE OF CONTENTS Team at BVIEER...... iv Acknowledgements...... v Disclaimer ...... vi Terms of reference ...... vii Framework ...... viii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION...... 1 HISTORY OF CONSERVATION IN THE WESTERN GHATS...... 2 CURRENT THREATS TO THE WESTERN GHATS...... 2 CONCEPT OF ECOLOGICALLY SENSITIVE AREAS (ESAS)...... 3 NEED FOR IDENTIFYING ESAs IN THE WESTERN GHATS...... 3 DEFINING ESAs ...... 4 GENESIS OF ESAs IN INDIA ...... 5 CHAPTER 2: ECOLOGICAL STATUS OF THE NORTHERN WESTERN GHATS...... 7 LANDSCAPE ELEMENTS OF THE WESTERN GHATS ...... 7 Geomorphology and Hydrology...... 8 Climate ...... 10 ECOSYSTEM DIVERSITY ...... 10 Forest Types ...... 11 Grasslands...... 17 Streams and Rivers ...... 17 Plateaus...... 18 SPECIES DIVERSITY...... 18 Flora ...... 24 Fauna...... 26 PROTECTED AREAS...... 35 CHAPTER 3: IMPACTS ...... 43 INDUSTRY ...... 43 MINING...... 45 ROADS...... 45 AGRICULTURE ...... 48 NEW TOWNSHIPS...... 50 TOURISM ...... 50 INVASIVE EXOTIC SPECIES...... 51 i CLIMATE CHANGE ...... 52 OTHERS...... 54 CONCLUSION...... 54 CHAPTER 4: PLANNING OF ESAS ...... 57 CATEGORIZATION OF EXISTING ESAS ...... 57 Protected Areas ...... 58 ESAs around Protected Areas ...... 60 Hill-station ESAs ...... 61 CATEGORIZATION OF PROPOSED ESAS ...... 62 Areas Planned but not Notified as PAs ...... 62 Reserve Forest and Closed Canopy Forest...... 63 Water Bodies ...... 64 Sacred Groves...... 66 Specialised Ecosystems ...... 70 Species Based ESAs ...... 76 CHAPTER 5: PRIORITIZATION...... 83 IDENTIFYING BIODIVERSITY ASSET VALUES...... 86 Protected Areas ...... 86 Protected Area Surrounds ...... 88 Hill Stations ...... 88 Reserve and Closed Canopy Forest...... 89 Water Bodies ...... 89 Specialized Habitats...... 91 Habitats of Threatened Species ...... 93 Corridors...... 94 IDENTIFYING THREAT VALUES ...... 94 Mines...... 94 Industrial Areas ...... 97 Catchment Area Threats ...... 97 Protected Areas Surrounds (ESA) Threats ...... 97 Grading the ESAs...... 97 ANALYSIS OF TALUKAS FROM NORTH TO SOUTH BASED ON ESA CATEGORY AND THREAT LEVEL ...... 100 Sector 1 ...... 100 Sector 2 ...... 101

ii Sector 3 ...... 102 Sector 4 ...... 103 Sector 5 ...... 104 Sector 6 ...... 106 Sector 7 ...... 107 PLANNING FOR CORRIDORS...... 108 The Need for Corridors...... 108 Landuse Within Existing Corridors ...... 108 Types of Corridors...... 109 Establishing Corridors in the Northern Western Ghats...... 109 Potential Corridors within the Northern Western Ghats...... 110 conclusion ...... 113 CHAPTER 6: IMPLEMENTATION AND MANAGEMENT...... 115 MANAGEMENT AND INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS ...... 117 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT...... 119 ECORESTORATION ...... 121 ECOTOURISM ...... 123 IMPLEMENTATION OF CORRIDORS ...... 123 NEED FOR EDUCATION AND AWARENESS...... 123 CHAPTER 7: JUDICIAL CONCERNS ...... 125 ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION ACT, 1986 ...... 125 WILDLIFE PROTECTION ACT, AMENDED 1993 ...... 126 WILDLIFE PROTECTION ACT, AMENDMENT 2002 ...... 130 INDIAN FOREST ACT 1927 ...... 131 FOREST CONSERVATION ACT, 1980 WITH 1988 AMENDMENTS...... 135 FOREST CONSERVATION ACT, 2003 ...... 136 BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY ACT, 2002 ...... 138 MAHABALESHWAR AND PANCHGANI ESA NOTIFICATION ...... 139 MAHARASHTRA REGIONAL AND TOWN PLANNING ACT 1966 ...... 144 NATIONAL WATER POLICY 2002 IN RELATION TO THE LAKES AND CATCHMENTS...... 145 GUIDELINES FOR NATIONAL LAKE CONSERVATION PLAN ...... 146 CHAPTER 8: CONCLUSION ...... 149 CHAPTER 9: REFERENCES ...... 151

iii TEAM AT BVIEER Erach Bharucha Shamita Kumar Parag Khatawkar Anand Shinde Kranti Yardi Jyoti Prabha Karishma Mehta Ganesh Zende Anwesha Borethakur Rashi Khare Vidya Pujari

iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS his discussion paper on the ‘Current Ecological Status and Identification of Potential Ecologi- cally Sensitive Areas in the Northern Western Ghats’ is an output supported by a large number of Tstakeholders. They are all concerned about the conservation of natural resources and biological heritage in this globally recognized hotspot of biodiversity. They have readily contributed towards efforts to give a broad based assessment for developing a framework for a doable conservation strategy for the Sahyadris. Having said that, this is not a final statement, but a basis for further discussions and additional inputs from an even wider range of people. While there are too many people to acknowledge, individually there are some who have led to a clearer understanding of what this initiative should lead to in the future. To Professor Madhav Gadgil who thought it fit for me and my colleagues at BVIEER to attempt framing this report, we are indeed profoundly grateful. My ever ready team of collaborators at BVIEER who have all worked ceaselessly late into the night for the last five months, I am greatly indebted. They are the backbone of our institution and have fulfilled a wide range of tasks that were essential for the completion of this output. We at BVIEER acknowledge with gratitude the vast array of scientists who have added information bit by bit to the complex web of life of the Sahyadris that is the core of this report. The report is based mainly on the multitude of secondary resources that have been forwarded to us. We thank them all for their support. We greatly appreciate the inputs of Parag Khatawkar in the initial phase of the project that has helped us frame the methodology. We would like to mention the contributions of IIRS and Dr. P S Roy on whose initial GIS based platform we have been able to build this locale specific output. The many individual contributors that gave us their time and ideas include Ashok Captain, Varad Giri, Aparna Watve, Archana Godbole, Neelesh Dahanukar, Ankur Parwardhan and A Padhye among others all of whom are responsible for adding to its authenticity through their long personal association with the Ghats. There are institutions that also readily supported this output. They include the BNHS, SACON, GSDA of CDAC, the French Institute Pondicherry, ZSI and BSI. We thank all of them for their unstinting support. I personally am indebted to the people of the Sahyadris who have over the last several decades told me of their close linkages to nature and the consequences of what we call development. Much of what they experienced in previous decades has been prophetic. As I see the superb wilderness of the rugged hills invaded by the hand of man, and its astonishing complex sensitive ecosystems vanish year by year, I can recall as if it was yesterday, many of the statements of so many local inhabitants who readily spoke to me, invited me into their homes and shared their life stories and livelihood issues with me. How can I thank them adequately for having enriched my own life, while they eked out an existence based on the meagre resources that they used sustainably from the forested hills, valleys and water sources. E. K. Bharucha BVIEER Pune, October 2010

v DISCLAIMER his report is a document based on the letter to the Director of BVIEER from Professor Madhav Gadgil, Chairperson of the Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel and their personal discussion Ton 15th June 2010. This has led to the formation of a small core group at the BVIEER to act as a think-tank and data collection centre to formulate a fairly comprehensive and innovative document for comments at a proposed meeting of local experts and interested people to be held at BVIEER once the Draft has been put on the website. This Report is a baseline draft of views expressed by a variety of people who are concerned about the future and present sustainability of landuse in the northern Western Ghats. They are not necessarily the views of the author alone but attempt to capture several other viewpoints. To start with this has been based on existing published work, includes views mentioned in reports and committee meetings of the MOEF, and even unpublished dissertations of students that have been verified by expert guides for their masters and doctoral studies in environmental botanical and zoological studies. While most such literature has been referred to in this report, other unpublished readings have been used to bring in a wider range of thought without actually referring to the aspects dealt with in grey written material and personal communications. This report is a compendium of a vast number of independent studies, reports and findings of a number of researchers, many of whom may have conducted credible research and have reported their findings thereof. These findings may be valid with the basis and assumptions that have been taken into consideration by those researchers who have conducted their studies and at the time they were conducted. The authors of this report take no responsibility on the accuracy of the findings nor can they be held responsible or accountable for the conclusions thereof, especially under current and/or new assumptions. Even though best efforts have been made to collect, collate and present this independent report, the authors by no means can opine that this report is complete and accurate in the representation due to the large amount of data/findings and sometimes which may not be material, relevant and may be conflicting. The report, thus, should be regarded at best an endeavor towards a compendium of work done by many others in the field. The authors are thus not responsibe for the veracity and validity of the findings and resultant conclusions presented in the report. The report is meant to provide a framework around which certain initiatives could be taken to protect the Western Ghats. There could be many other such frameworks and initiatives which could be taken based on further primary and secondary research. The proposed framework and comments are neither tested nor verified. Readers of this report are encouraged to form their own conclusions and opinions and are requested to post them on the website: www.westernghatsindia.org. A number of questions have arisen during the course of developing this output for which a systematic, scientifically organized study needs to be conducted to put forth conclusions based on verifiable credences. Errors and omissions are bound to exist in such a report as it is a compendium and not an independent research on scientific principles. Readers are earnestly requested to provide feedback to the author in this regard. We hope that this compendium acts as a consolidated pool of knowledge and data for all interested people who have a deep interest to conserve and implement a substantial strategy for one of the world’s rarest and most biologically diverse ecological systems. If this knowledge/database can help create a multitude of options on the principle of collective wisdom and debate, the purpose will have been served. This report is just meant to create such a dialogue and is not to be regarded as a complete and validated output. vi TERMS OF REFERENCE

AGHARKAR RESEARCH INSTITUTE

Agarkar Road, Pune 411 004, Maharashtra, India

E-mail: [email protected]

Dr. Erach Bharucha

Bharati Vidyapeeth Institute of Environment Education and Research, Pune Dear Dr. Bharucha, Sub: Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel – request on behalf of Thank you so much for your most kind offer of help in taking forward the work programme of Western Ghats of Dangs and Maharashtra, when we personally met at BVIEER on 15th June. The mandate of WGEEP is as follows: To assess the current status of ecology of the Western Ghats region. To demarcate areas within the Western Ghats Region which need to be notified as ecologically sensitive and to recommend for notification of such areas as ecologically sensitive zones under the Environ- ment (Protection) Act, 1986. In doing so, the Panel shall review the existing reports such as the Mohan Ram Committee Report, Hon’ble Supreme Court’s decisions, Recommendations of the National Board for Wildlife and consult all concerned State Governments. To make recommendations for the conservation, protection and rejuvenation of the Western Ghats Region following a comprehensive consultation process involving people and Governments of all the concerned States. To suggest measures for effective implementation of the notifications issued by the Government of India in the Ministry of Environment and Forests declaring specific areas in the Western Ghats Region as eco-sensitive zones under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. To recommend the modalities for the establishment of Western Ghats Ecology Authority under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 which will be a professional body to manage the ecology of the region and to ensure its sustainable development with the support of all concerned states. To deal with any other relevant environment and ecological issues pertaining to Western Ghats Re- gion, including those which may be referred to it by the Central Government in the Ministry of Environ- ment and Forests. We would therefore like to request you to draw on BVIEER’s own extensive work on the of Western Ghats of Dangs and Maharashtra, as also review other available material and prepare a background paper, if possible in both English and Marathi, addressing our mandate by early August 2010. This could be uploaded on the WGEEP website as well as circulated through other media, followed by an open discussion meeting in BVIEER auditorium around the third week of August. I also greatly appreciate the fact that you do not require any specific funding to render this important service to WGEEP. With personal regards, Yours sincerely Madhav Gadgil Chairman Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel

vii FRAMEWORK The introduction provides a brief account of the status and concerns leading up to the need for setting up a mechanism to reduce threats to the biological diversity in the northern Western Ghats. The body of the report has sections on: 1. Present ecological status of the Northern Western Ghats 2. Conceptual categorization and prioritization of ESAs in the Western Ghats 3. Implementation and executive actions required for supporting the integral ecological values of the Ghats 4. A review of existing legislative and judicial instruments that can strengthen local execution 5. A bibliography of published and unpublished literature on the subject Some questions that the report addresses include: 1. Can ecosensitive areas be identified in the Northern Western Ghats? 2. Are there significant differences in the level of fragility or robustness? 3. Are there hotspecks of high diversity or mini-ecosystems within the globally recognized hot spot of the Northern Western Ghats? 4. Are there areas of great importance outside PAs and PA surrounds (ESAs) that require urgent protection from rising threat levels? 5. Can a conceptual framework be created for a system of corridors as a major component of ESAs be evolved in the northern sector of the Western Ghats? 6. How can ESAs be prioritized based on conservation values and threat levels? 7. What are the possible executive and judicial actions that can strengthen the management of ESAs in the Western Ghats?

viii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

he Western Ghats are a well-known hot- as intensively used landuse patterns. The Western spot of biodiversity. The Ghats are a range part primarily has unique steep rocky escarpments Tof hills which were once covered with ex- that are covered with waterfalls in the monsoon. tensive forest all along the length from the Dangs in The crest line is a narrow strip broken into flat lat- Gujarat to the southern part of Kerala. The North- eritic plateaus. The eastern slopes decent gradually ern Western Ghats extend across the three states to the Deccan Plateau and have irregular off shoots of Gujarat, Maharashtra and Goa which is also a and spurs interspaced with water bodies created by region that includes several unique ecosystems and dams that deride the ranges and plateau and flood harbours a large number of threatened and endem- plains of rivers into minor and major watersheds. ic species. It also includes areas with rich cultural The high level of fragility of the Western Ghats heritage sites. ecosystems is thus due to its inherent geomorpho- A paper on the zoogeography of the Western logical, climatic and biological characteristics. The Ghats (Ramakrishna, Radhakrishnan, and Gopi area’s biodiversity status which consists of ever- 2001) characterises the Western Ghats on the basis green and semi evergreen forest has seen rapid deg- of geology, biology and elevation. The northern radation in the recent past. A report on a descrip- sector is lower in altitude than most of the south- tion of the Western Ghats as a biodiversity hotspot ern section. At an altitude of less than 1500 m, (Gunawardene et al. 2007) states that the Western the northern sector has more impacts on the fragile Ghat has 6% of India’s landmass with 30% of landscape elements than in the South. The West plants and animals. However, only one third of East division shows bio-geographical variations the region is under natural vegetation in the to- ranging from coastal plains to hill ranges that tal extent of the hill range which covers 180,000 merge into the Deccan Plateau. The range itself square kilometres. This makes it imperative that is covered by fragmented patches of forests as well conservation measures are urgently implemented 1 to preserve what is left of this important natural values of the sensitive ecological attributes of the and cultural heritage area. Ghats. HISTORY OF CONSERVATION IN While a chain of Protected Areas has been creat- THE WESTERN GHATS ed from north to south in the Ghats such as Purna Wild Life Sanctuary (WLS) and Vansda National The current ecologically valuable assets in the Park in Gujarat; Kalsubai WLS, Bhimashankar Western Ghats are an outcome of the local histori- WLS, Tansa WLS, Sanjay Gandhi National Park, cal background, such as the tradition to preserve Koyna WLS, Chandoli WLS, Phansad WLS and sacred groves which is embedded in ancient tribal Radhanagri WLS in Maharashtra and Molem culture and folklore; the good governance prin- WLS, Cotagi WLS and Bondla WLS in Goa, their ciples of Shivaji Maharaj which included an edict potential for connectivity through corridoring, or issued to protect tree cover of the Ghats. His fore- lack thereof, has not been adequately assessed. sight and vision was promulgated throughout his kingdom well before this was foreseen elsewhere. One of the earliest moves to bring attention to The British had a strong self-interest to preserve the ecological sensitivity of the Western Ghat was forests through a system of Reserved Forests. the ‘Save Western Ghat March’ organized through However, they exploited the forests for their own a consortium of NGOs in the concerned states in enormous timber requirements especially during November 1987. The prime mover was the late the two World Wars. They used large quantities of Shri Jagdish Godhole. The other interested in- teak to build their ships. Deforestation continued dividuals were Dr. K. C. Malhotra (Anthropolo- in post Independent India for several decades. gist), Vijay Paranjape and Dr. E. K. Bharucha then WWF Pune Committee Members and several other NGOs and NGIs. The March was flagged off by the Maharaja of Bansda who was seriously concerned by the depletion of wildlife in Gujarat and Admiral Awati then Chairman of WWF-Ma- harashtra and Goa. The March that went through all the states eventually ended in Kerala at Kan- yakumari. It was well published in the press and strongly supported by NGOs, academicians, the public at large and to some extent by concerned forest officials. In more recent times there were moves made CURRENT THREATS TO THE mainly by non-government organizations which WESTERN GHATS lobbied strongly for containing the on-going destruction of forests in the Western Ghats. Finally The Western Ghats today are being rapidly de- the Forest Department developed new Working graded due to various landuse changes that have Plans which excluded the practice of timber extrac- occurred in the recent past. Apart from the tradition from the Ghats after the mid-1980s in Maha- tional impacts from farming, grazing and fire there rashtra. Gujarat had a moratorium on the extrac- are newer changes in landuse that are leading to tion of timber from the teak forests in the Dangs biodiversity losses. This includes deforestation due for several years. to mining, roads, dams, townships and industrialization. Changing existing wilderness areas into In the 1970s and 1980s all the states created a intensive agriculture, urbanization and industry series of Protected Areas (PAs) in the Ghats. This in Maharashtra, Gujarat and Goa has altered the was a response to a strong directive from the then natural ecological attributes over the last several Prime Minister Mrs Indira Gandhi. Following decades. This has not spared the Western Ghats this a series of administrative actions for different where dams, roads and other economic develop- objectives have attempted to protect the inherent ment programs have led to new forms of landuse. 2 The industrial expansion due to globalization of CONCEPT OF ECOLOGICALLY the late 90s led to rural industrialization which SENSITIVE AREAS (ESAS) has been strongly supported by the Industrial De- Over the last several years it has been appreci- velopment Corporations. The river valley projects ated that protected areas alone (National Parks that have been developed for over a century now and Wildlife Sanctuaries) cannot conserve or pro- include nearly every possible major valley leaving tect all species and ecosystems as islands in a ma- very few as intact forest tracts. Mining has cre- trix of other forms of landuse. Thus the concept ated large gaps. Added to these gaps are a string of biosphere reserves, ecologically sensitive areas of roads winding across expanses of several kilo- and community conserved areas has led to newer metres (Ramakrishna, Radhakrishnan, and Gopi and wider frameworks for conservation at the land- 2001). The special requirements of sustainable scape level. This has also been expressed and given development in areas that are ecologically fragile legal sanctity through the Environment Protection such as the Western Ghats finds little place in cur- Act 1986 and several such areas have already been rent planning processes. notified in India (see box). While the Western Ghats in the southern states Section 3(2)(v) of the Act empowers the central have been better studied, the ranges of the northern government to take all such measures that it deems sector have been neglected. The two ecosystems necessary to protect and improve the quality of vary widely and suffer from different human im- the environment and prevent environmental pollu- pacts. tion. It allows for the restriction of areas in which Degraded areas across the Ghats now form a certain developmental activities can be prohibited. mosaic of patches with different levels of degrada- Further, section 5(1) of the Environment (Protec- tion. Climate change will further add to alterations tion) Rules (EPR), 1986, specifies certain criteria in biodiversity values in future. Any adaptation like topographic and climatic features of an area, strategy to preserve the integrity of the natural for- biological diversity of the area, environmentally ests, in the context of future climate change, will compatible land use, extensive cultivation, proxim- have to take into account the varied landscape ele- ity to the protected areas, etc. that can be consid- ments that are inherent environmental assets in the ered while prohibiting or restricting certain opera- Western Ghats. The strategy should preserve bio- tions in different areas. logical diversity, hydrological balance and ecologi- NEED FOR IDENTIFYING cal services. (Ramakrishna et al. 2001) ESAS IN THE WESTERN GHATS The forests of the Western Ghats have been considered critically important habitats for biodiversity conservation over several decades. Conservation

Section 3 of the Environment (Protection) Act 1986 (EPA) gives power to the Central Government i.e. the Union Ministry of Environment and Forests to take all measures that it feels are necessary for protecting and improving the quality of the environment and to prevent and control environmental pollution. To meet this objective, the Central Government can restrict areas in which any industries, operations or processes or class of industries, operations or processes shall not be carried out or shall be carried out subject to certain safeguards [Section 3(2)(v)]

Section 5(1) of the Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986 (EPR), states that the central government can prohibit or restrict the location of industries and carrying on certain operations or processes on the basis of considerations like the biological diversity of an area (clause v) maximum allowable limits of concentration of pollutants for an area (clause ii) environmentally compatible land use (clause vi) proximity to protected areas (clause viii).

3 planning has included the main range and its as- Ghats is a thin north- south aligned strip of nar- sociated hills as a region of great biological value row forested hills with specific geographical, cli- by notifying a series of PAs (Rodgers and Panwar matological, geological, hydrological and biologi- 1988). However, the importance of protecting in- cal aspects. If this is disrupted anywhere along its tervening areas has not been given sufficient at- length, there will be a rapid deterioration of any tention. The need to preserve these unprotected possibility of long-term preservation of biodiver- gaps as forest corridors in a well-managed network sity, unless the fragile region is notified as a set requires urgent attention. Currently there are no of Ecologically Sensitive Areas. This will require clearly defined strategies for implementing this a new policy which can be implemented through concept. Buffer areas for National Parks, notifying specific management strategies and rules created Ecologically Sensitive Areas (ESAs) around each to implement conservation of these varied fragile Protected Area, and the creation of Biosphere Re- areas. serves have similar and even overlapping objectives DEFINING ESAS which can form a basis for developing an overarch- ing conservation policy for the Western Ghats. The landscape elements that must be protected These currently used strategies have however not as Ecologically Sensitive Areas in the Western been able to protect corridors for preserving the Ghats are of several types. The protected patches long-term values of biodiversity in the northern currently include the existing National Parks and sector of the Western Ghats. There have been no Wildlife Sanctuaries, the Reserved Forest patches, integrated plans for developing an interstate PA and to some extent, the forested hill stations. system for the Ghats. It is thus important to define Fragments of the more remote forests have a various categories of ESAs and manage them ef- relatively intact ecological status as compared fectively through a well regulated network under a with areas that have been subjected to recent lan- single authority. duse changes. Apart from the forests there are A historical review shows that the forests formed also more cryptic and specialized landscape ele- a continuous tract which was minimally impacted ments that must be preserved for their great eco- by human activity till only a few decades ago. The logical value. These include lateritic plateau tops, forested Ghats act as the life support system for lo- rocky escarpments with seasonal waterfalls, sacred cal residents as well as for people of the adjacent groves, remote sites covered by old growth forests, coastal belt and Deccan Plateau. The implications river sources and the catchments of dams and riv- of deforestation and land degradation are already ers. These ecologically sensitive areas must be evident. Thus if these ecologically sensitive systems identified and managed in order to form a corri- are disrupted further, the residual relict natural for- dor through a network for maintaining the genetic est ecosystems will be converted into serious envi- diversity of flora and fauna. The important un- ronmental problems. In ecosystem management, protected corridors between the Protected Areas of prevention of degradation is better and cheaper the Ghats and the adjacent coastal belt must also than the cure. Thus apart from long term economic be identified as ESAs in spite of being degraded. losses due to unsustainable development, restora- This would require the use of new and innovative tion will become financially unviable. The tipping ecorestorative strategies. point at which landscape level changes will sub- No importance has been given to prevent the stantially hinder sustainable development cannot continual loss of forest cover in the catchments of be easily ascertained. dams in the Western Ghats. The Western Ghats In many areas across India economic develop- are the sources of all the rivers of the Deccan and ment will not unduly disrupt the more robust nat- the coast. These catchments are essential for pre- ural ecological processes. In the Western Ghats serving life support systems for water to cities, ir- however environmental changes will rapidly dam- rigating croplands that ensure food security and age the highly sensitive ecosystem as the Western the supply of water to industries. The catchment zones of all these dams constitute a set of special 4 Year Events 1986 Environment Protection Act (EPA) and Environment Protection Rules ( EPR) 0XUXG-DQMLUD1RWL¿FDWLRQ 1989 'RRQ9DOOH\1RWL¿FDWLRQ 1990 MoEF Report on Parameters for Determining Ecological Fragility 1991 'DKDQX(6$1RWL¿FDWLRQ $UDYDOOL1RWL¿FDWLRQ 1992 2. Numaligarh ‘No Development Zone’ 1996 Planning Commission Report on Conserving Ecologically Fragile Ecosystems 1. Taj Trapezium Zone Pollution Authority 1998 'UDIW3DFKPDUKL(6$1RWL¿FDWLRQ 1. Pronab Sen Committee Report 'UDIW3DFKPDUKL(6$1RWL¿FDWLRQ 2000 0DKDEDOHVKZDU(6$1RWL¿FDWLRQ 'UDIW+LPDOD\DV(6$1RWL¿FDWLRQ 2001 Mohan Ram Committee to examine the ESA proposals & review the existing ESAs 2002 Hill Stations Committee 2003 0DWKHUDQ(6$1RWL¿FDWLRQ 2008 0RXQW$EX'UDIW(6$1RWL¿FDWLRQ 2009 6XOWDQSXU(6=1RWL¿FDWLRQPHDVXUHV Source (Kapoor, Kohli and Menon 2009)

Ecologically Sensitive Areas of great economic im- mission, was entrusted with the task of studying portance to the wellbeing of people of Peninsular the issue to make appropriate recommendations India. to the Government. The Committee provided its The varied categories of ESAs consisting of sev- comprehensive and well researched report on the eral landscape elements will have to be preserved selection of parameters for designating Ecologi- as a network. A chain of diverse interlinked land- cally Sensitive Areas (Sen 2000). However in spite scape elements must be selected to preserve the of this visionary and scientifically framed docu- ecological, biological and ecosystem functions of ment, which was circulated to a large number of the Western Ghats. This must stem from a conser- experts and NGOs, strategies for implementation vation policy for the states of Gujarat, Maharash- have been woefully inadequate across the country. tra, Goa, Karnataka and Kerala. A major cause for inaction has been that the document had not spelled out the time frame and agen- GENESIS OF ESAS IN INDIA cies responsible for implementation of ESAs at the The need for declaring certain special ecological- national and state level. This relative weakness has ly important sites as ESAs has been discussed in In- left the fragile landscape elements of the Sahayad- dia for over three decades. The initial moves in the ris to the vagaries of the voracious appetite of short MOEF were made in 1989. The concept has grown term economic development processes. simultaneously with moving from planning a PA While all the conditions of the Pronab Sen Re- network for India in 1988 by Rodgers and Panwar port are not necessarily relevant to the Western to the need for a broader avenue for protecting bio- Ghats, identification of the relevant parameters, diversity on a wider scale in non-PA areas such as designing modifications specifically for the West- reserve forests (Kapoor, Kohli, and Manju Menon ern Ghats and including all its different sensitive 2009). landscape elements to the list of suggested ESAs At the national level the need to rationalize these must become a key objective of the current pro- early initiatives of the MOEF by creating ESAs was posed strategy for conserving the biodiversity of felt way back in 1999 and a committee of experts the Ghats. Other reports such as that of the Mohan under the chairmanship of Dr. Pronab Sen, Ad- Ram Committee (Ram 2001) have further added to viser (Perspective Planning) of the Planning Com- a deeper understanding of the need for identifying 5 ESAs. get precedence over all else. There is also the third dimension of people who hope to get rich through In the recent past however, at the national lev- land use changes and speculating on land deals. el several ecosystems such as the Himalayas, the North Eastern states, the Western Ghats, coastal The Protected Areas in the Western Ghats are areas, wetlands etc. were recognized as being foci isolated patches and there has been no concrete ef- of recent destruction and even devastation. The fort to develop an integrated PA network for the re- first areas to have been notified by the Ministry of gion. Notified Ecologically Sensitive Areas, which Environment and Forests (MoEF) as ESAs were constitute 10 km belts around the PAs, are already the twin hill stations of Mahabaleshwar and Pan- severely impacted by all manner of intensive use chgani and the hills of Matheran in Maharashtra. (Bharucha 2006). If one takes into account the ex- These sites have been great tourist attractions for isting rules for ESAs, the 10 kilometre belt around generations. However, due to their ecological fra- each Protected Area would include parts of the gility and lack of careful environmental planning, coastal belt and the industrialized Deccan Plateau. their hill forest ecosystems were being rapidly de- Beyond the confines of the Protected Areas graded. Although they are situated in a globally rec- there are substantial areas of high ecological sensi- ognized hotspot of biological diversity in the West- tivity suffering from the growing level of impacts. ern Ghats they have been engulfed in the process These forests consist of Reserved Forest, Protected of being converted from evergreen forests into con- Forest and ‘Malki’ tree covered lands with tradi- crete jungles! Their notification as ESAs was thus a tional agriculture. The hill ranges however include strategy to create a more sustainable development landscape elements such as urbanization, industry, paradigm for these forested hill stations. This was mining, railways, roads and dams which have now expected to prevent further degradation of their spread into these once forested tracts. Appreciat- forests and biodiversity values and ensure that they ing the existing level of impacts and their present are maintained as crucial corridors for preserving and future spatial spread is of great relevance for the biological integrity of the two important Pro- creating effective ESAs. tected Areas in the northern sector of the Ghats, namely between Bhimashankar and Koyna. This was supported by NGOs and given legal sanctity by the Honourable High Court of Bombay. The next important group of Ecologically Sensi- tive Areas was created by the MOEFs instructions to states to notify belts of land measuring five to ten kilometres around all Protected Areas as Ecologi- cally Sensitive Areas under the Environment Pro- tection Act. This significant notification resulted from the initiative of the Goa Foundation versus Union of India judgment in 2004 of the Hon Su- preme Court and its order in 2006 to declare areas of 10 km buffer zones around PAs as ESAs. This has generated both positive and negative reactions from a variety of stakeholders. The polarization of viewpoints has led to acrimonious debates between those who strongly uphold the need to preserve, at all costs, the treasure house of invaluable biological diversity within the Protected Areas of the Western Ghats, and those who believe economic development for these poverty ridden backward areas must

6 CHAPTER 2: ECOLOGICAL STATUS OF THE NORTHERN WESTERN GHATS

he overall environmental status of the West- from forest types (Pascal 1963). More recently, the ern Ghats is now seeing a rapid change in boundaries have been described based on biogeog- Tlandscape elements from the once continu- raphy (Rodgers and Panwar 1988) which suggests ous and impenetrable tracts of forest interspersed a sharp distinction between the hill ranges and the by small hamlets of its agropastoral people to coastal plains. The Western Ghats boundary as de- highly intensive landuse elements. Thus process fined by the Western Ghats Expert Ecology panel has changed river tributaries into lakes, forests into (WGEEP) has been adopted for this study of delin- blanks due to mining, and most recently wilderness eating ESAs in the Northern Western Ghats. into townships. Developing a set of Protected Ar- LANDSCAPE ELEMENTS OF THE eas mainly through the notification of new Protect- WESTERN GHATS ed Areas during the World Bank Forestry Project (1984) has not been able to stem the onslaught of The Ghats are characterised by a large diversi- unsustainable development in the Ghats. ty in ecosystems that constitute a major aspect of their threatened biological diversity. These ecosys- The boundaries of what constitutes the Western tems which include not only the forested hill rang- Ghats have been seen from different perspectives es but their streams, escarpments, plateaus, rugged by several experts. This has been perceived from a crests etc. are specialised ecological systems with geomorphological perspective (Diddee 2002), from their own distinctive abiotic (geomorphological, the viewpoint of forest types (Champion & Seth geographical, hydrological and climatic) variabil- 1968), from ecological aspects (Puri 1983) and 7 ity. This has a strong bearing on the biological di- ly narrow strip of hills adjacent to the coast as the versity and uniqueness of these ecosystems, com- western border and reach up to a height of 2800m munities, species and genetic variability. Thus both before they merge in the east with the Deccan Pla- the abiotic and biotic components of these ecosys- teau at an altitude of 500-600m. The average width tems contribute towards giving the Western Ghats of the mountain range is about 100 km (Nagendra its globally recognized ‘hot spot’ status. 1999). Geomorphology and Hydrology Geologically the Western Ghats may be divided into two segments. The hills north of the Krishna basin (largely Maharashtra and Gujarat) with fragile basaltic rocks, are results of the same processes that gave rise to the Deccan trap (Widdowson and Cox 1996). The Western Ghats escarpment in the western coastal region of peninsular India is locally capped by plateau remnants on which a regional high-level laterite carapace is preserved. Geochemical ‘fin- gerprinting’ studies show that the laterite has been developed from a protolith of Panhala Formation The crest line of the Ghats, which is generally basalts. This is the most recent formation of the 1000 meters above sea level, contains isolated Deccan sequence. It is the original upper layer of patches of evergreen and semi evergreen forest and the lava pile. The high-level laterite is structurally experiences a rainfall of around 5000mm. In most concordant with the underlying basalts. The low- areas the main hill range is around 30 to 50 km level, younger laterite carapace has developed in wide. The escarpment meets the coastal plains the Konkan plains below the escarpment where it abruptly in the west. The varied landscape ele- is discordant and lies on basalts of the Ambenali ments, the sea shore, the coastal plains and estua- and Poladpur formations, from which it developed rine ecosystems contrast sharply with the hill for- in situ. The low-level laterite rises topographically ests of the Ghats. Where they lie adjacent to each in the north. This is a response to differential up- other they are separated by a narrow distinctive lift, maximally seen in the Nasik region. The major ecotone. To the east, the Ghats have low ranges structures of the Ghats which excludes the coastal which extend down to 500 - 600 meters where they monocline are in the Nasik dome and the Maha- merge into the scrub covered hill slopes and the baleshwar anticline (Widdowson and Cox 1996) Deccan plateau grasslands. The steep western es- The Western Ghats escarpment is one of the carpments that overlook the coastal plains, the river classic examples of passive margins of great escarp- valleys and coastal estuaries are ecologically sensi- ments in the world. It is an area of rugged terrain, tive landscape elements. The land use pattern in deep valleys, waterfalls, and dense forest with other the region as a whole thus requires a special focus associated landforms such as plateau outliers, deep on preserving their natural resource conservation gorges, beheaded plateau valleys and laterite pla- as well as spectacular aesthetic values. The latter is teaux or tablelands. The Ghats is the fountainhead hardly ever taken into consideration in our country of many large, east-flowing rivers and numerous where resource use is considered of paramount im- short, swift, coastward-flowing rivers (Kale 2010). portance today. The Dangs district which starts from the rug- Biogeographically, the hill chain of the Western ged mountain chains of the Sahyadri hills in the Ghats constitutes the Malabar province of the ori- east and descends in the west to the plains of Gu- ental realm, running parallel to the West coast of jarat, forms the northernmost limit of the Western India from 8°N to 21°N latitude and stretched over Ghats. The entire region is extremely hilly, but ex- a length of around 1600 km. They rise as a relative- cept for a few high hills in the east and the south, 8 it is essentially made up of a series of flat topped The research undertaken during post-Koyna low hills. The elevation of these hills varies from earthquake has brought about a number of geo- 105m in the west to 1317m on the eastern border. physical characteristics of the region. Accordingly, On the whole, barring a few high hills and few low it is now accepted that the geomorphology of the depressions, most of the area in the Dangs lies be- region is shaped due to the tectonic activity of the tween elevations of 300 to 700 meters above mean peninsular India under the litho-structural and cli- sea level. The area is distinctly divided into the matic controls. four main valleys of the Gira, Purna, Khapri and It is mainly the amalgamation of these con- Ambika rivers. All four rivers rise in the hills of the trols that the erosional features such as flat topped Western Ghats and flow towards the west. mountains, steep, as well as, broad valleys have The Western Ghats between latitudes 18°20’N been carved out on the earth’s surface. Kalsubai and 19°15’ N, have been geomorphologically forms the highest peak while the typical trappean mapped into three subgroups and ten formations: flat topped hills are predominantly seen at various the Kalsubai subgroup with the Jawhar, Igatpuri, forts like Rajgarh, Raigarh, Purandar, Harischan- Neral, Thakurvadi, and Bhimashankar formations, dragarh, etc. The longitudinal profile of the West- the Lonavala subgroup with the Khandala and the ern Ghats also shows erosional characteristics of Bushe formations and the Wai subgroup with the the basalt flows with elevations increasing towards Poladpur, the Ambenali, and the Mahabaleshwar southern peninsular region. formations (Beane et al. 1986). The Western Ghats region also shows stepped The geomorphology of Maharashtra is mainly appearance, as well as, steep escarpment zones. dominated by the presence of Deccan Volcanic The former characterizes the flat surfaces to west Basalt flows covering an area of about 500,000 sq. of the Sahyadries of the Nashik district (at 300- kms. These horizontally disposed lava flows have 360 m) while latter features are valley heads of the been outpoured during the most stupendous epi- major streams (river Krishna at Mahabaleshwar, sode of the earth’s volcanism ranging from Creta- Indrayani and Ulhas at Lonavala, Bhima at Bhi- ceous to Eocene time. These flows cover most of mashankar, etc. These varied geomorphic features the west-central India. Along with other volcanic are characterized by their typical altitude, climate, rocks such as rhyolites, trachytes and andesites, rainfall and rock types. These regions, therefore, there are horizons of patchy laterites. are known for their characteristic forest zones such as Southern Tropical Semi-evergreen forests of The flows extend in an east–west direction from Bhimashankar, Radhanagari and Amboli; South- the neighbourhood of Porbundar on the Kathi- ern Tropical Moist Deciduous forests of Peint awar peninsula to a little beyond Amarkantak in and Surgana Talukas of Nashik district, Wada the highlands of central India. Isolated exposures and Jawahar in Thane district and Melghat region; occur further east upon Ambikapur. The province Southern Tropical Dry Deciduous forests of Chan- stretches for some 850 kms, in a north-south direc- drapur, Gadchiroli, Nagpur, Bhandara Wardha tion, from Nemach in the north to Belgaum in the and Yevatmal districts; Thorny forests stretched south. The individual flows have thickness ranging right from Khandesh in the north to the Solapur from few metres to 100 mts and even more. and Sangli districts in the north. The geomorphology of this terrain straddles The characteristic fauna and flora are met with two main sub-divisions, namely Upland plateau of at all these hilly and valley tracts of the basalt flows Maharashtra and low-lying Konkan coastal belt. and exhibit an astonishing biodiversity at different Both are separated by stupendous Western Ghat elevations, latitudes and longitudes. The lithology, escarpments, overlooking the Konkan coastal belt climate and structural configuration of the basalt towards west. The Western Ghats in Maharashtra flows together have shaped the characteristic bio- are popularly termed as Sahyadries, which form a diversity of these regions. These zones being very major water divide between the two geomorphic eco-sensitive, have been undergoing tremendous zones. 9 destruction due to man’s interference. The growth Climate and nurturing of such a wide spectrum of fauna Climatic conditions in the Western Ghats vary and flora may not be possible unless the zones are with the altitude and physical proximity to the Ara- strictly protected under the state laws. If this trea- bian Sea and the equator. Although the Western sure is to be maintained for the future generations Ghats experience a tropical climate - being warm then there is no substitute for the preservation of and humid during most of the year with mean the this biodiversity (Dikshit 2001). temperature ranging from 20°C in the south to Presence of numerous barren, rocky, lateritic 24°C in the north, the higher elevations experience plateaus, locally known as ‘sadas’, is a unique fea- subtropical climates and on occasions frost. Fur- ture of the Northern Western Ghats. It supports ther, it has been observed that the coldest periods in characteristic ephemeral flush vegetation that in- the Western Ghats coincide with the wettest (Dan- cludes monotypic genera, many of which have a iels 2001). highly restricted distribution (Kanade et al. 2008). Whereas rainfall peaks of 9000 mm and above Since all the rivers in the Western Ghats are mon- per year, are known locally, annual rainfall as low soon dominated, the annual flow pattern changes as 1000 mm are frequent in the east bringing the in accordance with the monsoon rainfall. Most riv- average to around 2500 mm. The northern West- ers in the Western Ghats are characterised by a tri- ern Ghats receive the highest rainfall (locally over partite sequence of flows (Diddee 2002): 9000 mm) and yet experience dry weather over 1. Dry or very low non-monsoon flows more than half the year. On the contrary, areas re- ceiving much less rainfall in Kerala and closer to 2. Normal monsoon flows the equator experience rain almost all through the 3. Infrequent high magniture floods year. Much of the rainfall is received during the southwest monsoon season. Peak period of rainfall Some unique characteristics of the river systems is July-August (Daniels 2001). are (Diddee 2002) ECOSYSTEM DIVERSITY Throughout the year, most rivers follow a simple fluvial regime, showing only one significant maxi- At the biogeographic regional level the Ghats can mum be divided as described by (Rodgers and Panwar 1988). At a smaller scale however, the Ghats have The rivers’ flow rises at the beginning of the a variety of smaller distinctive landscape elements, monsoons much more quickly than it falls at the microhabitats and niches. This mosaic adds to the end of the monsoon. ecosystem diversity: the communities of floral and During the monsoon, river flows show many faunal elements that inhabit them and the range of sharp peaks, sometimes increasing daily discharge species from common to the most fascinating en- by an order of magnitude demics. The ecosystem that is most familiar is the Most rivers vary significantly both intraannually forest which has been given a range of descriptive and interannually in terms of their stream flows terms. and their flood magnitudes Of special concern are grassy and herb covered Rivers in the Western Ghats show low flood plateaus, some of which are natural while others variability are a result of biotic pressures due to traditional forms of agriculture, fires lit by local people and It has been shown that due to changes in the cattle grazers. It is the natural monsoonal vegeta- catchment land use and vegetation cover as well as tion of plateaus that appears to have a large pro- due to construction of a large number of dams and portion of endemics and endangered or threatened weirs on most of the rivers in the Western Ghats, plants (Watve and Thakur 2006) the natural cycles of flooding and sediment trans- portation have been affected (Diddee 2002). The specialised waterfalls, cascades and streams constitute highly specialized aquatic lentic systems 10 with specialised aquatic plants, insect, amphibia Forest Types and fish. This has another component of congru- There are 16 major forest types in India, accord- ent endemics from a variety of taxa that show high ing to studies by Champion and Seth (1968) and concentrations in and around these water courses. they are classified on the basis of their dominant The stream banks are a profusion of terrestrial flo- tree species. This gives importance to the three or ral and faunal elements that can be observed as four most common tree species within them. vertical belts of vegetation in a series of horizon- tal forest tracts created by rocky escarpments and forests on the shallow soil due to repeated ancient volcanic activity. Within such perennial and ephemeral areas there are microhabitats such as pools with algae, aquatic insects such as whirly gig beetles, water skaters etc. Such waterfalls and pools form the favoured habitats of birds such as the spectacular songster, the Malabar Whistling Thrush. The small but ancient sacred groves are equally enthralling. Their ancient buttressed giant trees There are 16 major forest types in India, accord- tower over the rest of the shrubland, created ing to studies by Champion and Seth (1968) classi- through hundreds of years of agricultural pasture fied on the basis of their dominant tree species. Of use. these three types are prominently seen in the North- ern Western Ghat. This gives importance to the three or four most common tree species within them. A forest classification for India that is based on ecological considerations and the dominant common or distinctive species has been developed by GS Puri (Puri et al, 1983). This holistic classification describes about 29 distinctive types that range from the most arid thorn forests, to the high rainfall evergreen forms. While these different forest types are based on important tree species, several char- At the most micro level, tree bark covered in acteristic types such as open grass covered areas or moss and lichen is the home of insect life, shrill degraded vegetation forms depending on the level intermittent shrieking cicadas, the silent flap of of human pressure are described. Such open areas moth wings at dusk and the persistent call of the are frequently of biological value as they form a night jar, punctuated by a disturbed lapwing calling different habitat type for several plant and animal ‘did you do it?’ as it flies agitatedly over this pleth- species. ora of microhabitats in the forest, epitomises the According to Puri 1983 the forests in the north- magnificence of the evergreen forest ecosystem. ern part of the Western Ghats include Moist Tropi- Even a small snag or hole in a large old tree is home cal Forest which includes: to a myriad of faunal species, changing with each season. Group 1A - Southern Tropical Wet Evergreen Forest Group 2A - Southern Tropical Semi Evergreen Forest and West Coast Semi Evergreen Forest

11 The forest structure consists of a profusion of in the exposed windy areas. It is usually located plant species in the groundcover, the shrub layer, 700 metres above sea level. Between 600 to 700 me- epiphytes and climbers at trunk level, and is char- tres, the common series on western slopes and acterised by a closed canopy cover. The forests of above 800 metres on eastern slopes of the Western the crestline of the Western Ghats of Maharashtra Ghats is the Bridelia—Ficus racemosa—Syzygium se- are areas in which most of the trees are evergreen. ries. This is a transitional form between the moist In other areas there are hill slopes covered by de- teak and the evergreen Memecylon—Actinodaphne— ciduous forests. Syzygium series. The Moist-Deciduous Teak Forest In general the forests of the Sahyadharis in the Western Ghats of Maharashtra are known as Trop- This type has a series with Tectona—Dillenia—La- ical Evergreen Forests which cover sections of the gerstroemia lanceolata—terminalia paniculata. In the steep hill slopes (Champion and Seth 1968). The Northern Western Ghats this occurs predomi- plant community varies significantly in the differ- nantly on the western slopes of the Western Ghats ent topographic features. There are open plateaus north of Goa. The forest occurs at a height of 600 with a large diversity of herbs, many of which are to 1000 metres (Puri 1983). rare and steep precipices with specially adapted The Semi-Evergreen Forest plants. The vegetation along nala courses differs This type has a Toona—Garuga series. The cano- from the rest of the forest. This feature leads to the py itself is semi-deciduous in nature, which makes formation of several microhabitats with their own the forest an intermediate type between more Wet plant communities. Evergreen communities and the Moist-Deciduous High Altitude Forest Types (Puri 1983). Above 900 metres, the red lateritic soils support Evergreen Forest small relict patches of a special form of forest con- The evergreen types of the Southern part of the sisting of Syzygium cumini (Jamun), Actinodaph- Western Ghats contrast sharply with those north nae sp. (Pisa), Mangifera indica (Mango) with an of Goa. under-story of Memecylon sp. (Anjan) trees and an undergrowth of Carvia callosa (Karvi). This is typical of patches in the northern part of the West- ern Ghats, where the rainfall is over 5000 mm. These forests are rich in forest birds, amphibia and insect life. Low Level Forest Typically the forests that occur in depressions and along nala courses create a mozaic with the dome-shaped hilltops covered by open grasslands. The water courses include forest patches with riverine vegetation. The giant trees of the valley forests The Memecylon—Actinodaphne—Syzygium series contrast sharply with the grassy slopes and crags of the Western Ghats north of Goa is a typical for- that form vertical rock faces nearly devoid of plant est type that has been extensively fragmented. This cover. typical form has as many as six ficus species. These These valley forests are extremely dense. In forests are typically seen in Mulshi, Mawal, Maha- most situations the trees grow to a height of about baleshwar and Bhimashankar in Maharashtra. 45 metres. About 75 per cent of the trees are of This is a three-tiered, low, but extremely dense veg- species that may individually contribute only 1 etation type, consisting of mostly evergreen spe- per cent of the tree community. The height of the cies. It rarely grows taller than 15 metres, especially trees below the canopy is occasionally structured 12 into well-defined layers with a specific canopy tree vised classification of forest types (1968), the for- and a community of different under-storey trees. ests of the Dangs belong to the subgroup; South At times the vegetation forms a tangle of thick Indian Moist Deciduous forests’. Within this type foliage. The numerous climbers range from small they are classified a ‘moist teak forests’. Based on vines to giant lianas, the latter standing on their the holistic classification of vegetation followed by own even after the supporting tree dies. In areas Puri et al. (1983) these forests are classified as de- where the canopy is exceptionally dense, the floor ciduous teak forest types intermediate between dry of the forest has very little vegetation. The ground and moist categories. They are named as the Tec- is covered with decaying leaves, fungi and rocky ex- tona-Terminalia-Adina-Anogeissus series which is posures. Nala courses and sloping soil from which also encountered in the Valsad district of Gujarat, subsoil water finds its way out in minute trickles Nasik and Thane districts of Maharashtra and in have banks of ferns and bryophytes. These forests Nagar Haveli. Teak is the most dominant species are extremely rich in orchids. The undergrowth has and its occurrence is almost universal throughout cane and bamboo in patches. Strobilanthus callosa the area. The composition of tree growth varies (Karvi shrubs frequently occur as ground cover es- slightly according to the edaphic and biotic factors pecially along the edges of a forest patch or in for- but by and large it is the same throughout the area est openings. This plant occurs gregariously, cover- (Worah 1991). According to Gadgil and Meher- ing large open areas with their dense impenetrable Homji (1986) it is vital that the vegetation of this stalks and flowers cyclically after seven years of region should be preserved and not ‘sacrificed on dormancy. the altar of teak plantations’. The only other areas in the country where the forest series represented Description of Forest in the Western Ghats of in the Dangs, the Tectona-Terminalia-Adina_Ano- Gujarat geissus series is found area are all heavily degraded. According to Champion and Seths (1968) re- In view of these facts the conservation importacne

Percentage Loss of Forest Cover in the Dangs (BVIEER, 2004)

13 of these forests cannot be overemphasised. The undergrowth consists of Carvia callosa, Canthi- um dicocium, Scutia myrtina. The shrubs include Description of Forests in the Western Ghats in Capparis pedunculosa, Zizyphus rugosa, Pavetta indica. Maharashtra Puri and Mahajan (1960) describe three other com- Champion and Seth describe the Montane sub- munities which predominantly include Terminalia tropical forests of this region. It includes Group chebula, Kandia dumetorum and Artocarpus hirsuta. 8-Subtropical Broad leaved hill forests, of which Along the Western coast of Maharashtra Cham- Subgroup 8A-Southern Subtropical Broad leaved pion and Seth describe, Group 2 - Tropical Semi Hill Forests occurs in Maharashtra. In contrast to evergreen Forest, type 2A /C2 , and West coast the Southern Western Ghat these northern forests Semi-evergreen forest. The last is an intermediate grow where rainfall is relatively lower and unequal- type that occurs between evergreen and moist de- ly distributed, having a marked dry season. These ciduous with Xylia and Bambusa arundiracea (cane) forests occur between 1000 m and 1700 m; and and several climbers. The lower storey is mostly typically occur in Mahabaleshwar at 1300m. The evergreen. The forest typically forms a thin strip. neighbouring forests are of the dry deciduous type. The rainfall is between 2000 and 2500mm. This forest runs along hill slopes from 450m to 1050 m. It has mainly Terminalia paniculata, Largestoremia lanceolata, Holigarna arnottiana, Elaeocarpus serratus, Mallotus philippensis. The type 5 A / C3 Southern Dry Mixed Decidu- ous forest of the Northern Western Ghat differs from Dry Teak forest in having different domi- nants such as Boswellia. It also includes some thorny plants. It is poor in climbers. The rainfall is between 875mm to 1125 mm. The characteristic trees include Anogeissus latifolia, Terminalia to- Champion and Seth (1968) describes the crest- mentosa, Hardwickia binata, Boswellia serrata, Hetero line forests in Maharashtra as type C2-Western phragma quadriculare, Dichanthium annulatum. The Subtropical Broad leaved Hill Forests as having common shrubs include a profusion of Xizyphus unique features. In well developed form it is a mauratiana. However, the undergrowth is generally dense evergreen forest of mixed species, where the poor and there are patches with dense grass which height does not exceed 15 m. The trees have a typ- grows during the monsoon. ical spreading habit. The old trunks become hal- low. Occasionally large emergents are Terminalias or Stereospermum trees of great girth. These forests mainly grow above 100 m in Maharashtra. Good examples are found in Mahabaleshwar and Bhimashankar where rainfall is relatively high. The soil is formed from basaltic trap which is covered by a thick lateritic cap especially over the flat plateau tops that are devoid of tree cover but have a profusion of ground flora with endemic and rare plants. Champion calls this type C2 - Western Sub- tropical Hill forest which has Syzygium cumini, Acti- nodaphne hookeri, Memecylon umbellatum as its dom- Pascal describes the Memecylon umbellatum – inant trees. Randia dumetorum, Flacourtia latifolia, Syzyguim cumini - Actinodaphn angustifolia type in Terminalia Chebula, Olea dioica, Glochidion hohenack- great detail as it is different in structure and com- eri, Pouteria tomentosa are also found in the canopy. position. The upper story has over 60% of Meme- 14 15 Forest Cover Change in Maharashtra over 20 Years (Source: Panigrahy et. al 2010)

cylon trees with a complement of deciduous trees other districts follow a decreasing trend. The ma- giving the overall appearance of a semi – ever- jor chunk of dense forest is transformed to open green forest type. The trees are stunted, gnarled, forest and scrublands. Thane district shows a large and covered in moss and lichens. It is said to be a increase (30.67%) in open forest which is mostly secondary edaphic form on the lateritic cap, but is contributed by the degradation of dense forest. An very ancient. increasing trend is also followed by Nashik district (>27.25%). Except Mumbai and Kolhapur, all oth- The loss of forest cover in the Western Ghats er districts follow an increasing trend. Mangrove region of Maharashtra over a period of 20 years forests were interpreted only in the four coastal dis- has been studied by (Panigrahy et al. 2010). The tricts of Maharashtra, i.e. Thane, Mumbai, Raigad decrease in the area of dense forest and increase in and Ratnagiri. Raigad district shows highest posi- open forest and scrublands are indicators of pres- tive change in mangroves followed by Thane and sures on the core forested areas. The significant in- Mumbai, whereas Ratnagiri district shows slight crease in water bodies has been a response to the decrease. Highly dense tree farm land is mapped growing needs of agriculture, industry and urban- only in the four districts, i.e. Raigad, Ratnagiri, Sa- ization. The impact is related to a further fragmen- tara and Sindhudurg. The area statistics follows an tation of forest continuity. While some species can increasing trend in Raigad, whereas a decreasing get across water bodies others are completely cut trend in Sindhudurg and more or less no change off from neighbouring populations. in Satara and Ratnagiri districts. Less dense tree According to the State of Forest Report (For- farm land is also mapped in only four districts, i.e. est Survey of India 2001), in Maharashtra, Thane Raigad, Ratnagiri, Satara and Sindhudurg. Only district shows the most serious (29.29%) decrease Sindhudurg district follows an increasing trend in dense forest, followed by Nashik (22.5%) and in statistics, whereas Raigad and Ratnagiri show Ratnagiri (16.45%). Only Raigad district shows a decreasing trend. Scrubland area is decreased in a marginal increase (2.79%) in dense forest. All Satara district whereas it is increased in all other 16 districts. Sindhudurg district (26.28%), Thane lands. As pressures on land increased, these village (21.72%) and Kolhapur (19.01%) exhibit the high- commons were the first to be degraded (Bharucha est change in scrublands. The water body area 2008). has increased more or less in all the districts, out Streams and Rivers of which Kolhapur (by 10 times) and Sangli (by 6 times) show the highest change. Grasslands Landscapes in which vegetation is mainly formed by grasses and small annual plants form a variety of grassland ecosystems with their specific plants and animals adapted to India’s varied climatic conditions. Grasslands are usually formed in areas of low rainfall where there is poor soil depth or quality. These conditions inhibit the growth of trees and shrubs but are sufficient to support the growth of grasses and herbs, that spring from the ground These ecosystems include freshwater ecosystems during the monsoon. These grasses and herbs dry like lakes, rivers, ponds and wetlands. These eco- off during the summer months, only to grow back systems are rich in their diversity and provide hu- in the next monsoon. This changes the appearance mans with a wealth of natural resources and ser- of the grasslands according to the season, with vices. Water, an essential ingredient for life, is a growth phase followed by a dormant phase. A provided by these ecosystems. These ecosystems variety of grasses, herbs, insects, birds and mam- include specialized plant and animal species that mals have evolved to live in these grassland areas. are adapted to live in water. These aquatic ecosys- Grasslands have been used by man as pastures for tems are characterized by their abiotic features or their livestock ever since he became a pastoralist in physical aspects such as quality of water, including ancient times. salinity, rate of flow, clarity and oxygen content. Grasslands form a variety of ecosystems ac- They are classified as being either still-water eco- cording to the different climatic conditions. The systems such as ponds and lakes, or running-water grasslands of the Northern Western Ghats most of ecosystems like streams and rivers. The bed of the which have been over-grazed or turned into agri- aquatic ecosystem, i.e. the mud, gravel or rocks at cultural lands through irrigation. Grasslands also the bottom, alters its characteristics and influences occur when clearings are made in a forest, or when its species composition. repeated fires are lit that do not allow the forest to Streams and rivers are flowing-water ecosystems regrow. Each grassland type has its own commu- in which all the living forms are specially adapted nity of grasses and herbs. They also form habitats to different rates of flow. Some plants and animals for specialized animals. such as the snails and other burrowing animals can Human beings began to use these as pastures to withstand the rapid fl ow of the hill streams. feed their livestock when they changed from being Other species of plants and animals like the wa- hunter-gatherers to pastoralists. In the past, such ter beetles and skaters can live only in slower mov- grassy areas were considered to be the common ing water. Some species of fish, such as the mah- pastures of a village community, and were appro- seer, go upstream from rivers to hill streams for priately managed. Changes in land-management breeding. They need crystal-clear water to be able have led to grasslands becoming degraded and to breed. They lay eggs only in clear water so that unproductive. Our growing livestock population, their young can grow successfully. however still depends mainly on these degraded As deforestation occurs in the hills the water in grassland ecosystems. A major threat is the con- the streams that once flowed throughout the year version of lowland grasslands into irrigated farm- 17 becomes seasonal. This leads to flash floods in the conditions that exist here in combination with the rains and a shortage of water once the streams dry geology and altitude. This in turn results in ex- up after the monsoon. tremely high local endemism among the flora as well as the fauna. The community of flora and fauna of streams and rivers depends on the clarity, the rate of flow The Kas plateau which is a 25 km. long north- and oxygen content as well as the nature of their south piece of land has 35 endemic plants of which beds. The stream or river can have a sandy, rocky five are rare and critically endangered. More than or muddy bed, each type having its own species of 99 percen tof the species are herbaceous annuals plants and animals. River ecosystems have been that complete their life cycle during the monsoon. been cradles of human civilization, and in India, The profusion of flowering plants on Kas has aptly as elsewhere in the world, ancient settlements were given its name as ‘Maharashtra’s Valley of flow- established on river banks. As these settlements ers’. The flora on these plateaus is dominated by grew, people attempted to retain water, the most Urticularia sp., Eriocaulons sp., Drosera, orchids precious of resources, for longer periods by con- and lilies. These plateaus are equally rich in fauna structing dams. However, changing the flow pat- with several new species fo caecilians being report- terns of rivers beyond a certain limit has in fact led ed. to serious problems and a loss of productivity in SPECIES DIVERSITY the aquatic ecosystem and in the surrounding land (Bharucha 2008). The floral and faunal species of the northern Western Ghats have elements that are fairly dis- Plateaus tinctive to the region and have extremely patchy distributions. While the southern Western Ghats has been better studied due to its highly endemic and charismatic species such as the Lion Tailed Macaque, the Nilgiri Langur and the Nilgiri Thar, habitat specific species in the northern Western Ghats have received less attention. This is because they are often regarded as less charismatic. For example, reptiles, amphibia and a wide spectrum of herbs and other less ‘flamboyant’ floral elements than those seen in the orchids of the south. Nev- ertheless, the level of threat which is higher in the A very important but neglected and little studied north than in the south makes it even more impor- ecosystem is the ‘sadas’ or the rocky out-crops in tant to rapidly assess biodiversity values and put the Western Ghats. There have been very little into place both in situ and ex situ species survival studies done on this unique ecosystem. One of the programmes. only studies on this ecosystem is by Watve and The Western Ghats is one of the biologically Thakur 2006. These rocky outcrops are masses of richest areas in India harbouring no less than 3500 exposed rock with very shallow soil cover varying species of flowering plants consisting of about 27% from a few millimetres to 30 centimeters. The soil flowering plants in the country. The Western Ghats scarcity makes it very difficult for perennial vegeta- are the most important distribution range for many tion to thrive. The study by Watve et al. has listed plants at family and generic levels which have ex- 20 major plateaus in the western-most parts of Sa- tremely restricted distributions. They are a poten- tara, Sangli, Kolhapur and the eastern Sindhudurg tial gene pool of many plant species (Ramakrish- district as being unique Indian rock outcrops due to na, C. Radhakrishnan, and K. C. Gopi 2001). The being isolated island like formations on the tops of Ghats harbour a healthy population of most of the tall hill ranges. The unique biodiveisty on these animal species of India with a fairly high degree of rocky outcrops is a result of the extreme climatic endemism. 18 Partial List of Threatened Flora and Fauna in Various Locations in the Northern Western Ghats A= Amphibians B= Birds R = Reptiles M = Mammals P=Plants Threatened = Critically Endangered + Endangered + Vulnerable + Near Threatened Critically Near Name Endangered Vulnerable Least Concern Endemic Total Threatened Endangered Threatened ABRMPABRM P ABRM P ABRMPA B RMPABRMP Aguada Fort 1 2 3 1 Ahmednagar 2 1 3 3 Ajgaon 1 11 Akkalkuva 1 1 Alibag 1 1 1 3 2 AmbaVillage 2 6 1 9 2 Amravati 2 22 Ambavane 3 2 1 6 6 Ambaghat 2 2 1 5 5 Amboli 7 11 1 1 5 2 2 3 1 1 1 3 38 32 Anjanari 2 1 1 4 4 Anjuna 3 7 1 3 Archirne 1 11 Aurangabad 2 1 3 3 Baga 1 1 7 9 2 Bapdev Ghat 11 11 Bandra 2 22 Bardez 3 3 Bedse 1 1 1 Bhandardara 1 1 1 Bhandup 1 1 2 2 Bhatgar dam 2 2 Bhimashankar 1 3 2 1 2 1 4 69 4 3 9 14 Bhor Ghat 1 3 4 1 Bondla Sanctu- ary 1 1 3 1 1 2 15 14 38 9 Borivili 1 2 4 2 1 4 1 15 1 Canacona 2 1 2 1 3 6 5 2 15 Candolim 1 1 1 Carambolim 2 2 13 17 4 Castle Rock 1 1 1 Chakur 3 3 3 Chandoli 1 1 5 2 2 18 2 2 33 11 Chapora estu- ary 1 1 2 4 2 Chandgad 1 2 7 2 12 3 Coastal belt of Goa 3 1 1 1 1 8 15 7 Colva 22 Corlim 2 13 15 2 Chakan Alandi Road 1 11 Chorao sanctuary 11 Cortalim 1 1 1

19 Critically Near Name Endangered Vulnerable Least Concern Endemic Total Threatened Endangered Threatened ABRMPABRM P ABRM P ABRMPA B RMPABRMP Cotigoa WLS 1 1 2 2 4 16 3 29 1 Curlorim Dabolim 1 1 Dajipur 1 3 2 6 4 Daulatabad 1 1 1 Dangs 1 1 3 3 1 8 7 6 3 1 34 24 Dapoli 2 2 2 Devgad 4 4 4 Devrukh 1 1 2 1 Dhadgaon 3 3 Dhanori 1 1 1 Dhobi Waterfall 1 1 Dhule 1 1 1 Divar 1 2 3 1 Dona Paula 1 1 2 4 1 Dongarwadi 1 11 Dudhsagar 2 1 1 1 1 6 5 Duke’s Nose 1 1 Elephanta Caves 1 1 1 Gaganbawda 1 2 3 6 6 Ganpati Pule 1 1 1 Gautala WLS 2 2 Goregaon 1 1 1 Ghod River 1 1 1 Ghoti 2 2 Goa-Karnataka border 2 2 2 Goa Meat Complex 2 1 1 4 3 Harishchan- dragad 2 5 5 2 14 14 Hewra 1 11 Hills of Satara 1 1 Igatpuri 1 1 1 3 6 3 Jarandeshwar 2 2 4 4 Javali 1 1 Junnar 5 7 9 1 22 22 Kalapani 1 1 1 Oyster Rock 1 1 Kagal 1 1 Kalamba 3 3 Kamshet 1 1 2 1 Kanheri Caves 1 1 1 Kankavli 1 11 Karanja 1 1 1 Karjat 1 2 3 1 Karli 1 11

20 Critically Near Name Endangered Vulnerable Least Concern Endemic Total Threatened Endangered Threatened ABRMPABRM P ABRM P ABRMPA B RMPABRMP KarnalaBird- sanctuary 15 15 Katrajghat 1 2 1 2 6 4 Kas Plateau 2 7 1 3 13 10 Kelshi 1 1 1 Keri 2 4 4 1 2 Khadakwasla 5 5 Khardi 1 1 Khandala 7 6 1 16 1 6 82 1 3 123 37 Khed 2 1 3 3 Kolad 1 2 3 1 Koyna Dam 1 1 1 5 1 3 29 2 2 45 12 Kumbharli Ghat 1 1 2 4 4 Lingmala Wa- terfall 2 2 Lohagad 1 1 1 Lonavala (INS Shivaji) 2 3 1 8 3 1 1 17 19 Madei Mahabaleshwar 8 19 2 1 12 1 2 1 4 25 1 3 79 5 Mahim 1 1 1 Maheshma 3 3 Malad 1 1 1 Malangarh 1 1 Marathawada 1 1 1 Marleshwar 1 11 Margaon 1 3 4 Marmagoa 4 3 7 Mahad Ghat 1 1 1 Malshej ghat 15 15 Malwan 3 4 2 3 12 12 Maneri 1 1 1 Matheran 1 4 1 9 1 1 1 27 1 1 47 18 Mayem 3 3 3 Mira Bhayandar Road 1 2 3 3 Mirya 1 1 1 Moti Bagh 1 1 Mulshi 1 1 1 1 15 1 20 4 Mumbai 1 1 2 1 Mumbra 1 2 3 3 Mollem 2 3 2 1 3 4 4 4 18 25 66 23 Nagapur 1 1 1 Nagoa Velley 3 5 8 3 Nagothane 2 2 2 Naneghat 1 1 1 Narayangaon 1 1

21 Critically Near Name Endangered Vulnerable Least Concern Endemic Total Threatened Endangered Threatened ABRMPABRM P ABRM P ABRMPA B RMPABRMP Nashik-Pune Road 1 1 2 1 Navapur 1 1 N.D.A. Pune 1 1 Nizampur 3 3 Osmanabad 1 1 1 Pandavleni Hill 1 11 Panaji 2 1 2 2 7 3 Panchgani 1 12 5 1 4 21 44 23 Panhala 1 1 3 5 2 Patan 1 1 1 Paud 1 1 1 Panvel 2 2 Pasarni Ghat Panshet 37 1 38 Pen 1 1 Peth 1 1 1 Phaltan 1 1 1 Phansad 2 2 26 2 1 33 4 Phonda 2 1 1 1 4 7 16 9 Pimplaner 12 12 Poinguinim 1 6 7 Pratapgad 1 1 1 3 2 Pune 1 1 2 1 Purandar 3 7 5 1 3 19 16 Radhanagari 1 2 2 1 5 3 29 1 4 48 14 Raigad 4 7 1 12 11 Raireshwar 3 1 2 6 4 Rajgad 1 1 2 1 Ramghat 2 4 1 7 7 Ratangad 5 1 6 Ratnagiri 3 1 7 11 11 Roha 1 11 Sajjangad 1 11 Sakri 3 3 Salsette Island 1 1 2 2 Sanegaon 1 1 1 Saputara 1 1 1 Sanguem 11 Sanquelim 1 1 1 Santa Cruz 1 1 Satara Fort 1 1 2 4 2 SawantwadiRF 1 1 1 24 1 28 3 Selaulimn 1 1 Shahada 4 4 Shindewadi 1 1 Shirgaon 1 1 1 Shirpur 2 2 22 Critically Near Name Endangered Vulnerable Least Concern Endemic Total Threatened Endangered Threatened ABRMPABRM P ABRM P ABRMPA B RMPABRMP Shirwal 1 1 Shirwata 1 1 1 Sindhudugh 3 1 3 7 7 Sinhagad 1 5 8 4 1 1 53 1 74 2 Talegaon 2 2 2 TambdiSurla- temple 1 1 1 Tamhini Ghat 3 3 Tansa WLS 1 2 18 21 3 Tapti 8 8 Takmak Hill 1 1 2 2 Torna 1 11 Tilari Ghat 2 22 Tiswadi 1 1 Trombay 1 2 3 3 Tungar 3 1 1 5 4 Tungaresh- warWS 1 11 12 1 Vaibhavwadi 1 1 1 Valpoi 1 3 4 4 Vasco da Gama 1 1 2 1 Valsad 1 2 3 3 Valvan Dam 1 1 Velim 1 1 1 Vasota Fort 1 2 1 1 14 1 2 5 Vengurla 1 2 1 4 4 Verla-Canca 1 1 Wada 2 2 ZuariandMa- ndovirivers 1 1 1 Yavteshwar 1 1 2 2 Yelur 1 1 1 Sources: Zoological Survey of India, Botanical Survey of India, Important Bird Areas, Red Data Book, ENVIS, AERF, Aparna Watve, Prachi Mehta, Jayant Kulkarni, Sameer Punde, Varad Giri, Ashok Captain, Ankur Patwardhan Aravind et al. (2007) have compared the rate of and frogs in faunal studies. Surprisingly, they are discovery of new species for eight taxa in the West- found almost anywhere in the Western Ghats, not ern Ghats. They conclude that while the rate of necessarily in very remote, undisturbed or inacces- discovery of birds and butterflies has slowed down, sible regions. This makes the precautionary princi- the possibility of discovery of new species among ple in identifying ESAs one of the most important frogs, tiger beetles, grasses, asters, ferns and or- aspects in developing possible protection strate- chids is still high considering that not much work gies to prevent extinctions in the northern Western has been done on these taxa. Ghats. As taxonomic research into plants and animals While a few species have shown extended ranges in the Western Ghats continues, new species are in the recent past, several others have been reduced constantly being identified. This is a result of more to restricted ranges. A typical example is the north- intensive work, for example, among Aerocolons in ward extension in Maharashtra of elephants from floral surveys and amphibians such as caecilians the south and tigers into Chandoli WLS. Altera- 23 tions in the range of major mammals have become of flowering plants are considered endemic to the an overt phenomenon and are often reported in Western Ghats. Recent studies have suggested that newspaper articles. However, changes in the ranges there could be 1500 endemic species of flowering of less known taxa such as Hemidactylus prashadi, plants. Although the exact number keeps varying a rare gecko that has spread northwards in Maha- with the author and time, what is of interest is that rashtra, does not make newspaper headlines (Giri nearly 38% of all species of flowering plants in the and Bauer 2006). Western Ghats are endemic. Sixty three per cent Flora of India’s evergreen woody plants are said to be endemic to the Western Ghats (Daniels 2001). During a vegetation survey of Chandoli WLS in the northern Western Ghats, some forest patches were found to be supporting climatic climax forest harbouring high levels of tree endemism. A total of 102 woody plant species were recorded belonging to 85 genera and 44 families, of which 13 tree species are endemic to Western Ghats and 4 are threatened (Kanade et al. 2008). The Botanical Survey of India (BSI) floras that have been published over the last decade or two provide a background for further studies that can help categories ESAs. During the recent past, several ‘loras of Maharashtra’ that include the Western Ghats have been produced between 1996 and 2001. The ‘Flora for Mahabaleshwar’ has been produced in 1993 and 1995 in 2 volumes. The ‘Flora for of Khandala’ is relatively old flora and was produced in 1967. A redo of this Flora would be an appropriate way to appreciate which species have been lost during the last 50 years. The ‘Plant Diversity Hot Spots in India – An Overview’ (Hajra and Mudgal 1997) has relevance to the floristic bases on which ESAs in the Western Ghats could be based. As early as 1904, Hooker had drawn attention to In 1980, Botanical Survey of India published the distinctive flora of the Western Ghats which he ‘Threatened Plants of India – A state of the Art called the ‘Malabar’ floristic region. These include Report’ (Jain and Sastry 1980); and in 1983 fol- species such as Bambusae, Dipterocarpaceae, Gut- lowed this with ‘An Assessment of Threatened tiferae, Myristicaceae and Palmae (Arecaceae) Plants of India’ (Jain and Rao 1983) and the ‘En- (Hooker 1904). demic Plants of the Indian Region’ (Ahmedullah Four thousand species of flowering plants are and Nayar 1987). known from the Western Ghats. The gymnosperm A review the vegetation, diversity and peculiar- flora is represented by Cycas circinalis (Cyca- ity of the flora of the Western Ghats with partic- dales), Decussocarpus wallichianus (Coniferales) ular reference to angiosperms (Nair and Daniel and Gnetum ula and G. contractum (Gnetales). 1986) shows that this flora is of an ancient lineage. Amongst the lower plants around 320 species of Endemism in the angiosperm flora has been re- pteridophytes, 200 species of bryophytes, 300 spe- viewed with present knowledge on the presumably cies of algae and 800 species of lichens are known. extinct, endangered, threatened and rare plants of There are 600 species of fungi. Fifty-six genera this region. An attempt has been made to identify 24 25 the threats. The current conservation status is dis- scribed by the scientists of the Zoological Survey cussed and certain measures to counter the further of India, during 1916-1991’ (Das, 2003), ‘Globally loss of species are suggested. Threatened Indian Fauna’ (Kumar and Khama, 2006), ‘Faunal Resources in India’ (Alfred, Das, The three volumes of the ‘Red Data Book of In- and Sanyal 1998) and ‘Fauna of Bhimashankar dian Plants’ were written between 1984 and 1987 Wildlife Sanctuary’ (Mahabal, 2009). (Nayar et al. 1987). This shows that much of the floristic work relevant to the ESAs of the Western According to a report by the Critical Ecosystem Ghats would have to be based on data collected Partnership Fund (Bawa et al. 2007), in the West- twenty years ago! The two more recent works are ern Ghats, there are: also a decade old. These include ‘Endemic and 508 species of birds of which 4% are endemic Threatened Flowering Plants of Maharashtra’ (Mishra and Singh 2001) and ‘Flora of Sanjay Gan- 218 species of fish of which 53% are endemic dhi National Park, Borivali’ (Pradhan et al. 2005). 157 species of reptiles of which 62% are endemic This illustrates a need for more updated documen- 137 species of mammals of which 12% are en- tation of recent floral status compared with the demic older versions. However, this requires funds and expertise. This could use newer methods of species 126 species of amphibians of which 78% are en- identification and distribution which have been demic developed in the recent past, for example micro New species are still being identified at irregu- satellite markers for critically endangered species lar intervals in the northern Western Ghat of both (Sumangala et al. 2009). plants and animals. Currently the focus has been Fauna on amphibian insects and plants. A recent example is the discovery of a new caecilid caecilian in the Western Ghat of Southern Maharashtra. These are just a few examples that demonstrate the rate at which even little understood taxa are being found. It is an indicator of not only species richness but about what still remains unknown to science, hid- den away in the depths of the forests of the West- ern Ghats. Mammals The status of large mammals of the northern Western Ghats has been depleted in large sections During the last decade, work done by the Zoo- of the Western Ghats. There has been a recent logical Survey of India focuses more on North abundance however in some species within a few Eastern states of India and Andaman fauna rather of the Protected Areas. Outside Protected Areas than on the northern Western Ghats. the situation continues to worsen due to habitat Fauna of Gujarat (Vertebrates) and Fauna of loss as well as hunt by rich urban dwellers and by Goa were published in 2000 and 2008 respectively rural people for crop protection and to prevent pre- by the Zoological Survey of India (ZSI). However dation of their cattle and snaring for meat. a single volume of the fauna of Maharashtra has A few species that were not seen over several de- not yet been published. There are isolated docu- cades have however been seen in the recent past. ments pertaining to certain areas of Maharashtra. An example is the Rusty Spotted Cat that has been These include ‘Fauna of Sanjay Gandhi National seen in the Dangs, Nashik and Borivali. Park’ (Zoological Survey of India 2006) published The Gaur population is probably stable in Rad- in 2006 by the ZSI, ‘A catalogue of new taxa de- hanagari and may have increased to some extent in 26 Chandoli and Koyna. Gaur have moved towards range extension of the tiger into Chandoli and old Mahabaleshwar. A single stray male was seen probably as far north as Mulshi through Koyna and and tranquilized in the BVIEER Nature Trail at Mahabaleshwar. Dhankawadi which was then considered to be The question that remains unanswered is wheth- the southern outskirts of Pune in January 2000 er this indicates a true increase in abundance lead- (BVIEER, personal communication). ing to moving outwards or an increase in the level of disturbance in existing habitats. These movements however, suggest the existence of viable corridors. But the corridors may be under serious threats from new forms of landuse. While sambhar and chital in the Dangs have all but disappeared except in Vansda National Park, a small patch of old grown teak forest, these herbivores appear to be less abundant everywhere. Chital however increased distinctly in the Sanjay Gandhi National Park. The Malabar Giant Squirrel may have stable populations in areas such as Bhimashankar but is distinctly rarer than a few decades ago in areas such as Lonavala-Khandala and Mahabaleshwar. However, as there are no carefully quantified scientific studies on their population dynamics, this remains questionable.

The Mouse Deer and the Four Horned Antelope are distinctly less common. However, there is little quantified census of these animals except in PAs during their annual census. Nameer et al. provide a comprehensive checklist of mammals of the Western Ghats which include 137 species. Thirty two mammals which are Two species have distinctly expanded their range. threatened globally or in India occur in the West- The leopard near Bhimashankar Wildlife Sanctu- ern Ghats. However, there is not enough informa- ary has moved into sugarcane agricultural tracts of tion to assess the status of 22 mammals. Of the 16 Junnar. They have led to serious conflict issues. endemics, 13 are threatened in the Western Ghats. Bonnet macaques moving into village and urban They record 50 species of Chiroptera, 31 species of environments such as Matheran have even turned Rodentia, 25 Carnivora, 11 Artiodactyla, 11 Insec- aggressive towards humans. tivora and 5 Primates in the Western Ghats. Finally the surprise package has been the north- The Western Ghats is store house of endemic ward spread of elephants into the Sahyadri in Ma- flora and fauna, in which endemicity appears to harashtra where they have not occurred in histori- increase with decreasing body size. Mammals are cal times. There has also been a recent northward well represented in this chain of mountains with

27 137 species of which 16 are found in no other place within a very brief span of time. on earth. The mammalian fauna of the Western Raptors are distinctly falling in numbers across Ghats is dominated by insectivores (11 species), the northern ranges. However, this appears to be bats (41 species) and rodents (27 species includ- the case across the country. Studies on pessarine ing the porcupine). Collectively the various threats bird communities through ringing have not been had already led to serious implications on mam- done for many years and thus quantified evidence mal abundance. The authors point out that small- of their abundance is unavailable. er mammals have been poorly studied which in fact dominate the species of the mammals in the Ghats. Few studies have however paid attention to the community structure and organisation of these small mammals in the Western Ghats. There there have been attempts to review the understanding of the status and ecology of smaller cats and lesser carnivores. Evergreen forests are particularly suit- ed to frugivorous arboreal primates and squirrels while the deciduous forests offer the best habitat for the larger grazing herbivores like the gaur and deer (Nameer, Molur, and Walker 2001). Many of these hill bIrds are common to the Hi- The other detailed published works on fauna malayas and are migrants that move southwards in include ‘Checklist of Mammals of India’ (Alfred the Ghats during the winter. They also move lo- 2002), ‘Endemic Birds of India’ (Dasgupta et al. cally up and down the Ghats from the plains to the 2002) and ‘Endemic Mammals of India’, (Alfred crestline forests seasonally. Nearly a third of In- and Chakraborty 2002), ‘Wroughton’s Free Tailed dia’s bird species are found in the Western Ghats. Bat’ (Ramakrishna et al. 2003), ‘Validation of Disturbances in the migrational movements, in- Threatened Mammals of India’ (Alfred et al. 2006) creasing forest fragmentation with isolation of the and ‘Checklist of Indian Ungulates’ (Alfred and forest patches could be responsible for major losses De 2006) by the ZSI. of avifauna in the near future. Birds Of all organisms, birds are the best studied in the Western Ghats. Beginning in the 1860s, Brit- ish naturalists and planters were busy surveying the Western Ghats, collecting and describing the avifauna. Subsequent surveys by the Bombay Natural History Society (then led by Dr Salim Ali), the various State Departments of Forests, especially Ker- ala, many nature clubs and amateur birdwatchers have suggested that there are 508 species of birds, of which a total of 324 species (64%) are resident. These are predominantly land birds. Nineteen species may be considered endemic to the Western The Western Ghats is well known for its richness Ghats. For example, the most important pheasant in bird species. What has hit the avifauna seriously species are found only in the Western Ghats and and precipitously is the near total loss of the cir- nowhere else. cling vultures that thermaled their way over the crags and escarpments of the Western Ghats only two decades ago. Diclophenac has seriously killed off thousands of these important scavenging birds 28 move back northwards. The species richness in shifting cultivation sites, scrubland and paddy lands, was higher than in evergreen forest, stream banks and grassland. This suggests that while evergreen patches in this fragmented habitat are important for the rarer forest birds the patches of man- modified systems are also important as they support a diversity of generalist species. Reptiles

Few endemic species have been observed to extend north of Goa. In general, the endemic bird species of the Western Ghats are primarily birds of the rainforests and of the higher elevations of shola-grassland complexes. Locally, when equal areas are compared, there are more species of birds per unit area in the central parts of the Western Ghats. This is primarily due to mixing of migrants and generalist species of birds with the resident specialists and endemics. Although they provide habitat to a number of specialists and endemic birds with 157 species of reptiles including the crocodile greater conservation value, wet evergreen forests Crocodylus palustris are known from the Western and montane sholas are comparatively less diverse Ghats. Majority of the reptile species are snakes. in bird species than secondary or disturbed ever- In all 97 species, representing 36 genera (2 genera green and moist deciduous forests (Daniels 2001). of turtle/tortoise, 20 snake, 14 lizard) are endemic. Endemism is highest amongst snakes, especially with the family Uropeltidae alone contributing 33 species. Amongst lizards, dwarf geckoes (Cnemas- pis spp) and skinks (Ristella, Lygosoma, Mabuya and Scincella) have the maximum number of endemic species (Daniels 2001).

Padhye et al. describe season and landscape element wise changes in community structure of Tamhini in the northern Western Ghats. The study area is a typical semi-evergreen forest patch where degradation has altered the landscape substantially over the last 3 or 4 decades (Padhye et al. 2007). The authors demonstrate two peaks due to migra- Unlike other groups this group has a limited tion, breeding, food availability and vegetation number of published works. An earthsnake, Uro- changes. A major peak was in early winter as mi- peltis macrolepis (Peters) from Mahabaleshwar, grants move south and another in spring as they Satara District which differed from the descriptions in the old and new faunas, not only in the 29 presence of an unbroken line but also in the scala- tion was identified in 1955 by V. K. Chari (Chari 1955). The state of taxonomy of Uropeltis snakes has been studied by Gower et al. from the Western Ghats of Maharashtra. They have demonstrated the distribution of a species that is known only from Bhimashankar and Fangul Gawhan which are 30 km apart (Gower, Captain, and S. S Thakur 2008).

Amphibia Over three fourths of the amphibia found in the Western Ghats are endemic to this small biogeographic zone. Of the 224 amphibia found in In- dia 121 (60%) are present in the Western Ghat of which 89 are endemic to this biogeographic region The 121 species fall under 24 genera, six families and two orders. The family ranidae (true frogs) has the largest number of species (49) amounting to A new ground dwelling gecko has been described 42% of the amphibian fauna of the Western Ghats. from plateau tops in the northern Western Ghat of There is a remarkable diversity of caecilians in the Maharashtra. Hemidactylus species of Gekkoni- Western Ghats. 16 out of 20 species known in In- dae have extremely restricted ranges though they dia occur in the Western Ghats; all 16 being en- cover wide expanses of geographical area. The demic (Daniels 2001). habitat in which it was described consists of a degraded plateau top with wind mills and electric Species that are unique to the Western Ghat poles near Satara (Giri and Bauer 2008). New spe- such as caecilians and the frog Nasikabatrachus sahy- cies are still being discovered in the northern West- adryensis are fairly recent discoveries indicating the ern Ghats and there could be several other undis- need for more taxonomic research in the northern covered ones. Giri et al. describe a new ground Western Ghat. This unique frog has been placed dwelling gecko from the Northern Western Ghat in a new family and is said to be allied to frogs in near Kolhapur in 2009. A typical feature is the un- Seychelles and Madagascar. usal occurrence of an iridescent tail not seen in geckos (Giri, Bauer, and Gaikwad 2009). The Northern Western Ghats remain largely unexplored for herpetological values but with more field work being undertaken the knowledge of species level diversity is on the rise. Three new species of caecilians and two lizards have been described in recent years (Giri, Aaron Bauer, and Gaikwad 2009). This gives further importance for creating ESAs as there are likely to be many other species with limited ranges that are not found in other parts further south. Daniels described the amphibians of the West- ern Ghat in 1992. The paper shows that the West- ern Ghats of India are very rich in amphibian spe- 30 cies with 117 species of frogs, toads and caecilians. Dahanukar and Padhye have described amphibi- Eighty-nine species are endemic to this biogeo- an diversity and distribution at Tamhini ghat at the graphical region. Analysis of ranges and patterns boarder of Pune and Ratnagiri Districts. This is a of geographical distribution of amphibians on the zone that will be increasingly disturbed by urban- Western Ghats suggest that the southern half of ization and road transport in the Mulshi Taluka. the Western Ghats and the low-medium elevation This study done in 1997-2000 provides a base line hills are more diverse in species than the northern study documenting 23 species, of which eight were half and higher hills. This is attributed to the more restricted to only 3 sites, 5 were partly distributed widespread rainfall and the less variable climatic in 3-7 sites. The rest were continuously spread. conditions in the south. About half the species are Spatial distribution of frogs showed a nested bio- apparently localized. Of those, species with wider diversity in the Western Ghat. It showed a higher ranges, a majority show patchy distribution. Spe- species richness in the south, a decrease of species cies preferring the moist evergreen forests as habi- at higher elevations and an increase in number in tats tend to have a highly patchy and fragmented relation to an increase in tree species (Dahanukar distributions. This appears to be a result of habitat and Padhye 2005) destruction and fragmentation and isolation. The overall patterns of species richness and local endemism are rather different from those of the angiosperms and birds. In birds and angiosperms, a significant proportion of endemics are found on the higher hills. On the contrary, endemic amphibian species are found in the lower altitudinal range of 0-1000 m, with a majority between 800 and 1000 m (Daniels 1992). There have been several studies doen on amphibians in the Northern Western Ghats especially Ma- harahstra. Bhatta has developed a field guide for Another new species of caecilidae was identified Western Ghats caecilians in 1998 (Bhatta 1998). in Bondla Wildlife Sanctuary in Goa in 2004 (Bhat- Pillai and Ravichandran have created a taxonom- ta and Prashanth 2004). In between the years 2000 ic study of the amphibians of India in 2005 (Pil- and 2007 four new species of caecilians were dis- lai, Ravichandran, and Zoological Survey of In- covered (Bhatta et al. 2007). dia 2005). Dinesh et al. have made an annotated Fish checklist of ‘Amphibia of India’ published by ZSI in 2009 according to which of the 284 species of There are around 218 species of primary and amphibians that are from India, 132 are endemic secondary freshwater fishes in the Western Ghats. to Western Ghats (Dinesh et al. 2009) 53% of all fish species (116 species in 51 genera) in the Western Ghats are endemic (Daniels 2001). A In Amboli Ghat a new toad Xanthophryne tige- review of literature shows while there have been rinus was identified in 2009 (Biju et al. 2009), In a few publications, a lot of work still needs to be 2004 Giri et al. discovered a new caecilid caeci- done. lian from Khandala – Lonavala (Giri, Gower, and Wilkinson 2004). The region that comprises the A ‘Checklist of Freshwater Fishes of India’ by Northern Western Ghat is thus recognized as an AGK Menon appeared from the Zoological Sur- important center of diversity of these little known vey of India (ZSI) in 1999 (Menon 1999). A book limbless, snake–like caecilian amphibians (Gower on the Deccan Mahseer was published by Jayaram et al. 2007). Pillai and Ravi Chandran identified in 2005 (Jayaram 2005). Yadav published Ichthyo four endemic species of caecilids (Ravichandran, fauna of the northern Western Ghat in 2003 (Ya- Gower, and Wilkinson 2003). dav 2003)

31 Distribution, endemism and threat status of ence in four dams that limit fish movement thus freshwater fishes in the Western Ghats of India accounting for their presence only in extreme up- has been reviewed (Dahanukar, R. Raut, and Bhat stream areas. One of the major losses has been the 2004). From literature review the paper records complete local extinction of the Mahseer that was 288 species belonging to 12 orders, 41 families and found well into the 1950s. Conservation measures 109 genera, of which 118 species are endemic and include pollution management, controlled harvest- 51 are unique. However, the species accumulation ing of fish and artificial breeding (Kharat et al. curve showed that there might be 345 species in 2003). The Tata Power Company Mahseer breed- this region, indicating that 16% species have not ing center initiated by Mr. Shashank Ogale has been recorded. been running a highly successful breeding program and has performed major reintroduction into their An analysis of the distribution pattern of fishes lakes and natural ponds. in the Western Ghats suggests that the southern region is more diverse than the northern and central A study by Bhat has stressed that very little is regions. The southern region shows high endemism known about freshwater species distributions in and high uniqueness while the northern region the Central Western Ghat. Four rivers, Sharavati, shows high endemism but less uniqueness. The Aghanashini, Bedti and Kali, of the central West- similarity index between the zones indicates that ern Ghats were studied for their fish diversity and as the distance between the zones increases similar- composition. A total species richness of 92 spe- ity decreases. The status of 105 of 288 species was cies (and an endemicity of 25%) was reported. A not known due to data deficiency but among the comparison of expected species richness estimates remaining 183 species, 58 species were categorized using different statistical estimators was made – as low risk, 41 as vulnerable, 54 as endangered, 24 these showed the expected species richness to be as critically endangered while the remaining six in the range of 92–120 species. Many of the spe- species were introduced. cies were found to be shared with those belonging to the southern Western Ghats, but the study also The paper concludes that the distribution pat- unearthed new findings in terms of description of terns of fishes in the Western Ghats is in accor- a new species and extension of the known distri- dance with the geography of Western Ghats, its bution range of some of the species. The study at climatic conditions and ‘Satpura Hypothesis’. varying spatial and temporal scales also showed The threat status of fishes found in Western that while the rivers are very similar to each oth- Ghats suggests that at least 41% of fish fauna is er in terms of the species richness values, they do threatened by either being vulnerable, endangered vary with respect to the species composition. Spe- or critically endangered. cies compositions across upper (or lower) reaches Studies by Kharat et al. investigated changes in of these rivers were found to be more similar to species diversity of riverine fish fauna in North one another than the upstream and downstream western Ghats. This was done using five faunal reaches in the same river. Temporal patterns, with checklists spread over the last six decades. Though regard to diurnal activity of fishes were studied. the fish species diversity of Mula-Mutha river ap- These showed that of the 72 species collected at pears to be constant, loss of endemic and native night, 29 were exclusive to night sampling. Though species and their replacement with introduced spe- much of the information of the feeding and habitat cies is a serious threat. Besides heavy harvest, an- preferences of the fishes in this region is lacking, thropogenic activities like dam construction, habi- it is speculated that the differences in their activity tat destruction, biological and chemical pollution patterns could be related to feeding and predator in the Mula -Mutha rivers are assumed to be re- avoidance (Bhat 2003). sponsible for the loss of over 30 native fish species Macro and microhabitat analyses were applied during the last 60 years. They suggest that apart to characterise the fish assemblage structure in ten from pollution heavy harvesting, introductions of streams of the Western Ghat mountains of Penin- exotic fish are contributory causes in their pres- 32 sular India. Macrohabitat features, such as chan- to be less common. Moths such as the Atlas and nel gradient, stream depth, stream width, riparian Lunar Moths have decidedly become rarer in the cover, instream cover, habitat types and substrates, last decade or two. were used. Microhabitat requirements of the abun- Joshi and Dahanukar have studied the ecology dant cyprinids (35 species) were also analysed. and diversity of centipedes in the Northern West- Macrohabitat assessment indicated that high habi- ern Ghat. The species showed habitat and micro- tat diversity was associated with a high species di- habitat preferences, feeding habitats and seasonal versity, and that habitat volume was a major deter- variations. In the northern Western Ghat of the mining factor for species diversity and abundance. 102 species of centipede found in India 18 were In all streams, cyprinids were the dominant group found in the study area. Open scrub was a pre- in the assemblage and almost all cyprinids were ferred habitat type. confined to pools with varied habitat diversity. Riffle dwelling species included ancient forms such as Glyptothorax madraspatnum, G. trewasae and Homaloptera santhamparaiensis. Suitable microhabitats for dominant cyprinid species were pools and riffle edges. Big-sized barbs and mahseers such as Hypselobarbus dobsoni, H. curmuca, H. du- bius, Labeo calbasu, Puntius sarana, Tor khudree and Tor khudree malabaricus were confined to deep pools with a large area. Smaller Puntius species like P. fasciatus, P. melanampyx, P. narayani, P. sophore, P. ticto and P. vittatus lived in shallow backwater pools and pools with low flow. Species Butterflies in the Western Ghats belong to five like P. arulius tambiraparniei, P. amphibius, P. bi- families, 166 genera and 330 species. Of these, 37 maculatus and P. filamentosus were found towards species are endemic. These 330 species of butter- shallow pools with moderate flow. Surface-dwell- flies depend on over 1000 species plants for feeding ing species such as Danio aequipinnatus, Rasbora and breeding. Butterflies of India – Red Data Book daniconius, Salmostoma spp. and Barilius spp. pre- was published in 2005 by ZSI (Gupta and Mondal ferred deepwater habitats with high flow. Habitat- 1994). Out of a total of 50,000 km2 of primary based multivariate analysis revealed four guilds: forest in the Western Ghats, only 16% of primary surface dwellers, column dwellers, generalized forest cover exists today. Being good indicators of bottom dwellers and specialized bottom dwellers climatic conditions as well as seasonal and ecologi- (Arunachalam 2000). cal changes, butterflies can serve in formulating strategies for conservation. Butterfly visibility gives The Northern Western Ghats have approximate- these insects an important place as an indicator of ly 80 species of food fish, 25 species of aquarium change in habitats if done repeatedly by using the fish and 32 species of larvivorous fish which could same methodology over several years. Single as- possibly be used in bio-control of malaria. It is sessments however have a rather limited note ex- thus evident that maintainenece of natural rivers cept in comparing their abundance in different with respect to quality and quantity of water is cru- landscape elements (Padhye et al. 2006). cial to fish conservation in the Northern Western Ghats. Subramanian studied spiders of the Western Ghat in the 1950s. The author describes the Tet- Insects ragnathidae and Argiopidae, with which the paper Both day and night insect richness is a promi- deals, are two large families of web-weaving spiders nent feature of the faunal diversity of the Western under Arachnomorphae. In these families there are Ghats. Their status in terms of abundance is diffi- several curious genera which present great varia- cult to assess. Several prominent butterflies appear tion in size, shape coloration and habits. Some spe- 33 cies are so small that they cannot be studied with- Others out a lens. On the other hand there is a well known gaint spider, Nephila maculata whose body length measures more than two inches. Most of the members weave plain, circular snares suspended verti- cally, obliquely, or horizontally among plants and shrubs or between branches of trees (Subramanian 1955).

A few studies in the Western Ghats have paid attention to aquatic invertebrates including molluscs. During the early 1980s, a study of aquatic insects in the Nilgiris indicated that human interference in the upper Nilgiris has apparently reduced the diversity of species in seemingly undisturbed areas as Silent Valley. Habitat loss and pollution in Kunte (1997) work on butterflies in northern Pune city have been attributed as reasons for the Western Ghats (India), describes four tropical hab- decline of aquatic insects and molluscs. itats with different disturbance levels which were Limited range species such as the Malabar Giant monitored for diversity and seasonal patterns in Squirrel, pangolin, mouse deer, etc. and a variety butterfly communities. Species richness was high- of birds, reptiles and amphibian in the Northern est in late monsoon and early winter. Majority of Western Ghats have been inadequately studied the butterfly species also showed abundance peaks to develop habitat optimization through strategic in these seasons. Fire played a significant role in management of patch size, corridors etc. determining species composition in fire-afflicted areas and affected flight periods of some species The status of several species in northern West- but did not affect species richness. Grazing had a ern Ghats requires detailed evaluation to support major impact on species composition and it fa- ESAs. This not only will require floristic evalua- voured only those Lycaenids and Nymphalids tions based on geoinformatics but the use of ‘Con- whose caterpillars feed on herbs. Kunte identifies servation Assessment and Management Planning’ seasonal patterns in butterfly, abundance and spe- (CAMP), Workshops for selected species (Singh cies in four tropical habitats in the northern West- and Kaumanns 2005). ern Ghat with different pressures such as fires and These sub regional differences are further ex- grazing. The four sites are along the western slopes emplified by more locale specific observations on of the Ghats in the Pune region. Populations be- plant communities and forest structure. The veg- gan to rise in the monsoon and peaked in the late etation patterns of the catchment areas of dams monsoon with a second peak in winter. In case of in the Mawal and Mulshi Talukas were assessed one of the sites where phenophases of the larval for their species abundance and richness of tree foodplant and population trend of a small Lycae- species. Each catchment differed substantially in nid was documented, the population showed rapid structural and species characteristics. Several spe- increase at the time when the plants were in suit- cies were unique to a single catchment or even a able phenophase for growth of the caterpillars. The section of the catchment area (BVIEER 1998). author proposes a possible evolutionary interaction between herb-feeding and non-herb-feeding Lycae- nids (Kunte 1997) . 34 PROTECTED AREAS that slope into the Deccan. The following section provides an overview of the status of Protected Areas and their surrounds. Purna Wildlife Sanctuary

The Purna Wildlife Sanctuary includes 200 km2 of forests in several patches with the best patches of natural vegetation occurring in Mahal and Bar- ipada. The 10 km Ecologically Sensitive Zone under EPA is a key to developing a viable corridoring system between Bansda National Park and the Purna Wildlife Sanctuary and neighbouring Re- serve Forest patches. Bansda National Park The PAs include 3 National Parks and 15 Wild- life Sanctuaries in the three states of Gujarat, Ma- harashtra and Goa in which the northern sector of the Ghats are situated. Gujarat and Maharashtra rank among the top five states in terms of PA coverage. In the Western Ghats the PAs include Purna Wildlife Sanctuary, and Vansda National Park in Gujarat, while Kalsubai Wildlife Sanctuary, Bhi- mashankar Wildlife Sanctuary, Koyna National Park, Chandoli Wildlife Sanctuary (proposed Na- tional Park) and Radhanagri Wildlife Sanctuary in Maharashtra are situated along the crest and slopes of the Western Ghats in Maharashtra. In Maha- The Bansda National Park once the private prop- rashtra the Protected Areas that extend into the erty of the Maharaja of Vansda was acquired by coastal belt include Tansa Wildlife Sanctuary, San- the Government of Gujarat in 1972 for a paltry jay Gandhi National Park (Borivali) and Phansad sum of Rs. 10 lakh. The 24.5 km2 area contained Wildlife Sanctuary while those that extend into the some of the most valuable residual mature teak in Deccan Plateau are the potential PAs of Mulshi Gujarat. It still contains viable populations of leop- and Mawal talukas which were discussed frequent- ard, chital, barking deer and an abundance of bird- ly but were never formally notified. Some of these life. The flagship, rarely seen species is the Rusty PAs extend from the coastal plains into the West- Spotted Cat that has been observed on several oc- ern escarpment. Others include forests between catchment areas of dams along the eastern spurs 35 Trogon, Three-toed Kingfisher and the Yellow- backed Sunbird. The PA includes 59 species of mammals, 155 species of butterflies, 24 species of ants, 52 species of reptiles, 13 species of amphibians and 30 species of fishes. The important mammals found here include the Leopard, Common langur, Rhesus Macaque, Wild boar, Chital, Sam- bar, Barking Deer, four-horned Antelope and the Mouse Deer. Reptiles such as the Pond Terrapin, Deccan Banded Gecko, Spotted Forest Gecko are also seen here.

The pale coloured squirrel, once found in the Dangs is now probably extinct. The darker squirrel is found from Bhimashankar to Lonavala. casions since 1988. Sanjay Gandhi National Park This Sanjay Gandhi National Park (10307 ha), Tungareshwar Wildlife Sanctuary (8750 ha) and Reserve forests between them constitute an IBA. It is partly located in the Mega Meteropolitan, Mum- bai. The PA constitutes the prime catchment area of two freshwater lakes, Tulsi and Vihar, which supply water to Mumbai city. The forest here is classified as Tropical Dry deciduous or the South- Illegal tree felling, man-animal conflict, en- ern Dry Deciduous according to Champion and croachment, illegal styone quarries, firewood col- Seth (1968). lection, poaching, tourism, and presence of anti- Nearly 300 species of birds have been identified, social elements are the major threats faced by the cluding some threatened ones. The park lies in PA. the Western Ghats Endemic Bird Area (EBA 123) In order to ensure long-term viability of Sanjay where Statterfield et al.(1998) have identified 16 re- Gandhi National Park and Tungreshwar Wildlife stricted range species. The important avifauna seen Sanctuary, it is extremely important to protect the here include the Oriental White-backed Vulture, reserve forest lying between them. Long-billed Vulture, Pallas’s Fish-Eagle, Greater Spotted Eagle, Lesser Adjuctant, Nilgiri Wood- Pigeon, Emerald Dove, Drongo-cuckoo, Malabar

36 Tansa Wildlife Sanctuary 2000). It leaves the high rainfall plateau during the monsoon to reappear in winter. Its arrival is also dependent on the fruiting season. The Blue-winged Parakeet and Plum-headed Parakeet also visit the Sanctuary from late winter onwards.

This sanctuary is of great relevance to the survival of Mumbai city as it supplies water for the people of the city. The sanctuary primarily consists of dry deciduous and moist deciduous forest. Its wildlife values are relatively low. The Malabar Grey Hornbill an endemic species, is generally found below the plateau on the Konk- an side and not observed in the plateau, while the Yellow-browed Bulbul a biome species, and White- bellied Blue-flycatcher an endemic species are hill species and seldom seen below 620 m(Gole 2000). Small Sunbird another endemic of the Northern Western Ghats has good resident population in this IBA. One of the most interesting winter visitors to this site is the Tytler’s Leaf Warbler a bird of the Western Himalaya (Ali and Ripley 1987, Grim- mett et al. 1998). It has good population of the Grey-fronted or Pampador Green Pigeon. The im- Kalsubai (Harishchandragad) Wildlife Sanctuary portant fauna found here include Leopard, Sam- The Protected Area is the northernmost sanctu- bar, Barking Deer, Wild Boar, Common Langur, ary in the Western Ghats of Maharashtra. Its for- Rhesus Macaque and Mouse Deer, Striped Hyena, ests are highly fragmented, both due to topographic Golden Jackal and the Indian Pangolin. The lan- and edaphic features. duse pattern includes wilderness as well use of Bhimashankar Wildlife Sanctuary land for tourism and recreation, transport, research, livestock grazing and agriculture. It is well known for highly endangered subspecies of the Indian Giant Squirrel locally known as Issues such as tourism, lLivestock grazing, man- Shekru. This is an IBA. animal conflicts, fuel wood gathering, agriculture intensification and expansion, commercial devel- Gole (2000) listed over 172 bird species in the opment and plastic consumption by animals are Sanctuary including several globally threatened some of the major threats to this PA. and restricted range species. The site falls in the Western Ghat Endemic Bird Area (Stattersfield et al. 1998). The Nilgiri Wood-Pigeon, a globally threatened and restricted range species of the Western Ghats (Birdlife Internation 2001) generally arrives in February and can be seen/heard till the break up of the monsoon in end June (Gole 37 Phansad Wildlife Sanctuary Koyna is well-known trekking location. Aggressive promotion of tourism in this area would increase the garbage and noise pollution. Chandoli National Park This protected area has recently been upgraded to a National Park status. Recently, there have been a spate of sightings of tigers which has led to suggestions to upgrade it to a Tiger Reserve. There are also endemic and endangered species reported from the Protected Area. Radhanagari Wildlife Sanctuary This is the only important coastal protected area in Maharashtra. It was once the shooting reserve of the rulers of Janjira. The forest has evergreen and semi-evergreen elements with areas of grassland and small rocky plateaus. The floristic values are considered to be very important as there is no other sanctuary along the coast of Maharashtra. Koyna Wildlife Sanctuary The Chandoli corridor connects this sanctuary to Radhanagari Wildlife Sanctuary in the South. Historically the Vasota fort constructed in during The Radhanagari Wildlife Sactuary is situated 1178-1193 lies in the Center of the Sactuary. The on the border of Kolhapur and Sindhudurg dis- PA has Southern Tropical Evergreen Forest and tricts. The PA harbours several sacred groves inside Southern Moist Mixed decidous Forest as per the the Sanctuary which are traditionally protected by classification of Champion and Seth (1968). The local people. Thus large stands of virgin forest still Sanctuary hosts a threatened tree species called exist here. This sanctuary houses the major irriga- Narkya Mappia foetida. Tiger, Gaur, Indian Wild tion projects in the Kolhapur district. Besides some Dog, Sloth Bear, Sambar, Barking Deer, Mouse parts of sanctuary are rich in bauxite ore and many Deer, Indian Giant Squirrel and Common otter are plateaus with high quality bauxite have been some of the important mammals found here. The mined. The mining company wants more areas to PA is also home to the Indian Python, Beddome’s be opened for mining which is a major threat to Keelback, Indian Chameleon, Banded Gecko and this fragile ecosystem. Dwarf Gecko among reptiles and endemic amphibians such as the Koyana Toad, Indotyphlus, a caecilian, Wrinkled Frog and Bombay Frog. The land use here is primarily wilderness, agriculture with a hydroelectric project. Dam construction, hydroelectric project, poaching and exploitation of medicinal plants are some of the threats to this PA. At the peripheary of the Sanctuary, the area is being actively promoted as a tourism zone by the Government of Maharashtra. This would create serious environmental problems in the form of increased tourist traffic, water pollution, littering of non-degradable waste and general disturbance. The forest types are Southern Semi-evergreen, Southern Moist Mixed Deciduous and Southern of the long billed Vulture, Gypes indisus, a critical evergreen. The vegetation includes several threat- endangered species is found here. Eight out of 16 ened and endemic tree species such as Mappia restricted range species of the Western Ghats En- Foetida, Turpunia malbarica, Euphorbia longna, demic Bird Area are found here. Elaeocarpus tectorium and Harpullia arborea. It lies in the Western Ghats Endemic Bird Areas (EBA 123) where Stattersfield et al (1998) have identified 16 restricted range species.

Leopard and Uropelttid snakes are also common here. Many endangered amphibian species such as the Bombay Bush frog, Humayun’s wrinkled frog, Nyctibacrachus humayuni, besides endangered During winter, many Himalayan forest birds are and endemic caecilians, inhabit the area (Varad found here. Indian Blue Robin belonging to the Si- Giri pers.comm.). no-Tropical Temperate Forest has been seen here. Strategic presence of a defense establishment, Some interesting species such as Ceylon Frog- the Mumbai Pune corridor which is on fast track mouth, Yellow-browed Bulbul, Dusky Eagle-owl, to development continue to play havoc with the Great Pied Hornbill, Black Bulbul, Speckled Picu- original pristine habitats unless conservation mea- let, and Malabar Crested Lark are commonly seen sures are initiated at the earliest. here. Bhagwan Mahavir Wildlife Sanctuary INS Shivaji and Lonavala Bhagwan Mahavir wildlife sanctuary located in The presence of this defence establishment, the Sanguem taluka on the eastern border of Goa spread over 1,500 acres, has protected some valu- has a core area, consisting of 107 sq. km. which able original tropical moist/semi evergreen forest was declared as Mollem National Park. National and upland grass land habitats of the area against highway 4A and Mormugao_Londa railway line growing urbanization and development. run through the sanctuary. Collem Railway station The surrounding hills include good forest beyond lies within the sanctuary area. Khandala towards Duke’s Nose hill. Extending to- Many small rivulets flow through the Sanctury ward the Tiger’s Leap ravine along top of the ridg- in the monsoon, but dry up in summer. Dudhsagar es, and upto 2 km on either side of the ridges is pro- falls is a popular tourist spot. The Devil Canyon posed as an IBA. The area has evergreen and moist is a splendid piece of geological rock formation. deciduous type vegetation with a high diversity of The canopy is almost closed and the availability of plant species. The carnivorous plant Utricularia sp. grass is very limited. Evergreen vegetation is main- which plays an important role in ecology and nitro- ly seen in higher altitudes and along the riverbanks. gen cycle is a common plant found in small springs The main vegetation types are West Coast Tropical here. Carvia callosa (Karvi) is a dominant plant Evergreen Forest, West Coast semi-Evergreen For- species on the hill slopes. Other tree species Careya est and Moist Deciduous Forest. arborea (Kumbha), Memecylon umbellaum (An- jani), Vitex nigundo (Nirgudi) and Randia dumeto- The Malabar Pied Hornbill and the Indian Black rum are commonly found here. Nesting population woodpecker or White-bellied woodpecker can be 39 seen in the most part of Sanctuary. According to ment has planned a chain of seven diversion dams Harvey D’Souza the Nilgiri wood-pigeon, Blue- and three main dams for the Mhadei Hydroelectric winged parakeet, Malabar Gray Hornbill and project. small Sunbird are present in this IBA. These birds Another grave danger comes from open-cast are listed as Restricted Range by Statersfield et al mining. There are about 40 mining leases, of which (1998) under the Western Ghats Endemic Bird Ar- only 11 mines are active, while others are not work- eas 123. This PA has excellent wet evergreen, semi- ing. The miners lease owners want the potential evergreen and moist deciduous forest. mining areas to be excised from the Sanctuary. The Leopard, Gaur, Barking deer, Mouse deer Cotigao Wildlife Sanctuary are also found here. Other important mammals of the site are Pangolin, Slender loris, porcupine, and The Cotigao Wildlife Sanctuary at the southern- small Indian Civet. most tip of Goa protects a remote and vulnerable area of forest lining the Goa-Karnataka interstate Mhadei Wildlife Sanctuary border. The main vegetation type is the West Coast Tropical Evergreen Forest, West Coast semi-Ever- green forest and Moist Deciduous forest. The Ever- green forests are mainly present on higher altitudes and on riversides. The site lies in the Western Ghats and has listed 16 species as Restricted Range. The flying squirrel is present here alongwith the slender loris and pangolin but difficult to see due to their nocturnal habit. The small Indian civet and the golden Jackal are the smaller predators here. Cotigao has many species of interesting reptiles, including the King Kobra but not much is known about them. Simi- This is an IBA site named after the river Mha- larly, the freshwater fish have not been adequately dei (Mandovi) which is considerd the lifeline of surveyed here. Goa. The forest type range from moist deciduous, Carambolim Lake semi-evergreen and secondary scrub. The annual rainfall is 3,000 mm. This IBA site is of great cul- Carambolim Lake lies in Ilhas taluka, about 12 tural significance as most of the sacred groves of kms from Panjim, the capital of Goa. The main Goa are located in this region. The sacred grove vegetation consists of Nymphea stelleata, a root- Nirankarachi is dominated by a unique plant spe- ed plant with floating leaves, Oryza rufipogon, cies Myristica malabarica, which is endangered an emergent wild paddy, and submerged Hydrilla and endemic to the site. More than 45 species of verticillata. Carambolim lake attracts thousands of snakes are known to occur in the region. The thick birds, especially waterflowl. forests of Mhadei provide an ideal habitat for aga- Close to Carambolim lake, at Corlim (Tiswadi), mids, skinks and geckos. There are also confirmed is located Swiss-owned Hindustan Ciba Geigy reports of the presence and movement of tigers in Ltd (HCGL) factory which produces highly toxic the area. The Atlas Moth is also recorded here. pesticides for agriculture use. The large factory Deforestion, poaching and encroachment are compound contains two shallow ponds that give major threats here. Exrensive habitat degradation undisturbed shelter to Goa’s only known heronry, and loss are a constant problem at the site. Alter- and a safe haven to quite a number of migrant and ing the habitat structure has resulted in reduction vagrant Ciconidae and Threskiornithidae (Lainer in abundance and range of several bird species. In 1999). this ecologically rich area, the Karnataka Govern- One of the biggest threats faced by Carambolim 40 Lake was the construction of the railway track of the Konkan Railway Project very close to the lake and increasing disturbance due to urbanization. The long-term and irreversible disturbance is from private encroachment, night soil generated from the migrant human population, and the silt deposition, leading to the development of marshy conditions.Carambolim lake need to be protected under the new category of Community Reserve in the modified Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act.

CHAPTER 3: IMPACTS

he northern sector of the Western Ghats on a single landscape element. has not been given sufficient conservation INDUSTRY Tattention over the years. All the attention has been concentrated in the south while the for- Gujarat has initiated a program of neo – indus- ests of the Ghats sections of Gujarat, Maharash- trialization which borders on the catena of the tra and Goa have been continually degraded. No Ghats and spreads into the periphery of the Dangs. effort at an overall protective strategy or attempt Gujarat’s industries are now an emerging threat to to reverse the degradation has been attempted in both the sensitive coastal and hill ecosystems in the this section of the Ghats. The southern sector has state. It has been estimated that 1,782 km2 of for- a large number of PAs which are relatively close est area in Gujarat (12% of the current total forest to each other and have been protected even across area of the state) was lost between 1960 and 2000 state boundaries. In the northern states there are as a result of irrigation projects, agriculture, min- large unprotected or inadequately protected sec- ing, road building, industry and the legalisation of tions that have isolated the PAs from each other. encroachments (Trivedi and Soni 2006) The Western Ghats in Gujarat, Maharashtra and Maharashtra was one of the earliest States that Goa have been subjected to greater impacts of rapidly developed its industrial capability, as a re- rapid industrial growth than the southern sector of sult of its proximity to Mumbai which is consid- Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. ered to be the business centre of the country. The Threats can be intrinsic to the area or extend unsustainable levels of industrial development from its periphery, or even from a distant site. The around Mumbai and its link-city of Pune thus threats include a wide spectrum of human activi- led to rapid urbanization and industrialization to ties of different intensities. These impacts disturb the West and East of the Ghats section in Karjat, the ecosystem as a whole or inflict their influence Lonawala, Mulshi and Mawal Talukas. This trend 43 has now inevitably spread to Maharashtra’s second from the hydel dams and expansion of the road level townships such as Nashik, Kolhapur, Sangli transport sector in Maharashtra, such as, for exam- and Satara with their sugarcane based industries ple, the Pirangut Industrial Estate. that are now diversifying into other sectors. In Goa, the mining and tourism industries have severely impacted the integrity of its ecologically diverse landscape elements. The hydro based energy sector in the Ghats is dependent on east flowing rivers, which are within the Ghats. The dams and their lakes segregate the forests into multiple isolated patches that create a discontinuity in the habitat making it impossible for many species to cross the water spread. Most of these waterspreads span across the eastern valleys while their backwaters cut into the forested slopes of the Ghats, thus fragmenting and isolating The various state industrial development corpo- forested regions into smaller patches. There are rations are strong supporters of industrial develop- hardly any large valleys in Maharashtra that have ment in the rural sector. Several of Maharashtra’s remained intact. MIDCs, with their concomitant urbanization, dot The intactness of the narrow forested strip of the the landscape which was once a mix of rural and fragile Western Ghats in this region is threatened wilderness areas, within and adjacent to the Ghats. by landscape level changes due to ports and other These centres are growing as a consequence of development projects in the adjacent coastal belt easy access to cheap unskilled rural labour, water and by the sugar and heavy industries developed that comes from the forested Ghats sector, energy

Impacts of Industy in selected PA surrounds (Bharucha 2006)

Possible Impact Possible Impact Name of MIDC Areas Industries Saw Mills Mining Protected Area Solid Solid Water Air Water Air Waste Waste

Forging & Tansa WLS NIL High Mod. Shahapur Nil Chemicals Bhimashankar Nil Nil Info. NA Info. NA WLS Karnala Bird Rasaini Chemicals Chemicals and Stone Quarry High High High High Info. NA Sanctuary and Dyes Dyes Chinchwan Stone Quarry, Phansad WLS Roha Moderate Moderate Chemical Mod. Mod. Phansad Mazgaon Phansad Koyna WLS Nil Nil Info. NA Info. NA Sugar Factory Chandoli WLS Nil Low Info. NA Info. NA (Karanguli) Radhanagari INDOL, Bauxite Shiroli, Shirgaon Low Sugar Factory Mod. Info. NA Bison WLS Mine Chemical Forging, Marol, ITC and Pharmaceutical, Stone Quarry Sanjay Gandhi NP Kalwa, Thane, High High High Dairy, Textiles, High High High Info. NA along the Mira Dyes, Tanneries, Boundary Domestic Waste

Impact Colour High Moderate Low Nil Codes 44 through irrigation and water availability on the carried out inadequately. Most abandoned mined eastern aspect in the Deccan Plateau. areas are left for years and are covered by exotic weedy growth that can support only the general- Mangrove ecosystems in Maharashtra are under ist species of fauna. The mined blanks thus lead heavy pressure as a result of increase in human ac- to severe impediments for many species to move tivity with their area being reduced, and thus some between patches of forest. important species are becoming extinct (Mulik and Bhosale 1989). The threat to mangroves has since In Maharashtra, the major impacts among the become more severe even though it should have PAs surrounds is due to stone quarrying in the been reduced by the Coastal Regulation Zone and ESAs. Therre are also impacts due to bauxite and increasing awareness. The same situation applies other mining operations. Major mining conces- to the Western Ghats unless the planning and im- sions lead to serious impacts on conservation val- plementation of sustainably managed ESAs does ues leading to serious conflict issues during land- not reduce the threat to this fragile forest ecosys- scape level lanning and is a serious concern for the tem. future. A major problem that constantly recurs is due to the major mining potential at Radhanagari Industrialisation has occurred most rapidly in WLS. This is a serious concern as there is a con- Shahapur and Wada near Tansa; roha and murud stant pressure to open this area to mining (Bharu- near Phansad; Radhanagari and Gargoti near Rad- cha, 2006). hanagari Sanctuary. The industrial development is a reponse to the state’s strong Maharahstra In- ROADS dusrial Development Corporation (MIDC). San- The Dangs have a better road network than ten jay Gandhi National Park, Karnala Bird Sanctu- years ago, with almost all the villages having mo- ary, Phansad Wildlife Sanctuary have one or more torable roads. Most fo the forest roads till 2000 MIDC’s within the 10 km ESAs around PAs. were unpaved. The negative effect of the growing These industries lead to variable elvels of air, water road network is that the Reserved Fores patches and noise pollution and environment management which did nto have motorable access till about ten problems due to indusrial and even toxic solid years ago are now highly accessible. This can be waste affecting lichens, fish populations causing disastrous in the Dangs, especially a illegal timber disruption of aquatic ecosystems. Species such as extractors can now access certain remote areas. the Deccan Mahseet once common in these rivers is There is also a growing threat of unsustainable extinct throughout the rivers of Maharsahtra. The tourism spreading from Saputara. small and large scale industries also lead to loss of spill over habitats for wildlife and produce impacts The need to link these two economic develop- on the seclusion required for wildlife to breed suc- ment zones (coastal zone and the Deccan Pla- cessfully. This is a result of increasing movement teau) has led to more roads traversing the Ghats of people both through and around the PA. Saw- section to move goods and business services. The mills create problems as frequently illegally felled quantum of industrial products developed in Ma- timber is easily processed at a mill that is the vicin- harashtra’s industrial belts has grown enormously ity of a PA. There are saw mills near Tansa Wild- and is dependent mainly on constructing shortcut life Sanctuary at Shahapur and near Phansad. new roads, often without a proper analysis of the real needs of the industrial sector. The plans are MINING frequently an outcome of local political pressures. The industrial use of raw material from mined The widening of existing roads, to reach the ports areas within the Ghats is a serious impact factor is another persistent demand without a proper as- on local biodiversity. Consumerism is the driving sessment. An example is the road that connects force and the forest is its victim. Mined areas cre- Pune from the Deccan Plateau to Mahad on the ate large gaps which are left as blanks covered in coast via the Western Ghats in Mulshi Taluka of weedy growth. While mitigation is expected to re- Pune district, effectively fragmenting the forests of habilitate and restore these areas this is generally the Western Ghats in this region. 45 Name of Protected Length of roads Road ((I) = Inside, (O)= Outside) Type Railway Lines (length) Area Inside Within 10 km Total Tansa Mumbai-Agra NH-3 40 40 Kalyan-Nashik (50 km) Murbad-Vada (I) SH-38 92534 Shahapur-Javhar (I) SH-36 10 15 25 Murbad-Vada (I) Pakka Road 62228 Javhar-Khardi Pakka Road 15 15 Palghar-Nashik (I) SH-34 82725 Total 32 144 Bhimashankar Ahupe-Ambegaon (I) Pakka Rd. 3 13 16 Nil Ahemadnagar-Karjat (I) (O) SH-37 32 24 24 Ahupe-Nigdale (I) Pakka Rd. 12 12 Bhimashankar-Rajgurunagar (I)SH-54 41115 Total 19 48 Karnala Mumbai-Goa (I) NH-17 2 24 26 Panvel-Uran (14.6 km) Pune-Panvel (O) NH-4 0 19 19 Konkan Railway Line (34. 6 km) Panvel-Aware (O) Pakka Road 02525 Total 268 Phansad Murud-Alibag (O) MSH-4 28 28 Nil Murud-Roha (I) SH-90 25 6 Murud-Roha (O) SH-92 18 18 Alibagh-Roha (I) Pakka Road Total 251 Koyna Karad-Chiplun (I) SH-78 0 42 42 Nil Patan-Jalu (I) Pakka Road 01414 Morgiri- Dicholi (O) Pakka Road 14 22 36 Mahableshwar-Vasota (O) Pakka Road 38 11 48 Mahableshwar-Satara (I) Pakka Road 04646 Total 52 134 Chandoli WLS Karad-Sangameshwar (I) SH-78 27 40 67 Nil Chiplun-Karad (O) SH-78 12 12 PaKKa Kokisare-Humbarli (I) -27 23 23 Road Sangameshwar-Kolhapur (O) MSH-3 0 26 26 Total 27 100

Radhanagari Kankawli-Kolhapur (right) (I) SH-116 33 32 65 Nil

Kankawli-Kolhapur (left) (I) Pakka Road 25 33 58 Radhanagari-Gawathanwadi (I) Pakka Road 10 12 22 Vaibhavwadi-Kolhapur (O) SH-115 01515 Radhanagari-Sawantwadi (O) SH-120 05757 Total 68 150 Mumbai Ahmedabad (35 82 10 Sanjay Gandhi Borivali Mulund West (I) Pakka Road kms) Goregaon Mulund West (I) Pakka Road 4 Mumbai Nashik (38 km) Thane Vasai (I) SH-41 29 11 Mumbai-Agra (O) NH-8 41 41 Western Express Highway (O) 23 23 Mumbai-Ahmedabad (O) NH-3 37 37 Impact Colour Codes High Moderate Low Nil Impacts of Roads in selected PA surrounds (Bharucha 2006) 46 The gaps between PAs are traversed by several their future maintenance costs is a crucial concern. existing highways, minor roads, and a major ex- Orienting road planners to prevent damage to sur- pressway between Mumbai and Pune. There are rounding forests during construction, retaining in- proposals for several small roads to be widened and tegrity of the local hydrology of nalla courses and there are demands for more roads across the Ghats. waterfalls, preventing landslides and damage to ar- The latter will increasingly isolate the patches of eas which have unique floral and faunal elements natural forests in future. This will reduce the vi- located in even small restricted ecosystems types ability of potential corridors unless the areas are must become a part of future road development in notified as ESAs and mitigation measures such as the Ghats. Areas in the Ghats section which include underpasses and over bridges are made for wildlife multiple highly specific ‘niches’ must be carefully to get across these gaps. studied during the EIA for roads. Such local issues must be cautiously dealt with if present within a There are demands for more East-West roads to larger ESA during the EIA process. Road align- link south bound highways in the Deccan to the ments that would traverse across on ESA must be coastal highway. These new roads will continue to planned only if adequate mitigation is offered by create further fragmentation. Such roads cannot be using norms as have been suggested for CAMPA sanctioned on merely political grounds but must be by the Hon. Supreme Court. prioritized based on a balance of economic societal and most importantly ecological considerations. The existing roads especially on the Western es- This brings in the need for sustainable land use carpment wind back and forth from the base to the planning and judicious governance by involving crest line and then more gradually wind down to scientifically trained regional development plan- the plateau. Thus the impact is not only of a few ners for the whole Ghats section of these states. An meters on either side of the road but consists of a orientation on the ecological costs for road plan- wide belt from the northern most to the southern- ning and the special requirements for constructing most point where the road twists back and forth roads along steep escarpments while considering through a wide belt of forest along the side of the (BVIEER 2002)

47 range. The road thus creates a large zone of dis- ous concern as they stimulate unsustainable devel- turbance in the Ghats section where roads have opment. been developed. Unless special measures are taken Three of the PAs in the NWG are impacted by to permit wildlife to get across such gaps the con- railway lines. These result in animal kills, distur- tinuity of the Western Ghats forests to maintain bance of wildlife migration routes, pollution and biological values is heavily compromised. A set of solid waste management problems. ESAs which specifically consider the possible impacts of the present road transport network and its The growth of these transport facilities has thus future development is a key concern for identifying disrupted the continuity of the forest ecosystem impacts on biodiversity. Thus such areas need to be along the entire length of the Western Ghats in seen as a specific ESA category. these states. The steepness of the escarpment ne- cessitates developing long stretches of winding There are several major roads that transgress roads that span an extensive tract of vegetation for some of the PAs in the Western Ghats in Maha- each new road. rashtra. While these have been implicated as major impacts on these PAs, and their development This disrupts the floral and faunal integrity of has often been resisted by conservation oriented a wide sector to construct what is considered ‘just NGOs, they have been developed in spite of this one more road’. This does not take into account resistance. Several such incidences can be reported the length of the winding road sector that traverses from Maharashtra, such as the road in Bhimashan- along major sections of the escarpment through the kar connecting the Deccan Plateau to the Coast. Ghats. The roads created thus have multiple wide While these are known concerns, all the 10km gaps that many species may not be able to bridge ESZs of the PAs have major roads and highways from one forested patch to the next. A good exam- through them. Some of these impact belts are sev- ple is the Giant Squirrel which is found in this part eral kilometers long and therefore impact large pro- of the Western Ghats. It is an arboreal species that portions of the ESAs. The development of high- rarely comes to the ground and needs an unbroken ways stimulate urbanisation and industralisation canopy for its survival. There are no under passes along them and thus will lead to serious impacts or over bridges for wildlife to cross these roads that on conservation values of these PAs. This road re- already have a high density of vehicles. Road kills lated change in landuse leads to water, air and solid are extremely frequent. waste pollution, noise and disturbance to adjacent AGRICULTURE wildlife populations in the PA. National Highways pass through Karnala and borders Tansa Wildlife Sanctuaries. The scenario is much worse in the ESAs with 5 National Highways that impact PAs such as Sanjay Gandhi National Park, Tansa and Karnala. There are State Highways in 5 PAs and in ESAs of all the PAs in the NWG. Several PAs have more than one or two roads that lead to impacts. However road length is not an adequate indicator of pressure as there are differences in traffic density. Four PAs have road lengths exceeding 100kms in the ESZs. These are Radhanagari 149.5km, Tan- sa 144km, Koyna 133km, and Chandoli 100.4km. Traditional hill slope agriculture in forested ar- Sanjay Gandhi National Park has 110km of ma- eas from the Dangs southward into Maharashtra jor roads and a large number of smaller roads net- has long been considered an ecological problem. worked in the ESA, which is in fact a major part of Local tribal people have used the ancient agricul- the Mumbai and Thana Metropolitan areas. Road tural practice of rab by lopping forest biomass widening and development of new roads is a seri- which they burn in the fields for wood ash cultiva- 48 Water Reservoirs and Agricultural Name of Protected Area Irrigation Canals Agriculture Impacts Impacts Tansa WLS Tansa Dam, Vaitarna Dam Bhavsa- Bhivandi Rice Low Backwater of Wadeshwar Rice, Nachani, Varai. Bhimashankar WLS Nil Low and Dimbhe Dam Shifting Cultivation Karnala Bird Sanctuary Ransai Dam Info. NA Rice, Cereals, Varai Low Phansad WLS Vihur Dam, Phansad Dam Nil Rice, Varai, Coconut Moderate Koyna WLS Koyna Dam Nil Sugarcane, Rice Moderate Chandoli WLS Chandoli Dam, Chandoli- Shirala Rice, Sugarcane, Nachani. Low Radhanagari Dam, Sugarcane, Rice, Nachani, Radhanagari Bison WLS Present Moderate Kallamawadi Dam, Moderate Vegetables Sanjay Gandhi National Tulsi Lake, Vihar Lake, Irrigation Canals from Rice Nil Park Pavai Lake Tulsi and Vihar Lake

Impact Colour Codes High Moderate Low Nil Impacts of Agriculture in selected PA surrounds (Bharucha 2006) tion. The fire also helps kill off insect pests in their food chain and affect for instance raptor popula- rice paddies. They cultivate rice, nachani, varai and tions (Bharucha, 2006). legumes by rotation every few years. In the past this was followed by several years during which the forest could regenerate before the next cycle was initiated. Cutting trees and retrieving branches or leaf material from surrounding forests at an increasing frequency has led to the development of deforested patches that are now not given a sufficient period to regenerate. The increasing number of farmers who use this once sustainable agricultural practice has led to shorter periods for forest regeneration and consequently an increasing number of open patches along the once thickly forested Since most of the high and moderate pressures slopes (Goswami, Chatterjee, and Worah 2006). due to agriculture are observed in irrigated areas Agricultural pressures in Maharashtra are due mainly for sugarcane holdings, they are linked to traditional farming practices (wood ash culti- through sugar co-operatives to adjacent sugar fac- vation) also known as ‘rab’ mainly in hilly areas, tories which have their own serious impacts on the which is forest biomass based. This has been preva- PAs. Chandoli and Radhanagari have sugar facto- lent, both inside and on the periphery of several ries within 10km of the boundary of the PA which PAs. Recently irrigated sugarcane based agricul- lead to serious waste management issues from the ture has replaced traditional agriculture as seen release of molasses etc. See table Other changes in the table. The variation is a result of distance brought about by conversion of rainfed agriculture and spatial differences in the proportion of the Eco to sugarcane include an increasing conflict level Sensitive Zone that has been converted to intensive due to predation of livestock by carnivores. Jumar, agriculture. Factors such as effects of monocrop- a town close to Bhimashankar, has recently been ping patterns and the use of fertilizers, herbicides irrigated and used as sugarcane fields. Leopards and pesticides can have serious implications on the persistently move out of the Western Ghats from biodiversity of the adjacent PAs. This includes dis- the vicinity of Bhimashankar Sanctuary into the ruption of food chains where insects form major adjacent cover of sugarcane. Conflict levels have link species as well as deranging their function of increased with livestock and even human life is put pollinating both forest plants and crops. It could at repeated risk. During the last couple of years a also lead to biomagnification of pesticides up the 49 large number of leopards have had to be caught have been a reflection of local political pressures and translocated or put in zoos, only to be rapidly and land speculation from the builder lobby. Urban replaced by other leopards. fringes include slums and shanties that spread into NEW TOWNSHIPS the ecologically fragile hillslopes. The largest and most serious being the slums around the Sanjay While traditional farming has indeed been a Gandhi National Park at Borivali near Mumbai. gradually growing impact, it is the newer forms of economic development strategies that have rapidly TOURISM created expanding gaps that have led to a loss of corridors between the PAs of the Ghats. The development of neo-townships in the Western Ghats will have the most deleterious consequences for the integrity of the ecosensitive slopes of the Western Ghats. While townships such as the Amby Valley in Lonavala and Lavasa in the Mulshi Taluka in Pune District already exist and have disrupted forest continuity, there will be increasing demands for land in this ecosensitive region for high income based satellite townships for Pune and other growing cities in Maharashtra as well. This trend will displace All the PAs have some level of impacts of tourist poor agriculturists of the Ghats, deprive them of facilities on the edges of the PAs. The impact of their lands, and create a new set of landless rural day visitors is different from the pattern of impact people across the whole length of the Ghats. This of overnight stay visitors. Both these groups require has already happened in the Mawal and Mulshi different management strategies. Based on the Talukas of Maharashtra. For example, under the number of tourists alone, there are three high im- Special Township Act of the Maharashtra Govern- pact, two medium impact and three low impact ment, by 2010, 34 new townships, of a minimum PAs due to tourism. Having said this, the true car- area of 100 acres, have been planned and many of rying capacity depends on the size of the area, the them sanctioned in and around the city of Pune in presence of an effective core, buffer and tourist zo- the Western Ghats (Bari and Savitha 2010). These nation, as well as the length of road networks in will have an obvious impact on the integrity of the PAs and the pattern of tourist vehicles used. While ecosystems of the Western Ghats. these aspects are related to impacts that emanate Yet another impact is from the growing fringes directly within the PA, the tourist facilities on the of cities that have now begun to spread into the boundaries of the PA have equally serious impacts foothills of the Ghats both from the west coast and which create high levels of water pollution, large from the rapidly growing large cities of the Dec- amounts of non-degradable waste, noise, etc. In can. Pune along with Pimpri-Chinchwad is well these PAs, 2 have major tourism development on the way towards becoming an emerging mega- plans through the MTDC and several others are in city that is spreading into the Western Ghats. A the offing. These plans tend to increase generalised case in point is the scrapping of the proposed Bio- tourism and are only ‘ecotourism’ in name. This is diversity Parks covering an area of 18,000 acres in probably one of the most serious concerns in which 23 newly merged villages of Pune city, in order to the two concerned line agencies, the Forest Depart- permit FSI of 4 on the hill tops and hill slopes sur- ment and the Tourism Department, require intense rounding the city (Chandawarkar 2010). interactions to appreciate that tourism itself can form a major impact on the resource on which it Unsustainable development of the urban edges depends, viz. wildlife. While its impact on the from growing towns and cities from the eastern glamour species that tourists wish to see can be and western aspects into the Ghats has not been quantified to some extent, it is the less known spe- studied from a scientific point of view. The biases 50 Name of MTDC Tourists Per Year and Pollution due Protected Tourist Facilities Tourist Density Develop- Impacts to Tourism Area ment Plan Rest House, Huts, Interpretation Water (Nil) Tansa 100-200, Low 0.328-0.656 Nil Center (Inside) Garbage (Nil) Water (High) Bhimashankar Private Lodges (Inside) 1,00,000-2,00,000, High 764.64-1529.28 Info. NA Garbage (High) Suits, Log huts, Tents, Guest 66964.28- Water (Nil) Karnala Houses, Dormitory, Interpreta- 3,00,000-4,00,000, High Info. NA 89285.71 Garbage (High) tion Center (Inside) Interpretation Center, Guest Water (Nil) Phansad 3,000-4,000 Low 56.053-74.738 Nil House (Periphery) Garbage (Nil) Private Lodges (Tapola) Irrigation Water (Nil) Koyna 15,000-20,000 Moderate 35.41-47.21 Yes Dept. (Koynanagar) (Periphery) Garbage (Mod) Water (Nil) Chandoli Irrigation Dept. (Inside) 5000 Low 16 Nil Garbage (Mod) Irrigation Dept. Forest Dept. Water (Nil) Radhanagari 5,000 - 6,000 Moderate 14.23-17.08 Info. NA MTDC - Suits(Inside) Garbage (Nil) Resthouse, Dormitory, Interpreta- 14949.40- Water (Nil) Sanjay Gandhi 13,00,000-15,00,000, High Yes tion Center, Museum, Canteen 17249.31 Garbage (High)

Impact Colour High Moderate Low Nil Codes Impacts of Tourism in selected PA surrounds (Bharucha 2006) cies, such as endemic plants, insects, etc. on which there are likely to be cryptic impacts which could INVASIVE EXOTIC SPECIES lead to their extinction and/or to serious loss of critical habitats of endemic species. Other issues One of the less studied impacts on the forests of related to animal breeding behaviour, territorial be- the Western Ghats is from accidental and purpose- havior, migration routes, etc. require more detailed ful introduction of exotic plant species over the last studies as this is linked to the level of tourism pres- few centuries. Several of these highly invasive spe- sure See table cies have invaded the forests of the Western Ghats and are now considered naturalized species. These Based on very general observations, Bhimashan- vigorous shrubs and ground flora have in many in- kar gets over a lakh of tourists per year who come stances become integrated into the existing ecosys- for pilgrimage to the temple. Karnala gets over 3 tem and have developed linkages within the food lakhs mainly day visitors, picnickers and people chains of the ecosystems of the Ghats. Lantana, passing along the highway. Sanjay Gandhi Na- eupatorium, congress grass are examples of plants tional Park has the largest number of visitors who that now cover wide sections of the Ghats. Their are picnickers and casual visitors to the temple. impact on the forest ecology has led to alterations The carrying capacity for tourists in these PAs is in the abundance and species dynamics of natural already exceeded. However, there are PAs which flora and fauna. if managed for sustainable ecotourism, can evolve a strategy where the activity provides alternate in- Ramakrishna et al. have shown that since many come generation for local people. Some high pres- of them entered the region long ago, they have sure tourist areas in the northern Western Ghats become pseudonatives (naturalised exotics). For are Sanjay Gandhi National Park, Mahabalesh- example, eucalyptus, coffee, tea, rubber etc. and war-Panchgani, Mathern, Panhala, Sinhgad, Bhi- exotic fauna such as rainbow trout and tilapia (Ra- ma-shankar, Saputara, Radhanagari and Goa. makrishna, C. Radhakrishnan, and K. C. Gopi 2001). There are more than 35 well established exotic trees in the Western Ghats of Maharashtra (Ghate and Vartak 1990). However current distri- 51 bution of exotics remains poorly documented even taneous adaptation by species will occur and sal- though the importance of these plants as a threat to vage species from possible extinction may be little natural ecosystems is better appreciated. more than an optimistic speculation. It is predicted that by the end of the 21st century rainfall will increase in most of India, (especially along the west coast, and Western Ghats). The effect on species may well be more serious than other existing human pressures that are seen due to alterations in the landscape The PRECIS climate model from the Hadley Center, has shown the pattern of changes in climate between 1961-1990, and predict the expected trend in future from 2071 to 2100 under A2 and B2 scenarios. This shows that by 2040 India will see a generalized warming and increasing rainfall. The Indian Institute of Tropi- cal Meteorology simulations predict a 20% rise in the summer monsoon rainfall along the West coast in future. This biogeographic region would thus shift towards favouring plant species that grow under wetter conditions (Kumar et al. 2006).

The Forest Department has used Eucalyptus, Subabul, Glyricidia and Acacia auriculoformis se- quentially over the last fifty years. These plantations generally do not support the habitat needs of wildlife in the Ghats. Their ability to act as corri- The forests of the Western Ghats depend not dors is limited. Altering this to an ecorestorative only on the high level of precipitation but on the naturalistic plantation would enhance a biodiver- number of rainy days. With the anticipated chang- sity oriented outcome. es in local weather conditions, alterations in the CLIMATE CHANGE regulatory action of the monsoon could produce The rather unpredictable outcomes of climate serious impacts on the forest type and structure in change is a major deterrent to designing appropri- the future. ate responses and strategies for responding to al- Several of the local endemic habitat specific terations in climate that may affect the Protected species in the Western Ghats could be seriously Area system of the Ghats. The current regional threatened by climate change. Local ground flora scale models appear to be imprecise and are fur- could be substituted by a host of invasive species. ther complicated by existing monsoonal vagaries, Those species that have evolved to survive in limit- and the limited data on temporal and spatial scales ed climatic ranges or are dependent on specialised of ecosystem responses to future climate change. restricted habitat needs may see either positive or Some ecosystem responses could take centuries, negative effects on their populations depending on others may take decades. Thus expecting that spon- the magnitude and shifts of rainfall regimes. Spe- 52 The globally recognized ‘hot spot’ of biodiversity in the Western Ghats and its adjacent coastal region has 56 PAs spread over its length from the Dangs of Gujarat, Sahyadris of Maharashtra, the Ghat sections of Goa, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu hills and Kerala. As the warming progresses and rainfall patterns alter there is a need to be able to create south to north oriented corridoring that could benefit conservation in the aftermath of climate change. This is perhaps the most valid and rational use of our current knowledge of the relationship of biodiversity conservation strategies to climate change. No efforts should be spared in creating these all important ‘species survival corridors’ between the Protected Areas of the Western Ghats and its off shoots in the Nilgiris and Agasthamalai ranges. The sites would thus include different categories of Ecologically Sensitive Areas that must be declared and protected through selected executive bodies which are provided with a new set of legal provisions. cies that are specific to drier habitats could suffer a cascade of extinctions both of floral and faunal a restriction of their ranges if rainfall increases. elements even though the more robust species may Those that depend on higher levels of precipitation relocate themselves in a new northern location or could expand their range. into higher altitudes in the Western Ghats, when temperatures increases. Studies on the possible shifts of geographical ranges of species due to climatic alterations are It is not expected that evergreen plants may colo- still at a preliminary stage. The ability of species to nize the semi evergreen eastern slopes of the Ghats adapt to climate change is thus difficult to predict. if rainfall increases, as these tree species grow from This has implications for the future planning of ef- seedling banks under cover of a thick closed for- fective ESAs for responding to the unpredictable est canopy. If however some elements of the ever- changes in rainfall and temperature in the Western green forests do spread northwards and eastwards Ghats. some of its dependant fauna would also migrate, expanding the potential ranges of species such as Various studies quoted in the IPCC Report the Nilgiri Thar (Hamitragus hilocrius), the Lion (Parry et al. 2007) suggest that there will be a loss Tailed Macaque (Macaca silenus), Nilgiri Langur of species diversity in several forest types due to (Trachypithecus johnii), Malabar giant squirrel climate change. This would particularly damage (Ratufa indica) and Grizzled giant squirrel (Ratufa tropical forest hotspots in the Western Ghats. For- macroura). However, this can only be possible if ests in higher altitudes will be encroached by low- viable corridors are preserved through the length land vegetation. A decrease in the colder high alti- of the Western Ghats. Several arboreal evergreen tude habitats will change in response to increasing forest birds could potentially spread northwards temperature. This should make species of the low into the Sahyadris of Maharashtra and into the lands move into the crest line, making it imperative altered climatic conditions in the Dang forests of to use new adaptive strategies to conserve all the Gujarat. However the breeding biology of most of threatened landscape elements within the Western these species, which is tuned to very specific envi- Ghats. ronments, and the number of rainy days in mon- Climate change responses in the forests of the soon months could be disrupted and breeding suc- Ghats cannot be expected to lead to a general over- cess depressed. These potentially positive effects on all ecosystem shift. While some species of native biodiversity would be reversed if rainfall decreases, plants have better adaptive strategies, others may which would reduce the habitat for species of the be adversely affected as their adaptive capacity to Shola forests in Kerala and Tamil Nadu. change in altered climatic conditions is limited. The population of rare and endemic reptiles and Thus plant communities cannot be expected to amphibians of the Ghats is already affected by for- migrate as complete entities. This implies that the est fragmentation. Any further alteration in their newly located ecosystem will not have an intact habitat may be disastrous for these little researched food web. The ‘drop out’ species could well trigger 53 taxa. Endemic fish of the Western Ghats could that are mandated to preserve corridors or even also find themselves unable to cope with the more stepping stones for wildlife between PAs could be erratic monsoon that will derange the flow in their crucial to protect biodiversity. breeding streams. Increased temperature and a further enhancement of flow rates due to the increase in rainfall in the longer and heavier monsoons could damage the breeding niches of freshwater stream fish. OTHERS There are two impact agents that have not been given attention and are data deficient. The first deals with the long stretches of power lines across the Ghats where the forests are cut down and altered to a shrubby condition. Species such as the Giant Squirrel would find this a serious barrier. The loss of the original habitat of the Ghats has The newly instituted windmills on plateau tops created the most profound impact on several spe- have not been studied for their impacts on avifauna cies. This includes mammals, birds and other less and the ground flora as they require connecting studied taxa. Forest bird abundance is a good indi- roads and maintenance crews. cator of habitat quality in the Western Ghats. Competition and overcrowding however, appears CONCLUSION to limit breeding success. Declines in the Malabar In conclusion, the age old impacts of traditional Giant squirrel populations is evident in areas where rab agriculture, cattle grazing, fire and NTFP col- the canopy is opened up due to over use and altera- lection within the Ghats forests was far lower than tions in species composition of trees due to planta- the neo-impacts of urbanization, transport, tour- tions. The disappearance of habitat sensitive spe- ism, mines, dams and industrial development that cies is the earliest signs of habitat degradation. As is expanding rapidly into the ecosensitive Western shown by Mac Arthur and Wilson (1967) the rate Ghats and isolating its biologically important PAs of species loss in isolated fragments of habitat is from each other. A set of ESAs with their own inversely related to patch size. Only some species policies, and implementation of locale specific can cross over from patch to patch if the distance rules and regulations will be required to arrest the between them increases. Tigers for example are re- threats that will lead to a rapid degradation of the luctant to cross from one isolated patch beyond a ecological values of the region. Creating a series certain threshold. Leopards in contrast will fre- of ESAs with different locale specific objectives quently attempt crossing over, as is observed in would substantially reduce the potential impacts Junnar Taluka. on these fragile ecosystems. It is insufficient to Thus combinations of several factors facilitate do routine EIAs for specific development proj- or deter specific species from retaining a healthy ects. Apart from these EIAs, a carrying capacity breeding population in the Western Ghats. These study that looks at the cumulative impact on the factors include habitat quality, reduced fragment region must form a major concern of the Western size, increased edge effects and extent of isola- Ghats Authority. Developing corridors to support tion. Matheran a relatively isolated patch for in- the Integrated Protected Area System in order to stance has no sambar deer, but Mahabaleshwar is preserve bioresources and wilderness ecosystems frequently visited by sambar moving into the for- in the long term is one important strategy. The un- est from Koyna Wildlife Sanctuary. These factors predictable nature of future climate change itself together act as a threshold, where local extinction brings home the importance of the precautionary results and recovery without a relocation program principle in managing ecosystems, species and ge- becomes next to impossible. Ecorestoration using a netic values of the Western Ghats. Creating ESAs 54 carefully designed strategy that creates room for recovery requires both corridoring as well as manag- Impacted areas will require new norms for ing patch habitat quality. The ESAs would have to ecorestoration. Current greening programs insti- be managed through scientific ecorestoration pro- tuted as mitigation and rehabilitation of mined ar- grams. This will essentially require detailed habitat eas is insufficient to provide the necessary habitat studies so that populations of habitat specific spe- conditions for the sensitive species. cies are able to recover in the ESAs.

THE DANGS FOREST, GUJARAT

The ecology and management of frgemented forests in the Dangs was studied by Bha- rucha and Worah, 1994. The study used a GIS analysis to identify potential habitats of four key species namely the Rusty Spotted Cat, the tiger, the Giant Squirrel and the spotted deer.

Based on the GIS analysis it was found that the distribution of optimal habitat conditions for each of the four target species was fragemented into isolated pockets. The species that had the largest amount of good quality habitat is the rusty spotted cat. This animal here is reported to use steep, rocky forested areas.. Studies also indicated that the forst on the steep rocky slopes in the Dangs was least disturbed. Thus the study reports that based on a combination of these two characteristics the rusty spotted cat has good chances of long term survival in the Dangs. This conclusion was supported by frequent sightings of this animal by local people. Good quality tiger habitat was patchy and thus the chances of long term survival of this animal in the Dangs was questionable. No evidence of tigers was obtained during the present study.

Of the four target species the giant squirrel had the least amount of potential habitat left in the Dangs. Besides it had nto been reported for the last forty years and is almost certainly extinct. Although the potential spotted deer habitat is scattered throughout the Dangs, the only existing population of this species today is found in the Bansda National Park where it has managed to survive. The only large mammal species that seemed to be surviving was the leopard.

The study showed that although the potential habitat for individual species is highly fragmented, the overall suitable habitat for the four target species combined showed a reasonably large contigous area. The best habitats were in the northern and the western parts of the Dangs where the Purna Wildlife Sanctuary and the Bansda National Park are located.

Both the Protected Forests and the plantations supported low wildlife values. However conservation of these areas was suggested in lieu of their role as forest corridors between the Reserve forest patches.

55 Given the complex socio-ecological situation in the Dangs where the people are highly dependent on the forests for their survival, the study suggested a management strategy that would focus on the dual objectives of conservation of biological values of as much of the forest as possible and improved management and restoration of the remaining forests for the benefit of local people. In order to achieve this, the study suggested increase of the boundary of the Purna WLS to increase the contiguous RF patches and shifting of the core area towards the east and the north where there were less pressures alongwith tightening controls of these areas. At the same time it suggested opening up of other areas for utilisation by local people as ‘multiple-use areas.

A follow-up study in the Dangs was carried out by Bharucha & Kolte, 2005. This study suggested that the forests has been increasingly fragmented and degraded due to expansion of ‘rab’ in Protected Forests with severe loss of habitat due to tree felling. The Dangs also underwent a periof of insurgency during 1989 to 1992 and villages with high disturbance showed large loss of trees. Illegal timber felling and increased population pressures also contributed to its degradation.

56 CHAPTER 4: PLANNING OF ESAs

ne of the major mandates of the WGEEP more biologically valuable potential ESAs that is to demarcate areas of the Western must be categorised into different types for area OGhats to be notified as Ecologically Sen- specific management. sitive. In spite of the obvious sensitivity of the glob- 1. Areas Proposed but not Notified as ESAs ally recognised hotspot of biodiversity the Com- mittee is expected to bring out those areas that can 2. Reserve Forests and Closed Canopy Forests be included as Multiple Use Areas with sufficient 3. Water Bodies protection to ensure long term sustainable develop- 4. Sacred Groves ment. 5. Specialized Ecosystems This will require identifying of landscape elements with clearly defined norms of landuse man- 6. Species Based ESAs agement. Thus the proposed ESAs would have to be categorised into different types, as their sensitivity levels and patterns vary across the Ghats. Two CATEGORIZATION OF basic issues need to be considered: EXISTING ESAS I. Existing ESAs: There are already notified The existing ESAs in the northern Western ESAs supported by the MOEF and the judiciary. Ghats as stipulated by the Ministry of Environ- ment and Forests include the network of Protected 1. Protected Areas Areas, a 10 kilometer buffer around each Protected 2. ESAs around Protected Areas Area and the three hill stations of Matheran, Ma- habaleshwar and Panchgani. 3. Hill-station ESAs II. Proposed ESAs: There are equally and even 57 Protected Areas The PAs in this biogeographic region include several landscape types which lie in the hill sec- The most important group of ESAs in the West- tions and adjacent coastal plains. Several of the ern Ghats are the existing and potential sites noti- floral and faunal elements are common to both fied as Wildlife Sanctuaries (WLS) and National these sub regions. A number of species are how- Parks (NP). While the notified areas are protected ever unique to the hills (Bossuyt et al. 2004). To- under the Wildlife Protection Act 1972, the process gether this group of PAs constitute the most im- of notification has not been completed for many portant ESAs of the Western Ghats. Most of them reasons for several PAs. spread across the crest line and extend into parts The PAs of the Northern Western Ghats include of the eastern slopes into the Deccan where they 3 National Parks and 15 Wildlife Sanctuaries in include patches of deciduous forests and old teak the three states of Gujarat, Maharashtra and Goa. plantations. This gives rise to a wide range of land- Gujarat and Maharashtra rank among the top five scapes with many different and unique landscape states in terms of PA coverage. In the Western elements. As the rainfall drops drastically from the Ghats the PAs include Purna Wildlife Sanctuary, crest line to the Deccan plateau, the vegetation of and Vansda National Park in Gujarat, while Kal- most of these PAs changes dramatically from west subai Wildlife Sanctuary, Bhimashankar Wildlife to east (Champion and Seth 1968). Sanctuary Koyna National Park, Chandoli Wild- Several of these Protected Areas have villages life Sanctuary (proposed National Park) and Rad- within them. The settlements are usually situat- hanagri Wildlife Sanctuary in Maharashtra are ed where the hill slope meets a river flood plain. situated along the crest and slopes of the Western Patches of agricultural land surround the villages Ghats in Maharashtra. In Maharashtra the Protect- even within the PAs. In several hill slopes there are ed Areas that extend into the coastal belt include blanks due to ‘rab’ cultivation, where a mosaic of Tansa Wildlife Sanctuary, Sanjay Gandhi National forest and ‘rab’ agriculture forms a distinctive lan- Park (Borivali) and Phansad Wildlife Sanctuary duse category with these two different landscape while those that extend into the Deccan Plateau elements. are the potential PAs of Mulshi and Mawal talukas of Pune district which were discussed frequently The priority would be to create not just contigu- but were never formally notified. Some of these ous but continuous corridors in between the above PAs extend from the coastal plains into the West- given network of PA’s. ern escarpment. Others include forests between The Protected Areas have already been pri- catchment areas of dams along the eastern spurs oritized based on their legal status into National that slope into the Deccan. Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries and recently newly sug-

List of National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries in the northern Western Ghats

State National Park Wildlife Sanctuaries Gujarat Vasda National Park Purana Wildlife Sanctuary Maharashtra Sanjay Gandhi National Park Kalsubai Harishchandra Wildlife Sanctuary Tansa Wildlife Sanctuary Bhimashankar Wildlife Sanctuary Chandoli Wildlife Sanctuary Karnala Wildlife Sanctuary Koyna Wildlife Sanctuary Phansad Wildlife Sanctuary Radhanagari Wildlife Sanctuary Sagareshwar Wildlife Sanctuary Goa Molem National Park Bondla Wildlife Sanctuary Cotigao Wildlife Sanctuary Madei Wildlife Sanctuary Molem Wildlife Sanctuary Netravalli Wildlife Sanctuary 58 State Area Name Status Significant Biome / Land Unit Evergreen Semi-Evergreen Moist Deciduous Dry Deciduous Forest Forest Forest Forest Plantation Gujarat Bansda P P Maharashtra Tansa S Bhimashankar S ? P P Koyana S P P Chandoli S P P Kalsubhai-Har- ishchandragad S P P P Radhanagari S P P P Goa Mollem S P P Bondla S P P Cotigao S P P P

State Area Name Status Significant Species Rusty Malabar Mugger Tiger Elephant Gaur Spotted Cat Civet Hornbills Crocodile Gujarat Bansda P E ? Maharashtra Tansa S P P Bhimashankar S P Koyana S P P P P Chandoli S P P P Kalsubhai-Har- ishchandragad S P Radhanagari S P P P P Goa Mollem S ? ? P P P Bondla S Cotigao S P P Summary of Values of Existing and Proposed Protected Areas (Rodgers and Panwar 1988) gested as Community Reserves. level is a distinct advantage making restoration an attainable target. It was also suggested that Rad- Early efforts for prioritization of Protected Ar- hanagari, Koyna and Phansad should be upgraded eas were done for the World Bank Forestry Sector to NP status to provide inviolate cores and better in Maharashtra in 1991. Planning a PA network management which would ensure their preserva- for Maharashtra led to the institution of new PAs tion on a long term basis. Chandoli has been given mostly based on Rodgers & Panwar 1988. A pa- a rating of (+00) indicating that it has a high con- per by (Bharucha 1996) dealt with prioritization servation potential with average ecodevelopment among the 29 PAs of Maharashtra. possibilities and moderate levels of conflict. Bhi- For the Western Ghats PAs this paper has rated mashankar has been given a rating of (+0-) as it has Radhanagari, Koyna and Phansad as (+++) indi- a very high biological significance being situated cating above average scoring for all the major cri- in a ‘hot spot’ of biodiversity but has local conflict teria ie: conservation potential, utilitarian potential problems. Sanjay Gandhi National Park has been and conflict levels. The author notes that the pos- given a rating of (0+-) signifying a PA of average sibility of restoration appears almost feasible in importance where ecodevelopment is feasible but this group. He suggests that the aim of manage- unduly high conflict levels. The paper suggests that ment should be to create as large a core as pos- management here must focus primarily on reduc- sible with ecodevelopment inputs for conserving ing conflict. Kalsubai and Karnala have been given the buffer on a sustainable basis. The low conflict 59 a rating of (--0) indicating a low conservation po- and its surrounding Reserve Forest blocks. Roads tential with low utilisation potential and moderate passing through these PAs and their surrounds levels of conflict. The paper suggests that manage- have not been considered as requiring a different ment planning must focus on a good substitution level of management. Such areas should have tran- program for resources and identify those that have sit passages for wildlife in the form of underpasses specific conservation objectives. or overbridges. No industrial or urban development should have occurred in these areas. In many situa- Very little work on prioritizing PAs in the north- tions, tourist complexes have spread all around the ern part of the Western Ghats appears to have PAs in what is now considered an ESA. been done in the recent past. The currently ongo- ing Management Effectiveness Evaluation being The rapid deforestation that has occurred in the carried out by the MoEF and the WII can be used catchment areas whenever dams have been built, as an available source of data and information on even in the vicinity of Protected Areas has broken management outcomes that can be used to plan the continuity of the forests. These areas on the ESAs and their selection based on this evaluation fringes of Protected Areas are vital to the integrity experience. Several of these PAs have already been of the Western Ghats Protected Area system, es- included in the study and have a wealth of useful pecially in relation to their potential value as cor- information for planning ESAs in the Ghats. ridors between PAs. A corridor that includes the PA surrounds must be notified as an ESA as part of There are two other useful data sources that can a precautionary principle even beyond the 10 km be used to plan effective ESAs. While both these rule. The currently notified PA surrounds must be were carried out in the late 1980s, reviewing them notified and managed as per the orders of the Hon. and comparing their data to current situations could Supreme Court. New projects that require landuse form a vitally important study to formulate plans alterations must not be permitted around the PAs for ESAs in the Ghats section. The two studies are: in the Ghats in the future. This includes establish- Planning a Wildlife Protected Area Network in In- ing new tourism areas, or ‘cities’ like those devel- dia (Rodgers and Panwar 1988) and Management oped at Amby Valley and Lavasa, which have led of National Parks and Sanctuaries in India: A Sta- to disruption of potentially viable forest corridors. tus Report (Kothari, Forests, and Division 1989). ESAs around Protected Areas There is thus a strong rationale to include the surrounding landscape of Protected Areas as a spe- Currently the Ministry of Environment and For- cial category of ESAs. In the future, surrounding est (MOEF) has mandated that a 10 km buffer zone human perturbations around PAs will have strong around the Protected Areas should be notified as negative impacts on the conservation potential of an ecologically sensitive area. However, this ruling PAs in the Ghats. Several PA surrounds harbour has been repeatedly violated around the PAs of the a mosaic of forest types in Reserve Forests and Northern sector of the Western Ghats. specialized ecosystems such as plateaus and scrub- In the Western Ghats the surrounds of Protected lands that act as vital buffers to the biodiversity Areas are of special significance. There are 18 PAs sequestrated in National Parks and Wildlife Sanc- within and at the periphery of the northern part of tuaries. A review of the present landuse around the Ghats. The level of protection has been varied PAs in Maharashtra (Bharucha 2006) suggests and fluctuating due to unclear management and that there are a large number of existing impacts differences in the prior ownership of the land. The on these ESAs. These include industrial establish- PAs are however ‘protected’ at least on paper. Ex- ments, dams, hydel power stations, roads, mines, amples of management alterations in time include and townships. These existing landuse categories issues such as tribal retaliations that occurred in cannot be wished away. However attempts must be and around Purna Wildlife Sanctuary in Gujarat a made to limit the impacts and provide mitigating few years ago. This led to the uncontrolled felling measures by creating legislations and rules to re- of a large number of trees in the Protected Area duce their impact. No new development should be

60 permitted in this category of ESAs. This is an im- habaleshwar-Panchgani Notification in the Min- portant issue as many PA surrounds in the North- istry. Thus the Mahabaleshwar-Panchgani ESA ern Western Ghats are already surrounded by other Notification follows the same pattern as used by forms of landuse (Bharucha 2006). the Pachmarhi draft ESA Notification. For the first Hill-station ESAs time provisions were made for heritage conservation, regulation of groundwater extraction and Increasing levels of tourism have led to defor- regulation of traffic. These provisions were added estation, problems of waste disposal, housing keeping in mind the ecology of the hill station as expansion, roads and water shortage in most hill an ESA. stations both in the northern Western Ghats and A review by Kapoor et al., 2009 of the ESAs de- elsewhere in India. For several years, and more so picts milestones from 2000 onwards that have led from the early 1990s, NGOs and conservation re- to the process of a proposed Sahyadri ESA. The search groups have debated the need to protect hill altitudinal gradient of the proposed area coupled ecosystems and the hill stations within them. The with the difference in rainfall across the area con- Pronab Sen Committee Report (Sen 2000) includes tributes to the creation of the diverse forest types hill stations as an ESA group. Currently new town- that are seen in the area which provide the range of ships such as Sahara and Lavasa and the proposed hills with exceptional biological values. New Mahabaleshwar Township should be brought under the purview of the same conditions as they They have shown that deforestation, poaching are nested in the Western Ghats and are distinctly and encroachments are serious deterrents to the a growing threat within the biodiversity hotspot ecological and environmental assets within this re- region of the Western Ghats (Kapoor, Kohli, and gion. The concept was initiated around 1991 when Menon 2009). a Sahyadri Ecologically Sensitive Areas (SESA) consisting of 4200 sq km. in Karnataka in Maha- Among the hillstations of the Western Ghats, rashtra was suggested as an ESA in the Northern only Panchgani, Mahabaleshwar, Matheran in the Western Ghats. This was first proposed by the Na- Sahyadris have been classified as Ecologically Sen- tional Committee for the Protection of Natural sitive Areas. This leaves out areas such as the new Resources. By its notification dated June 21, 1999, townships, old forts such as Panhala, Sinhagad etc. the MoEF invited suggestions or objections on the that area growing into urban centers with serious draft rules proposed to prohibit or regulate loca- environmental problems due to garbage dumping, tion of identified industries in proximity to iden- water pollution, etc. as their tourist carrying capac- tified ecologically and environmentally sensitive ity has been exceeded. areas. After the last meeting of the Mohan Ram The Mahableshwar-Panchgani Ecologically Committee on June 29, 2004 and its suggestions, Sensitive Area covers an area of 237.28 sq km. In the Sahyadri Ecologically Sensitive Areas has not terms of the history of the ESA classification, the been discussed in the MoEF. According to Dr. Department of Environment, Maharashtra Gov- H.Y. Mohan Ram, the Chairman of the committee ernment carried out a study on the environmental to declare areas as ecologically sensitive, though status of the Mahabaleshwar plateau in 1982 and SESA was a good proposal and aimed at protect- stated in its report ‘unless checked now, the entire ing the Western Ghats, how it would ensure sound plateau may well be destroyed within a decade and management being spread across three states was rendered unfit for human habitation’. Around the not clear. Thus, he felt it was better not to notify same time, the Ministry of Environment and For- the entire region as an ESA, but select areas which ests (MoEF) had gazetted a preliminary notifica- could be declared as ecologically sensitive within tion inviting public objections and suggestions for the larger area (Kapoor, Kohli, and Menon 2009) the declaration of Pachmarhi as an Ecologically Matheran was constituted as an ESA in 2003. By Sensitive Area. This was the first hill station to be that time the Pronab Sen Committee’s report (see considered for declaration as ‘ecologically frag- section 4 of this chapter) was out and the Matheran ile’. This created the ground for pushing the Ma- 61 Notification was now re-drafted to fit the criteria ESAs. laid down in this report. The Eco-Sensitive Area If the objective of a Western Ghats Authority is covers an area of 214.73 sq km and a 200 m buf- a sustainable management strategy for the Western fer zone and consists of the area of the Matheran Ghats it must look at environmental social and eco- Municipal Council and its environs. nomic factors to permit or disallow certain forms CATEGORIZATION OF PROPOSED of development. ESAS Thus the rating for a parcel of land that is to be There can be several categories of ESAs depend- protected or developed through ESAs must take ing on the ecological process and biodiversity val- into account all three concerns. As the primary fo- ues that can be maintained within them in the long cus is biodiversity conservation this must be given a term. Each category can be separately rated on the large score; as social issues related to local farmers basis of their function in the Western Ghats land- and tribal folk require a greater degree of protec- scape as well as their level of threat. For example, tion to their resources rather than shift their land the Bhor Ghats at Khandala is a substantial gap in use into an urban category, this must be based the effort at corridoring, which needs to be included on social issues such as traditional resource use as an ESA. Some patches of relatively good forests and sacred groves. The economic concern here is that function as critically important corridors must closely linked to social concerns as for example the form a key aspect of notifying ESAs. . Similarly, ar- support for ecotourism through which the income eas where new dam and mining projects have been goes to the local communities rather than five star proposed need to be extensively reviewed. It is im- tourism operators. Economic considerations must portant to balance the needs of conservation and focus on providing a better quality of life for local development through a set of priorities, the institu- people such as access to potable water, access to tion of good governance practices and principles health, better housing, agricultural technology and of sustainability to stem or reverse threats. alternate income generation possibilities. (Sarkar et al. 2006) outline these concerns which Based on these three conditions activities can be apply to conservation planning for the Western considered as sustainable or unsustainable in a par- Ghats. They contend that representation and per- ticular ESA category. Thus for example a parcel of sistence are important parameters as conservation ESA could be permitted for grazing or collection competes with other forms of landuse. The long- of firewood or NTFP at a sustainable level of de- term sustenance of ecological and evolutionary velopment. principles must govern the objectives of creating The rating scale to quantify this would thus have ESAs in the Western Ghats. The authors consider conservation assessment, evaluation of social ben- ‘complimentarily’ ‘irreplaceability’ and ‘vulner- efits and economic concerns. It would also assess ability’ as key issues for conservation planning. present and future threats. Thus rather than a sin- The ESAs in the Western Ghats will require the gle score the outcome should include a ‘signature’ use of several decision making tools to bring out a for each category that would give a positive value well-considered ESA management strategy. to conservation social and economic importance and a negative scoring system for threat evaluation. The ESAs in the northern sector of the Ghats is one strategy that could bring about longterm sus- However to prioritize the level of eco-sensitivity tainable land management in the Ghats. This must most authors add the conservation importance to bring to the front not only activities or development the threat values to compare different areas. projects that cannot be carried out, but also indi- The various categories of areas that could be in- cate areas where activities may be permitted based cluded as an ESA are described below. on the special needs or under specific requirements. This must be based on cumulative (region based) Areas Planned but not Notified as PAs carrying capacity studies rather than single project The existing PAs of this biogeographic zone as 62 ‘Signature’ for ESAs based on sustainability Conservation assessment score 6RFLDOVLJQL¿FDQFHVFRUH Local Economic stability Threat considerations (positive) (positive) (positive) (negative)

listed by (Rodgers and Panwar 1988) and (Rodgers across the Ghats. This effects forest communities et al. 2002) are useful documents that could be used from north to south – the geomorphological effect, as a basis for suggesting inclusion of the potential and west to east – the climatological effects of pre- PAs into a network of ESAs under the proposed cipitation. Western Ghats Authority. There are two such areas in the northern Western Ghats, both in Maha- rashtra. These are Mahabaleswar and Fr. Santapau Sanctuary, later suggested as Rajmachi and Mulshi wildlife sanctuaries. For example, the mitigation measures suggested for the Mumbai Pune Expressway was to develop two Protected Areas of 100 km2 each in the West- ern Ghats north and south of the alignment. While this was planned by the Forest Department in great detail using satellite imaging and Reserve Forest from toposheets, the mitigation agreed to, has nev- Historically, the protection strategy in early times er been implemented. The proposal had envisioned is evident only from the very small but widespread including only the RF blocks and renotifying them groups of sacred groves maintained by local forest as Wildlife Sanctuaries. This proposal could be eas- dwelling people. These form benchmarks of what ily revived and either notified as has been agreed to the ESAs should look like in the future. or be included as ESAs under the Western Ghats For purposes of creating viable ESAs the most Authority. obvious patches of forest are within Reserved For- Reserve Forest and Closed Canopy Forest ests in the Western Ghats. The forests with over Das et al. 2006 have identified high conserva- 60% canopy values appear to be mainly the RF tion value grids containing RFs adjoining existing patches some of which have been incorporated PAs. The feasibility of including these forests in the into PAs. respective protected area should be examined. In A major concern is the need for forest connec- Maharashtra, the Sahyadri Konkan corridor con- tivity which is a prime concern in the design of sisting of the Bhimgad Reserve Forest, Amboli a network of ESAs. This must not only look at Reserve Forest and the forests of Mahabaleshwar North – South corridoring but at connectivity be- have been put into this category. tween forests of the hill range and the coastal belt. The pattern of vegetation in the Ghats is influ- While several floral and faunal elements between enced strongly by geological, climatological and the Western Ghats hill section and the forests in the altitudinal factors. Most of the RF patches are rela- coastal belt differ significantly, there are common tively small and have been altered by decades and elements which require this connectivity between even centuries of human interference of different hill range crests, the escarpment, and the coastal types and levels of impact. These natural and bi- plain. Much of this West – East connectivity is otic influences have led to the most complex forms through stream edge vegetation which is linked to of forest communities and created a jigsaw puzzle riparian vegetation of river banks and finally to the of landscape elements that form distinct mosaics mangroves in estuaries.

63 Several species of insects, amphibians and fish cies) are most vulnerable to a breakdown of such tracts The level of fragmentation of different forest which are highly susceptible to the negative im- types is a key concern for developing a system of pacts of roads, power lines, and to some extent the ESA corridors for the Western Ghats. conversion of nachni-varai and paddy lands into terraced sugarcane. Water Bodies In the Northern Western Ghats there is a need to The aquatic ecosystems of the Ghats consist of classify forests into ecologically based formations. lotic and lentic systems. While the streams and riv- The two more typical examples to be considered er tributaries range from temporary monsoon tor- include high tall and low stunted forest structures rents to slow moving pools, the lakes contiguous that are seen in patches. The dominant trees in- to the Ghats area all artificial impoundments due clude the Memecylon – Syzygium – Actinodaphne, to the construction of a series of dams developed semi evergreen formations – for example of Ma- progressively for over a century. habaleshwar and the very different Dimocarpus River Sources – Holigarna in Bhimashankar, Chandoli, Koyna In the Western Ghats the forest is the source for that forms another distinctive forest. In contrast a all the rivers that meander through the vast Dec- majority of the forests of the catena in Gujarat has can, as well as give birth to the river deltas and es- moist and dry deciduous teak or miscellaneous for- tuaries in the coastal region. ests (Worah 1991). The relationship of river sources with Protected Existing forest corridors and potential corridor- Areas, temples and other historical sites is found able sites are a key to preserving biological val- in several parts of the Western Ghats, such as the ues of these varied forests types. This is of great five rivers including the Krishna from old Maha- relevance to managing faunal values not only for baleshwar and the Bhima river in Bhimashankar. the areas intervening between the PAs but for the These sources have some level of traditional or in- longterm genetic and evolutionary processes of the stitutionalized protection. However, most other riv- Ghats as a bio-ecological entity of global value. er sources have no protection from the impacts of The Forest Survey of India’s categorization a number of development related activities. New of vegetation classes into high density moder- townships that have sprung up in the Ghats have ate density and scrub land is an indication of the created impacts on these river sources by using the fragmentation of the forests. Any further degrada- perennial sources for their own use, disrupting their tion is likely to have the most serious consequenc- flow and altering their natural ecological attributes. es. While some of this could be tackled through Changes made by human activity at these river ecorestoration, mined areas for example that have sources can have serious consequences down- been rehabilitated by a green cover of exotic trees stream. These rivers arise from water that perco- may be unusable for a large variety of fauna. The lates from a lateritic plateau into underground outcome of neglect at this stage could well lead to a stores and then emerges at a lower level as a spring. permanent and irreversible damage to biodiversity. The disturbance to the flow of surface water on Some of the important aspects of notifying the crest of the range can modify the flow from ESAs in the Reserve Forest category include the the spring. This not only adversely affects the veg- following: etation around the spring, but reduces the critical 1. Size (for core species) availability of a perennial source of water for wildlife. These sites should form a separate category 2. Configuration of ESAs. The most critical spots are sources of 3. Connectivity streams that are perennial as they form keystone 4. Naturalness (Least disturbed by plantations resources for wildlife in summer. >60% canopy of indigenous forest tree spe- While the temples attempt to protect these river 64 sources, the growing level of pilgrimage tourism to tributaries emanating from the Ghats, (both on the these sites due to better roads up to the temple has Western and Eastern aspects) leads to severe altera- become a serious impact on the ecological features tions, in water supply for all types of human use, of these river sources. Bhimashankar receives thou- besides creating a serious problem for the conser- sands of tourists during the Mahashivratri festival, vation of wildlife. causing pollution from food waste, faecal matter, The aquatic and terrestrial features of the catch- plastic bags, bottles and oil from motor vehicles ments constitute a complex and interrelated eco- that pollute the crystal clear waters of the spring logical mosaic. Destabilising either component where the Bhima originates. Such sacred temple leads to disruption in the other. Thus deforestation sites where rivers originate must be included in a of the terrestrial ecosystem alters flow rates in the specific set of ESAs to prevent the desecration of streams of the Ghats. Altered overutilization of the water sources especially during religious yatras. water from the stream destroys the riparine threat- The important river sources that need to be pro- ened ecosensitive vegetation. tected are linked to the integrity of watersheds with The watershed as a whole thus is an important different types of land and resource use within ESA with very special management considerations them. as a category requiring its own norms and rules. Watersheds Securing these functions is a key to sustainable development at the regional level. This will require The Western Ghats are collectively an important locale specific microlevel planning and the coop- watershed region. All the major rivers of the Dec- eration of local people. can Plateau and the coastal region arise in a series of adjacent independent watersheds in the Western Catchments of Dams Ghats. Their upper catchments are the most eco- The catchment zones are rapidly losing the logically sensitive zones as they are on steep slopes forests that once prevented soil erosion and mon- which were once surrounded by an intact continu- soonal flooding downstream of the dams. The de- ous forested tract along the Ghats and its offshoots. forested areas in the catchments have led to rapid The rivers are fed by a large number of tributar- siltation with a serious reduction in the water hold- ies of ecological significance. The major rivers from ing capacity and the life span of the dams. Desilt- North to South include Godavari, Purna, Manjra, ing dams is a much more expensive process than the Pranhita (Penganga-Wardha), Indravati, the preventing deforestation and afforesting the de- Sabari, Darna, Kadwa, Mula, Karanji, Madhur- graded catchment areas. nala, Devanala, Hebbala, Krishna, Koyana, Varna, A review of the catchments of the dams along Panchganga, Doodhganga, Bhima, Musi, Paleru, the Western Ghats demonstrates that there are Maneru, Ghataprabha, Malaprabha and Tungab- hardly any large valleys left without a water-spread hadra. created by the series of dams. Thus once the dams The west flowing rivers in the Western Ghats are have lost their long term viability through siltation Purna, Auranga, Par in Gujarat; Surya, Vaitarna, there are no valleys where new dams can be built. Damanganga, Ulhas, Savitri, Vashisthi, Gad, Kaja- Thus the command agricultural areas, of the dams, vi and Kodavali in Maharashtra; Mandovi, Zauari, the cities and industrial belts that are completely Tiracol, Chapora, Talpona in Goa. dependent on a year round supply of water from the dams will be crippled and an entire set of nega- Several of the smaller tributaries are of ecologi- tive economic and social concerns will be seen af- cal importance. Each river has its own abiotic fea- ter a few decades. tures in its catchment zone which includes topography, slope, geological nature, soil characteristics, It may be noted that if all the catchments are rainfall patterns and biotic features such as forest to be considered as ESAs there is very little inter- types, open grasslands and shrubby growth. Dis- vening land between them. They are separated by regard for the integrity of the watersheds of the a narrow range of steep hills. Thus the whole of 65 the Ghats section which surround the catchment cha 1999). In Mawal and Mulshi even though the of the dams must be included in these ESAs. Each sacred forest patches are small in size their aggre- catchment area of these dams must be included in gated species richness usually represents the com- a highly essential group of special category ESA. plete spectrum of plant species of the forest type around the catchments of the hydel lakes in this Studies by Bharati Vidyapeeth Institute of Envi- region (BVIEER 1998). ronment Education and Research for Tata Electric Company’s hydel catchment areas (BVIEER 1998) demonstrated two patterns of biotic pressures. At Valvan and Shirowata, the area within the catchment has no villages and has tracts of Reserved Forests from which the villages were resettled in the early 1900s outside the catchment. Here the pressure of grazing and fuel wood collection occurred from outside the catchment. This created a centrifugal pressure which began at the ridge and has moved progressively downwards into residual patches of forest in a less degraded condition at a lower level. In contrast, in the Andhra Lake and in the Mulshi catchment the villages are in the flood plains of the original Indravati and Mula rivers. Here the pressure is primarily centripetal, beginning from the base of the hill ranges and extending gradually towards the crest line. The more intact forests are closer to the higher ridges of the catchment areas. This has implications for managing ESAs of all the catchment areas in the Western Ghats. Sacred Groves The large number of small patches of ‘sacred groves’ maintained by local communities in a Sacred groves have been defined as a biological relatively high state of ecological integrity are of heritage and a system that has helped to preserve considerable conservation value as benchmarks of the representative genetic resources existing in the naturalness. Established conservation programs surrounding regions for generations. They are a (e.g. protected area networks) do not recognize the rich repository of biodiversity and a product of a value of traditional institutions, despite the exist- certain socio-ecological philosophy, which is today ing evidence for their effectiveness in biodiversity a potent tool to avert any crisis in the society (Singh conservation and pressure from researchers to in- et al.2009). They reflect a cherishment of sanctity clude them in local and regional conservation plan- through conservation of biodiversity. Tree cutting ning (Bhagwat and Rutte 2008). and other such extraction of resources is forbidden Gadgil and Vartak as early in the late 60s pio- only in the smaller groves, while larger groves often neered studies on the sacred groves of Maharashra. function as resources for the sustenance of local When the floral species richness of adjacent groves people. Threats to sacred groves today are due to is aggregated, the small groves together contain modernisation, liberalisation, privatisation and most of the species found across wide expanse of globalisation, leading to an erosion of values that the Ghats. They thus not only act as bench mark- created the concept of sacred groves. ers of ecological intactness but as gene banks for These informal protected areas are as impor- seed recovery of the rarer species of plants (Bharu- 66 tant for biodiversity conservation as formal areas. The local ‘kaul’ ritual is performed in several While endemic trees were more abundant in for- groups of groves in the Western Ghats which lim- est reserves than in sacred groves; threatened trees its resource extraction by a ceremony based on were more abundant in sacred groves in the south- chance. The priest makes two trickles of water on ern Western Ghats. (Bhagwat et al. 2005). sacred the side of the deities platform. He then places a groves cover many important habitats and species grain of wheat in each of the trickles which stick to which are not covered by Pas. A study on the sa- the side of the platform till the decrease in surface cred groves of Mawal and Mulshi Talukas showed tension permits one of them to fall. Depending on that each grove had a different complement of whether the right or left grain falls first the deity large old trees. However when they were added to- permits or discourages the extraction of branches, gether even the small groves had contributed to the or trees from the grove. There are several alterna- list of tree species and thus all the species found tive ways of doing the ceremony, all of which have in the forests of Mawal and Mulshi Talukas were a fifty-fifty percent chance of permitting a resource accounted for within the groves (Bharucha 1999). to be taken from the grove. The patches of old growth forests which have large trees and hollow trunks are of importance for forest birds, giant squirrels, flying squirrels, bats and several insects. These old growth patches in Maharashtra are associated with tribal deities which are protected by local people as ‘devrai’s, ‘deo rahati’ or have no specific nomenclature, but are never-the-less preserved as intact or semi-intact forest patches dedicated to animistic deities. These are often depicted as fearful female gods, or animals such as the tiger. For example, in the Mawal and Mulshi talukas there are 44 groves of one to eight hectares in size maintained by local communities. They have been looked after mostly by the Mahadeo Koli tribe. Each grove is named after a special deity. Several have a mythological story related to their origin (Malhotra et al. 2001) Intricate local traditional customs have maintained the groves through a stochastic method in which a ritual by the pujari controls the amount of resources that may be extracted from the grove at any point in time. The local communities establish rules that vary from grove to grove. These norms often prohibit the felling of trees and the killing of animals, but do allow for the collection In most groves a blanket preservation of the ex- of firewood, fodder, and medicinal plants by local traction of all resources is not usually carried out. people (Hughes and Chandran 1998). Also, in a A temple for the grove may be built on money col- majority of groves studied in Mawal and Mulshi lected by selling timber from the grove under spe- Talukas some resources are extracted based on rit- cial conditions. This has strong community sup- uals which permit a small and sustainable level of port from local village folk. In contrast the groves resource-use for local purposes. In some deadwood in Kerala are maintained by each family in their and fruit may be collected. In others palm juice backyards. may be taken for toddy. In most cases the protection afforded is governed

67 List of Prioritized Sacred Groves in the Northern Western Ghats District Taluka Village Area (HA) Deity Ratnagiri Chiplun Kudap 14.81 --- Ratnagiri Chiplun Sawarde 12.18 --- Ratnagiri Dapoli Kudavale 46.00 --- Ratnagiri Dapoli Sadavali 12.14 --- Ratnagiri Sangmeshwar Adawad 25.00 Unapdev Ratnagiri Sangmeshwar Devde 30.00 Mhasoba Ratnagiri Sangmeshwar Marleshwar 100.00 Marleshwar Sindhudurg Kankavli Bidvad 12.04 ---

Sindhudurg Kankavli Pise Kamate Bidvad 12.79 --- Sindhudurg Kudal Awalegaon 23.29 --- Sindhudurg Kudal Khochre 23.29 Dungoba Sindhudurg Sawantwadi Ambegaon 20.00 Mauli Sindhudurg Vengurle Achra 20.00 Rameshwar Raigad Alibag Adi 17.25 --- Raigad Alibag Chirgaon 32.18 --- Raigad Alibag Dahan 30.08 --- Raigad Alibag Deodhar 33.69 --- Raigad Alibag Khandala 90.00 Siddheshwar Raigad Alibag Kole 17.59 Kole Raigad Alibag Mangloli 18.72 Kalkai Raigad Alibag Mapgaon 125.00 Kanakeshwar Raigad Alibag Talwadi 14.33 Talwadi Raigad Alibag Varvante 16.39 Bhairidevi Raigad Dehan Dehan 17.6 Dehan Raigad Mangaon Tilore 18.00 Bhairoba Thane Wada Ambiste Bk. 60.5 Nagnath Thane Wada Ambiste Bk. 44.4 Nagnath Thane Wada Gourapur 43.7 Laxmi Narayan Thane Wada Gunj 22.36 Bhargavnath Thane Wada Gunj 18.87 Vajreshwari Thane Wada Sange 37.6 Tryambakeshwar Thane Wada Shelte 34.22 Gramdevi Kolhapur Chandgad Bhololi 20 ---- Kolhapur Shahuwadi Ugwai 34 Ugwaidevi Ratnagiri Chiplun Kotakwadi 27.56 ---- Ratnagiri Chiplun Pathe 13.73 ---- Ratnagiri Lanja Prabhanvalli 27.4 ---- Ratnagiri Mandangad Pat 18.01 ---- Ratnagiri Sangmeshwar Gothane 18.37 ---- Ratnagiri Sangmeshwar Gothane 16.47 ---- Ratnagiri Sangmeshwar Kinjale 13.00 Gaondev Sindhudurg Kudal Shivapur 19.14 ---- Sindhudurg Sawantwadi Sarmale 40.65 ---- Sindhudurg Vaibhavwadi Het 31.94 ---- Sindhudurg Vaibhavwadi Karul 20.02 ---- Sindhudurg Vaibhavwadi Kumhavade 19.10 ---- Sindhudurg Vaibhavwadi Madhalwadi 19.12 ---- Sindhudurg Vaibhavwadi Mandvikar wadi 53.55 ---- 68 Sindhudurg Vaibhavwadi Navale 77.49 ---- Sindhudurg Vaibhavwadi Nimarule 47.35 ---- Sindhudurg Vaibhavwadi Sonali 14.17 ---- Sindhudurg Vaibhavwadi Tiavde turf. Khare 27.84 ---- Sindhudurg Vaibhavwadi Vayamboshi 14.03 ---- Kolhapur Shauwadi Kassarde 12.00 Dhopeshwar Pune ------Bibi 54.5 Shambhu Pune Bhor Shirgaon 15.00 Durgadevi Pune Junnar Junnar 20.00 Jalvandidevi Pune Junnar Khubewadi 63.00 Khubidevi Pune Junnar Kopare 50.00 Virobha Pune Junnar Madh 110.58 Khandoba Pune Junnar Pimpalgaon Joge 15.00 Kotamichidevi Pune Junnar Taleran 14.00 Kalubai Pune Junnar Khubi 63.00 Chedoba Pune Maval Vahangaon 20.23 Anjubai Pune Velhi Mangaon 18.00 Jananidevi Pune Junnar Kolhewadi 263.00 Bhairavnath Pune Junnar Pimpalgaon Joge 15.5 Kotmai Ahmednagar Sangamner Ambidumala 80.00 Rokdeshwar Sangli Atpadi Hivtad 40.00 Shukdev Sangli Atpadi Nelkarnje 25.00 Bhimashankar Sangli Atpadi Nelkarnje 25.00 Mhasoba Sangli Atpadi Ramghat 25.00 Shriram Sangli Jat Banali 20.00 Banshankari Yeotaml Wani Khansadgaon 19.80 Pharsopen Bhandara Bhandara Korambhi 22.00 Kalkai Source: Deshmukh 1999 by locally set principles of resource use. The con- protective strategy that has been traditionally used cept that in all sacred groves no utilization of re- by local people. Similar groves are found in Satara, sources is permitted is an over statement based on Kolhapur and Ratnagiri Districts. insufficient scrutiny on the way in which the groves In the Dangs of Gujarat, the Bhils have their are traditionally managed. Groups of these groves own system of preserving trees around their sacred must become a part of a special category of Eco- totems that are situated on the road side or at some logically Sensitive Areas, by supporting the tradi- remote site in the hills. Hot springs such as at Un- tional sentiments that have led to their preservation nai in Gujarat have been insufficiently studied for over several generations. their ecology and the impact of the human activity Incorporating these sites into conservation net- on these sources which is very high. A large num- works could enhance the effectiveness of PAs by ber of people who believe that the spring water has covering a wider variety of habitats and by har- medicinal properties channel water through to the nessing the support of local people. tank built around this special feature. Hot springs should be considered as special ESAs. Most of the groves are small in size and isolated from each other. As an ESA category their man- The study of the Bombay Natural History Soci- agement may be entrusted to the same village in- ety on ‘Conservation and development of sacred stitutional arrangements that have protected them groves in Maharshtra done in 1999 has a list of im- over generations. Giving them an ESA status must portant sacrd groves that could be given an ESA be used primarily to strengthen the existing local status (See table on next page). During the study

69 the Western Ghats region was divided into zones to exist for over several centuries, harboured atleast based on the agroclimatic regions of Maharashtra one or more sacred grove their size ranging from as used by Deshmukh (1999) (Guidelines provided a clump of trees to a few hundred hectares (S. by National Agricultural Research Programme, Deshmukh, Gogate, and Gupta 1998). Planning Commission, Govt. of India). Within The distribution of sacred groves overlaps with these zones the sacred groves that have been pri- the distribution of forests in the State. The aver- oritized are given in the second table (Note: These age size of the groves is a few acres. Large groves sacred groves are from outside the protected areas.) are found occasionally. Smaller groves in the west- River sources and hill tops have been used to ern and eastern parts rarely allow extraction of build temples for several generations. In many situ- resource from the groves. Sacred groves form an ations there are trees planted in their enclosures. important landscape feature in the deforested hill They act as staging sites and roosts for colonies ranges of the Western Ghats of Maharashtra. of birds and bats. These should be included in the In Gujarat, twenty nine sacred groves have been category of traditionally protected ESAs. The pres- reported from Banaskantha district of Gujarat. The ence of sacred groves in cultivated landscapes can sizes of the groves run from one acre to two square also provide habitat and corridors, allowing the kms (Ramakrishnan, Saxena, and Chandrashekara movement of many different organisms. It is ques- 1998). tionable whether any single sacred grove could have conservation value, in view of the small size Specialised Ecosystems of these fragmented forest patches. However, as a Specialized ecosystems are unique communities network, the sacred groves in a region can preserve of plants and animals using complex ecological a sizeable portion of the local biodiversity in areas situations that have a limited range. They frequent- where it would not be feasible to maintain large ly include highly specific abiotic conditions that tracts of protected forests and where protected re- strongly influence the ecosystem which supports serves would be unlikely to receive local support. specialized floral and faunal elements. The com- Such sites could play an important role in commu- plexity results from mutually dependent param- nity based conservation of biodiversity and should eters such as topographic features, climatic condi- therefore be included in ESA conservation strate- tions, soil type and the resultant biotic features that gies. form islands of unique landscape elements within The integration of sacred groves and other sa- the Western Ghats. They are inherently fragile cred natural sites into the existing protected area due to their special nature and small size. Due to networks must take into account the local ecology the restricted range of their species they are eas- of the area, as well as the prevailing threats. As ily disrupted by human activity that affects habitat a result, it would be unwise to prescribe a single specific species. An alteration in their abiotic char- management approach. acteristics can lead to perturbation in the entire biotic community leading to a few or several local In Maharashtra sacred groves are found in tribal extinctions. Such perturbations may be effected by as well as non-tribal areas. The sacred groves in changes beyond the immediate surrounds of these the Western part of the state are called devrais or super sensitive ecosystems. A specialized ecosys- devrahatis. Gadgil and Vartak documented 233 tem may have a single or multiple limiting factors. sacred groves from Thane, Raigad, Jalgaon, Pune, Satara, Kolhapur, Yewatmal, Bhandara and Chan- These highly specialised and fragile ecosystems drapur districts (Gadgil and Vartak 1981). A recent of the Ghats such as plateau tops, steep escarp- study by Bombay Natural History Society shows ments, gorges, nala courses, have an intrinsically existence of about 1600 SGs in Maharashtra. It low resilience to environmental disturbance from was found that almost every village in the Western a variety of human activities. As most of these Ghats region of Maharahstra – where the concept specialized ecosystems have restricted areas, or of sacred groves has been evolved and continued form islands within a matrix of more robust sys- 70 tems, there is a need to find ways for these special possible extinctions is the only way to conserve ‘niches’ and their species to be preserved even as these unique ecosystems. isolated patches. As impacts keep increasing they The problem of notifying these specialized eco- may require special attention towards corridoring systems is that their identification requires to be at even small spatial levels. On the other hand as done at a highly localized level. Creating these they are by nature found as isolated patches, there ESAs is like notifying individual cultural heritage may be special mechanisms that keep them intact sites where thousands of ancient monuments that as isolated fragments as long as external pressures dot the Indian landscape have been notified by the are within acceptable limits. Archaeology Department. The ability to preserve Plateau tops such as in Panchgani have been de- these natural heritage micro-sites depends on the stroyed by high levels of tourism. Caves in Maha- land tenure in which they are situated. This could baleshwar which have colonies of endemic and rare be the Forest Department, the Revenue lands un- bats have been disturbed by tourists. The carrying der local tehsildars, or under Village Panchayats. capacity for tourists of such specialized sites is ex- Specialized ecosystems within the Ghats are of tremely low and increasing demands for enhancing several types. tourism with its inherent uncontrolled disturbance levels can lead to rapid extinction of species. Old Growth Forests Eagles and vultures have been disturbed by rock Intact old growth forests in the Western Ghats climbing enthusiasts as these precipices are the fa- harbor several keystone species. Several of the fi- voured nesting sites of these birds due to the inac- cus species are found in the less disturbed forests cessibility to most humans and predators. However and are vital suppliers of food for frugivorous in- such challenging rock faces are also prime targets sects, birds and mammals during several months for highly skilled climbers for the excitement of the of the year when most other fruit bearing plants ascent and the fun of rappelling down on ropes. do not have edible fruit. The patchy forests of the Added to this is the impact of overenthusiastic Northern sector of the Western Ghats which have wildlife photographers who disturb nests dur- rain only for 3 or 4 months support moisture laden ing their photographic expeditions. Such areas of micro-climates and highly fluctuant water courses, high ecological importance must be secured under all of which contribute towards a highly special- ESAs however small they may be. In fact the small- ized forest type and structure which is easily dis- er unique patches may be of the greatest conserva- ruptedby human interferences. While it may not tion significance. be possible to put a grading scale on the level of susceptibility to such habitats, there is enough evi- Areas that have a low resilience are related to dence to show that such regimes, especially if tra- highly specific abiotic features such as rainfall pat- ditional agro-pastoral use is shifted to other forms terns, temperature variability, and/or number of of land-use can lead to a rapid loss of biodiversity. rainy days per year. They are limited by soil char- Developing new pressures which can spread their acteristics, topographic features, patterns of land ecologically adverse effects through the whole recover and different land use categories. Any shift gion in the Ghats cannot be restored for several de- in land use towards more intensive utilization can cades. lead to irreparable damage even if it appear to be a minor alteration in one or more of the above abiot- Valleys ic parameters. Once disturbed, the capacity of such There are valleys inundated by heavy cloud ecosystems to return to their original state can take cover for prolonged periods which is known to ac- decades. count for a profusion of species of plants includ- These are all landscape elements that have ing ground and canopy orchids, ferns and fungi. unique floral and faunal elements on which very The Father Santapeau valley at Khandala near the limited work has been done. Making them poten- Dukes Nose Point is one such example. tial ESA sites as a precautionary measure against 71 rock that are nearly devoid of vegetation for several months of the year but are covered by a profusion of ground flora in the monsoon. The lateritic plateau tops are examples of naturally restricted ecosystems in the Ghats and they have floral elements that flower fruit and seed only for a brief few weeks during the monsoon. These are thus habitats of ‘restricted range species’. These highly specialized ‘niches’ are sites of endemism that are used by small restricted populations of highly specialized species. Many of these species are probably threatened by local or even global extinction. Some of the Waterfalls important plateaus in the northern Western Ghats Large waterfalls and small cascades comprise are (personal communication, Aparna Watve). only a small percentage of the overall landscape Plateaus of the Western Ghats are all ecologi- of the Western Ghats, but are of considerable eco- cally sensitive and extremely difficult to prioritize logical value. The floral and faunal elements are in the absence of locale specific data. Thus the pre- adapted to the torrential flow of water during the cautionary principle would apply more strongly to monsoon and change to completely terrestrial con- this category. This is all the more so as a very small ditions in the rest of the year. These are found near- percentage of the 160000 km2 of Western Ghats ly everywhere along the western escarpment. lies within this highly unique landscape element. Another aspect is that there are several types of plateaus based on primarily geomorphological factors which strongly influence their mosaic of tiny patches of monsoon flora. Important Plateaus in the Northern Western Ghats Location Plateau Junnar Naneghat Durgawadi Harischandragadh Bhimashankar Ahupe Nashik Anjeneri Plateau Tops Nashik Saptarshungi Nashik Wani Exposed lateritic plateau tops are a good exam- Kas ples of specialized ecosystems in which endemic Amboli and rare ground flora are linked to their specific Chaukul specialized habitats. The plateaus have a patchy Chorla distribution and are isolated from each other by Vishalgadh Zenda valleys and ridges. The crest of the Western Ghats Masai is locally capped by lateritic plateaus at varying in- These factors present a severe problem in prioriti- tervals. These plateaus are well known sites having zation based on ‘good guess’ studies done rapidly high floristic values. Panchagani’s five plateaus, the in the absence of a large number of authenticated Kas plateau near Satara and fragments of plateaus data sets. As all the different types of plateaus have in Mahabaleshwar are the best known examples. been placed here in a single category each type (Watve and Thakur 2006) have done a great deal of must be represented. This indicates that protect- work on the vegetation patterns of the monsoonal ing a mere 10 or 20% of plateaus as ESAs would plants of these rocky outcrops and flat expanses of not provide the category with a sufficient area to 72 conserve all their species. The types are based on special ecological significance. They invariably in- their altitude; geomorphology, vegetation commit- clude waterfalls, cascades and nala courses which tees and can be observed on the ground and from flow in the monsoon. As their catchments in the satellite images. mountain tops are relatively small peaks and plateaus their flow rate rapidly increases in a down- Hill streams pour and equally rapidly shrinks to a trickle when The hill streams that alter their flow rate within the shower abates. Some plant and animal species minutes of a cloudburst are specialized habitats of are unique to these highly variable habitat condi- molluscs, crustaceans and fish which have to alter tions. The catchments of the streams are covered their movement, feeding patterns and breeding be- by forests that are dependent on high levels of pre- haviour within very brief intervals as the flow rate cipitation. The closed forest canopy and the thick- alters from a torrent to a trickle within even a few ness of the detritus on the forest floor hold the rain minutes. Avifauna that feed on such aquatic inver- water like a sponge. This permits greater penetra- tebrate species know when and how to alter their tion into the ground water stores which are slowly own feeding behaviour to remain in tune with the released into the perennial streams. The detritus constant fluctuations in the availability of their preserves the evergreen forests’ need, not only for food. The Malabar Whistling thrush and the Black- retaining large quantities of water, but maintains bird for example have close association with rapid- nutrients for forest growth and prevents soil ero- ly flowing waterfalls and streams and are adapted sion of the steep slopes. As alterations in stream to feeding in the micro habitat and niche present in flow by deforestation, or changes in the upper the waterfalls that it frequents. catchments can have serious local and even region- Ridges al consequences. These steep areas must constitute a special category of ESAs. The steeper the slope The Western Ghats has a main north-south ridge the more grave the need for an appropriate protec- with outlying west-east ridges that extend into the tive strategy. Deccan between each major river watershed. The steepness of these ridges determine the level of uti- The categories for slope used are: Flat- 0°; Gentle lization from terraced paddies, hillslope broadcast- slope 2°; Sloping-4°; Moderately steep- 8°; Steep- ed nagli and varai fields, grazing lands and unap- 14°; Very steep-26°; Extremely steep-45°. Any area proachable rocky precipices. This must be included with a slope steeper than 260 should constitute as an ESA. an ESA, as it is generally considered ecologically sensitive. On either side of a steep slope a protec- Escarpments and Steep Slopes tive buffer of 500m must be maintained to prevent landslides along these steep and easily eroded hill slopes. The disturbed escarpment of the Ghats along the Mumbai-Pune expressway and the Konkan Railway are examples where well known adequate management principles have not been instituted during planning, construction and follow up restoration that has led to years of grave ill effects on economic social and ecological aspects. Land- slides have been a constant feature and enormous funds have been allocated without attending to the The crest line of the Western Ghats constitutes a root cause of the problem. This is related to inad- very special geological and biological form that is equately done EIAs, lack of appreciation that the not seen elsewhere in India. The trees are gnarled area is of special significance and is consequently and stunted with a closed thick canopy. The pre- a future hazard to lives and wellbeing of users; and cipitous escarpments of the Western Ghats have a 73 a complete disregard for preventive maintenance, sector which have a limited soil cover are covered and a lack of a serious restoration of the ecology by naturally occurring grasslands which have been and habitat conditions on the periphery of roads traditionally used for grazing by agro-pastoralists constructed in the Western Ghats. A special cat- of the Ghats. These grassy slopes are also used by egory of ESAs along the escarpment with special migrant shepherds who move from the Deccan to provisions to address future problems should be in- the coastal plains feeding their flocks along their cluded in the management strategy established by traditional route along the hill slopes. The southern the Western Ghats Authority. part of the Western Ghats have shola grasslands where the forest grows along sheltered streams Shrubland beds while the grassland patches cover the inter- The presence of shrubland with copts of stunted vening hill slopes. In the Northern sector there trees such as Memecylon, Jamun and Carissa are a are similar grasslands maintained by annual fires common occurrence. Most of these areas are due which are used as grazing areas for the large popu- to continual lopping for fuelwood, where the trees lation of domestic livestock. These grasslands are are lopped year after year. The root stock is old and thus maintained by fire regimes, grazing pressure the copt of shrubby growth has an old tree at its from domestic stock and grass collection for thatch base. If permitted to regrown, the shrubby growth and other purposes. The diversity of flora and fau- begins to grow into tree cover. This provides an op- na of these grasslands is high and supports several portunity for an ecorestoration strategy that can be endemic species of conservation importance. The used to reform corridors between forest patches. less disturbed natural grasslands of a considerable However, this would only be possible if such a po- size which lie outside the PAs of the Ghats should tential corridor is considered ecosensitive and pro- be given the status of ESAs. vided protection during restoration. The genesis of such areas is frequently due to the grazing pressure of domestic anumals. Cattle that browse along cattle trackes in the forest gradually feed on the lower branches of trees and widen the path into small clearings. Lopping for fuelwood and rab material removes larger branches creating a treeless patch. The root stock copices into a shrubby growth. Fire maintains the shrub copt and does not permit the regrowth of trees. This creates larger and larger matrices of grass covered areas with islands of shrubs. This finally develops into a Grassland types that are uncommon in terms of shrubland used by both cattle and generalist wild dominant or endemic species of grasses and herbs fauna. should be given the highest importance. Grasslands Grasslands that are less grazed have a low in- Grasslands in the northern sector of the West- cidence of fire, include palatable species for wild- ern Ghats are either natural where the soil depth life and domestic animals and are a valuable part and quality is too poor to support woodland, or are of the mosaic of vegetation patterns in the Ghats. formed due to forested areas that have been cleared Those that support abundant wildlife (grazers), for rab. During the recent past, land that has been and include the presence of forest corridors be- transferred to urban developers has been bulldozed tween large forest patches are important and could to reduce the slopes. Trees and shrubs have been re- be considered to be ESAs. moved for construction and left fallow. These areas have become weedy grass covered patches Open areas of the Western Ghats in the northern 74 Forts rounds, presence of perennial streams and flat open lateritic plateau tops, all of which also form special habitats for a range of plant and animal species and landscape elements of considerable ecological significance. These areas are well known habitats for reptiles, both snakes and lizards. As they have water sources, they are favoured by both carnivores and herbivores especially when the stream courses and pools on the hillslopes have become dry in the summer. With only these water sources left, the wildlife aggregates around the tanks in the old uninhabited forts. The forts are now more accessible due to the development of roads for enhancing cultural tourism, for communication towers and other purposes. With the increasing access to these sites they are now under severe biotic pressures. Setting aside these forts and sequestrating them from being ‘developed’ with new housing and tourist complexes can be achieved by notifying them as special Eco- logically Sensitive Areas. High Precipitation Areas and Cloud Forests The exceptionally high rainfall tracts especially those covered by low clouds that provide near 100% humidity in the Ghats must be included While forts in the Ghats are described as having as ESAs. This places special valley sectors of the historical and archaeological significance and Western Ghats into an ecosensitive zone that re- should be protected on these grounds alone, they quires especially well protected areas. The south- invariably have high but cryptic ecological values. ern ranges which gets a year round rainfall due to The people of Maharashtra see these forts as a part a dual monsoon from south-west and north-east of their cultural heritage. They have been the seat forms a tract of high conservation value. Equally of power of the Maratha Empire that alone could important are valleys in the northern sector where stem the expansion of the Moghul Empire into low cloud cover during several monsoon months peninsular India. While this sentiment can be used provides special habitat needs for ferns, orchids, to protect the forts, their inaccessible locations and mosses and lichens. their forested surrounds are of equal ecological importance. In historical times, the hills were devel- At the regional level topographical situations oped as forts due to their extreme inaccessibility lead to very high rainfall tracts that receive tor- and the availability of perennial water sources. rential rain in the Northern sector of the Ghats Their near vertical rocky formations that are sur- VXFKDVDW0DKDEDOHVKZDU%KPD6KDQNDUDQG rounded by belts of inaccessible vegetation formed Matheran. It is here that the vegetation cover has an impenetrable barrier to the invading Moghul unique biological values and is of utmost impor- forces. The fortifications were built around lateritic tance in preventing severe erosion. Torrential rain flat plateaus. They frequently had springs that had predisposes the region to landslides and floods af- a year round supply of water. The natural character deforestation. teristics of the forts thus include remoteness, inaccessibility due to their steep terrain, forested sur-

75 Species Based ESAs Apart from the well-known endemic mammals and birds it is known to harbour endemic snakes Habitats of Species of Great Value and other reptiles, molluscs, and insect life (Groom- There is a serious paucity of data on the distribu- bridge, 1983). tion range and population dynamics of the endan- Mammals, birds, amphibia, insects tend to have gered, endemic and highly restricted range species overlapping areas referred to as congruent ende- in the Northern sector of the Western Ghats. For mism (International Council for Bird Conserva- example little is known on the status of the Mala- tion). This congruence in endemism occurs in sev- bar Giant Squirrel outside the well known pockets eral vertebrates, invertebrates as well as the plants in the PAs such as Bhimashankar, Koyna, Chan- which form their habitat. It is important to map doli etc. The ability of Giant Squirrel populations endemic species of plants and animals in the West- to move between isolated between forest pockets is ern Ghats and overlay their distribution patterns highly unlikely. As it is primarily restricted to the on the landscape elements using a geoinformatics canopy level, their ability to cross gaps of a relative- platform which constitutes their specialized and ly large size is likely to be poor at least (BORGES frequently restricted habitat ranges. This aspect of 1992; Borges 1993; Joshua and Johnsingh 1994). congruent endemism of the Western Ghats can On the other hand the status and distribution of also become a basis for arresting threats from al- species such as the Lion tailed macaque, Nilgiri terations in land use by categorising these zones as Tahr and Nilgiri Langur of the southern Western a special category of ESAs. Ghats is better appreciated. While it is of importance to study the range of The dwindling population of vultures is yet an- distribution of all the endemics it would be more other serious concern. Their residual colonies must important to look for sites of endemic congruence be included in this important ESA category. Birds to give these special areas the highest level of pro- of prey frequently use the same tree for nesting tection. year after year. These are not protected and are frequently disturbed. Similarly the Great Pied Horn- The topographic, geological, microclimatic and bills and owls nest in the same nesting hole year vegetation distribution pattern correlated with con- after year. Bayas use the same nesting colony for gruent endemism is a most valuable tool in notify- many years. Among mammals bats use the same ing these sites as important ESAs. roosts in caves and large copts of trees. Apart from a simple correlation of endemic taxa All these individual and disaggregated sites will it may also be possible to identify areas that have need protection by local communities. Once identi- high concentrations of rare or threatened species. fied the only chance of success is gaining local pub- Indications of such high concentrations in even lic support to protect them. A strong public aware- small sized pockets must be identified by docu- ness strategy is the only way to make this happen. menting the more obvious endemic species such as hornbills, rare endemic butterflies, less known rep- Any pocket outside PAs where species of special tiles, amphibia, molluscs, insects, spiders etc. importance are present must constitute a highly specialized category of ESAs. Their linkage to the Species that are easy to observe and whose abun- PAs through natural or man-made corridors is an dance can be estimated are better indicators than important conservation concern. less overt species such as cryptic endemic micro flora and fauna, fungi and even insect life which Habitats of Endemic and Endangered Species are generally not overtly seen in nature. Birdlife The Western Ghats forests have special floris- that can be seen and heard are good indicators of tic features related with their high level of species overall abundance as well as for identifying areas richness and endemicity. There are several identi- where there are endemic avifaunal species. fied centers of locally important floristic endemism The refuge theory suggests that there could be (Nair and Daniel 1986). small areas in the forests of the Western Ghats 76 where species richness and local endemism has re- in the Ghats from Kalsubai to the PAs of Goa. sulted from speciation in ancient geological times. Among the herbivores of the Northern sector The refuges could also result from subsequent frag- the Mouse Deer (Conservation Status: Least Con- mentation of the habitat. Such areas require special cern) is less frequently seen than were observed a attention as there may still be unidentified species few decades ago. The large hornbills, such as the in such small sequestrated areas within the Ghats. Malabar Pied Hornbill and the Great Pied Horn- There are specific patches in the Western Ghats bill (Conservation Status: Near Threatened) which that are of special significance as they constitute are rare and endangered are found in small patches habitats of endangered species several of which are distributed in the more intact forests. The popula- on IUCNs endangered species list. tion of birds such as green pigeons, barbets, wood peckers appear to have dwindled in most parts of The rarity of plant life has been discussed by the Ghats. Their populations however seem to be many authors. Rarity can have several causes. They more stable in the PAs. However there are no quan- may be relict old populations or recently evolved tified studies done in the northern sector to be able species that are still to spread to their outer limits. to know for certain the population trends of these Thus there are genetic ecological geological and hill forest birds over the last few decades. There ap- historical aspects to rarity and endemism. Endem- pears to be a depletion in the abundance of night- ic species are related to a geographical area, have jars outside the Protected Areas in many parts of a limited ecological breadth and are seen in rela- the Ghats during the last three or four decades. tively more isolated areas from each other. Moun- Vultures are severely threatened and only a few tains are known to be rich in endemic species often pockets in high elevations are observed in different related to soil characteristics and microclimates. isolated patches in the Ghats. Even here, numbers Waterfalls, stream sides and pools form local micro are down to 5 and 6 birds where once there were climatic conditions increasing diversity of plants. hundreds. This also supports local endemics with their niche requirements (Kruckeberg and Rabinowitz 1985). The BNHS and other organizations have studied the frogs and reptiles in the Ghats. However these In the Northern Western Ghats the well-known consist of taxonomic studies and are not focused mammals include the tiger and the lesser cats. Of on ecological and population trends that are so vi- special importance is the Rusty Spotted Cat (Con- tal for taking appropriate and timely conservation servation Status: Vulnerable) that has been seen in action. a few locations by observers (personal observation by Bharucha, Solanki and Worah). The most fre- The only way to counter this uncertainty is to quent sightings in the wild are from Sanjay Gan- create ESAs wherever there are known populations dhi National Park where two were trapped a few of endemic or endangered groups of species. decades ago. Another location where the species Chandoli has less than 1% of the geographical has been seen is in the Dang forests of Gujarat. At area of Maharashtra but it supports nearly 30% of least three live specimens have been collected in the the total number of woody species recorded from last three or four years. These have been bred at the the Western Ghats of Maharashtra (Kanade et al. zoo at Sanjay Gandhi National Park. These three 2008). Chandoli is a Wildlife Sanctuary with very kittens have grown into adults. These are the only low levels of impacts which has recently seen a Rusty Spotted Cats being successfully bred apart return of a small tiger population after several de- from those from Sri Lanka which are being bred in cades. (Imam, Kushwaha, and Singh 2009; Rithe Frankfurt zoo in Germany. and Fernandes 2002) The Giant Squirrel of the Dangs which was Habitats of Restricted Range Species golden yellow has not been seen over the last four or five decades. The Giant squirrel (Conservation Restricted range species of the Western Ghats Status: Near Threatened) is seen in small numbers include several well-known mammals such as the in the patches of forests with very dense canopies Lion Tailed Macaque, the Nilgiri Langur, Grizzled 77 Giant Squirrel, birds such as Great Pied hornbill stricted range species have begun to emerge. and the Malabar Pied Hornbill which are found in Presently Cnemaspis kolhapurensis is known restricted ranges. Frequently these species have a only from the south central part of the northern few separate small habitats and are isolated from Western Ghats. Based on the extent of the degrad- each other. ed semi-evergreen type forest patch which extends Any species which has a range less than 50 sq. into Belgaum and South Goa district, it is possible km. within the Ghats should be considered as a that C. kolhapurensis could also be found through- ‘restricted range species’ and the area considered out (Giri, Bauer, and Gaikwad 2009) Other species a special ESA category. Quantitative data on habi- that currently show restricted range include Hemi- tat distribution are lacking on species such as for dactylus, Uropeltis bicatenata and more than seven example the Malabar Brown Civet. It is possible diverse species of caecilians. that montane species distributions of the Ghats are Sinhagad and Amboli in Maharshtra have been related to highly specific habitat variables that have described by the IUCN as wholly irreplaceable for- not been studied for taxa such as bats, small mam- ests due to Millardia kondana (Mishra and Dhan- mals, and several others. da 1975) and Philautus Amboli (Biju and Bossuyt Paucity of data on range and abundance or rar- 2009) respectively. ity of especially the less obvious species is a seri- Important Bird Areas ous limitation in creating a crucially vital ESA to prevent extinctions. Thus while the more overt spe- The Important Bird Areas Program (IBA) is a cies may find a place in ESAs, less easily observed global effort to identify and conserve areas that are species could be left out of the planning of ESAs vital to birds and other biodiversity. IBAs that have in the Ghats. The precautionary principle must be been identified by Bombay Natural History Soci- applied in this situation and any likelihood or sus- ety in the Western Ghats include primarily all the picion of a record of a less known species should existing National Parks (NP) and Wildlife Sanctu- be used in creating ESAs. aries (WLS) (Rahmani and Islam 2004). The non- protected area identified in the northern Western A special feature of the Western Ghats is the re- Ghats is in INS Shivaji and the surrounding hills stricted range of flora of the basaltic and lateritic of Lonavala. plateau tops. Examples include the five plateaus of ‘Panchgani’, the plateau at Wilson Point in Maha- IBAs are good indicators of overall biological baleshwar, Kas and the other plateaus near Satara, wealth. Hill birds in the Western Ghats are specific and those near Panhala and Kolhapur all of which to this evergreen and semi evergreen forest ecosys- have important floral elements. Any interference or tem which is characterized by a high rainfall of changes in the texture of the rock layer of the later- over 5000 mm. The avifaunal communities in these itic crust that has multiple holes and cervices, with distinctive biogeographic entities are a characteris- only a very thin layer of soil, can disrupt this sensi- tic feature of this region. tive ecosystem. The rarer monsoon plants grow in Avifauna is reasonably well documented in many small patches barely a few sq. meters in size. They Protected Area and IBAs. However the paucity of are seen in a matrix of more abundant species of data outside PAs makes it difficult to select ESAs herbs, utricularia and grasses. These plateau tops outside the chain of Protected Areas. As birdlife is constitute a special habitat that needs urgent pres- a good indicator of biodiversity richness and ende- ervation as ESAs (Watve and Thakur 2006). There micity this is an excellent tool for identifying the are probably a large number of restricted range spe- existence of viable corridors in the Ghats section cies about which we have no data and thus will be that should be considered as a special category of unable to include these in the selection of ESAs. ESAs. With increasing levels of data several species may There are 345 bird species, including 5 near-en- be included in this group resulting in creating new demic species that are found in the montane forest ESAs progressively. A few examples of such re- 78 Site Number of Species Coordinates Land use Threats Critically Vulner- Threat- Endem- Endangered able ened ics Bhimashankar 2 3 1 5 19º59’28”N Tourism and recreation Tourism and recreation WLS 73º35’09”E Transport Transport Livestock grazing Livestock grazing Agriculture Agriculture Man-animal conflicts Fuel wood collection Commercial development Plastic consumption by animals INS-Shivaji 1 2 8 18º46’10”N Defence establishment Deforestation and Lonavala 73º24’46”E Reserve forest Roads and railways Roads and railway linesLand development Hydroelectric project Koyna WLS 2 1 2 17º38’26”N Nature Conservation Dam construction 73º42’31”E Agriculture Hydroelectric project Hydroelectric project Poaching Exploitation of medicinal plants Radhanagari 2 1 2 16º22’60”N WLS 74º00’00”E Sanjay Gandhi 2 5 1 19º18’35”N Nature Conservation Transport NP 72º57’48”E and research Livestock grazing Man-animal conflicts Fuel wood collection Poaching Tourism Illegal tree felling Anti-social elements Tansa WLS 2 1 19º31’18”N Nature Conservation Livestock grazing 73º15’36”E Catchment area of Illegal tree felling reservoirs Poaching Expansion of agriculture Bhagwan Ma- 2 6 15º19’32”N Nature Conservation Tourism and recreation havir WLS 74º01’27”E Tourism and recreation

Cotigao WLS 1 1 6 14º59’04”N Nature Conservation Encroachment 74º12’13”E Grazing Mhadei WLS 1 7 15º37’34”N Nature Conservation Poaching 74º12’22”E Encroachment Deforestation Carambolim 1 2 15º22’60”N Irrigation Urbanization lake 73º49’60”E railways Important Bird Areas in the Northern Western Ghats (Source: (Rahmani and Islam 2004))

Scientific Name Common Name Status Gyps bengalensis Oriental White-Backed Vulture Critically Endangered Gyps indicus Long-billed Vulture Critically Endangered Leptoptilos javanicus Lesser Adjutant Vulnerable Haliaeetus leucoryphus Palla’s Fish Eagle Vulnerable Aquila clanga Greater Spotted Eagle Vulnerable Falco naumanni Lesser Kestrel Vulnerable Rynchops albicollis Indian Skimmer Vulnerable Columba elphinstonii Nilgiri Wood-Pigeon Vulnerable Schoenicola platyura Broad-tailed Grass Warbler Vulnerable Circus macrourus Pallid Harrier Near Threatened List of Threatened Bird Species in the northern Western Ghats (Source: (Rahmani and Islam 2004))

79 eco region. However, they are patchily distributed. plants such as orchids and ground flora such as the The better (less disturbed) patches of a consider- curcumas whose utilization as garden plants has able size must find a place in this ESA category. been ignored even though they are exceptionally beautiful. This shows that endemic avifauna require as much attention as rare or vulnerable species as they Habitats Supporting Migration occur nowhere outside the Western Ghats. Areas The birds of the Western Ghats have both resi- where these birds are found in even small patches dent and migrant species. Several of these hill forest with reasonably appreciable numbers must be in- birds are similar to species found in the Himalayas. cluded as ESAs. Bird distribution studies show that several species, The globally threatened Spot-billed Pelican (Pele- or their subspecies, are found both in the Ghats canus philippensis) and Lesser Florican (Eupodotis and the north and east Himalayas as discontinu- indica) are or have been a part of the ecoregion’s ous populations (Hora 1953; Ali 1949). This phe- bird community. The Malabar grey hornbill (Ocy- nomenon of two distinct isolated populations has ceros griseus), Indian grey hornbill (Ocyceros bi- been ascribed to ancient linkages through a range rostris), and Great Hornbill (Buceros bicornis) re- of mountains that has now disappeared. Similar quire mature high forests for nesting and are a focal evidence is found in the fish fauna of hill streams species for conservation. The ecoregion overlaps of the Ghats and the Himalayas in the North East with an EBA, Western Ghats, identified by Bird- Movements of several taxa have not been studied Life International. However, relative to the south- in detail. The migration southward of hill birds ern part of the Western Ghats, the northern parts through the Ghats during winter is a major rea- have been poorly surveyed (World Wildlife Fund son to protect a corridor of forests from Gujarat and McGinley). through to Kerala. Migration of resident birds also shows a North-South seasonal movement. Several Habitats of Wild Edible Plants and Wild Rela- hill forest species move from a lower to a higher tives elevation in summer for breeding during the mon- These habitats indicating high levels of ecologi- soon. In winter they move down into the valleys cal sensitivity are less important but should be con- to avoid the cold and move back into the crestline sidered to be ESAs in the Ghats on a case to case forest in summer. basis. These include areas that contain wild rela- Bird such as thrushes, babblers and flycatchers tives of food plants. Several studies need to be initi- move to and from favoured breeding areas in the ated to identify grasses, fruiting shrubs and trees hills. Herons and egrets which use specific roosting which have been used by local people as there are colonies in the Western Ghats also have seasonal edible, such as Carissa. local migrations into low lying areas on the coast. Jamun and Mango are good examples of trees The movement patterns, several of which have that grow naturally in the Northern Western Ghats. been insufficiently documented, are integral to the Their taste and other attributes vary from those maintenance of bird populations of the Ghats. which are cultivated. As we do not know which This is a special ESA category that supports Im- attribute will be of use in future these wild varieties portant Bird Areas, or IBAs of the Western Ghats must be preserved. (Rahmani and Islam 2004). Carissa shrubs give fruit that ranges from sour to sweet and even tasteless in different shrubs. They even vary in size and the amount of pulp. Their genetic variability is extremely high, and this needs to be preserved. The plant also has a great potential to make jams and preserves. Another potential use is the flowering species of

80 Colonies and Breeding Sites of Fauna concern. Their population distribution in the West- ern Ghats has not been identified. The endangered vultures have selected roosts and nesting colonies on steep rocky cliffs. Each and every site however small must be protected as an ESA as a last ditch stand to prevent the complete extinction of the depleted vulture colonies. Finan- cially protecting the residual population of vultures in their colonies in-situ is cheaper that the expense incurred in breeding and managing them in ex-situ conservation facilities. Breeding streams of Western Ghats fish such as There are several birds and bats whose popula- the Mahaseer require protection. Mahaseer are al- tions are dependent on forming colonies for roost- ready gravely endangered and will become extinct ing and breeding. These include several endangered if their breeding micro niches in the streams of birds such as storks and vultures. Heronries which Western Ghats are disturbed or polluted further. are dependent on large colonies constitute impor- The Deccan Mahaseer was known to move from tant locations that must be included in small ESAs. rivers into the hill streams during the monsoon to A minor disturbance can lead to these birds aban- spawn in the 1950s. Dams and other impediments doning their colonies never to return. Colony nest- have reduced their breeding sites leading to a dras- ers require an optimum population for successful tic fall in their population. The Mahaseer which is breeding. Several such nesting sites are associated now highly endangered once bred profusely in such with large trees in village surrounds along the foot- streams and moved eastwards into rivers of the hills of the Ghats. Colonies of storks, ibis, spoon- Deccan as adults. This has been severely curtailed. bills, cormorants, egrets etc. are associated with In many sites where breeding once occurred the copts of tall trees where they nest year after year. species is locally extinct. A major ex-situ breeding The trees act as their traditional nursery, However program run by Tata Power Company at Lonawala the feeding ground is linked to wetlands or rivers restocks their hydel lakes with these fish. There is a which may be several kilometers away where the possibility that these fish have begun to breed again parents gather food for their nestlings. The to and spontaneously in some of the less silted streams fro movement from the colony may fan out to sev- around the lakes. eral important feeding areas where fish crustacea The large number of small fresh water fish of the and molluscs abound, or to a single stretch of un- streams of the Western Ghats choose special breed- disturbed river or a marsh. The feeding grounds ing sites and move towards clear streams during the should also be considered as part of the ESA. There monsoon to spawn. Such sites are currently outside are cryptic ecological reasons for the birds to select the Protected Area network of the Ghats. Identify- a specific patch of trees to build their nests. The ing these local sites will require a large scientifically nesting sites require special protection along with done status survey to identify these micro-ecologi- their identified feeding zones to protect their popu- cally sensitive areas (Arunachalam 2000). lations. Protecting the small copts of trees can only be done through local support. Public awareness is A locale specific management profile for such ar- a key to their protection. eas can only be effective with localized initiatives to prevent impacts on these hot specks of ESAs. Pub- Bats that belong to several species live in colonies lic awareness strategies and involvement of local of which at least two are endangered in the West- school students could go a long way in identifying, ern Ghats (Korad, Yardi, and Raut 2007). The bat protecting, monitoring and sustainable develop- colonies which are found in caves and on excep- ment of a long-term conservation strategy through tionally large old trees in the Ghats are a cause for notifying a set of special micro-eco-sensitive areas 81 for faunal breeding sites.

82 CHAPTER 5: PRIORITIZATION

here are various tools described to priori- especially wide-ranging species, were better at cap- tize ESAs. For the Western Ghats, there are turing overall animal and habitat diversity. There Ttwo concerns. The first relates to prioriti- was a significant relationship between a remote zation within each category of ESA. The other is sensing based habitat surrogate and endemic tree prioritization between the different categories. Ob- diversity and composition. None of the taxa or viously not all ESAs are equally ecologically sen- habitats served as a complete surrogate for the oth- sitive. However, it must be kept in mind that the ers. Sites were prioritised on the basis of their ir- whole of the Western Ghats is in fact a globally replaceability value using all five surrogates. Two recognised hot spot of biological diversity. No area alternative reserve networks are presented, one in the Ghats section can be considered essentially with minimal representation of surrogates, and the a robust area. second with 3 occurrences of each species and 25% of each habitat type. These networks cover 8% and Das et al 2006 describe areas of high conserva- 29% of the region respectively. Seventy per cent of tion value which were identified in the Western the completely irreplaceable sites are outside the Ghats using a systematic conservation planning current Protected Area network. This observation approach. They chose surrogates which were as- is of great importance as ESAs outside the PA net- sessed for effectiveness on the basis of spatial con- work would help protect these key conservation gruence using Pearson’s correlations and Mantel’s sites in the Western Ghats. While the existing Pro- tests. The surrogates were, threatened and endemic tected Area network meets the minimal represen- plant and vertebrate species, unfragmented forest tation target for 88% of the species chosen in this areas, dry forests, sub-regionally rare vegetation study and all habitat surrogates, it is not represen- types, and a remotely sensed surrogate for unique tative with regard to amphibians, endemic tree spe- evergreen ecosystems. The author has shown that cies and small mammals. Much of the prioritised at the scale of this analysis, amphibian richness unprotected area is under Reserve Forests and can was most highly correlated with overall threatened thus be incorporated into a wider network of con- and endemic species richness, whereas mammals, 83 servation areas. tiveness. Scoring systems based on diversity, rarity, naturalness, endangered and endemic species size Prioritisation of areas and consequentially with- and vulnerability of the habitat have all been used in a PA network or the future network of ESAs in to indicate priority areas for conservation. the Western Ghats is a major concern for management. It must entertain issues related to cost benefit Early attempts in India, (Bharucha 1996) were analysis, the serious impacts of industry and busi- used as a basis by the Maharashtra Forestry Sector ness strategies, the need for eco restoration versus Project for the PA network in Maharashtra. simple protection, ecodevelopment for the local In the ESA network for the Western Ghats the people and monitoring and evaluating long term need to prioritize carefully is even greater than for effects of positive and protective land-use change PAs as the whole area cannot be given a single man- and possibilities of further degradation. agement strategy. As Margules and Pressey suggest Economic valuation methods for biological as- conservation planning has generally not been sys- sets are a means towards prioritization at different tematic and new reserves have often been located spatial levels and for genetic, species and different in places that do not contribute to the representa- landscape elements. These tools and principles tion of biodiversity.’ (Margules and Pressey 2000) for managing a network of ESAs can become a Within each category a prioritization can be basis for setting of priority areas within the West- made based on a variety of characteristic features ern Ghats. Valuations based on purely economic that indicate its level of importance. This is more terms however are often questioned as there are di- difficult when one has to compare between differ- rect and indirect benefits especially related to the ent categories. The most simple characteristics in- various functions that are inherent in the different clude the ‘3S s’ of Siting, Size, Shape. Other char- types or categories of ESAs. For example PAs con- acteristics include interior to border ratio, linkage serve genetic species in the ecosystem structure and to the same or other category, and level of intact- function. Catchment areas protect water resources. ness and inclusion of unique features. Levels of in- Agriculture in the Ghats means food security for tegrity, fragility and high levels of threat decrease the poor. “Devrai’s” are intrinsic to societal and effectiveness and increase costs. religious needs. These are a few examples that make economic value based decisions in prioritiz- Siting: ing ESAs extremely complex (Nunes and van den An ESA within the boundaries of the West- Bergh 2001). Pierce et al. 2005 bring out the need ern Ghats is better than one that is at the pe- for ‘Systematic (target-driven) conservation plan- riphery or close to the edge. ning products. This includes developing maps and An ESA that is directly contiguous to anoth- guidelines and the use of stakeholder inputs. er is better than one that is connected by a While at larger spatial scales it is possible to use corridor or is surrounded by gaps. IUCNs, PAs ranked in terms of management ob- An ESA that is contiguous with its own cat- jectives from I to VI and Management Effectiveness egory which is adjacent to it is likely to be Evaluations which are being done in India over the better than one that is linked to some other last few years. These do not however provide the category as it is corridored for the same rath- fine nuances required for developing management er than different species making the corridor strategies for the different categories of ESAs of more useful. the Western Ghats. Broadly linked patches of the same category Margules, Pressey, and Williams 2002 point out are better than those connected by short nar- the importance of sampling the known biodiversity row corridors which are better than those of a region and separating biodiversity from pro- connected by long corridors even if they pass cess that threatens its presence. ESAs apart from through a different category of ESA as spe- being prioritized in the Western Ghats must also cies communities are different. look at issues such as uniqueness and representa- 84 Size: may be capable of withstanding short and small perturbation to their environments in comparison The well-known effect of island biogeography and its more recent ramifications is an to the more fragile systems. Ecosensitive areas are important characteristic to prioritize ESAs primarily related to evergreen forests the best ex- within the same category. However, even amples being within the cores of National Parks. small islands are of value as jump stations They also include areas of special importance on for migrant bird species. account of the small or relict populations of floral communities such as in semi –evergreen forests, Large size that includes several West to East plateau tops and other significantly unique assem- forest types is better than those having a small blages of flora and fauna. size in a single forest type. Relict populations refer to ecosystems that are Large size would usually contain a better in- likely to have had a wider range than at present. terior – fringe ratio as the type of interior spe- Evolutionary, climatic or human induced altera- cies are likely to be rarer and are endemics or tions due to effects of climate change or habitat unique species rather than fringe generalists degradation from overuse or misuse has greatly re- that are more robust and can adapt better to duced their erstwhile extent in the Ghats. man – modified habitats. Highly fragile areas where restoration may Shape: not be feasible and ecosystems that harbour A more or less circular, square, or rectangu- several endangered species, or endemic spe- lar ‘regular’ shape is better taken an irregular cies. They are the best examples of highest shape with finger like protrusions, as interior value in their own category. to edge ratios are better and they invariably Fragile areas are ecosystems that can be re- contain less disturbed interiors. verted through high cost ecorestorative strat- Interior – edge boarder ratios are primar- egies and harbour some endangered or en- ily governed by the ‘3Ss’ mentioned above. demic species and constitute the best known However the inclusion even of a relatively second level within each category. inadequate and disturbed ESA is better than Highly sensitive areas that are mostly large none, as the site may be crucial to corridor- areas that cover a considerable position of ing and it could be used as a restorative site the Ghats but require special care and avoid- for better long-term connectivity in future. ance of certain types of pressures while per- Sensitivity: mitting some selected activities on a case to case bases. We have used the term fragile for ecosystems that are likely to be seriously impacted by the Sensitive areas where restoration is now un- slightest disturbance to their ecosystem. Such areas feasible, which can be used for multiple se- are invariably small in extent highly diverse, con- lected purposes but cannot be used for any tain rarer threatened and several endemics which damaging landuse change. are vulnerable or threatened by extinction. Sensitive ecosystems are easily disturbed but

Robust Sensitive Highly Sensitive Fragile Sensitive area needs some Areas for non-use. Suitable Require high levels of protection – MUA for sus- for WLS or corridoring Not present is the Western protection – MUA for tainable use, some changes and/or ecorestoration Ghats as it is a global hot- sustainable use at a very in landuse permissible only No more utilization or alter- spot of biodiversity. Resil- minimized level for local peoples long term nate uses permissible. ient systems are absent. Management Strategy: benefit Management Strategy: Ecodevelopment Ecorestoration 85 An Attempted Prioritization Exercise individuals across the country. This section attempts to discuss prioritization IDENTIFYING BIODIVERSITY ASSET factors that need to be considered in the process of VALUES identifying ecosensitive areas, when adequate data Protected Areas is available. Here, an exercise has been attempted to identify potential ecosensitive zones based on exist- National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries and ing secondary data using GIS. This aspect must their adjacent buffers with a core and a larger buf- thus be kept in mind while interpreting the results. fer ESA form a unit for management. In some situations the ESA around the Protected Area cov- Review of literature has revealed that the data ers the full width of the Western Ghats. In such needed for an exercise of this kind is extremely lim- situations the ESA must evidently permit certain ited. Most species data that is available give very activities while disallowing others. For example broad descriptions of areas, mostly in terms of Ta- traditional landuse such as agriculture and lim- lukas or PAs or RF areas. However species related ited grazing would be permitted but no new lan- data is an important criterion for identifying of duse such as urbanization can be permitted. In a ESAs. The Biodiversity Information System por- low priority situation decisions would have to be tal set up by the Department of Space and Depart- carefully made on possible future impacts based on ment of Biotechnology maintained by the Indian a cumulative carrying capacity study rather than Institute of Remote Sensing, Dehradun is a good single project wise EIA. starting point for such a database and needs to be used in fine tuning the results of the present study. The PAs in the Northern Western Ghats were prioritized based on three parameters, namely their Due to the limited availability of data, this study size, area-perimeter ratio and the forest type. The has used the Taluka boundaries as the basic unit for total weight for the PA was an average of these three prioritizing zones on a landscape level. The Taluka parameters. The forest cover was given weights us- is also the administrative unit for managing ESAs ing the above methodology while size and area pe- in the future. Based on the availability of data this rimeter ratios were given weights from 10 (highest) basic unit could be narrowed down to a village, to 1 (lowest) based on the calculations. Each Ta- block, etc. The results are thus only indicative and luka was then assigned the PA weight according to need a detailed ground survey for finalization and the PAs it contained. identification of specific sites within these Talukas. High (10) Low (0) The study has primarily relied on data provided Protected Area Size by the Indian Institute of Remote Sensing, Deh- radun for the base maps of landuse cover, frag- Large Medium Very Small Small (50- (More than (100-300 (Less than mentation and disturbance of the northern West- 100 km2) 300 km2) km2) 50 km2) ern Ghats. Taluka boundaries have been obtained from Survey of India. The PA boundaries are ap- Protected Area Shape: Area to Perimeter Ratio proximate boundaries digitized on the basis of Regular Irregular Regular Irregular data available at BVIEER and that provided by the without without with core with core Wildlife Institute of India. Catchment areas have core core been extracted from Google images. The Aster Forest Type DEM was used for extracting elevation. The spe- Semi Ever- Moist De- Dry De- cies data has been compiled from various sources Evergreen and have been indicated at the end of each table green ciduous ciduous in the report. These have chiefly included reports The following is a list of protected areas catego- and publications of the Botanical Survey of India, rized by ecological and threat value the Zoological Survey of India, the ENVIS Cen- 1. Chandoli tres, the French Institute, Pondicherry, the Gujarat Ecological Society and published work of several 2. Bhimashankar 86 87 3. Karnala rated out and then used for calculation. The ESA weights for a Taluka were averaged and calculated 4. Mhadei based on their percentage coverage in the Taluka. 5. Cotigaon High (10) Low (0) 6. Radhanagari Level of Disturbance 7. Koyna Undis- Partly Dis- Moderately Severely 8. Phansad turbed turbed Disturbed Disturbed 9. Kalsubai Forest Type

10. SGNP Semi Ever- Moist De- Dry De- Evergreen green ciduous ciduous 11. Mollem Threats 12. Bondla 13. Bhagwan_M Industry/ Intensive Traditional Fallow Settlements Agriculture Agriculture Land 14. Tansa The following is a list of PA surrounds ranked by 15. Purna ecological and threat value 16. Vansda 1. Mollem WLS 2. Mhadei WLS Protected Area Surrounds 3. Chandoli WLS This is going to be increasingly problematic and 4. Cotigaon WLS for any such PAs the 10 Km Surrounding ESAs 5. Bhagwan Mahavir WLS must be given the highest priority in this category. Examples include the neighbourhood mining activ- 6. Radhanagari WLS ities of Radhanagari at the fringe of the Protected 7. Phansad WLS Area. The slum outside Sanjay Gandhi National Park and Mumbai itself makes the 10 km Zone ap- 8. Bondla WLS pears to be a no-win situation. There are no fringe 9. Koyna WLS areas in some of these locations. They are difficult 10. Bhimasankar WLS to rate during prioritizing within a category. 11. Karnala WLS This gives a very high priority status to a surrounding or adjacent ESA. Examples of important 12. Vansda NP locations for these ESAs abound in the southern 13. Tansa WLS Western Ghats such as habitats of Nilgiri tahr, 14. Kalsubai WLS Nilgiri languor, Lion tailed macaque. In the northern Western Ghats consider the Rusty spotted cat 15. Sanjay Gandhi NP known from only two or three PAs with small 16. Purna WLS populations. Isolated patches of old growth forests (RF or Sacred Groves) with Malabar Giant Squir- Hill Stations rel may exist. The ESA surrounds of these PAs Hill stations can be prioritized using the following are of greater importance in the northern Western parameters. Ghats due to a lack of interconnectedness. As a ten km zone around each Protected Area is a notified ESA, a buffer was drawn around each PA and a similar method followed for assigning weights to the ESA. Areas overlapping the buffers were sepa- 88 Water Bodies High (10) Low (0) Intactness and Notification

Notified Notified Non-notified Non-notified Intact Disturbed Recognized Unrecognized

Forest Type

Semi Ever- Moist De- Dry De- Evergreen green ciduous ciduous Reserve and Closed Canopy Forest

As these are envisioned as Multiple Use Areas the highest priority should go to those that have steeper slopes and more erode-able sides. Those with paddy lands within them should not be permitted to use land for alternate land use unless certified by the Western Ghats Authority as sustainable in environmental, (ecological) societal and long-term economic terms. Catchments were prioritised based on their forest cover as described The larger forest patches must be prioritized as above as well as their elevation. Highest elevations they probably contain a higher proportion of forest were given a weight of ten. The catchments weights interior species. This would have to be done for all for a Taluka were averaged and calculated based on forest types – evergreen, semi evergreen and moist their percentage coverage in the Taluka. deciduous. High (10) Low (0) Using the base vegetation map of the IIRS, areas Disturbance consisting of evergreen, semi evergreen, moist de- Disturbed Undisturbed Traditional Disturbed ciduous, dry deciduous, shrubland, grassland were (Changed Forest Agriculture (Scrubland) extracted for every Taluka and weights given based Landuse) on the respective percentage cover in each Taluka. Forest Type

The weights were given on a scale of 10 with ev- Semi Ever- Moist De- Dry De- Evergreen ergreen having the highest and shrubland having green ciduous ciduous the lowest. These ranks have been based on the fact Threats that evergreen, semi evergreen and moist deciduous forests are likely surrogates for high species di- Industry/ Intensive Traditional Fallow versity. Settlements Agriculture Agriculture Land The following is a list of dam catchments ranked High (10) Low (0) by biodiversity value Forest Cover 1. Supra Discontinu- Highly Completely Continuous ous Fragmented Degraded 2. Shirowata Forest Type 3. Temghar Semi Ever- Moist De- Dry De- Evergreen 4. Varasgaon green ciduous ciduous 5. Dodamarg

89 90 6. Uksan Specialized Habitats 7. Bhandardara These are essentially small but are of high prior- 8. Dimbe ity status. Examples include the largest and least disturbed sacred groves and plateau tops. 9. Selaulim Specialized ecosystems (plateau tops, and water- 10. Pavana falls for example) are relatively small but at multiple 11. Mulshi locations. They cannot be placed in a few ESAs as they are widely spread out and are included in mul- 12. Panshet tiple ESA categories. Prioritizing such hot speck 13. Pimpalgaonjoga locations for sufficiently long term possibilities for 14. Valvhan survival of their species will require a completely new thinking from traditional concepts of manag- 15. Manikdoh ing an interlinked and corridored network of PAs. 16. Bhatgar Many such factors which have been observed 17. Thokarwadi in the northern Western Ghats will have to be run 18. Chapet through prioritization exercises by groups of specialists and ecological experts. 19. Vadaj For example we know that the Malabar Giant 20. Warana Squirrel is found in small pockets where cano- 21. Chaskaman pies are intact. But protecting only a few locations makes little sense as this squirrel has several varia- 22. Chandolilake tions in coloration all of which require protection 23. Shivaji SG in ESAs. 24. Bhama The BNHS list of prioritized sacred groves devel- 25. Urmodi oped by the BNHS (Deshmukh, 1999) for Maha- rashtra was used for this purpose. There has been 26. Tulsisagar no such prioritized list available for Goa although 27. Dhom dam a list of groves in each Taluka is available with Goa 28. Khadakvasla Foundation. 29. Doodhgangasagar Forests are known to harbour several important species and also have a high cultural heritage value. 30. Mukhane As only a list of forts was available and no priori- 31. Chitri tization was done, this weight was done on a presence/absence basis for each Taluka. 32. Karanj 33. Jangamhatti 34. Salher 35. Yedgaon 36. Kanher 37. Punegaon 38. Ganagasagar 39. Kadava

91 Name Height Base Village District Highlights High (10) Low (0) Rockface Biodiversity Hadsar 4687 Hadsar Pune Cave High Biodi- Unique Moderate Low Lake versity Ecosystems Diversity Diversity Nimgiri 3635 Bagadwadi Pune Narayangad 2872 Khodadgaon Pune Plantation Cultural Heritage Dhakoba/ 4148/ High Low Durg 3855 Palu Pune Forest Giant Sacred Groves Size Squirrel Biodiversity High Low Plateau Sacred Groves Number Gorakhgad 2137 Dehari Thane Eucalyptus Cave >10 10-8 7-5 4-2 1 Siddhagad 3223 Narivali Thane Cave Escarpments Forest Rockface 1800- 1500- 1200- 900- 600- 300-0 Bhimashan- 1500 1200 900 600 300 kar 3296 Khandas Pune Forest Each Taluka was given weights for elevation as Padar 2002 Padarwadi Pune Plateau follows based on percentage coverage. Forest Rockface Forts Cave Presence Absence Peth/Koth- Ambivali/ ligad 1550 Jambrukh Raigad Grassy The following is a partial list of forts in and Bushes around the Northern Western Ghats. Plateau Ambivali/ Name Height Base Village District Highlights Tungi 2019 Jambrukh Raigad Cave Ratangad 4255 Ratanwadi Ahmednagar Pond Dhak 2320 Sandshi Raigad Plateau Rockface Under- Cave growth Karvi Forest Nedhe Cave Lake Rockface Forest Bhimgad 803 Vadap Raigad Harishchan- Under- dragad 4671 Khireshwar Ahmednager Cave Rajmachi 2710 Kondivde Pune growth Karvi Plateau Rockface Forest Jivdhan 3754 Ghatghar Pune Forest Pond Rockface Lohgad 3412 Malawali Pune Cave Chavand/ Pond Prasannagad 3495 Chavand Pune Grassy Visapur 3567 Patangaon Pune Cave Reptiles Plateau Reserve Rockface Shivneri 3342 Junnar Pune Forest Forest Cave Tikona 3580 Tikona Peth Pune Cave Rockface Rockface Bhairavgad 2835 Durgwadi Satara Forest Tung 3526 Tungwadi Pune Sanctuary Peth-Shah- Cave Korigad 3049 pur Pune Cave

92 Name Height Base Village District Highlights Name Height Base Village District Highlights Lake Mangalgad/ Dudhanewa- Rockface Kangori 2465 di Raigad Grassy Pond Pratapgad 3556 Satara Forest Telbaila 3322 Telbaila Pune Rockface Animals Ghangad 2565 Ekole Raigad Cave Makharand- gad 4064 Hatlot Satara Forest Rockface Vasota 3614 Met Indavali Satara Forest Plateau Lake Forest Rockface Sudhagad/ Borapgad 2030 Dhondase Raigad Plateau Karvi Lake Grassy Sparse Veg- Cave etation Chakdev 3230 Chakdev Satara Sarasgad 1433 Pali Raigad Rockface Rasalgad 1769 Rasalwadi Satara Cave Sumargad/ 2801/ Grassy Mahipatgad 3090 Dahivali Ratnagiri Forest Bushes Karvi Kurdugad 2021 Jite Raigad Rockface Pond Forest Cave Habitats of Threatened Species Sinhagad 4320 Kondhana Pune Cave Forest For our purposes of managing ESAs, a relatively Tourist simple prioritization that can achieve sustainability Pressure trends should have the aim of providing shelter to Rockface all rare species. A rare species with low abundance Rajgad Vajeghar Pune Plateau may be known from a single or only a couple of lo- Lake cations. Such a location must be put on a high pri- Cave ority listing and any pressures must be minimized Torna 4604 Velhe Pune Nedhe such as grazing or fire and no new pressures should Rockface be permitted such as urbanization or road building. Lingana 2979 Paane Raigad Rockface Raigad 2829 Pachad Raigad Cave Rare species may be highly endemic, endangered Lake or threatened. IUCNs categorization may be used Purandar/ 4560/ for prioritization in such a situation. In the West- Vajragad 4422 Narayanpur Pune ern Ghats there is a gap in knowledge as there are Malhargar 3166 Sonori Pune Plantation species listings based only on floras where exact Deforesta- locations are unknown or only occasionally docu- Rohida 3661 Bazarwadi Pune tion Raireshwar/ 4589/ mented. This makes prioritization imminently im- Kenjalgad 4269 Korle Pune Plateau possible. Here the “precautionary principle” and Lake the possibility of other rare taxa being present in Rockface the same location must be currently applied. Sev- Kamalgad 4522 Tupewadi Satara Rockface eral rare taxa may in all probability coexist as the Forest area possibly offers the necessary unique habitat Cave requirements of a large number of rare and highly Grassy endemic species from multiple taxa of flora and Lake dependant or even functionally closely linked spe- Chandragad 2257 Dhavle Raigad Forest cies within the area. Animals Cave Using data from secondary published sources the number of critically endangered, endangered, 93 vulnerable and no threatened species (IUCN cat- fying accurate weights based on their shape, land egories) were calculated for every Taluka and cover, etc. weights assigned as follows. As the number of spe- High (10) Low (0) cies in each Taluka could not be accurately ascer- Corridor Potential tained, the weights were assigned to the presence of the following category of species. This could High Low be further refined if accurate number of species of Corridor Shape the following categories are available. As there has Narrow Narrow been no way to assess abundance, the presence or Broad Short Broad Long Short Long absence of species of the above categories has been given weights irrespective of the number of sight- Corridor Type ings/population size. If this can be quantified, the Ecorestora- Fallow/Ag- Natural Plantation weights can be revised to include abundance. Habi- tion riculture tats of threatened species can be prioritized based on the following parameters. IDENTIFYING THREAT VALUES High (10) Low (0) Species Richness The threat map for every Taluka has been generated using the following criteria and weights. Very High High Medium Low The disturbance map created by IIRS has been Presence of Threatened Species used here. The Disturbance Index has been com- More than 3 to 5 1 to 3 puted by IIRS by adopting a linear combination of 1 species 5 species species species the defined parameters on the basis of probabilistic Level of Species Threat weightages.

Critically Near Disturbance Index (DI):{(fragmentation, po- Endangered Vulnerable Endangered Threatened rosity, interspersion, proximity from disturbance sources) settlements, roads, etc.) and juxtaposition} This map has classified disturbance into four Corridors classes, i.e.: high disturbance, moderate distur- Corridoring for seasonal changes are important bance, low disturbance and no disturbance areas. for the recent northward spread of elephants for These categories were extracted for every Taluka example. This will in all probability become a ma- and weights given based on their percentage cover- jor concern in prioritizing ESAs in some parts of age within a Taluka. the southernmost extent of the northern sector of High (10) Low (0) the Western Ghats. This should ensure that those Disturbance Level wandering elephants are given an opportunity to go back to their original habitat in Karnataka. High Medium Low None Broader and shorter corridors are obviously bet- Mines ter than narrow long corridors. Broad short corridors are the best, narrow long corridors are the As there have been no studies available on the worst. Unfortunately for some highly prioritized impact of specific mines on specific ecological re- species only the last may be feasible as a last ditch gions of the Western Ghats, this weight has been stand. given on a presence/absence basis. Corridors were drawn visually between PAs and High (10) Low (0) PA surrounds. For this study weights were then as- Presence Absence signed to the presence or absence of this corridor. Detailed studies on corridors can help in identi- 94 95 96 Industrial Areas Protected Areas Surrounds (ESA) Threats In the absence of data on specific industries near Along with a biodiversity weight a threat weight forest patches in each Taluka, the presence of in- that considered percentage of settlements, agricul- dustrial plots belonging to the Maharashtra Indus- ture, fallow/barren land was also developed. Settle- trial Development Corporation (MIDC) has been ments within ESAs of PAs have a great impact as taken as an indicator of indutrial areas. This is they are most susceptible to future landuse change however an indication of urbanization in the Ta- that will seriously impact biodiversity values of the luka. This weight has been given on a presence/ PAs and disrupt potential corridors. The param- absence basis. The weights could be changed and eters for the PA threat map are given below. made higher if specific data is available. High (10) Low (0) Some of the MIDCs in and around the Northern Fallow/Barren Settlements Agriculture Western Ghats are at Satpur, Musalgaon, Ambad, Land Dindori, Malegaon, Ratnagiri, Zadgaon, Mahad, GRADING THE ESAS Taloja, Islampur, Roha, Patalganga, Ranjangaon, Kharadi, Kurkumbh, Palus, Baramati, Bhosari, From the above methodology two raster maps Chakan, Jejuri, Hinjewadi, Chiplun, Dapoli, Lote of ecologically important areas and threats were Parshuram, Shirgaon, Miraj and Kadegaon. developed respectively. The Ecologically Impor- tant Area map was reclassified into critically im- High (10) Low (0) portant, high importance, moderate importance, Presence Absence low importance and least importance areas. The Catchment Area Threats threat map was reclassified into high threat, moderate threat and low threat areas. To identify the Settlements within the catchments have a greater ecosensitive areas the ecologically important area impact than catchments that have RF within them map was overlaid with the threat map and based and settlements outside. A threat map was devel- on the scores the final output has been reclassified oped using the weights as given above. as Fragile Areas, Highly Sensitive Areas and Sensi-

High (10) Low (0) tive Areas. (See final map of Ecologically Sensitive Areas) Fallow/Barren Settlements Agriculture Land

Protected Areas PA Surrounds Forest Cover (IIRS) Pre-processing and Weight Ecologically Important Catchments Assignment to Individual Areas (Taluka-wise) Criterion Elevation Sacred Groves Ecologically Sensitive Areas Species Fragile

Raster Processing Highly Sensitive

Disturbance Map (IIRS) Sensitive Mines Pre-processing and Weight Threat Levels MIDCs Assignment to Individual (Taluka-wise) Criterion Threat to PA Surrounds Threat to Catchments Methodology used for Prioritisation of ESAs based on Talukas 97 98 99 ANALYSIS OF TALUKAS FROM NORTH TO SOUTH BASED ON ESA CATEGORY AND THREAT LEVEL Sector 1 TALUKA: AHWA, NAVAPUR, SONAGADH ESA Category Features

Category Category Key Features Number Purna WLS 1 Protected Area Bansda NP Purna WLS Surrounds Existing ESAs Protected Area Surrounds Bansda NP Surrounds 2 (ESAs) Consist of overlapping large patches of Reserve and Protected Forest 3 Hill Stations Nil A Ecosystem Based 4 Forests outside PAs Large patches of Dry and Moist Deciduous Forest Watershed areas of west flowing rivers, Gira, Purna, 5 Water Bodies Khapri and Ambika No major dam catchment present Proposed ESAs 6 Others Nil B Species Based 7 Threatened Species High 8 Important Bird Areas Nil

Threat Features

Threat Category Key Threats

Industry Illegal logging during forest insurgency in 1990s, Commercial timber extraction

Mines Roads SH 13, 21, 26, 27 Agriculture Rab agriculture Settlement Tourism

Potential Corridor Potential corridor present between Protected Areas

100 Sector 2 TALUKA: SAKRI, SATANA, KALVAN, DINDORI, PEINT, DHARAMPUR, SURGANA, NASIK, IGATPURI, MOKHADA, JAWAHAR ESA Category Features

Category Category Key Features Number 1 Protected Area Nil Protected Area Surrounds Bansda NP Surrounds Existing ESAs 2 (ESAs) Tansa WLS Surrounds 3 Hill Stations Potential ESA Hill-station at Saputara A Ecosystem Based Small severely fragmented patches of Dry Deciduous 4 Forests outside PAs and Moist Deciduous forest, better in Western aspect of Jawahar Catchments of three dams in Dindori, two dams in 5 Water Bodies Nasik Proposed ESAs Small tribal sacred sites, Saler Fort, Nasik has high 6 Others elevation areas B Species Based 7 Threatened Species High in Anjaneri Hills in Nasik 8 Important Bird Areas Nil

Threats

Threat Category Key Threat Industry Mines Roads Present (SH 44, 46, NH 222) Agriculture Present Settlement Present Tourism

Potential Corridor Long narrow corridor requires ecorestoration and ecodevelopment

101 Sector 3 TALUKAS: VASAI, GREATER MUMBAI, THANE, BHIWANDI, VADA, SHAHAPUR, MOKHADA, AKOLA, JUNNAR, AMBEGAON, KHED, KARJAT, MURBAD ESA Category Features

Category Category Key Features Number Existing ESAs 1 Protected Area Sanjay Gandhi NP Tansa WLS Kalsubai Harishchandragadh WLS Bhimashankar WLS 2 Protected Area Surrounds Tansa WLS Surrounds (ESAs) Sanjay Gandhi NP Surrounds: City of Mumbai Kalsubai Harishchandragadh WLS Bhimashankar WLS 3 Hill Stations Matheran, outlying range of the main ridge of the Western Ghats Proposed ESAs A Ecosystem Based 4 Forests outside PAs Patches of Moist Deciduous, Dry Deciduous, Semi Evergreen, Evergreen forest present. Northernmost intact evergreen patches, semi evergreen canopy for giant squirrel in patches in Bhimashankar. 5 Water Bodies Tulsi, Vihar, Powai, Tansa, Chaskman Dams 6 Others Kanheri Caves, temples, Harishchandragadh Peak, Bhimashankar escarpments, about ten forts, several sacred groves in Junnar, Bhimashankar B Species Based 7 Threatened Species High number of threatened species in areas of Har- ishchandragadh, Bhimashankar, Matheran, Junnar, Ambegaon, Karjat, Murbad, Khed and all the PAs, important Giant Squirrel habitat 8 Important Bird Areas Bhimashankar WLS, Tansa WLS, Sanjay Gandhi NP

Threats

Threat Category Key Threat Industry SGNP and Tansa are highly industrialised Mines Roads Many roads, NH 3 near SGNP, Ghadegaon-Bhimashankar, Khed-Bhimashankar Agriculture Intense in PA surrounds, grass collection, fires, baling Settlement SGNP consists of slums and massive urbanisation, other PAs have smaller agricultural settlements Tourism Severe impact, Kanheri caves, temples in SGNP, Kalsubai and Bhimashankar due to pilgrimage

Potential Corridor Very good potential east west corridor, however, practically extremely difficult These are natural bot- tlenecks in the Western Ghats where they narrow in width West to East corridors which consist of different forest types, Moist Deciduous Coastal Forest of SGNP, Dry Deciduous Forest of Tansa, Moist Deciduous, Semi Evergreen and Evergreen forest of Kalsubai and Semi Evergreen and Evergreen forest of Bhimashankar, are of great importance for future climate change mitigation 102 Sector 4 TALUKA: KHALAPUR, MAVAL ESA Category Features

Category Category Key Features Number Existing ESAs 1 Protected Area Proposed Sanctuary at Father Santapau Valley, Khandala 2 Protected Area Surrounds (ESAs) 3 Hill Stations Khandala, Lonavala Proposed ESAs A Ecosystem Based 4 Forests outside PAs Semi Evergreen, few Evergreen, highly fragmented and isolated forest 5 Water Bodies Thokarwadi (Andhra), Uksan, Shirota, Valvan Dams 6 Others Escarpments, Karla Caves, about three forts B Species Based 7 Threatened Species High in Khandala, Bhimashankar, INS Shivaji Lonavala, 8 Important Bird Areas INS Shivaji-Lonavala

Threat Features

Threat Category Key Threats Industry Mines Roads Ghodegaon-Bhimashankar, Khed-Bhimashankar, Mumbai Pune expressway Agriculture Neo Townships Aamby Valley Township, Lonavala township, Land sale for farmhouses Tourism High impact from neighbouring Mumbai Pune cities

Potential Corridor Very high north south potential. Corridoring is possible locally between catchments and along the crestline. However, the Aamby Valley township narrows the potential corridor. This creates a serious impediment to corridoring possibilities and has already disrupted connectivity that has an adverse effect on wildlife populations. The expressway and NH 4 together forms a large disruption in the potential corridor which would require major management interventions to create underpasses and overpasses for wildlife. The creation of two protected areas, north and south of the expressway of 100 square kilometres each would greatly facilitate corridoring in spite of the presence of the existing gap.

103 Sector 5 TALUKA: MAVAL, MULSHI, VELHE, PURANDAR, BHOR, WAI, MAHABALESHWAR, MEDHA, SATARA, PATAN, SAWANTWADI, SHIRALA, SHAHUWADI, PANHALA, BAW- DA, RADHANAGARI, GARGOTI, KUDAL, AJRA, DODAMARG, CHANDGADH, KAGAL, VAIBHAVWADI, POLADPUR ESA Category Features

Category Category Key Features Number Existing ESAs 1 Protected Area Proposed Mulshi PA as compensation for Mumbai Pune expressway Koyna WLS Chandoli WLS Radhanagari WLS 2 Protected Area Surrounds Koyna WLS (ESAs) Chandoli WLS Radhanagari WLS 3 Hill Stations Mahabaleshwar, Panhala, Panchgani Proposed ESAs A Ecosystem Based 4 Forests outside PAs Semi Evergreen, Evergreen patches, Important tracts of intact canopy as a narrow strip near Tamhini and Mulshi, Good evergreen forest from Mahabaleshwar (Stunted) to Koyna and Chandoli (Tall) in the valley to Radhanagari (Stunted) in the crestline. Large semi evergreen forest with high biodiversity value unprotected in Chandgad and Sawantwadi 5 Water Bodies Several catchments, such as Pavana, Mulshi, Temghar, Chapet, Bhatgar, Varasgaon, Dhom, Kanher, Shivaji Sagar (Koyna), Varna (Chandoli), Doodhgangasagar (Radhanagari) and eight others 6 Others Several sacred groves present ranging from 1 to 8 hectares in size, Mulshi Taluka has 22 groves, about 23 forts, Presence of prominent escarpments especially in Maha- baleshwar, Kas Plateau and other important hotspecks in the Koyna belt, waterfalls, Arthurs seat escarpment, benchmark of old grown forest, B Species Based 7 Threatened Species High in all the PAs High in Mulshi, Tamhini, Mahabaleshwar (sightings of major mammals), Bhor, Raireshwar Fort, Kas Plateau, Patan, Possible tiger and elephant movements to the north from the south (Chandoli) 8 Important Bird Areas Koyna WLS Radhanagari WLS

Threat Features

Threat Category Key Threats Industry Windmills have unknown possible impact Mines Major impact in Sawantwadi, Dodamarg, Radhanagari, Shahuwadi, Chandgad. Several mines are present in the Radhanagari WLS.

104 Roads Enhanced road traffic, new road from Pune to Coast. Roads have high traffic density and have been widened, cutting though forest and passing several important sacred groves. Also leading to landslides and erosion. Agriculture Neo Townships Lavasa Township, Land sales in Mulshi, Tamhini, Potential township of New Mahabaleshwar near Kas, Panchgani, High future urbanization Tourism Tourism in Tamhini, Mahabaleshwar- Panchgani, Kas Plateau Other Human Elephant Conflict reported from Sawantwadi, Dodamarg and Chandgad

Potential Corridor: Corridoring to Chandoli through natural forest is possible Bhor Mahad will require ecorestoration Very important corridor connecting protected areas, require scientific restoration and prevention of any form of intrusion of development, high corridoring possibility from Mahabaleshwar to Koyna Good potential of PA surrounds through ecorestoration Bavda, Vaibhavwadi and Kagal is an important potential corridor between Chandoli and Radhanagari WLS

105 Sector 6 ALUKA: ALIBAG, PEN, PALI, ROHA, MURUD, MANGAON, SRIVARDHAN, MHASALA, MAHAD, MADANGARH, DAPOLI, GUHAGARH, CHIPLUN, DEVRUKH, RATNAGIRI, LANJA ESA Category Features

Category Category Key Features Number Existing ESAs 1 Protected Area Phansad WLS 2 Protected Area Surrounds Phansad WLS (ESAs) 3 Hill Stations Nil Proposed ESAs A Ecosystem Based 4 Forests outside PAs Forests at Alibag, Pen, Pali, Chiplun consist of evergreen forest remnants which are at a higher elevation compared to the rest of the coastline 5 Water Bodies Multiple short rivers and estuaries 6 Others Some forts, many sacred groves along the entire length, important sacred grove belt, larger than in the Western Ghats B Species Based 7 Threatened Species Alibag, Roha, Chiplun High 8 Important Bird Areas Nil

Threat Features

Threat Category Key Threats Industry Large industrial belt stretching from Roha, Mahad and south, proposed coal based power plants Mines Mining licenses granted in Sindhudurg Roads Wildlife underpasses and overpasses are required for the coastal highway and railway passing through the evergreen forest patches Agriculture Intensive prawn farming along the coast Settlement Present everywhere Tourism Five star tourism in Alibag

Potential Corridor No potential corridor

106 Sector 7 TALUKA: VALPOY, SANGUEM, QUEPEM, CHAURI ESA Category Features

Category Category Key Features Number Existing 1 Protected Area Mhadei WLS ESAs Bhagwan Mahavir WLS Mollem WLS Cotigaon WLS 2 Protected Area Surrounds Mhadei WLS (ESAs) Bhagwan Mahavir WLS Mollem WLS Cotigaon WLS 3 Hill Stations Nil Proposed A Ecosystem Based ESAs 4 Forests outside PAs Continuous evergreen forest patches throughout, honey- combed by mines even in the protected areas 5 Water Bodies One major catchment in Sanguem 6 Others Several sacred groves, B Species Based 7 Threatened Species High in all PAs 8 Important Bird Areas Bhagwan Mahavir WLS Cotigaon WLS Mhadei WLS Carambolim Lake

Threat Features

Threat Category Key Threats Industry Mining related industries Mines Extremely high mining threats within the sanctuaries and their surrounds Roads State highways exist throughout the protected areas, important to build underpasses and overpasses Agriculture Settlement Tourism High pressure in coastal areas affect the forest area

Potential Corridor The protected areas and surrounds form a natural corridor to the southern Western Ghats. This entire belt from Valpoy through Chauri consists of continuous evergreen patches and forms an excellent corridor to the southern Western Ghats. However, mining within the sanctuaries and surrounds is a major threat.

107 PLANNING FOR CORRIDORS apeeth’s campus in Dhankawadi in Pune in 2000. The Need for Corridors Elephants have strayed repeatedly into southern Maharashtra from Karnataka in recent years. All Corridors are particularly important in the north- these animals appear to have been attempting to ern Western Ghats as they allow movement of ani- unsuccessfully look for more suitable habitats. This mals from one forested patch to another. Seasonal could indicate a loss of optimal habitat conditions, movements enlarge the animal’s range and habitat or an overabundance in the existing habitat, or preferences, which help to increase their genetic di- both. versity and health. This indicates that corridors are Straying into a distant location also indicates extremely important for the survival of a healthy the presence of some level of corridoring which population of species (Bharucha 2000). is sufficient to permit these stray animals to move In the Western Ghats corridors between PAs is of into an alternate area. However the new location great importance as the N-S orientation of the hill may not be an appropriate and safer habitat, as the range would permit floral and faunal elements to above incidents have shown. migrate in response to climate change. Elsewhere The long – term value of corridors is highly de- where corridors lie in other directions they may pendent on the health of the adjacent landscape be less amenable to future shifts of species. This and presence of large patches of natural vegetation. great potential for species to migrate northwards This applies to our current critical situation in the in response to a rise in temperature will be possible Western Ghats. Even with the existence of forest in the Western Ghats forests only if the corridor corridors, several local species will be lost unless forests are kept reasonably intact between the PAs. the larger islands of relatively intact vegetation are There is thus an opportunity for judiciously man- protected. Thus ESAs that will be managed with a aging corridors to adapt to the ill effects of climate view to protect / enhance natural biodiversity will change. The corridors require not only an adequate be a key to a successful integrated landscape plan width, but should include quality habitat condi- through a chain of relatively large patches linked tions that would permit several different species to by viable corridors. The meta populations of large migrate through them. This would mean reducing species such as tiger, gaur, and sambar are more pressures from neighbouring landscape elements. likely to survive in the long-term if this strategy is The corridors will enhance the carrying capacity developed at the landscape level, as the forest is of the PA network for maintaining heterozygos- already severely fragmented. In these major overt ity within species. The integrity of natural and indicator species, which prefer to use forest interi- even semi natural ecosystems can be maintained ors and cannot survive at forest edges, the reduced through ecorestoration only if sufficiently large size of patches and increased isolation has already and optimal habitats are protected for its species. led to local extinctions. This eventually annihilates Thus corridoring is an essential component for these species in the region. It is evident that the managing genetic, species and ecosystem diversity smaller the forest fragments the lower the popu- of the northern Western Ghats. lation of forest interior species. In contrast edge Corridors are equally important for local people species such as the more adaptable ones would in- as once they are disrupted both predators and her- crease in abundance due to the multiplication of bivores are forced into their agricultural lands and the fragments with a concomitant increase in the their settlements. This leads to serious people – extent of edges even though fragments become wildlife conflicts. Currently several leopards have smaller. been moving out of their forest patches around Landuse Within Existing Corridors Bhimashankar into the sugarcane fields at Junnar. A stray tiger was known to move around villages Currently the existing corridors between PAs in- near Tamhini Ghats in Mulshi Taluka in 2004. A clude patches of Reserve Forest, Protected Forest Gaur was found to infiltrate into the Bharati Vidy- and ‘Malki forest areas’. They include forests of various levels of intactness from over 80% canopy, 108 to those between 40-80%, and degraded areas of It is the first type that is of great value and must shrubland. The latter are primarily village grazing be protected as bridges for species to move between lands, which have been frequently dubbed ‘waste- PAs. Plantations though usable by certain species land’. These “blank” areas are frequently commu- may not be used by the more ecologically discern- nity owned pastures used by local agro-pastoral ing species (National Resources Conservation Ser- people. Fires are lit on these hill slopes in February vice). and March to get a quick flush of palatable grass There are several specialized ecosystems within for the large number of free ranging village cattle. the Western Ghats that must be included in a spe- Another landscape element that is present in cial corridor ESA category. Forest patches that are these corridors are the patches of shifting agricul- significantly different in composition and structure ture on the hill slopes where hill rice, nagli, varai and include unique features must be adequately etc. are grown by lopping the forest, to use as a connected. There are also the plateau tops with wood ash fertilizer. Fire is a component of the lo- a lateritic crust on which floral elements of great cal management regime. biological diversity grow only during the monsoon. The precipitous Western slopes are of interest as The potential areas that are selected to develop they have waterfalls and cascades which are the corridors must include a strategy for ESAs that specialized ‘niche’ of a variety of plants, amphib- must consider the existing land use and define lo- ians, crustacean and molluscs. Nalla courses with cale specific management practices for them. This both perennial and monsoonal flows are rich in depends on the varied needs of animal species that aquatic and semi aquatic floral elements that are are expected to use these corridors. As the land fairly specific and form aggregations of species rich tenure differs from site to site there will have to be micro habitats. All these must be identified and in- a set of specific norms and rules for utilization of cluded in a special category of protected corridor these potential corridors. A complete ban on their that connects such patches in the Western Ghats. use by local people would create serious conflict Thus a variety of natural landscape elements must issues. What must be done is preventing new forms be included in the formation of ESA corridors be- of development of these potential corridors. tween PAs. Types of Corridors Establishing Corridors in the Northern Corridors in the Western Ghats are of two types: Western Ghats Natural Relict Corridors for Biologically Impor- Existing corridors in the Western Ghats can- tant Patches not be simply viewed on a satellite image. This is The most important ESAs are already seques- only the first step. This must be followed by ground trated in the PAs. However the corridors are small truthing to appreciate if the width is adequate, the and inadequately buffered from surrounding lan- connectivity between patches is relatively intact, duse pressures. Ecorestoration in buffer areas and and the structure of the protected vegetation is in a dam catchments is a key to maintaining the integ- stage of recovery towards ‘naturalness’. Corridors rity of biodiversity of the Western Ghats through a seen on the satellite image may appear intact but system of existing relict forest corridors. on the ground consist of tiny isolated fragments as seen in areas overgrazed by cattle. Such areas Potential and Restored Corridors have multiple small patches of grassy open gaps These are blank or degraded patches which are surrounded initially by a matrix of forest. In more not connected by natural vegetation. These degrad- severely grazed areas the openings form the matrix ed areas lie between significantly large patches of and the forests appear as islands with no interior forest or those that are created by plantation for- habitat and largely consist of edge habitats. The fi- estry for a variety of purposes. Such areas would nal stage of such degradation is formation of shru- require extensive ecorestorative efforts in the West- bland. ern Ghats. Little is known about the effects of weed infesta- 109 tion in the Northern Western Ghats. For example thus be incorporated into a wider network of con- Lantana spreading along forest edges and even servation areas. Such areas would undoubtedly infiltrating forest interiors may affect the popula- be capable of linking at least some of the ‘better’ tion of some species but favour others. For exam- patches of forests. ple leopards and even tigers appear to appreciate After restoring a corridor through a series of ini- thickets of Lantana for their shade and seclusion tiatives it is important to assess whether the newly in degraded areas. Birds in the Western Ghats such created corridor is capable of performing the de- as Red Vented Bulbul and Red Whiskered Bulbuls sired ecological functions. It is also important to feed on Lantana berries. Butterflies feed on Lanta- study the structure and existing ecological status na flower nectar. What remains enigmatic is what of the recipient habitat patches. Inferior ecological happens with species such as the Black Bulbul and status of recipient habitat patches may have an ad- Yellow Browed Bulbul which are associated with verse effect on the target species as well as on the intact forests. A list of butterflies if any, which have corridor. Corridors may act as sinks if patches that been able to adapt to Lantana for laying eggs on are linked are not appropriately conserved. While which their caterpillars can feed successfully, needs evaluating corridor functions it is important that to be acquired through detailed studies. Thus ef- the terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, habitats, fects of infestation by exotic plants may have a species, and natural features of the landscape are much greater impact on forest biodiversity in the taken into account. Western Ghats than is generally believed. A stochastic or cyclic event such as flowering of bam- Potential Corridors within the Northern boo or Strobilanthus could lead to a rapid spread Western Ghats of an invasive species. Such an event could virtu- Purna Wildlife Sanctuary to Vansda National ally destroy habitat quality of an ESA. The species Park composition and density of a faunal community is PA: Vansda National Park – Too small but of thus dependant on weed infestation which is a phe- good biological value with mixed and Nature Dry nomenon which remains essentially unexplored in Deciduous and Moist Deciduous Teak with herds the Ghats. Weed infestation is linked closely to cor- of cheetal in a single pocket, leopard, Felix chaus, ridor effectiveness in the Ghats. Jackal, accessioned sightings of Rusty spotted cat. In the Western Ghats the streams are impor- PA: Purna Wildlife Sanctuary – Disturbed by tant natural riparian corridors. For example nal- agriculture in PF – Natural teak plantations and las are frequented by species such as the Malabar some mixed forests. Good habitat for birdlife. Whistling thrush. Surrounding deforestation alters stream flow converting perennial or long flow PA: ESAS surrounding the PAs overlap and in- duration streams, into short flow duration, or dry clude a viable corridor of dry deciduous forest. stream beds immediately after the rains. In such Forest: Has good quality old Teak trees in Dry situations the corridor effect of riparian vegetation Deciduous forests across most of the Reserve For- is severally compromised. est patches but fragmented by Protected Forest Old growth ‘deorais’ can act as stepping stones with extensive agriculture. for birds such as the Great Pied hornbill. Forest: Fragmented by traditional ‘rab’ agricul- The efficiency of the habitat to support a com- ture which has escalated during the last 20 years plete compliment of plant and animal species Forest: Connectivity possible through riverine is thus a cumulative effect of a vast combination tracts of important rivers. of factors operating at the landscape level in the Ghats ecosystem. Fauna : Few endangered endemic mammals – Rusty Spotted Cat, Leopard According to a study conducted by Das et al several of the prioritized unprotected areas in the Fauna: Important Bird Area Western Ghats are under Reserve Forests and can Forest corridoring: Forest patches large to mod- 110 erate size but convoluted edges and some corridor- Andhra, Valwan, Shirowata and Mulshi lakes. ing possible. Corridor: Priority patch for corridor to Bhi- Corridor: Importance of riverine tracts as corri- mashankar-WLS. dors which will require ecorestoration. Corridor: Important existing corridor of natu- Corridor : Natural forest corridoring present be- ral forest (between Bhimashankar and Koyna), but tween some patches of Reserve Forest parts of it broken by Expressway between Mumbai – Pune in addition to the National Highway and Corridor: Corridoring possible through ecores- railway tracks. toration especially for forest patches, but difficult in Protected Forest areas. Corridor : Important lateral westward offshoot corridors to Tansa, Borivali (Sanjay Gandhi Na- Impact : Traditional agriculture by rab, some tional Park) and Bhimashankar, Alcota Matheran evidence of hunting for food (ESA) Impact: By roads especially along single main Corridor : Important for corridoring southward tract from Nasik via Saputara to Balsar and Billi- to Koyna moria. Impact – Mumbai – Pune Expressway with high Vansda National Park to Sanjay Gandhi National traffic density, air pollution, landslides, forest deg- Park radation, and road kills of wildlife. (Requires WL Long narrow corridor through Surgana, Peint, passages) Nashik, Igatpuri Impact –Urbanization of Lonavala – Khandala Forest: Fragmented expansion Corridor: Will require ecorestoration Impact – New township and access road to Sa- Impact: Roads, agriculture, settlements hara which is a large unbridgeable gap. Sanjay Gandhi National Park through Tansa Impact - PA to have been developed as a com- Wildlife Sanctuary and Kalsubai Harishchan- pensation for mitigating impact of Mumbai – Pune dragadh Wildlife Sanctuary to Bhimashankar Expressway which has NOT been implemented. Wildlife Sanctuary Impact: Religious tourism, solid waste overbur- PA : Potential PA of Father Santapeau Sanctu- den, water pollution and over utilization of forest ary not notified as suggested by Rodger and Pan- resources in Bhimashankar Wildlife Sanctuary. war (1988) Hills Stations HS: Priority patch for corridor to Forest : Excellent but fragmented forest patches Matheran notified ESA for hill station. of moderate size around Bhimashankar Bhimashankar Wildlife Sanctuary to Koyna Forest : Moderate size of patches, isolation of Wildlife Sanctuary patches of natural forest in and around Bhimashan- PA: Potential PA as suggested but not notified in kar Mahabaleshwar. (Rodger and Panwar (1988)) Water bodies (Catchment): Valwan and Shi- PA: Koyna WLS, backwaters of great biodiver- rowata are high priority catchments without any sity conservation value villages and low pressures from outside the catch- PA: Excellent tall semi evergreen forest – Koyna ment. All other catchments with villages and ag- backwaters and – West bank of lake ricultural land (Rab) with relatively high pressure Forest : Moderate size patches of intact RF Fauna : Important Bird Area recorded at INS Shivaji by BNHS Forest : Northern most well preserved RF patches of evergreen and semi evergreen vegetation Fauna: Important ex situ breeding facility for around Mahabaleshwar seen at a high elevation in Mahseer fish which have been introduced into 111 a high rainfall belt Wildlife Sanctuary Forest : Good patches of natural forest – Tam- PA: Chandoli is one of the most important PA hini – Dongarwadi - Adarwadi in Maharashtra for WG typical evergreen and semi evergreen formations. Forest : Fragmentation – moderate Fauna: Presence of largest population density of Forest : Isolation – minimal Gaur, possibly tiger, leopard, and sambar popula- Forest : Excellent stunted semi-evergreen Mem- tions. ecylon forests at ridge Fauna : To be developed into only Tiger Reserve Forest Ecosystem: Panchgani and Kas plateaus in northern Western Ghats of great importance for endemic and endangered Fauna : Recognized IBA monsoonal flora. Several similar laterite plateaus of value have been identified Impact: Large feral buffalo population. Fauna : Giant squirrel present in patches, also Impact: Mining operations within 10 Km ESA tiger, leopard, sambar, gaur surround with no buffer area. Fauna : IBA recognized internationally – BNHS PA: Radhanagari is an important PA of Western Ghats – Large size, good patches of intact forest Corridor: Relatively intact natural forest corri- and large plateau. dor in patches between Bhimashankar WLS and Koyna Wildlife Sanctuary to be protected through Forest: Intact continuous evergreen and semi ev- an important ESA through a corridor system de- ergreen forest. veloped by ecorestoration of catchment areas. Forest: Continuous Forest canopy in ESA sur- Corridor: Important off shoot corridor to Kar- round. nala WLS. Forest: Very low fragmentation, no isolation of Impact : Lonavala complex – heavily urbanized fragments. Impact : Major break in corridor due to Mumbai Fauna: Best specimens of Gaur in northern – Pune Expressway and highway Western Ghats with high population density. Also has Sambar, Barking deer, Wild boar, excellent Impact : Widened Road between Pune and Ma- population of forest birds, thrushes, babblers, war- had blers, and flycatchers. Impact : Gaps at Sahara and Lavasa townships Fauna : Important Bird Area recognized by Impact: Unauthorized Construction in Maha- BNHS baleshwar – Panchgani and intervening tracts. Corridor : Viable natural forest corridors both to Impact : Moderate amount of ‘rab’ cultivation the North towards Chandoli and South wants to Sacred groves: Nearly 40 odd sacred groves of Protected Areas of Goa Mulshi and Mawal. Some well preserved and an- Impact : Impacts – initial urbanization cient patches, mostly from 0-4 ha in size. Impact: Impact of mining is a severe on-going Koyna Wildlife Sanctuary to Chandoli Wildlife threat. Sanctuary Radhanagari Wildlife Sanctuary to all Goa Sanc- Forest: Intact evergreen and semi evergreen tuaries Forest: Existing corridor for wildlife PA: The Protected Areas include 3 or 4 of the Corridor: Well developed natural, short, wide contiguous areas with overlapping ESA surrounds corridor exists thus requiring no special corridor. Chandoli Wildlife Sanctuary to Radhanagari Forest: Continuous tall evergreen forest forma-

112 tion. establish a rating scale has remained elusive. This is now increasingly essential. Forest: High level of fragmentation in certain sectors due to mining In the Western Ghats a particular area can be considered an ESA on one or more than one ground. Fauna: Gaur, Sambar, Leopard, Lesser cats. Thus it may include various categories each being Corridor: Good possibilities for corridoring, given a different rating based on both quantitative short and wide existing corridor. objective measurable parameters and qualitative Impact: Mining is a major impact on the con- value judgments. This gives a more precise rating servation potential of the region and damages the based on parameters such as biological values and corridor. extent of threat. This provides a balanced scoring tool that may give rise to a better outcome. For ex- CONCLUSION ample National Parks would have a greater rating There are some important parameters for priori- than Sanctuaries. Unique areas and micro – eco- tisation. An area that is intimately connected with systems or niches would be given higher scores. an adjacent ESA of the same category is better as Large continuous forests belts have greater scores the floral and faunal community would be similar, than small patches within an area. Areas with en- thus permitting and promoting movement and ge- dangered or endemic species as well as common netic heterozygosity within each of its component species at an optimal level of the carrying capacity species. If represented by a gap or some other cat- of an area have higher ratings for species. Small egory of ESA the specialist species are likely to be relict natural formations such as plateau tops must different. Thus even though apparently linked to be given a high rating for their number of endemic an adjacent ESA the different category of the ESA flora. may constitute a gap for a particular habitat spe- In terms of species and rating their abundance cific species. or rarity as well as importance has been attempted In each category the relative importance of each by several studies. Species with a low tolerance to ESA must carefully be rated. The Pranob Sen Com- habitat destruction have limited ecological am- mittee in 2000 (Sen 2000) stated that ‘the technical plitude. The level of threat (risk) of extinction in- expertise available to the Government at present for creases from rare species to vulnerable in the mid- evaluating ecological sensitivity or fragility and de- term, to endangered where extinction may result in marcating the area concerned is extremely limited’ the wild in a short period of time. This is a strong ….. ‘Each (agency) has a very specific focus and criterion for placing an ESA within an ecologically none at present are focused on mapping of ESAs. important category at the top of the rating scale. During the last decade the use of geoinformatics An endangered species in all likelihood could lose has grown considerably. Large areas have been 50% of its individuals within the next three genera- worked on. For example in Maharashtra a large tion of the species (IUCN Category of Endangered exercise has been done to produce maps and data Species). to redefine the boundaries and reduce the size of The tool for evaluating the importance of a the GIB grassland Sanctuary in Maharashtra from patch of forest as a valuable landscape element 8000 Sq. Km. of grassland in Reserve Forest to within a wider landscape that includes natural as 1200 Sq. km. Similar studies to look at corridoring well as man-modified patterns forming a complex and other wildlife parameters using GIS have been mosaic must be rated depending on the local situ- done at Bharati Vidyapeeth Institute of Environ- ation. Here no quantified values are possible and ment Education and Research. Several other stud- a qualitative but carefully judged rating based on ies in different regions have been conducted even ecological functions, naturalness, uniqueness and in the Western Ghats (Bharucha 2000). Thus while other qualitative judgments are at times even more the capacity has grown in the field of ecological accurate than quantified notional values based on mapping the parameter and assessment criteria to numerical values alone. 113 Evergreen forests in the Northern Western Ghats are as important as the ‘sholas’. They have a low resilience and once their canopy is disrupted are rapidly recolonized by a range of species which are not from the local evergreen plant community. On the slopes – both, the western escarpment and parts of the eastern aspect the gradient and topography are important factors to suggest relative importance within this category which is often seen in catchment areas of dams. The steeper the slope the greater its ecological sensitivity as erosion landslides and siltation levels creates serious impacts on the longevity of the dams. Slopes that are steeper than 20 are considered moderately steep and form a dividing line for the level of ecological sensitiveness (Sen 2000). Several experts with whom this project has been discussed feel that this is the last time that an effort can be made to preserve the biological values of the Western Ghats. The planning exercise would have to consider various views of a wide range of stakeholders and bring about a consensus before any steps are taken to implement new ESAs. The major concerns include a review of the existing data on ecosystem and species diversity. There should be in place plans to collect data on gaps in knowledge and to increase appreciation of the various impacts on the environment. An understanding of the management needs of each ESA category. Geoinformatics and ground surveys for planning corridors should be used. Finally the complex exercise of prioritization in terms of future landuse should be attempted.

114 CHAPTER 6: IMPLEMENTATION AND MANAGEMENT

n several situations the implementation of which enables its functionaries and its selected ex- conservation has not occurred in India due pert professional institutions to implement conser- Ito inadequate planning, lack of political will, vation action. This will require a broad consensus or poor monitoring and evaluation. Knight et al on which different line agencies in Government at (2006) stress the need to use well-tested tools such Centre and State level should be empowered to act as area selection algorithms and principles that in- and to select stake holders who can effectively play clude representation and complementarity which a significant role through PPP to implement the have to be used during implementation of a locale objectives of ESAs. People support is said to be the specific conservation plan (Knight, Cowling, and most important strategy to create the approximate Campbell 2006). In the Western Ghats the ESA milieu for conservation. must be based on these concerns. The current Once initiated a regular review of activities MEE – Management Effective Evaluation being through conservation assessment techniques implemented by MOEF through the WII for PAs would have to be put into place. Planning the in- and Tiger Reserves shows that the gaps in imple- dividual activities that can lead to successful man- mentation are related to issues such as inadequate- agement of ESAs goes beyond prioritization based ly trained manpower, delays in funding etc. These on appropriate site selection, capacity building, in issues will have to be considered in managing the situ conservation, corridoring etc. It will require functions of the ESAs. We may know how to plan a number of individuals who are trained and em- but do not know how to implement and achieve the powered to put the ESAs management in an ac- objectives of the ESAs. Once initiated the Western tion oriented mode. It implies not only an under- Ghats Authority must be endowed with autonomy standing of biological needs of the ESAs but the 115 social and economic background in which they are developed through an Action Plan. situated. (Knight, Cowling, and Campbell 2006) The ESAs are currently multiple – use areas with propose clear components for ‘doing’ conservation primarily an agro pastoral traditional based land planning. use management. This is less damaging than more The ESAs prioritized in the different categories intensive farming, urbanization, road building, will require an implementation strategy, capacity dam construction of the adjacent valleys etc. There building of executives and front line staff and col- is no need to curtail the activities of traditional laborative and participative management. A sys- farming except to reduce the frequency of hill slope tematic conservation assessment tool will have to cultivation, free uncontrolled grazing, prevent an- be put into place which is followed by operational nual lighting of fires, and continual extraction of models and evaluation of the success of manage- fuel wood and NTFP collection for sale. ment. This means that an alternate income generation Don Faber–Langendoen (2007) demonstrates model has to be developed for these local people how Ecological Integrity Assessments assists in especially so that there is no temptation for selling ecological classification through remote sensing, their lands to other types of land users such as farm rapid assessment, intensive assessment and metrics houses, roadside, small time or large hoteliers, busi- documentation. The tool uses key ecological attri- ness and small scale industries that can together butes and indicators for ranking biotic attributes, constitute a major cumulative threat. abiotic conditions, and area and landscape contest. Any tourism activity must be based on the prin- An EIA score card is used to rank a particular area ciples of real ‘ecotourism’ which means that the providing an ecological integrity rank. strategy and activities must minimize its impacts There is a need to study the tree, shrub, climber on ecology and that the income generated must and ground flora in each of the ESAs to be able go to local people as a means towards alternate to monitor the effectiveness of conservation before income generation and low impact form of home and periodically after implementation in the ESA stay tourism rather than five star tourist complexes by the Western Ghats Authority. This can be done where the income generated goes to big business. by a periodic evaluation of woody and non- woody The financial returns must go to local people as an herbivorous vegetation. alternate income generation strategy that reduces their impacts on the land and its resources. Low There cannot be a single strategy to adequately impact forms of home stays rather than five-star protect the different ESA categories. As PAs, ESA tourism (where the income generated actually acts of 10 kms around PAs, RF areas, and the three as a draw for builders, hoteliers, land grabbers etc. ESA – Hill stations already have their own protec- has to become a part of an ecodevelopment initia- tion strategies these can continue to be governed by tive.) their existing acts, norms, rules and Court Orders. While demands for more water will trigger more It is other areas outside these relatively protected dams it is more appropriate to enhance the survival categories that require sustainable governance on a of existing impoundments by eliminating soil ero- category-wise set of conditions that require urgent sion, ecosensitive afforestation by using local tree attention and a time – bound Rapid Action Plan. species, especially focusing on those that have key This includes a complete cessation by Regional stone properties, are rare or endemic to the West- and Town Planners for permitting or creating new ern Ghats. townships, new hill stations, further construction in other existing hill stations, such as Panhala or Traditionally managed “deorai’s” should be urbanizing of areas such as the plateau tops, such managed through “as is where is” strategies with as Kas. clear moratoriums on building temples within them, or expanding existing tribal shrines to ac- A few guidelines on what can, may or not be commodate gods other than the existing forest done in each of these landuse elements need to be 116 deity. An education awareness drive in the local cannot consist of a single strategy as their conser- language and by local experts such as ecologists, vation values, impacts and needs vary in different anthropologists, social scientists, naturalists and ESA categories and locations along the range. NGOs should be used to advise local pujaris on the Thus there is a need to group these varied eco- need to use the groves only for local people rather logically sensitive sites into specific categories and than opening them up to external religious tourism develop a strategy using specific management cri- from adjacent towns except perhaps once a year. teria for each ESAs type. The categories suggested This will prevent problems such as trampling of are based on their specific objectives which are re- seedlings, water pollution of stream courses, exces- lated to a combination of factors that include eco- sive garbage especially of plastic bags and bottles nomic development, local societal requirements, etc. within the site. and most importantly for maintaining their ecolog- While road transport needs will continue to grow ical integrity. The last includes preserving genetic the demands to widen roads must be strategically species and ecosystem diversity. denied by more stringent monitoring of EIAs. Bet- Some of these ecologically sensitive sites may ter traffic control and policing, preventing double already have institutionalized protective strategies laneing due to overtaking, installing camera traps, such as NPs or WL Sanctuaries; Reserved For- traffic education are alternatives to unnecessary ests, or preserved as traditionally protected sacred road widening plans. New alignments except to ac- groves. Others may not have any protection at all cess villages that have remained unconnected will and thus require a new set of legal provisions as have to be permanently stalled. ESAs, with new relevant rules and institutional ar- All mining activities which destabilize soil and rangements for their protection. In some instances degrade forest cover will have to be prevented in the sites may be so small that only locally relevant areas designated as ESAs. strategies can be used to protect them as ESAs. Outside ESAs these activities must follow very All these different sites would fall under one or stringently the ecorestoration norms with an over- more categories within the umbrella of a network riding plan to use only local tree species, recreate of ESAs in the Western Ghats. the shrub layer and climbers and encourage the The categories constituted as ESAs from a man- reformation of locally relevant ground flora espe- agement perspective are linked closely to land ten- cially of important species such as endemic and ure and impacts from development. While some of endangered ground flora. the sites have great conservation significance they A major concern is the conservation of outlying may also suffer from high levels of biotic pressures. hill ranges to the east of the main ridge and the out- Their conservation values may be depleted unless crops and low plateaus or isolated hills adjacent to protective measures are rapidly instituted. Others the Western Ghats in the Deccan to the east and on may have lower conservation value but have low the coastal plain in the West. Such hills and elevat- biotic pressures and may thus remain stable. How- ed areas can have immense bioresources with en- ever their status could be enhanced by ecorestor- demic and endangered ground flora and their fau- ative strategies. A high biodiversity value and a low nal inhabitants such as amphibian, reptiles, birds biotic pressure would constitute the most impor- and mammals. Some of these may be more vital tant ESAs. In such situation long term preserva- and / or threatened than similar populations in the tion through an ESA would lead to the most posi- Ghats themselves. This would have to be dealt with tive results. Preventing unsustainable development on a case to case basis as they would be outside the from extending into such ESAs is the key strategy Western Ghats. to be instituted in these sites. MANAGEMENT AND INSTITUTION- Low conservation status areas with existing high AL ARRANGEMENTS impacts may be worthless and the costs of revers- ing degradation trends may be too high to be of The management for ESA’s of the Western Ghats any significant value. ied functions into a unified perception related to the concerns of ESAs in the Ghats is a major issue The framework for the strategy to be used at a for the proposed Western Ghats Authority. site can be developed by using a template as given below. This can be filled for each Taluka in the The principles of management for ESAs should Western Ghats. include the following: Type (ESA Conservation Impact 1. Maintaining large continuous patch sizes category) Value-Status level Strategy rather than small multiple fragments 2. Creating well connected corridor between fragments is better than improving isolated Once a conservation strategy based on locale patches specific conditions is evolved for a Taluka, it is es- 3. Closely contiguous patches are better than sential to identify the implementing agency – For- isolated patches est Department, Revenue Department, Private agencies, NGOs, local people. A set of Rules and 4. Widest possible natural corridors are better Regulations to manage each category must be for- than restored ones mulated. These can be based on a modification of 5. Sensitive management of Protected Area Rules used in the Wildlife Protection Act (1972); surrounds for local use with a reduction in Forest Conservation Act (1980); Water Act (1974); conflict is the key to conservation Environment Protection Act (1986) etc. Relevant There are two processes that will have to be used Rules that can be effectively modified for ESAs in implementing ESAs. They are ecorestoration from these Acts are given in the section on Judicial and ecodevelopment. Both have linkages to sus- Concerns. tainable development. However, they are different Planning and designing an appropriate conser- approaches with certain parallel and even diver- vation development program for the future of the gent objectives. These will require developing new Western Ghats is now an urgent need. This stems management strategies with new structures and lo- from the enormous pressures on landuse based on cal capacity development. the need for a rapid economic growth without any This review has demonstrated the complexity of thought for its long-term sustainability. creating a management strategy for the future well- The landscape in the Ghats currently consists of being of the ecology the biological diversity and a patchwork of forests, narrowed degraded shrub the economic development of local people of the land corridors, dam catchments etc. in a matrix of Western Ghats. To plan a sustainable development agriculture and degraded areas that constitute gaps package that is suitable for an ecologically sensitive between existing PAs. The PAs are nodes in the region of global and national importance for pres- Western Ghats landscape that have significant pop- ervation of its biological assets will require a great ulations of wild species of flora and fauna (Noss deal of locale specific planning taking into account and Harris 1986). the local people’s needs. The status and landuse pattern of these nodes While the whole region is ecologically sensitive and the existence of functional corridoring is a key it is related to the different landscape elements that conservation concern. Cores, buffers and bridges constitute a mosaic of different categories. Thus the between forested patches must constitute a homog- region as a whole is not equally suitable for differ- enous management entity. In the Ghats this will ent forms of development. Within each landscape require a conceptual framework, a review of the element the level of sensitiveness differs. This rang- existing situation and a highly locality and species es from extremely fragile, highly sensitive, less sen- specific strategy. The complexity in management sitive. All activities would have some impact on the stems primarily from the multiple agencies in- biodiversity at either genetic, species or ecosystem volved in land management. Integrating their var- levels. However as the level of sensitivity differs 118 Terms used for Appreciating Ecosensitivity

Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs): KBAs are an overlapping subset of the existing and potential PAs (Lang- hammer et al. 2007).

Irreplaceability and Vulnerability are the most important aspects of conservation planning. Irreplaceability is related to uniqueness. Vulnerability deals with irreplaceability if threats continue unabated. High irreplaceability and high vulnerability requires heightened levels of urgent actions. significantly with the different categories it would Ecodevelopment as defined by the UN is a form be essential to define the types of activity that may of development at regional and local levels consis- be permitted in certain areas within strong mitiga- tent with the potentials of the area involved, with tion and monitoring measures laid down for each attention given to the adequate and rational use of category. This would range from hands off areas to natural resources, technological styles and organi- those that would be least threatening to the existing sational forms that respect natural ecosystems and status of biological diversity. local social and cultural patterns (United Nations, New York, 1997). In fact the objective of the Management Plan for the region should be able to enhance the security Agroforestry in the Western Ghats of peninsu- of regional biodiversity by two types of strategies. lar India and the satoyama landscapes of Japan: The first is to prevent further degradation. The sec- a comparison of two sustainable land use sys- ond is to enhance ‘naturalness’. tems- Agroforestry in the Western Ghats (WG) of peninsular India and Satoyama in rural Japan As within each landuse category the level of sen- are traditional land-use systems with similar evo- sitivity differs the pattern of sustainable develop- lutionary trajectories. Some of their relevance was ment differs. This is extremely relevant where the lost by the middle of the twentieth century, when area is irreplaceable due to the presence of a spe- modern agricultural technologies and urbanisation cies or a group of species that are pocketed into a engineered shifts in emphasis towards maximising tiny fragment. crop production. There has been, however, a re- SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT surgence of interest in traditional land-use systems Several concerns related to ecological sensitiv- recently, in view of their ability to provide ecosys- ity of the Western Ghats are issues linked to a tem services. Both agroforestry and satoyama are sustainable development strategy for the region. thought to be harbingers of biological diversity Traditional land management systems which were and have the potential to serve as “carbon forests.” thought to be damaging now appear insignificant Carbon (C) stock estimates of the sampled home when compared to recent impacts due to landuse gardens in WG ranged from 16 to 36 Mg/ha. Sa- change. toyama woodlands owing to variations in tree stocking and management conditions indicated Ecodevelopment is primarily concerned with widely varying C stocks (2–279 Mg/ha). Agrofor- an ecologically sensitive human development pro- estry and satoyama also differ in nature, complex- gram aimed at improving the quality of life of local ity, and objectives. While agroforestry involves key people of the Western Ghats. Its primary pillars in- productive and protective functions, and adopts clude sustainable economic growth, health, nutri- ‘intensive management’, the satoyama woodlands tion, housing, energy needs without compromising are extensively managed; understory production in any way the health of the ecosystem and its bio- is seldom a consideration. Differences in canopy logical diversity. The needs of the program would architecture (multi-tiered structure of agroforestry obviously centre around agro-pastoral and fishing vs. the more or less unitary canopy of satoyama) communities. 119 120 and land ownership pattern (privately owned/ attempts to return an ecosystem to its historical tra- managed agroforestry holdings vs. community or jectory (Clewell, Aronson, and Winterhalder 2004) local government or privately owned and mostly Habitat improvement strategies in the Western abandoned satoyamas) pose other challenges in Ghats would require local people’s initiatives. It the transfer and application of knowledge gained would also be supported by an increasing num- in one system to the other. Nonetheless, lessons ber of conservationists – nature watchers, birders, learnt from satoyama conservation may be suitable wildlife photographers as well as the ‘recreation- for common pool resource management elsewhere ists’ who want to experience what ‘nature’ is for in Asia, and aspects relating to understory produc- its own sake. The latter are conservation conscious tion in agroforestry may be relevant for satoyama individuals who believe in the intrinsic ‘good’ of under certain scenarios. the wilderness. They believe in the existence value In the Western Ghats the old settlements were of natural ecosystems and wish that the wilderness most frequently a string of small hamlets at the foot must be preserved for its aesthetic appeal. While of the mountain range. The local agro pastoralists the importance of protecting all species and in- of the northern Western Ghats were Marathas, dividuals that are alive, that is based on Hindu, and tribal communities such as the Bhils and the Buddhists, and Jain philosophers, these concepts Koknas. In the Dangs they are frequently Bhil have not been used to support the cause of biodi- tribal folk and the Koknas who evidently migrat- versity conservation. This societal value, such as ed northwards from the Konkan to take over Bhil preservation of sacred groves by tribal folk in the lands. This altered the primarily hunting gathering Ghats has been essentially left out of our modern Bhils who lived off the forest produce towards an conservation philosophy. The ESAs must rely or agro pastoral system of rab (Worah 1991). This these locally important philosophies of life. Re- type of fragmented forest is seen in the rest of the storing natural vegetation as attempted by the Sahyadris. Newer trends in farming are more inten- Tata Power Company in Mawal Taluka was initi- sive but may be less dependent on forest biomass. ated by setting up nurseries for over 40 species of The most recent trends however in the Dangs is to trees found in the less disturbed patches of forest sell the teak illegally. In Maharashtra, in some ar- in their catchment areas. Concomitantly soil and eas, the rising price of land has led to one time sale water conservation measures were taken up in the at a high price to urban land sharks, who take over degraded parts of the catchments of the dams. Old lands purely for speculation. Agricultural lands Eucalyptus and Acacia auriculoformis plantations thus remain fallow till urbanisation, electrification were interplanted with local species of trees grown and water supply catch up with the speculators. to a height of 1 to 1.5 meters in large sacks in the ECORESTORATION nursery for 3 to 4 years. The overall effect on biodiversity was dramatic in restored areas after around Ecologically oriented restoration of land de- 10 years. It showed an increase in abundance of pends on what one wishes to achieve at the end forest canopy bird species, as well as birds such as of the program. The question is restored to what grey jungle fowl and spur fowl in the regenerating state? Before human intervention? Pre history? ground cover. The area acted as a training facility Historical times? A century ago? W. A. Rodgers for environmental education and nature awareness often put this question in perspective when he was for visitors, trekkers and for guided school visits teaching at the Wildlife Institute of India. Current- by BVIEER. Teacher educators of BVIEER were ly in the Western Ghats one would wish to restore able to use the facility to train a large number of lo- ecosystems so that all its biological diversity can be cal school teachers on the use of field studies. The retained in the long term. fringe benefits of this program thus elicited large The Society for Ecological Restoration Inter- social and educational outcomes. School students national defines ecorestoration as the process of exposed to the facility imbibed concepts such as assisting in the recover of an ecosystem that has ecosystems, food chains and food webs not only been degraded, damaged or destroyed. Restoration through a greater degree of understanding but with 121 122 the excitement of personally experiencing the joy 6. Village surrounds – Panchayats, Forest Pro- of discovering nature. A respect for nature was an tection Committees obvious outcome of this action oriented environ- 7. Urban fringes – Regional and Town Planners ment education program. 8. New Townships – Regional Planners Local residents around the catchment benefited from better and longer stream flows after the mon- Each of these landscape element managers are soon. involved with their own land tenure concerns in the Western Ghats. The Western Ghats Authority In Lonavala large groups of monsoon trekkers, would have to be empowered to use its ability to stream and waterfall picnickers have grown to bring in a consensus and finality to a participatory unsustainable limits where the fun and games ap- sustainable development paradigm with a view to proach exceeds the number of real nature enthu- conserving the all important biological diversity of siasts who require peace and tranquillity. This ex- this globally recognized hot spot. pands the role of ecorestoration in these ESAs so that the needs of both groups can be accommodat- ECOTOURISM ed at sustainable levels. Large scale irresponsible The ecotourism potential of the Ghats can bring tourism would negate the effects of ecorestoration about an alternate income generation source for of ESAs beyond a threshold of their carrying ca- local people without compromising on the ecosys- pacity. Such activities would drive off wildlife from tem or altering its landscape features. The detailing even adequately restored habitats. The ESAs can has to be done on a village to village basis and re- be used by local people to gain a self-controlled quires capacity building in hygiene, water manage- sustainable access to NTFP, consumptive use of ment and interpretation facilities. The major pre- fuel wood and grazing. Better quality and access determining aspect is to study the tourism carrying to water sources would be a definite social benefit. capacity of the ecotourism site before the program Ecotourism could bring home to local people on is implemented. alternate source of income. Education can be sup- IMPLEMENTATION OF CORRIDORS ported through field visits for school students in the ESA to demonstrate changes in the ecosystem de- This appears to be one of the most critical as- veloped through ecorestoration. Briefly, this strate- pects of the program of ESA management. The gy towards sustainable ecorestorative development selection of the sites and development of locale would bring about a better quality of life for local specific managerial skills is crucial to long term inhabitants. success of managing a complex network of ESAs. The first step to planning at the landscape level NEED FOR EDUCATION AND is to document a series of ecologically distinctive AWARENESS types. These must be categorized into those that This will require a multitude of strategies begin- have similar management regimes under different ning with school teachers and students, communi- landscape managers. ties, Government officials and Policy makers. Thus This includes: must be a precursor to any local programs and implemented by professional environment educators 1. Revenue lands – Revenue Department with a special interest in Education for Sustainable 2. Forest lands – Foresters Development. Community participation in conser- 3. Soil and water conservation - Forest Depart- vation awareness programs and development of lo- ment cale specific educational material is a key to a successful ecodevelopment initiative for ecosensitive 4. Agriculture, traditional / Irrigated – Agricul- locations in the northern Western Ghats. ture Department 5. Dam catchments – Irrigation Department

123

CHAPTER 7: JUDICIAL CONCERNS

mplementation of the ESAs cannot be car- lined sections are of greater relevance in formulat- ried out without a formal legal instrument ing policies administrative and legal instruments Ithat supports the Authority with the powers to for the ESAs. The comments are provided for execute programs and limit alterations in landuse emphasizing how there existing provisions can be that would destroy the Ghats’ biological diversity. used or modified to protect ESAs. A large number of Acts, Rules and Regulations al- ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION ready exist which can be utilized for this purpose. ACT, 1986 A brief review of such laws and rules has been quoted here where individual sections are of rele- Implementation of Ecologically Sensitive Areas vance for management of ESAs. However, a single in the Western Ghat Comprehensive Act of Parliament would undoubt- The Ecologically Sensitive Areas will require edly be a better option in the long term. that the Western Ghat Authority has powers to The comments on the legislators need to be de- frame policy, create rules for its implementation at bated with expert environmental lawyers to bring Central, State and Local levels; and develop a le- about a Comprehensive Act. gal instrument that is specifically developed for the Western Ghats. This will require setting up a Di- All laws have been taken from the Website of the rectorate for the Western Ghat in the MOEF and Ministry of Environment and Forest, Government Executive Officers in the five related states. of India. These annexures are of relevance to op- erationalzing the protection required for ecologi- Comment/Suggestion for Western Ghats Au- cally sensitive areas in Western Ghats. They are to thority: be used in constituting guidelines and Rules that The Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986 can would be utilized by a statutory Authority in the be suitably modified for Ecologically Sensitive Ar- Western Ghats in each of the states. The under- eas. Several of its clauses can be used to regulate 125 Ecologically Sensitive Areas. The EPA Rules de- be caused by an industry, process or operation pro- fines ‘sensitive areas’ as area whose ecological bal- posed to be prohibited or restricted. ance is prone to be easily disturbed. (viii) Proximity to a protected area under the Ministry of Environment and Forests Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and (Department of Environment, Forest and Wildlife) Remains Act, 1958 or a sanctuary, National Park, game reserve or closed area notified as such un- Notification der the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 or places New Delhi, the 19th November, 1986 protected under any treaty, agreement or conven- The EPA Rules defines ‘sensitive areas’ as an tion with any other country or countries or in pur- area whose ecological balance is prone to be easily suance of any decision made in any international disturbed. conference association or other body. Comment/Suggestion for Western Ghats Au- (ix) Proximity to human settlements. thority: (x) Any other factors as may be considered by These sites in the Western Ghats need to be se- the Central Government to be relevant to the pro- lected and categorized to make this an effective set tection of the environment in an area. of norms. The implementing agency will have to Comment/Suggestion for Western Ghats Au- be authorized and empowered to make decisions thority: as land tenure varies throughout the Ghats. This The pressure on Ecologically Sensitive Areas de- includes Revenue lands, Forest, Irrigation and Pan- clared by the Western Ghat Authority will require chayati lands. a similar set of provisions. This could be done by Quote: using the EPA itself or creating similar rules for 5. Prohibitions and restrictions on the location ESAs by the Western Ghat Authority. Implemen- of industries and the carrying out processes and tation will require state level agencies for effective operations in different areas management. (1) The Central Government may take into consideration the following factors while prohibiting WILDLIFE PROTECTION ACT, or restricting the location of industries and carrying AMENDED 1993 on of processes and operations in different areas:- There are several clauses in the Wildlife Protec- (i) Standards for quality of environment in its tion Act, the Indian Forest Act and the Forest Con- various aspects laid down for an area. servation Act which must be used to provide pro- (ii) The maximum allowable limits of concentra- tection for make the Ecologically Sensitive Areas. tion of various environment pollutants (including A few of these clauses could be effectively modi- noise) for an area. fied to be used by the Western Ghat Authority in managing Ecologically Sensitive Areas. (iii) The likely emissions or discharge of environmental pollution from an industry, process or Wildlife Protection Act amended in 1993 operation proposed to be prohibited or restricted, Sanctuaries: (iv) The topography and climatic features of an 24. Acquisition of rights. – (1) In the case of a area claim to a right in or over any land referred to in (v) The biological diversity of the area which, in Sec.19, the Collector shall pass an order admitting the opinion of the Central Government needs to be or rejecting the same in whole or in part. preserved. (2) If such claim is admitted in whole or in part, (vi) Environmentally compatible land use. the Collector may either (vii) Net adverse environmental impact likely to (a) exclude such land from the limits of the pro- 126 posed sanctuary, or thority: (b) proceed to acquire such land or rights, except A similar notification substituting the word where by an agreement between the owner of such ‘sanctuary’ by ‘Ecologically Sensitive Area’ should land or the holder of rights and the Government be issued to provide a legal framework for Ecologi- the owner or holder of such rights has agreed to cally Sensitive Areas under the Western Ghats Au- surrender his rights to the Government, in or over thority whereby ESAs can be legally declared. such land, and payment of such compensation, as 28. Grant of permit. – (1) The Chief Wildlife is provided in the Land Acquisition Act, 1894 (1 Warden may, on application, grant to any person of 1894) [4(c) allow, in consultation with the Chief a permit to enter or reside in a sanctuary for all or Wildlife Warden, the continuance of any right of any of the following purposes, namely: any person in, or over any land within the limits of the sanctuary.] (a) investigation or study of wildlife and purposes ancillary or incidental thereto; Comment/Suggestion for the Western Ghat Au- thority: (b) photography; In the Ecologically Sensitive Areas a similar pro- (c) scientific research; cedure for setting of rights in corridor areas and (d) tourism; areas of special ecological value would have to be (e) transaction of lawful business with any per- passed by the Western Ghats Authority. Without son residing in the sanctuary. similar provisions effective management would not be possible. A major concern is that this cannot (2) A permit to enter or reside in a sanctuary be done without eliciting the cooperation of local shall be issued subject to such conditions and on people. payment of such fee as may be prescribed. [5(26A) Declaration of area as Sanctuary. –(1) Comment/Suggestion for the Western Ghat Au- When – thority: (a) a notification has been issued under sec.18 A similar notification would have to be created and the period for preferring claim has elapsed, for Ecologically Sensitive Areas. This would pro- and all claims, if any, made in relation to any land vide rules for specific utilization of the Ecologi- in an area intended to be declared as a sanctuary, cally Sensitive Area, so that people at large begin have been disposed of by the State Government; to value the area. The level of tourism should be or (b) any area comprised within any reserve forest controlled below the carrying capacity of the area or any part of the territorial waters, which is con- based on clearly defined parameters. sidered by the State Government to be of adequate [8(29) Destruction, etc., in a sanctuary prohib- ecological, faunal, geomorphological, natural or ited without a permit. – No person shall destroy, zoological significance for the purpose of protect- exploit or remove any wildlife from a sanctuary or ing, propagating or developing wildlife or its envi- destroy or damage the habitat of any wild animal or ronment, is to be included in a sanctuary, the State deprive any wild animal or its habitat within such Government shall issue a notification specifying sanctuary except under and in accordance with a the limits of the area which shall be comprised permit granted by the Chief Wildlife Warden and within the sanctuary and declare that the said area no such permit shall be granted unless the State shall be sanctuary on and from such date as may be Government being satisfied that such destruction, specified in the notification exploitation or removal of wildlife from the sanc- (3) No alteration of the boundaries of a sanctu- tuary is necessary for the improvement and better ary shall be made except on a resolution management of wildlife herein authorises the issue of such permit. Explanation: For the purposes passed by the Legislation of the State.] of this section, grazing or movement of livestock Comment/Suggestion for the Western Ghat Au- permitted under clause (d) of Sec.33 shall not be 127 deemed to be an act prohibited under this section.] poses of such sanctuary; Comment/Suggestions for the Western Ghat (b) shall take such steps as will ensure the secu- Authority rity of wild animals in the sanctuary and A similar notification should be developed for the preservation of the sanctuary and wild ani- Ecologically Sensitive Areas to permit the desig- mals, therein; nated authority to deny or permit certain activities (c) may take such measures, in the interests of within Ecologically Sensitive Areas. This would wildlife, as he may consider necessary for include prohibiting power lines, gas lines, water pipes, roads, townships etc. the improvement of any habitat. 30. Causing fire prohibited. – No person shall set (d) may regulate, control or prohibit, in keeping fire to a sanctuary, or kindle any fire, or leave any with the interests of wildlife, the grazing or move- fire burning, in a sanctuary, in such manner as to ment of [livestock]. endanger such sanctuary. (e) [omitted 19911 Comment/Suggestions for the Western Ghat Comment/ Suggestion for the Western Ghat Au- Authority: thority: A similar clause will have to be created for Eco- Control of the Ecologically Sensitive Areas will logically Sensitive Areas. be managed by the Western Ghat Authority. How- 31 Prohibition of entry into sanctuary with ever this would require a complete infrastructure weapon. – No person shall enter a sanctuary with and manpower at the state level. The alternative any weapon except with the previous permission would be as follows. in writing of the Chief Wildlife Warden or the au- The question here will be to decide who will act thorised officer. as the controlling authority for Ecologically Sensi- Comment/Suggestions for the Western Ghat tive Areas under different land tenures. Authority: In case of RF or PF which are to be included in A similar clause will have to be created for Eco- Ecologically Sensitive Areas it could be the local logically Sensitive Areas. Territorial Forest Officer, or Wildlife Conservator of the Area. 32. Ban on use of injurious substances. – No person shall use in a sanctuary, chemicals, explosives For areas under Revenue Department, Ecologi- or any other substances which may cause injury to, cally Sensitive Areas outside the Forest Depart- or endanger, any wildlife in such sanctuary. mental lands, the District Collector shall have to control local issues within the Ecologically Sensi- Comment/Suggestions for the Western Ghat tive Area. Authority: In the case of Catchments of dams and river A similar clause will have to be created for Eco- courses-This would be controlled through the Ir- logically Sensitive Areas. As these are multiple use rigation Department. areas there concerns are of greater importance and will require clearly defined regulations. The possibility of using Village Panchayats to manage these Ecologically Sensitive Areas, as done 33. Control of sanctuaries. – The Chief Wildlife for village forests that are looked after by Village Warden shall be the authority who shall control, Ecodevelopment Committees could be an alterna- manage and maintain all sanctuaries and for that tive controlling authority for some ESAs. purpose, within the limits of any sanctuary, Interactions between these various line agencies (a) may construct such roads, bridges, buildings, and the Western Ghat’s Authority have to be given fences or barrier gates, and carry out such other clarity so that implementation is possible at the works as he may consider necessary for the pur- ground level. 128 any wild animal or its habitat within such National Park except under and in accordance with a permit National Parks granted by the Chief Wildlife Warden and no such 35. Declaration of National Parks. – (1) Whenev- permit shall be granted unless the State Govern- er it appears to the State Government that an area, ment, being satisfied that such destruction, exploi- whether within a sanctuary or not, is, by reason tation, or removal of wildlife from the National of its ecological, faunal, floral, geomorphological, Park is necessary for the improvement and better or zoological association or importance, needed to management of wildlife therein, authorises the is- be constituted as a National Park for the purpose sue of such permit. of protecting & propagating or developing wildlife (7) No grazing of any [livestock13] shall be per- therein or its environment, it may, by notification, mitted in a National Park and no livestock shall be declare its intention to constitute such area as a Na- allowed to enter except where such [livestock] is tional Park. used as a vehicle by a person authorized to enter (2) The notification referred to in sub-section (1) such National Park. shall define the limits of the area which (8) The provisions of secs. 27 and 28, secs.30 is intended to be declared as a National Park. to 32 (both inclusive), and CIS, (a), (b) and (c) of (3) Where any area is intended to be declared [Sec.33, 33A14] and sec.34 shall, as far as may be, as a National Park, the provisions of Sec. [1219 to apply in realtion to a National Park as they apply 26-A (both inclusive except clause (c) of sub-section in relation to a sanctuary. (2) of section 24)] shall, as far as may be, apply to Comment/Suggestion for Western Ghats Au- the investigation and determination of claims and thority: extinguishment of rights, in relation to any land in Ecologically Sensitive Areas of very high bio- such area as they apply to the said matters in rela- logical value may require a set of similar regulation to any land in a sanctuary. tory mechanisms. As these areas should in effect be (4) When the following events have occurred, notified as PAs, which has not occurred for various namely political reasons, this would constitute an alterna- (a) the period for preferring claims has elapsed, tive for conserving the highly endangered species and all claims, if any, made in relation to and their ecosystem without an alteration in their tenures. any land in an area intended to be declared as a National Park, have been disposed of by the State Sanctuaries or National Park declared by Cen- Government, and tral Govt. (b) all rights in respect of lands proposed to be 38. Power of Central Government to declare ar- included in the National Park have become vested eas as Sanctuaries or National Park, in the State Government the State Government (1) Where the State Government leases or other- shall publish a notification specifying the limits of wise transfers any area under its control, not being the area which shall be comprised within the Na- an area within a Sanctuary, to the Central Govern- tional Park and declare that the said area shall be ment the Central Government may, if it is satisfied a National Park on and from such date as may be that the conditions specified in sec.18 are fulfilled specified in the notification. in relation to the area so transferred to it, declare (5) No alteration of the boundaries of a National such area, by notification, to be a sanctuary and Park shall be made except on a resolution passed the provisions of [sec 18 to 35 (both inclusive) 16], by the Legislature of the State. 54 and 55 shall apply in relation to such sanctuary as they apply in relation to a sanctuary declared by (6) No person shall, destroy, exploit, or remove the State Government. any wildlife from a National Park or destroy or damage the habitat or any wild animal or deprive Comment/Suggestion for Western Ghats Au- 129 thority: includes any land owned by the Central Govern- ment, its prior concurrence shall be obtained be- Similar powers should be provided for the West- fore making such declaration. ern Ghats Authority which should be with the Central Government as the Ecologically Sensitive Comment/ Suggestion for the Western Ghat Au- Areas are in five states. Each state would also have thority: to setup its own State level authority as has been The declaration is for the same purpose as an suggested for implementation of the Biodiversity Ecologically Sensitive Area. However, few if any Act such corridor areas have been created as it is unlikely to get support from local communities unless WILDLIFE PROTECTION ACT, they are given just and fair compensation for creat- AMENDMENT 2002 ing an Ecologically Sensitive Area. (2) The provisions of sub-section (2) of section 18A. (1) When the State Government declares 18, sub-sections (2), (3) and (4) of section 27, sec- its intention under sub-section of section 18 to con- tions 30, 32 and clauses (b) and (c) of section 33 stitute any area, not comprised within any reserve shall, as far as may be, apply in relation to a conser- forest or territorial waters under that sub-section, vation reserve as they apply in relation to a sanctu- as a sanctuary, the-provisions of sections 27 to 33A ary (both inclusive) shall come into effect forthwith. Conservation Reserve Management Committee Comment/ Suggestion for the Western Ghat Au- thority: 36B. (1) The State Government shall constitute a conservation reserve management committee to A similar clause will have to be used when a advise the Chief Wild Life Warden to conserve, Western Ghat Authority decides to notify an area manage and maintain the conservation reserve. as an Ecologically Sensitive Area. Comment/Suggestion for Western Ghats Au- (2) Till such time as the rights of affected per- thority: sons are finally settled under sections 19 to 24 (both inclusive), the State Government shall make alter- A local Ecologically Sensitive Area management native arrangements required for making available committee under the Western Ghat Authority may fuel, fodder and other forest produce to the persons act as the outreach controlling mechanism at a lo- affected in terms of their rights as per the Govern- cal or regional leve; within the Western Ghat. ment records. (2) The committee shall consist of a representa- Comment/ Suggestion for the Western Ghat Au- tive of the forest or Wild Life Department, who thority: shall be the Member-Secretary of the Commit- tee, one representative of each Village Panchayat A similar clause will have to be developed for in whose jurisdiction the reserve is located, three Ecologically Sensitive Areas. representatives of non-governmental organisations Declaration and Management of a Conserva- working in the field of wild life conservation and tion Reserve one representative each from the Department of “36A. (1) The State Government may, after Agriculture and Animal Husbandry. having consultations with the local communities, (3) The Committee shall regulate its own proce- declare any area owned by the Government, par- dure including the quorum. ticularly the areas adjacent to National Parks and Comment/ Suggestion for the Western Ghat Au- sanctuaries and those areas which link one protect- thority: ed area with another, as a conservation reserve for protecting landscapes, seascapes, flora and fauna This has so far not been successfully ensured and and their habitat: the Ecologically Sensitive Areas must have a regulation in place where existing activities are limited Provided that where the conservation reserve 130 and new activities that could place undue pressures 3. Power to reserve forests.–The State Govern- on the Ecologically Sensitive Areas are not initiat- ment may constitute any forest-land or waste-land ed. This includes the development of roads, dams, which is the property of Government, or over townships etc. which the Government has proprietary rights, or to the whole or any part of the forest-produce of Declaration and Management of Community which the Government is entitled, a reserved forest Reserve in the manner hereinafter provided. 36C. (1) The State Government may, where the Comment/Suggestions for the Western Ghat community or an individual has volunteered to Authority: conserve wild life and its habitat, declare any private or community land not comprised within a Power to create Ecologically Sensitive Areas National Park, sanctuary or a conservation reserve, should rest with the Western Ghat Authority with as a community reserve, for protecting fauna, flora a mandate to limit any further pressures on Eco- and traditional or cultural conservation values and logically Sensitive Areas of the Western Ghat. practices. 4. Notification by State Government.-(1) When- (2) The provisions of sub-section (2) of section ever it has been decided to constitute any land a 18, sub-sections (2), (3) and (4) of section 27, sec- reserved forest, the State Government shall issue a tions 30, 32 and clauses (b) and (c) of section 33 notification in the Official Gazette– shall, as far as may be, apply in relation to a com- (a) declaring that it has been decided to consti- munity reserve as they apply in relation to a sanctu- tute such land a reserved forest; ary. (b) specifying, as nearly as possible, the situation (3) After the issue of notification under sub-sec- and limits of such land; and tion (1), no change in the land use pattern shall be made within the community reserve, except in ac- (c) appointing an officer (hereinafter called “the cordance with a resolution passed by the manage- Forest Settlement-officer”) to inquire into and de- ment, committee and approval of the same by the termine the existence, nature and extent of any State Government. rights alleged to exist in favour of any person in or over any land comprised within such limits or in or Comment/ Suggestion for the Western Ghat Au- over any forest-produce, and to deal with the same thority: as provided in this Chapter. Selected Ecologically Sensitive Areas could be Explanation.–For the purpose of clause (b), it managed in the same way as suggested for Com- shall be sufficient to describe the limits of the for- munity Reserves. However, in the Western Ghat est by roads, rivers, ridges or other well-known or this has not been successfully implemented at pres- readily intelligible boundaries. ent. (2) The officer appointed under clause (c) of sub- section (1) shall ordinarily be a person not holding INDIAN FOREST ACT 1927 any forest-office except that of Forest Settlement- officer. The Indian Forest Act, 1927 has several clauses that can be suitably modified for regulating (3) Nothing in this section shall prevent the State resource use in Ecologically Sensitive Areas. De- Government from appointing any number of of- pending on the conservation value and threat levels ficers not exceeding three, not more than one of a set of principles would have to be developed and whom shall be a person holding any forest-office judicial powers given to the Western Ghat Author- except as aforesaid, to perform the duties of a For- ity to use these provisions in a legal sense. est Settlement-officer under this Act. THE INDIAN FOREST ACT, 1927 ON RE- Comment/Suggestions for the Western Ghat SERVED FORESTS Authority:

131 A similar regulatory function will be required if section 20 is published, the person claiming them Ecologically Sensitive Areas have to be successfully satisfies the Forest Settlement-officer that he had implemented at State level. The limits of ESAs can sufficient cause for not preferring such claim with- be decided using Geoinformatics to study vegeta- in the period fixed under section 6. tion, slope, hydrology etc. Comment/Suggestions for the Western Ghat 5. Bar of accrual of forest-rights.–After the is- Authority: sue of a notification under section 4, no right shall A similar clause will have to be developed for be acquired in or over the land comprised in such Ecologically Sensitive Areas. notification, except by succession or under a grant or contract in writing made or entered into by or 10. Treatment of claims relating to practice of on behalf of the Government or some person in shifting cultivation.—(1) In the case of a claim whom such right was vested when the notification relating to the practice of shifting cultivation, the was issued; and no fresh clearings for cultivation or Forest Settlement-officer shall record a statement for any other purpose shall be made in such land setting forth the particulars of the claim and of any except in accordance with such rules as may be local rule or order under which the practice is al- made by the State Government in this behalf. lowed or regulated, and submit the statement to the State Government, together with his opinion as to Comment/Suggestions for the Western Ghat whether the practice should be permitted or pro- Authority: hibited wholly or in part. Similar clause for Ecologically Sensitive Areas (2) On receipt of the statement and opinion, the will have to be created. State Government may make an order permitting 6. Proclamation by Forest Settlement-officer.– or prohibiting the practice wholly or in part. When a notification has been issued under section (3) If such practice is permitted wholly or in 4, the Forest Settlement-officer shall publish in the part, the Forest Settlement-officer may arrange for local vernacular in every town and village in the its exercise neighbourhood of the land comprised therein, a proclamation (a) by altering the limits of the land under settlement so as to exclude land of sufficient extent, of (a) specifying, as nearly as possible, the situation a suitable kind, and in a locality reasonably conve- and limits of the proposed forest; nient for the purposes of the claimants, or (b) explaining the consequences which, as here- (b) by causing certain portions of the land under inafter provided, will ensue on the reservation of settlement to be separately demarcated, and giving such forest; and permission to the claimants to practice shifting cul- (c) fixing a period of not less than three months tivation therein under such conditions as he may from the date of such proclamation, and requir- prescribe. ing every person claiming any right mentioned in (4) All arrangements made under sub-section section 4 or section, 5 within such period either (3) shall be subject to the previous sanction of the to present to the Forest Settlement-officer a writ- State Government. ten notice specifying or to appear before him and state, the nature of such right and the amount and (5) The practice of shifting cultivation shall in particulars of the compensation (if any) claimed in all cases be deemed a privilege subject to control, respect thereof. restriction and abolition by the State Government. 9. Extinction of rights.-Rights in respect of Comment/Suggestions for the Western Ghat which no claim has been preferred under section Authority: 6, and of the existence of which no knowledge has Rabi cultivation occurs across the Western Ghats. been acquired by inquiry under section 7, shall be Thus, a similar set of conditions would apply to extinguished, unless before the notification under traditional agricultural areas across the length of 132 the Western Ghats. In the ESAs such land should Comment/Suggestions for the Western Ghat not be converted to other forms of landuse in the Authority: Western Ghats. Similar claims have to be decided on for grazing 11. Power to acquire land over which right is areas that will be considered Ecologically Sensi- claimed.–(1) In the case of a claim to a right in or tive Area under the Western Ghats Authority. Lo- over any land, other than a right of way or right cal communities are agropastoralists who use the of pasture, or a right to forest produce or a water- “wastelands” as their pastures which frequently re- course, the Forest Settlement-officer shall pass an sult in overgrazing beyond the carrying capacity of order admitting or rejecting the same in whole or the pasture. Apart from the local community, in the in part. Western Ghat of Maharashtra, the Dhangar community migrates annually from the Mann Plateau (2) If such claim is admitted in whole or in part, into the Kokan plains. Their linkage to the grazing the Forest Settlement-officer shall either land they use along the passes and hill slopes will (i) exclude such land- from the limits of the pro- undoubtedly be obstructed by creating Ecological- posed forest; or ly Sensitive Areas. This would form a new area of (ii) come to an agreement with the owner there- conflict that will require mitigation. of for the surrender of his rights; or 13. Record to be made by Forest Settlement-of- (iii) proceed to acquire such land in the manner ficer.–The Forest Settlement officer, when passing provided by the Land Acquisition Act, 1894 (1 of any order under section 12, shall record, so far as 1894). may be practicable,– (3) For the purpose of so acquiring such land (a) the name, father’s name, caste, residence and occupation of the person claiming the right; and (a) the Forest Settlement-officer shall be deemed to be a Collector proceeding under the Land Ac- (b) the designation, position and area of all fields quisition Act, 1894 (1 of 1894); or groups fields (if any), and the designation and position of all buildings (if any) in respect of which (b) the claimant shall be deemed to be a person the exercise of such rights is claimed. interested and appearing before him in pursuance of a notice given under section 9 of that Act; 14. Record where he admits claim.–If the Forest Settlement-officer admits in whole or in part any (c) the provisions of the preceding sections of claim under section 12, he shall also record the ex- that Act shall be deemed to have been complied tent to which the claim is so admitted, specifying with; and the number and description of the cattle which the (d) the Collector, with the consent of the claim- claimant is from time to time entitled to graze in ant, or the Court, with the consent of both parties, the forest, the season during which such pasture is may award compensation in land, or partly in land permitted, the quantity of timber and other forest and partly in money. produce which he is from time to time authorised Comment/Suggestions for the Western Ghat to take or receive, and such other particulars as the Authority: case may require. He shall also record whether the timber or other forest-produce obtained by the ex- Issues related to rights and privileges will emerge ercise of the rights claimed may be sold or bartered. once the Ecologically Sensitive Areas are declared, requiring a similar set of procedures. Comment/Suggestions for the Western Ghat Authority: 12. Order on claims to rights of pasture or to forest-produce.–In the case of a claim to rights of This will require special attention if the Ecologi- pasture or to forest-produce, the Forest Settlement- cally Sensitive Areas will have to reject certain ex- officer shall pass an order admitting or rejecting the isting claims. same in whole or in part. 15. Exercise of rights admitted.-(1) After mak- 133 ing such record the Forest Settlement officer shall, empowered by the State Government in this be- to the best of his ability, having due regard to the half, may, within three months from the date of maintenance of the reserved forest in respect of the order passed on such claim by the Forest Settle- which the claim is made, pass such orders as will ment-officer under section 11, section 12, section ensure the continued exercise of the rights so ad- 15 or section 16, present an appeal from such or- mitted. der to such officer of the Revenue Department of rank not lower than that of a Collector, as the State (2) For this purpose the Forest Settlement-officer Government may, by notification in the Official may Gazette, appoint to hear appeals from such orders: (a) set out some other forest-tract of sufficient Provided that the State Government may estab- extent, and in a locality reasonably convenient, for lish a Court (hereinafter called the Forest Court) the purposes of such claimants, and record an or- composed of three persons to be appointed by the der conferring upon them a right of pasture or to State Government, and when the Forest Court has forest-produce (as the case may be) to the extent so been so established, all such appeals shall be pre- admitted; or sented to it. (b) so alter the limits of the proposed forest as Comment/Suggestions for the Western Ghat to exclude forest-land of sufficient extent, and in a Authority: locality reasonably convenient, for the purposes of the claimants; or The Ecologically Sensitive Areas under the Western Ghats Authority may also require judicial (c) record an order, continuing to such claimants capability for supporting Ecologically Sensitive Ar- a right of pasture or to forest-overpage produce, as eas. the case may be, to the e tent so admitted, at such seasons, within such portions of the proposed for- 18. Appeal under section 17.–(1) Every appeal est, and under such rules, as may be made in this under section 17 shall be made by petition in writ- behalf by the State Government. ing, and may be delivered to the Forest Settlement- officer, who shall forward it without delay to the 16. Commutation of rights.–In case the Forest authority competent to hear the same. Settlement-officer finds it impossible having due regard to the maintenance of the reserved forest, to (2) If the appeal be to an officer appointed un- make such settlement under section 15 as shall en- der section 17, it shall be heard in the manner pre- sure the continued exercise of the said rights to the scribed for the time being for the hearing of appeals extent so admitted, he shall, subject to such rules in matters relating to land-revenue. as the State Government may make in this behalf, (3) If the appeal be to the Forest Court, the commute such rights, by the payment to such per- Court shall fix a day and a convenient place in the sons of a sum of money in lieu thereof, or by the neighbourhood of the proposed forest for hearing grant of land, or in such other manner as he thinks the appeal, and shall give notice thereof to the par- fit. ties, and shall hear such appeal accordingly. Comment/Suggestions for the Western Ghat (4) The order passed on the appeal by such offi- Authority: cer or Court, or by the majority of the members of Such problems created by Ecologically Sensi- such Court, as the case may be, shall, subject only tive Areas may have to be dealt with by providing to revision by the State Government, be final. a fund for this purpose. It may be possible to ear 19. Pleaders.–The State Government, or any mark CAMPA funds for such purposes. person who has made a claim under this Act, may 17. Appeal from order passed under section 11, appoint any person to appear, plead and act on its section 12, section 15 or section 16.–Any person or his behalf before the Forest Settlement-officer, who has made a claim under this Act, or any For- or the appellate officer or Court, in the course of est-officer or other person generally or specially any inquiry or appeal under this Act. 134 25. Power to stop ways and water-courses in catches elephants in contravention of any rules so reserved forests.–The Forest-officer may, with the made, shall be punishable with imprisonment for a previous sanction of the State Government or of term which may extend to six months, or with fine any officer duly authorised by it in this behalf, which may extend to five hundred rupees, or with stop any public or private way or water-course in both, in addition to such compensation for dam- a reserved forest, provided that a substitute for the age done to the forest as the convicting Court may way or water-course so stopped, which the State direct to be paid. Government deems to be reasonably convenient, Comment/Suggestions for the Western Ghat already exists, or has been provided or constructed Authority: by the Forest-officer in lieu thereof. These conditions all apply to ESAs and require Comment/Suggestions for the Western Ghat sensitive management to prevent conflicts with lo- Authority: cal people. Similar rules will have to apply to Eco- Similar issues would emerge from the notifica- logically Sensitive Areas that are not in Reserve tion of Ecologically Sensitive Areas. Forest or Protected Forest, but are in malkilands. This could create severe conflict issues which will 26. Acts prohibited in such forests.–(1) Any per- have to be addressed if these areas are to be effec- son who– tively managed as Ecologically Sensitive Areas. (a) makes any fresh clearing prohibited by sec- Compensation will require setting up a fund to be tion 5, or distributed where local landowners will be affected (b) sets fire to a reserved forest, or, in contraven- by creating ESAs. tion of any rules made by the State Government in (2) Nothing in this section shall be deemed to this behalf, kindles any fire, or leaves any fire burn- prohibit ing, in such manner as to endanger such a forest; (a) any act done by permission in writing of the or who, in a reserved forest– Forest-officer, or under any rule made by the state (c) kindles, keeps or carries any fire except at Government; or such seasons as the Forest-officer may notify in this (b) the exercise of any right continued under behalf, clause (c) of sub-section (2) of section 15, or cre- (d) trespasses or pastures cattle, or permits cattle ated by grant or contract in writing made by or on to trespass; behalf of the Government under section 23. (e) causes any damage by negligence in felling (3) Whenever fire is caused wilfully or by gross any tree or cutting or dragging any timber; negligence in a reserved forest, the State Govern- ment may (notwithstanding that any penalty has (f) fells, girdles, lops, or bums any tree or strips been inflicted under this section) direct that in such off the bark or leaves from, or otherwise damages, forest or any portion there of the exercise of all the same; rights of pasture or to forest produce shall be sus- (g) quarries stone, bums lime or charcoal, or col- pended for such period as it thinks fit. lects, subjects to any manufacturing process, or removes, any forest-produce; FOREST CONSERVATION ACT, 1980 (h) clears or breaks up any land for cultivation or WITH 1988 AMENDMENTS any other purpose; 2. Restriction on the dereservation of forests or (i) in contravention of any rules made in this be- use of forest land for non-forest purpose. half by the State Government hunts, shoots, fishes, poisons water or sets traps or snares; or Notwithstanding anything contained in any other law for the time being in force in a State, no (j) in any area in which the Elephants’ Preserva- State Government or other authority shall make, tion Act, 1879 (6 of 1879), is not in force, kills or 135 except with the prior approval of the Central Gov- New Delhi, the 10th January, 2003 ernment, any order directing- G.S.R.23(E):- In exercise of the powers conferred (i) that any reserved forest (within the meaning by sub-section (1) of section 4 of the Forest (Con- of the expression “reserved forest” in any law for servation) Act, 1980 (69 of 1980), and in superses- the time being in force in that State) or any portion sion of the Forest (Conservation) Rules, 1981, ex- thereof, shall cease to be reserved; cept as respects things done or omitted to be done (ii) that any forest land or any portion thereof before such supersession, the Central Government may be used for any non-forest purpose; hereby makes the following rules, namely:- (iii) that any forest land or any portion thereof 6. Submission of the proposals seeking approval may be assigned by way of lease or otherwise to of the Central Government under section 2 of the any private person or to any authority, corporation, Act.- agency or any other organisation not owned, man- (1) Every user agency, who wants to use any for- aged or controlled by Government; est land for non-forest purposes shall make his pro- (iv) that any forest land or any portion thereof posal in the appropriate Form appended to these may be cleared of trees which have grown natural- rules, i.e. Form ‘A’ for proposals seeking first time ly in that land or portion, for the purpose of using approval under the Act and Form ‘B’ for propos- it for reafforestation. als seeking renewal of leases where approval of the Central Government under the Act had already Explanation - For the purpose of this section, been obtained earlier, to the concerned nodal of- “non-forest purpose” means the breaking up or ficer authorized in this behalf by the State Govern- clearing of any forest land or portion thereof for- ment, alongwith requisite information and docu- (a) the cultivation of tea, coffee, spices, rubber, ments, complete in all respects, well in advance of palms, oil-bearing plants, horticultural crops or taking up any non-forest activity on the forest land. medicinal plants; Comment/Suggestions for Western Ghats Au- (b) any purpose other than reafforestation; thority: but does not include any work relating or ancil- A similar clause will have to be developed for the lary to conservation, development and management Ecologically Sensitive Areas in the Western Ghat. of forests and wildlife, namely, the establishment (2) Every State Government or other authority, of check-posts, fire lines, wireless communications after having received the proposal under sub-rule and construction of fencing, bridges and culverts, (1) and after being satisfied that the proposal re- dams, waterholes, trench marks, boundary marks, quires prior approval under section 2 of the Act, pipelines or other like purposes. shall send the proposal to the Central Government Comments and Suggestions for Western Ghats in the appropriate forms, within ninety days of the Authority: receipt of the proposal from the user agency for proposals seeking first time approval under the Act This section of the Forest Conservation Act must and within sixty days for proposals seeking renewal be suitably modified and used for protecting ESAs of leases where approval of the Central Govern- from further degradation. It should not be possible ment under the Act had already been obtained ear- for State Governments to remove the Ecologically lier: Sensitive Area status once it has been created on good scientific grounds. Provided that all proposals involving clearing naturally grown trees in forest land or portion thereof for the purpose of using it for reafforesta- FOREST CONSERVATION ACT, 2003 tion shall be sent in the form of Working Plan or Ministry of Environment and Forests Management Plan. Notification (3) The proposal referred to in sub-rule (2) above, 136 involving forest land of more than forty hectare thority undertakes to provide at its cost for the ac- shall be sent by the State Government to the Secre- quisition of land of an equivalent area and affores- tary to the Government of India, Ministry of En- tation thereof. vironment and Forests, Paryavaran Bhavan, CGO (3) While tendering the advice, the Committee Complex, Lodhi Road, New Delhi-110 003, with a may also suggest any conditions or restrictions on copy of the proposal (with complete enclosures) to the use of any forest land for any non-forest pur- the concerned Regional Office. pose, which in its opinion, would minimise adverse (4) The proposal referred to in sub-rule (2) above, environmental impact. involving forest land up to forty hectare shall be Comment/Suggestions for Western Ghats Au- sent to the Chief Conservator of Forests or Conser- thority: vator of Forests of the concerned Regional Office of the Ministry of Environment and Forests. The Western Ghats Authority should receive a specific mandate to study proposals and recom- (5) The proposal referred to in sub-rule (2) above, mend necessary changes of landuse in the Western involving clearing of naturally grown trees in for- Ghats est land or portion thereof for the purpose of using it for reafforestation shall be sent to the Chief Action of the Central Government on the ad- Conservator of Forests or Conservator of Forests vice of the Committee.– The Central Government of the concerned Regional Office of the Ministry shall, after considering the advice of the Commit- of Environment and Forests. tee tendered under rule 7 and after such further en- quiry as it may consider necessary, grant approval 7. Committee to advice on proposals received to the proposal with or without conditions or reject by the Central Government.-(1) The Central Gov- the same within sixty days of its receipt. ernment shall refer every proposal, complete in all respects, received by it under sub-rule (3) of rule 6 Proceedings against persons guilty of offences including site inspection report, wherever required, under the Act.- to the Committee for its advice thereon. (1) The Central Government may, by notifica- (2) The Committee shall have due regard to all tion, authorize any officer not below the rank of or any of the following matters while tendering its Conservator of Forests or the concerned forest of- advice on the proposals referred to it under sub- ficer having territorial jurisdiction over the forest rule (1), namely:- land in respect of which the said offence is said to have been committed, to file complaints against Whether the forests land proposed to be used for the person (s) prima-facie found guilty of offence non-forest purpose forms part of a nature reserve, under the Act or the violation of the rules made national park wildlife sanctuary, biosphere reserve there under, in the court having jurisdiction in the or forms part of the habitat or any endangered or matter. threatened species of flora and fauna or of an area lying in severely eroded catchment; Provided that no complaint shall be filed in the court, without giving the person (s) or officer (s) or Whether the use of any forest land is for agricul- authority (s) against whom the allegations of of- tural purposes or for the rehabilitation of persons fence exist, an opportunity to explain his or their displaced from their residences by reason of any conduct and to show cause, by issuing a notice in river valley or hydro-electric project ; writing of not less than sixty days, as to why a com- Whether the State Government or the other au- plaint should not be filed in the court against him thority has certified that it has considered all other or them for alleged offences. alternatives and that no other alternatives in the (2) The officer authorised by the Central Gov- circumstances are feasible and that the required ernment in sub-rule (1) may require any State Gov- area is the minimum needed for the purpose; and ernment or its officer or any person or any other Whether the State Government or the other au- authority to furnish to it within a specified period 137 any reports, documents, statistics and any other threatened by overuse, abuse or neglect, it shall is- information related to contravention of the Act or sue directives to the concerned State Government the rules made there under, considered necessary to take immediate ameliorative measures, offering for making a complaint in any court of jurisdiction such State Government any technical and other as- and every such State Government or officer or per- sistance that is possible to be provided or needed. son or authority shall be bound to do so. Comment/Suggestions for Western Ghats Au- Comment/Suggestions for Western Ghats Au- thority: thority: The Western Ghat Authority will be responsible Similar clauses to punish guilty individuals of for preventing threats affecting biological diversity offences within the Ecologically Sensitive Areas within the Ecologically Sensitive Areas. Taking will require to be formulated. these steps would require locale specific studies and financial resources which should be provided through the Planning Commission as a “Planned BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY ACT, 2002 Budgetary Allocation for the Western Ghat”. Several of the Ecologically Sensitive Areas are (3) The Central Government shall, as far as prac- to be notified due to their high biodiversity values. ticable wherever it deems appropriate, integrate the Relevant clauses of the Biological Diversity Act, conservation, promotion and sustainable use of 2002 would apply to the Ecologically Sensitive biological diversity into relevant sectoral or cross Areas. However, as these are applicable to specific sectoral plans, programmes and policies. areas it may be essential to create modifications 4) The Central Government shall undertake which may permit these to be used by the Western measures,- Ghat Authority in maintaining biological values of the Ecologically Sensitive Areas. (i) wherever necessary, for assessment of environmental impact of that project which is likely to Biological Diversity Act- 2002 have adverse effect on biological diversity, with a Duties of the Central and the State Governments view to avoid or minimize such effects and where Central Government to develop National strate- appropriate provide for public participation in such gies plans. etc., for conservation, etc., of biological assessment; diversity Comment/Suggestions for Western Ghats Au- 36.(1) The Central Government shall develop thority: national strategies, plans, programmes for the con- Current EIAs give insufficient attention to bio- servation and promotion and sustainable use of logical diversity values and possible threats. This biological diversity including measures for identi- requires urgent attention in the Western Ghat-Eco- fication and monitoring of areas rich in biological logically Sensitive Areas. The studies on biodiver- resources, promotion of in situ, and ex situ, con- sity in the Ecologically Sensitive Areas for EIAs servation of biological resources, incentives for re- must go beyond providing a list of species. Species search, training and public education to increase richness, abundance studies on floral and faunal el- awareness with respect to biodiversity. ements within and around the proposed project site Comment/Suggestions for Western Ghats Au- must be include in EIAs that are to be conducted thority in Ecologically Sensitive Areas. Once a proposed project has been passed and implemented they All these concerns are of great importance in the must be regularly monitored for compliance by the effective management of the Ecologically Sensitive Western Ghats Authority. Areas. (ii) to regulate, manage or control the risks associ- (2) Where the Central Government has reason ated with the use and release of living modified or- to believe that any area rich in biological diversi- ganisms resulting from biotechnology likely to have ty, biological resources and their habitats is being 138 adverse impact on the conservation and sustain- steps to rehabilitate and preserve those species. able use of biological diversity and human health. Comment/Suggestions for Western Ghats Au- (5) The Central Government shall endeavor to re- thority: spect and protect the knowledge of local people relating to biological diversity, as recommended by The threatened endemic and rare species or those the National Biodiversity Authority through such ESAs that have a limited range must be protected measures, which may include registration of such under a similar legal clause. This will be one of the knowledge at the local, State or national levels, and major activities under the Western Ghats Author- other measures for protection, including sui generis ity. system. Power of Central Government to designate re- Comment/Suggestions for Western Ghats Au- positories thority: 39.(1) The Central Government may, in consul- A similar section must be developed for people tation with the National Biodiversity Authority, living in and around the Ecologically Sensitive Ar- designate institutions as repositories under this Act eas of the Western Ghat. for different categories of biological resources. Biodiversity heritage sites (2) The repositories shall keep in safe custody the biological material including voucher speci- 37.(1) Without prejudice to any other law for mens deposited with them. the time being in force, the State Government may, from time to time in consultation with the local (3) Any new taxon discovered by any person bodies, notify in the Official Gazette, areas of bio- shall be notified to the repositories or any institu- diversity importance as biodiversity heritage sites tion designated for this purpose and he shall de- under this Act. posit the voucher specimens with such repository or institution. Comment/Suggestions for Western Ghats Au- thority: Comment/Suggestions for Western Ghats Au- thority: The Ecologically Sensitive Areas would benefit by using a similar clause as many of Similar consultation with the Western Ghats the Western Ghat Ecologically Sensitive Ar- Authority should be used and State level research eas will have areas of biological importance. organizations should be funded for biodiversity (2) The State Government, in consultation with the conservation assessments by the Authority within Central Government, may frame rules for the man- the selected ESAs. As the Western Ghats are po- agement and conservation of all the heritage sites. tentially areas where new endemic species can be (3) The State Government shall frame schemes for discovered, the Authority must have powers to de- compensating or rehabilitating any person or sec- cide on activities related to the conservation of spe- tion of people economically affected by such noti- cies both in situ and exsitu. fication. Power of Central Government to notify threat- MAHABALESHWAR AND PANCH- ened species GANI ESA NOTIFICATION 38. Without prejudice to the provisions of any New Delhi 17th January, 2001 other law for the time being in force, the Central S.O 52(E).– Whereas a notification under sub Government, in consultation with the concerned section (1) and clause (v) of sub section (2) of Sec- State Government, may from time to time notify tion 3 of the Environment Protection Act, 1986, any species which is on the verge of extinction inviting objection or suggestion against the notifi- or likely to become extinct in the near future as a cation notifying the Mahableshwar Panchgani as threatened species and prohibit or regulate collec- an Eco sensitive region and imposing restriction on tion thereof for any purpose and take appropriate industries, operations, processes and other devel- 139 opmental activities in the region which have detri- and other like places to non-green uses shall be per- mental effect on the environment was published mitted in the Master Plan. The Master Plan shall in S.O. No. 693(E) dated the 25th July, 2000; indicate measures and lay down stipulations for regulating traffic, especially through traffic in the And whereas all objections or/and sugges- Eco sensitive zone. tions received have been duly considered by the Central Government The areas within and outside Mahableshwar and Panchgani municipal areas shall have Sub- Now, therefore, in exercise of the powers Zonal Master Plans which may be prepared by the conferred by clause (d) of sub-rule (3) of rule 5 of State Government as a component of the Zonal the Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986, and all Master Plan and concurrence of the Ministry of other powers vesting in its behalf, the Central Gov- Environment and Forests shall be obtained on ernment hereby notify the Mahableshwar this. This Sub-Zonal Master Plan shall include Panchgani Region (as defined in the Government building regulations for the gaothan areas. of Maharashtra notification of 29th April, 1983 as an Eco Sensitive Zone. (Copy attached as An- Pending the preparation of and approval by the nexure). The Region shall include the entire area Ministry of Environment and Forests to the Zonal within the boundaries of the Mahableshwar Tehsil Master Plan and Sub-Zonal Master Plans referred and the villages of Bondarwadi, Bhuteghar, Dan- to above, there shall be no increase in the existing wali, Taloshi and Umbri of Jaoli Tehsil of the Sa- parameters of permissible Floor Area Ratio, per- tara District in the Maharashtra state. missible height, permissible maximum number of storeys and permissible ground coverage; and there All activities in the forests (both within and out- shall also be no reduction in the Forest Zone/ side municipal areas) shall be governed by the pro- Green Zone/Agricultural Zone. Absolute height visions of the Indian Forests Act, 1927 (16 of 1927) of buildings shall not exceed 9 metres and number and Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 (69 of 1980). of storeys shall not exceed ground plus one. All activities in the sanctuaries and national parks shall be governed by the provisions of the Wildlife Industrial Units: - (Protection) Act, 1972 (53 of 1972). Location of industries shall be only in the desig- 2.The following activities are proposed to be reg- nated industrial areas or estates and has to be as per ulated in the Eco-Sensitive Zone. guidelines drawn up by the Government of Maha- rashtra as well as the guidelines issued from time to (a) Zonal Master Plan: - time by the Ministry of Environment and Forests. A Master plan for the entire Zone shall be pre- However this would not apply to all those units pared by the State Government and approved by which have obtained Consent to establish and all the Ministry of Environment and Forests in the other statutory permissions and have commenced Government of India within a period of two years construction at site on or before the date of issue of from the date of publication of this notification. this notification. The Master Plan shall be published by following a In future only non polluting non hazardous ser- procedure similar to that prescribed under the Ma- vice industries, units making footwear from pro- harashtra Regional and Town Planning Act 1966. cessed and ready made leather, floriculture, horti- The Master Plan shall clearly indicate those limited culture based or agro based industries producing areas where industries may be permitted. products from indigenous goods from the Eco Sen- The said Master Plan shall clearly demarcate sitive Zone shall be permitted in this zone: all the existing forests, green areas, horticultural Provided that these do not result in polluting ef- areas such as strawberry farms, raspberry farms, fluent, emission or impact. orchards, tribal areas, and other environmentally sensitive areas. No change of land use from green Comment/Suggestion for Western Ghats Au- uses such as horticultural areas, agriculture, parks thority:

140 This clause should be used for all ESAs in the Tourism :-Tourism activities shall be as per a Western Ghats. Tourism Master Plan to be prepared by the De- partment of Tourism of the State Government in In the non municipal areas, the following shall consultation with the Ministry of Tourism of Gov- also be permitted: ernment of India and approved by the Ministry Larger dairy, poultry, mush-room-rearing and of Environment and Forests. The Tourism Mas- other units in the nature of allied agricultural ac- ter Plan shall also form a component of the Zonal tivities and structures connected therewith may be Master Plan. allowed with the prior permission of the compe- The Tourism Master Plan shall be based on a tent authority subject to a maximum of 1/8th built detailed Carrying Capacity Study of the Eco-Sen- up area, relaxable by the Monitoring Committee. sitive Zone, which may be carried out by the State Structures connected with small agro-based in- Government and submitted to the Ministry of dustries, activities related to the needs of the local Environment and Forests for approval within two village economy, and processing or storage of local years of the date of this notification. All new tour- agro-based products may be allowed subject to the ism activities, developments for tourism or expan- usual “not agriculture” permission requirements sion of existing tourism activities shall be permit- and a maximum built up area of 1/8th. ted only within the parameters of this tourism plan Quarrying and Mining: - Quarrying and Min- or carrying capacity study. Till the Tourism Master ing activities shall be banned in this area. No fresh Plan is submitted to Ministry of Environment and mining lease shall be granted in the Eco Sensitive Forests for approval, new tourism activities and Zone. However, the Monitoring Committee shall developments for tourism or expansion of existing be the authority to give special permission for lim- tourism activities shall be permitted only after a de- ited quarrying of materials required for the con- tailed analysis is carried out and approved by the struction of local residential housing and tradition- Monitoring Committee subject to guidelines laid al road maintenance work only; provided that such down by Ministry of Environment and Forests. quarrying is not done on forestlands. Natural Heritage: - The sites of valuable natural Comment/Suggestion for Western Ghats Au- heritage in the zone shall be identified, particularly thority: rock formations, waterfalls, pools, gorges, groves, caves, points, walks, rides etc. and plans for their This is of great relevance to managing ESAs as conservation in their natural setting shall be incor- it constitutes a severe threat to large areas in the porated in the Zonal Master Plan and Sub Zonal Ghats in Maharashtra and Goa. Master Plans. Strict guidelines shall be drawn up Trees: -There shall be no felling of trees whether by the State Government to discourage construc- on Forest, Government, Revenue or private lands tion activities at or near these sites including under within the Eco-Sensitive Zone, without the prior the garb of providing tourist facilities. All the gene permission of the State Government in case of for- pool reserve areas in the zone shall be preserved. est land, and the respective District Collector in The State Government may draw up proper plans case of Government, Revenue and private land, for their conservation or preservation within one as per procedure which shall be prescribed by the year from the date of publication of this notifica- State Government, provided that the District Col- tion. These plans shall form a part of the Zonal lector shall not delegate this power to any subordi- Master Plan and Sub-Zonal Master Plans. nate officer below the rank of Sub-Divisional Of- Comment/Suggestion for Western Ghats Au- ficer. thority: Comment/Suggestion for Western Ghats Au- For all the ESAs a similar clause mentioning thority: the different categories of ESAs will be required to A similar clause must apply to all ESAs in the minimize impacts on the ESAs. Western Ghats. 141 Man-made heritage: - Buildings, structures, ar- thority: tifacts, areas and precincts of historical, architec- Clearly spelled out rules in this regard must be tural, aesthetical, and cultural significance shall provided. The current method of using bull dozers be identified and plans for their conservation, par- to show that the land was flat must be curtailed by ticularly their exteriors (and wherever deemed ap- the strictly observing that no heavy machinery can propriate their interiors also) shall be prepared and be used without proper authorisation in the ESAs. incorporated in the Zonal Master Plan and Sub- Zonal Master Plans within one year from the date (l) Discharge of effluents: - The discharge of any of publication of this notification. Guidelines may untreated effluent is prohibited within the Eco Sen- be drawn up by the State Government to regulate sitive Zone. No effluent, either treated or untreat- building and other activities in the Zone, particu- ed, shall be permitted to be discharged into water larly in Mahableshwar and Panchgani municipal body/s and water source/s within the zone. limits and in Kshetre Mahableshwar, so that the Comment/Suggestion for Western Ghats Au- special character and distinct ambience of the thority: towns and the eco sensitive zone is maintained. This is of great relevance as new townships have Development or construction activity at or been permitted within the Western Ghats. around heritage sites (both natural and man-made) (m) Solid Wastes: - The local authorities shall shall be regulated in accordance with the Draft draw up plans for the segregation of solid wastes Model Regulations for Conservation of Natural into biodegradable and non-biodegradable compo- and Man-made Heritage formulated by the Minis- nents. The biodegradable material may be recycled try of Environment and Forests in 1995 as amended preferably through composting or vermiculture; from time to time and circulated to all State Gov- the inorganic material may be disposed of at envi- ernments and Union territory Administrations. ronmentally acceptable locations. It is clarified that Comment/Suggestion for Western Ghats Au- the term solid wastes include domestic, industrial, thority: commercial and garden wastes. This is a very crucial set of Regulations that 3 (a)The Government of India shall constitute a should be reviewed , modified as necessary and High Level Monitoring Committee to ensure com- implemented so that natural heritage enrichment pliance with the provisions of this notification. within the ESAs are protected for posterity. Besides the above provisions of the notification, Ground Water: - Extraction of ground water the monitoring committee shall have the powers shall be permitted only for the bona fide agricul- to regulate and control noise pollution within the tural and domestic consumption of the occupier of Eco sensitive zone. The monitoring committee the plot. Extraction of ground water for private shall also have powers to regulate traffic especially industrial/commercial/residential estates/com- through traffic within the Eco sensitive zone; once plexes shall require prior permission from the State the Master Plan is approved by the Ministry of Ground Water Board. No sale of ground water Environment and Forests in Government of India shall be permitted except with prior approval of the such regulation shall be in conformity with the pro- Monitoring Committee. visions of the Master Plan. The monitoring committee shall include representative(s) of the Minis- (j) Use of plastics: - The use of plastics within try of Environment and Forests, Central pollution the Eco Sensitive Zone shall be regulated by the Control Board and at least two representatives of Monitoring Committee. non-government organisations working in the field (k) Protection of Hill Slopes: - The Master Plan of environment (including heritage conservation) shall indicate areas on hill slopes where construc- (to be nominated by the Ministry of Environment tion shall not be permitted. and Forests, Government of India). The member- ship of the committee including Chairman shall Comment/Suggestion for Western Ghats Au- not exceed ten. 142 (b) It shall be the duty of the Monitoring Com- region for the purpose of the said Act to be named mittee to file complaints under section 19 of the as the “ Mahableshwar Panchgani Region” which Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 if offences un- shall include the entire area within the boundaries der the said Act come to its notice. of Mahableshwar Tehsil and villages of – (c) The Committee or any officer or member (1) Bondarwadi of the Monitoring Committee authorised by the (2) Bhuteghar Committee shall be authorised to file complaints under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. (3) Danwali Comment/Suggestion for Western Ghats Au- (4) Taloshi thority: (5) Umbri Similar powers should be provided to the West- Of Jaoli Tehsil of Satara District in the ern Ghats Authority to be able to transparently Maharashtra State. A Copy of the plan showing protect the selected and prioritized ESAs boundaries of Mahableshwar Panchgani Region 4. In exercise of the powers conferred by sub- showing the area included as aforesaid is available section (3) of section 3 of the Environment (Pro- for inspection at offices of the following officers tection) Act, 1986, read with section 23 of the said namely: Act, the Ministry of Environment and Forests, (1) The Director of Town Planning, Ma- Government of India empowers the Urban Devel- harastra State, Pune opment Department, Government of Maharash- (2) The Collector of Satara tra and the High Level Monitoring Committee to discharge the functions specifically enumerated (3) The Tahasildars of Mahableshwar in this notification and to do all things incidental and Jhaoli thereto, (except the functions as are required to be (4) The Municipal Council, Mahablesh- performed by the Central Government under the war provisions of the Environment Impact Assessment (5) The Municipal Council, Panchgani notification of 27th January, 1994 as amended from time to time). (6) The Assistant Director of Town Plan- ning, Satara Provided that in respect of functions delegated under this notification, an appeal from any order By Order and in the Name of the Governor of shall lie to the Ministry of Environment and For- Maharashtra ests. Sd/-R.B. DONALD, Dy. Secy. [File No. J-20011/7/98/IA-III] A. Area of Mahableshwar Panchgani Region Dr. V. Rajagopalan, Jt. Secy. = 237.28sq. kms Annexure B. Of the above Urban Development Department (1) Mahableshwar Municipal Area = 19.55 sq. kms NOTIFICATION (2) Panchgani Municipal Area Bombay the 29th April 1983 = 6.16 sq. kms Maharashtra Regional and Town Planning (3) Gaothans outside Municipal limits Act, 1966. -No. TPS. 1982/4507 (a)-UD 7: In ex- = 0.95 sq. kms cersise of powers conferred by sub-section (1) of Section (3) of Maharashtra Regional and Town C. Residential Zone outside Municipal limits Planning Act, 1966 (Maharashtra XXXVII of = 1.66 sq. kms 1966) (herinafter referred to as “the said act”), to D. Forest Zone Government of Maharashtra, hereby establishes a 143 = 123.96 sq. kms thority: E. Green Zone The two townships at Sahara and Lavasa have = 83.72 sq. kms tracts of forest even though they may not be notified as Reserve Forest. Any land having a signifi- Comment/Suggestion for Western Ghats Au- cant tree cover and even degraded scrubland capa- thority: ble of being restored to a natural forest ecosystem Each ESA category will require careful demar- aught to be treated as forest and township develop- cation with a notification by the concerned State ment in such areas must be banned. Both the town- Government. ships have been developed in the catchment areas of dams. MAHARASHTRA REGIONAL AND However on such notified townships no develop- TOWN PLANNING ACT 1966 ment zone for such special township may include private land under Hill tops and Hill slopes zones The Government of Maharashtra has created a in Pune Metropolitan Region as well as Hill tops schedule for developing ‘Special townships’ in the and hill slopes outside Pune Metropolitan Region, area under Pune regional Plan. The proposal was whether earmarked on Regional Plan or not and first suggested in 2002. This was finalized in 2004. afforestation zones. The area requirements were as follows: Comment/ Suggestions for Western Ghats Au- Quote – thority: Area Requirement: Any suitable area preferably Both Lavasa and Sahara include hill slopes which vacant having sufficiently wide means of access were covered in natural vegetation and/or Kumri not less than 18m wide can be identified for the cultivation before being converted into townships. purpose of development as special township. The area of lands in such Hill –Tops and hill Comment/ Suggestions for Western Ghats Au- slopes zones and afforestation zones shall be maxi- thority: mum 40% of the gross area and such area shall be There is no definition of the word suitable. Ar- included in part of 50% area to be kept permanent- eas that contain high biological values and are eco- ly open where no development activity shall be per- logically fragile are NOT suitable for township de- missible under such townships. The said areas shall velopment. Thus most of the western ghats are not be thickly developed for tree plantation as per the suitable for developing such townships. norms specified above. However, for the purpose of calculation of PSI, such areas shall be excluded. The area under the special township shall not be less than 40 ha (100 acres0 at one place, which Comment/ Suggestions for Western Ghats Au- shall not include the area under forest, water bod- thority: ies. Like river, creek canal, reservoirs, lands falling Plantations are not a substitute for highly diverse within the belt of 100 mt from the HFL of major natural vegetations which covers there fragile hill lakes, dams and its surrounding areas, lands in the slopes. This has been destroyed during the develop- command area of irrigation project, land falling ment of these townships. within the belt of 200 mt from the historical monu- 1.4 Environment: The development contemplat- ments and places of archeological importance, ed in townships shall not cause damage to ecology, Archeological monuments, Heritage precincts, proposed industrial zone, gaothan areas or con- Comment/ Suggestions for Western Ghats Au- gested areas, truck terminus specially earmarked thority: on regional plan, wildlife corridors and biosphere The development has destroyed ecology of the reserves. region without a shadow of doubt. Comment/ Suggestions for Western Ghats Au- Environmental clearance shall be obtained from 144 the Ministry of Environment and Forest, Gov- thority: ernment of India as per directions issued by the The amount of relaxation provided for these MOEF’s notification dated 7th July 2004. The townships to be developed in ecologically fragile township shall provide at least 20% of the total lands having enormous biological importance has area as park/ garden/ playground as mentioned in amounted to a violation of good principles of land 4(f) below , with proper landscaping and open uses management. The seven relaxations indicate that designated in the Township shall be duly developed there is a vested interest in creating these townships by owner/ developer. The amenity shall be open to with complete disregard for norms of good land general public free of cost. use policies as set out in 1.1 of this document itself. Eco-friendly amenities like solar water heating for the township shall be mandatory. NATIONAL WATER POLICY 2002 2. Special Concessions: IN RELATION TO THE LAKES AND (a) N.A. Permission: Non-agriculture permission CATCHMENTS will be automatic. As soon as the scheme is noti- Government of India fied, lands notified under Special Township area as per 1.2 will be deemed to have been converted into Ministry of Water Resources non-agriculture and no separate permission is re- New Delhi quired. Non-agricultural assessment however will April, 2002 commence from the date of sanction of schemed as per regulation no 6(c). Institutional Mechanism (b) Stamp Duty: The stamp duty rates applicable 4.1 With a view to give effect to the planning, in Notified Special Township area shall be 50% of development and management of the water re- prevailing rates of the Mumbai Stamp Act. sources on a hydrological unit basis, along with a multi-sectoral, multi-disciplinary and participatory (c) Grant of Government Land: Any Govern- approach as well as integrating quality, quantity ment land failing under townships area shall be and the environmental aspects, the existing insti- leased out to the developer. tutions at various levels under the water resources (d) Relaxation from Mumbai Tenancy and Agri- sector will have to be appropriately reoriented / culture Land Act: The condition that only the agri- reorganised and even created, wherever necessary. culturist will be eligible to buy the agriculture land As maintenance of water resource schemes is un- shall not be applicable in special township area. der non-plan budget, it is generally being neglected. (e) Ceiling of agriculture land: There shall be no The institutional arrangements should be such that ceiling limit for holding agriculture land to be pur- this vital aspect is given importance equal or even chased by the owner/ developer for such project. more than that of new constructions. (f) Exemption from Urban Land (Ceiling and Comment/ Suggestions for Western Ghats Au- Regulation) Act, 1976: Special Township Projects thority: will be exempted from the purview of Urban Lend The suggested institutional mechanism in the ( Ceiling and Regulation) Act , 1976. National Water Policy2002 has been consistently (g) Scrutiny Fee: A Special Township Project disregarded in the Western Ghats by developing shall be partially exempted from payment of scru- townships, roads etc. tiny fee being levied by the Collector / Planning 4.2 Appropriate river basin organisations should Authority for processing the development proposal be established for the planned development and on certain terms and conditions as may be decided management of a river basin as a whole or sub-ba- by the Collector/ Planning Authority. sin s, wherever necessary. Special multi-disciplin- Comment/Suggestion for Western Ghats Au- ary units should be set up to prepare comprehensive plans taking into account not only the needs of 145 irrigation but also harmonising various other water lines for preparation of detailed project reports uses, so that the available water resources are deter- and focuses upon the responsibilities of the State mined and put to optimum use having regard to ex- Governments to work in close partnership with the isting agreements or awards of Tribunals under the Government of India in protection, conservation relevant laws. The scope and powers of the river and sustainable management of lakes. It is hoped basin organisations shall be decided by the basin that State Government will find the revised guide- states themselves. lines useful. Their committed implementation will immensely improve the prospects for protection Comment/ Suggestions for Western Ghats Au- and conservation of lakes. thority: The preparation of these guidelines is the result River basin management for tributaries of the of excellent team work. I would like to acknowl- rivers in the Western Ghats has been neglected. edge the contributions made by Dr. M. Sengupta, Advisor, Dr. (Mrs.) R. Dalwani, Director and Shri GUIDELINES FOR NATIONAL LAKE S. K. Srivastava, Deputy Director, NRCD (MoEF) CONSERVATION PLAN who have worked with great dedication and devo- tion in preparation of this document. May 2008 (R.H.Khwaja) FOREWORD Additional Secretary & Project Director Ministry of Environment and Forests has been implementing the National Lake Conservation 3.0 ACTIVITIES COVERED UNDER NLCP Plan (NLCP) since 2001 for conservation and Prevention of pollution from point sources by management of polluted and degraded lakes in intercepting, diverting and treating the pollution urban and semi-urban areas. The major objectives loads entering the lake. The interception and diver- of NLCP include encouraging and assisting state sion works may include sewerage & sewage treat- Governments for sustainable management and ment for the entire lake catchment area. conservation of lakes. (i) In situ measures of lake cleaning such as de- Comment/ Suggestions for Western Ghats Au- silting, de-weeding, bioremediation, thority: aeration, bio-manipulation, nutrient reduction, The lakes and backwaters in the Western Ghats withdrawal of anoxic hypolimnion, constructed have been seriously neglected. These are corridors wetland approach or any other successfully tested for preserving biological diversity and the defores- eco-technologies etc depending upon the site con- tation due to housing development, urbanization, ditions. and road construction has seriously impacted the Comment/ Suggestions for Western Ghats Au- longterm viability. The National Lake Conserva- thority: tion Pan has NOT been adhered in the lakes of this region. The areas where townships have been developed are unsuitable as they are potential impacts on the Lakes being major sources of accessible fresh ecological integrity of the lakes. water, require well planned, sustainable and scientific efforts to prevent their degradation and ulti- (ii) Catchment area treatment which may in- mate death. clude afforestation, storm water drainage, silt traps etc. NLCP has attempted to learn from its experience in the field for making improvements in the Comment/ Suggestions for Western Ghats Au- existing system of project formulation and imple- thority: mentation. This document attempts to help the These are catchments which have been further proponents in proper prioritization of lakes based impacted by developing roads and urban develop- on scientific selection criteria. It lays down guide- ment. 146 (iii) Strengthening of bund, lake fencing, shore- Lakes of the Western Ghats must be categorized line development etc. as being the first to be prioritized to maintain their ecological integrity. Lakes under the TATA Power 1 Unique fresh water ecosystems shall cover company have a large number of Mahaseer which lakes that are unique entities of incomparable val- is highly endangered. ues and need to be preserved & conserved e.g. high altitude lakes, Lonar lake Maharashtra etc. 4.2 In order to identify polluted and degraded lakes across the country, a study was carried out Comment/ Suggestions for Western Ghats Au- by the Ministry at the instance of Planning Com- thority: mission, vide which 62 lakes were identified across All the lakes and their catchments in the West- the country for conservation. This list was sent to ern Ghats under this category of unique entities as all State Governments for amendment and finalisa- the valleys have a variety of forest systems and en- tion keeping in view the state priority and the jus- demic species. tification for their inclusion in the priority list. The (iv) Lake front eco-development including pub- state priority and justification for such a selection lic interface. needs to be a part of the proposal for consideration under NLCP. In view of the prevailing dynamic (v) Solid waste management & provision of dho- situation, states may revise the priority list at an bi ghats is generally not covered under NLCP. interval of 5 years covering different geographic re- (vi) Prevention of pollution from non-point gions of sources by providing low cost sanitation. 7.0 LEGAL SUPPORT & POLICY FRAME- (vii) Public awareness and public participation. WORK Comment/ Suggestions for Western Ghats Au- The Lakes & Wetlands are presently not covered thority: by any specific legal statute but several legislations No public awareness or participatory manage- enacted till date have relevance & provisions for ment has been done. Instead there are sites which conservation of lakes. Some of these are: are to be developed into urban settings without any The Forest Conservation Act, 1980, The Wild- regard for the ecology of this series of lakes within life Act, 1972, The Water (Prevention & Control the Ghats. of Pollution) Act, 1974, and the Environment (viii) Capacity building, training and research in (Protection) Act, 1986. Besides these, some of the the area of Lake Conservation. States have individual State level legislations for protection & conservation of their lakes & water Comment/ Suggestions for Western Ghats Au- bodies. The National Environment Policy (NEP), thority: 2006 also seeks for setting up of a legally enforce- No such capacity building has been carried out. able regulatory mechanism for lakes & wetlands to prevent their degradation and enhance their con- (ix) Any other activity depending upon location servation. Till any specific regulatory framework specific requirements. for lakes & wetlands is formulated, the Lake Con- 4.0 PRIORITIZATION OF LAKES servation may be covered under the provisions of 4.1 While the causes of degradation of lakes are existing Central and State Legislations (Box.2) many, in view of the limited resources available, it Comment/ Suggestions for Western Ghats Au- is not possible to take up all degraded lakes for con- thority: servation under NLCP. It is, therefore, necessary to Even though these legal provisions exist the prioritize lakes along with the catchments, where catchments of lakes in the Western Ghats have conservation programmes need to be taken up first. been persistently violated. Comment/ Suggestions for Western Ghats Au- Existing legal provisions thority: 147 1. The Water (Prevention & Control of Pollu- Comment/ Suggestions for Western Ghats Au- tion) Act, 1974 as amended deals comprehensively thority: with water issues. It empowers the Government Conversion for agriculture and more importantly to maintain the wholesomeness of National Wa- human settlements (special townships) has serious ter Bodies. The Act also provides for prohibition long-term implications and violates the provisions on use of stream (includes inland water whether of the NEP(2006). natural & artificial) or well for disposal of polluting matter etc. It enables the Government through Central & State Pollution Control Boards to prescribe standards and has provisions for monitoring & compliance and penal provisions against the vio- lators of the Act. 2. The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 defines the power of the Central Government to take measures to protect and improve environment which includes water, air and land and the inter relationship which exists among and between water, air and land and human beings, other living crea- tures, plants, micro organisms and property. Comment/ Suggestions for Western Ghats Au- thority: The EPA has been violated in spirit by a series of development activities within the catchments of the Western Ghats. This includes provisions for developing bridges across the ecologically sensitive Mulshi Lake to facilitate more traffic to the new township of Lavasa. The National Environment Policy (NEP), 2006, recognises the ecological services rendered by the water bodies like lakes & wetlands. The NEP states that wetlands including lakes are under threat from drainage and conversion for agriculture & human settlements besides pollution. The reduction in economic value of their environmental services due to pollution, as well as the health costs of the pollution itself, are not taken into account while using them as a waste dump. The NEP identifies an Ac- tion Plan for these water bodies which importantly include formulation of conservation & prudent use strategies, integration of wetland and lake conservation into sectoral development plans for poverty alleviation and livelihood improvement, formulation of eco-tourism strategies prove multi stakeholders partnership and above all setting up of a legally enforceable regulatory mechanism for these water bodies.

148 CHAPTER 8: CONCLUSION

he ESAs in the Western Ghat are expected ed by mining, roads, new townships, new tourists to minimize further environmental degra- centers, etc., all of which add to a longterm loss in Tdation, project ecological and biological as- their quality of life’. The cash they received for the settes and preserve social justice. sale of their lands was frequently too small and has been filtered away. While permitting sustainable development trends in the Ghats. This can only be achieved by The economic growth in the region has been having different sets of norms for each ESA cate- through only a fraction of what has gone out gory depending on a combination of their ecologi- through unsustainable development at the local cal value, threat levels and conservation status. level. The issues to be considered such as land use, bio- While the issues related to the unsustainability diversity, water, forest which are all to be concerned of current regional development strategies in the within the three pillars of unsustainable or sustain- Western Ghat is well known to ecologists and so- able use under an umbrella of good governance. cial scientists as well as government line agencies and business, it is not clear to local people. Few at- One of the key concerns is the societal concerns tempts have been made to bridge this gap in knowl- where poverty has been a major factor in unsus- edge. Examples include BVIEER school environ- tainability of the region. Added to this is the stress ment program in the Mawal and Mulshi Talukas induced by an increase in inequity which deters done a few years ago through funding from Tata the quality of life of local citizens. They now see Power Company. Several posters, CD ROMS, and Lavasa and Sahara as a coveted way of life. They other educational material have been developed by have sold their land, been deprived of their tradi- NGOs and Government agencies which have had tional source of livelihood – their land, and now a limited use in the region itself. feel deprived. They see their forests lands degrad- 149 Much more needs to be done for local public awareness through local schools and colleges on the ecology fragility and need for sustainable knowledge based initiatives in the region which should become a primary focus for the Western Ghat Authority.

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