“ETHNOBOTANICAL AND BIODIVERSITY STUDIES OF COMMON TREES AND SHRUBS ALONG WITH NEXUS BETWEEN CLIMATE CHANGE AND GENE DIVERSITY OF Juniperus excelsa IN ZARGHOON ECOSYSTEM, BALOCHISTAN (PAKISTAN)”
A thesis submitted to University of Balochistan, Quetta in the fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
Submitted By
ZAHOOR AHMAD BAZAI
DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY UNIVERISTY OF BALOCHISTAN, QUETTA PAKISTAN (2012)
“ETHNOBOTANICAL AND BIODIVERSITY STUDIES OF COMMON TREES AND SHRUBS ALONG WITH NEXUS BETWEEN CLIMATE CHANGE AND GENE DIVERSITY OF Juniperus excelsa IN ZARGHOON ECOSYSTEM, BALOCHISTAN (PAKISTAN)”
A thesis submitted to University of Balochistan, Quetta in the fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
Submitted By
ZAHOOR AHMAD BAZAI
DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY UNIVERISTY OF BALOCHISTAN, QUETTA PAKISTAN (2012)
Dedicated
To THOSE WHO CARE FOR EARTH, THE EARTH ONCE OUR MOTHER, NOW OUR CHILD IT NEEDS TO BE NOURISHED AND TAKE CARE
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the work presented in this thesis is my own effort except where other acknowledged and that the thesis is my own composition. No part of the thesis has previously been presented for any other degree.
Zahoor Ahmad Bazai Ph.D. Scholar CERTIFICATE
It is hereby, certified that this thesis entitled “Ethnobotanical and Biodiversity Studies of Common Trees and Shrubs Added by the Nexus Between Climate Change and Gene Diversity of Juniperus excelsa in Zarghoon Ecosystem, Balochistan (Pakistan)” based on the results of experiments carried out by Mr. Zahoor Ahmad Bazai. We, the supervisor and co-supervisors are fully satisfied with his research work, which was completed under our supervision and guidance. Mr. Zahoor Ahmad Bazai has completed thesis write up. It is recommended that thesis should be sent to external for evaluation.
Supervisor:
Prof. Dr. Rasool Bakhsh Tareen
s CERTIFICATE
This is certifying that Mr. Zahoor Ahmad Bazai, Ph.D. scholar conducted research studies under the supervision of Prof. Dr. Rasool Bakhsh Tareen on the topic entitled “Ethnobotanical and Biodiversity Studies of Common Trees and Shrubs Added by the Nexus between Climate Change and Gene Diversity of Juniperus excelsa in Zarghoon Ecosystem, Balochistan (Pakistan)”
He carried out his Ph.D. work in Department of Botany, University of Balochistan, Quetta, Pakistan. The work presented by the scholar in the thesis is an original work of great scientific knowledge. In future, other works will also benefit by the methodology, review of literatures, results and references presented in the thesis.
I do recommended and forward Ph.D. thesis to the Board of advanced Studies and Research (BASR) for its onward transmission to the external examiners for its evaluation.
Chairperson______Department of Botany University of Balochistan, Quetta, Pakistan
Dean ______Faculty of Life Science University of Balochistan, Quetta, Pakistan
LIST OF FIGURES
Contents Page # Fig. 1. Map of the Zarghoon Juniper Forest Research Area (▲) with five 12 clusters Killi Tor Shor (KTS), Medadzai (M), Gunda (G), Sarobai (S) and Killi Shaban (KS) 20km NE of Quetta City Fig. 2. Pie Chart Showing Percentage of Different Uses of Juniper 36 Tree’s Wood by the Community Fig. 3. Livestock population in Zarghoon Ecosytem owned by local 37 communities Fig. 4. Average Income sources of the community in percentage 38 Fig. 5. Bar Chart showing Percentage of Men/Women with 39 respect to ethnobotanical Knowledge/ Ignorance” Fig. 6. Bar Chart showing %age of Different Routes of Administration 40 Fig. 7. Bar Chart representing percentages of different modes of plants 41
Fig. 8. Average Diameter at Breast Height (inches) of Juniperus excelsa 47 Fig. 9. Ratio of Sex distribution of Juniper in 5 clusters of the study area. 48 Fig. 10. Mean New Regeneration Ground Cover %age 49 Fig. 11. Mean old Regeneration Ground Cover %age 50 Fig. 12. Rate of Deforestation in five localities 51 Fig. 13. Mean percentage values of Clay; Silt; Water holding capacity; 55 and Sand Fig. 14. Lanes representing the DNA isolation with agarose gel (1%) of 58 Juniperus excelsa.in gel electrophoresis Fig. 15. The DNA isolation but not intact form due to presence of 58 secondary metabolites etc. before protocol modified Fig 16. The DNA isolation with intact DNA shown after protocol 59 modified Fig 17. Intact DNA in lanes representing the DNA isolation with agarose 59 gel (1%) of Juniperus excelsa.in as fingerprints
LIST OF TABLES
Contents Page # Table 1. Quantity of Buffer extraction used for PCR amplification 28 Table 2. Time, activity and temperature of Genomic DNA initiated in 29 PCR amplifier Table 3. Priority of local community using plant species as fuel wood in 36 Zarghoon Juniper forest Table 4. Ecological Characteristics of five clusters in Zarghoon 46 Forest Table 5. Soil Physicochemical Characteristics of 5 Locations at 54 Zarghoon Juniper Forest Table 6. List of location, altitude, collection date, and University of 57 Balochistan Botany Herbarium (UoBBH) voucher number of Juniperus excelsa Table 7: No. of Polymorphic Bands (P.B.) per locus from J. excelsa 60 populations of Zarghoon Table 8. Genetic diversity of populations of Juniperus excelsa in 61 Zarghoon Table 9. Mean soil Physicochemical Characteristics of 5 Locations at 62 Zarghoon Juniper Forest Table 10. Climatic characteristics of different distribution area of 62 Juniperus excelsa populations in Zarghoon region (average values of 1980 - 2010) Table 11. Correlation coefficients between genetic diversity and 63 environmental variables for J. excelsa populations in Zarghoon
APPENDICES Contents Appendix-A. Village level Questionnaire appendix Appendix-B. Ethnototany Questionnaire Appendix-C. SPSS calculations Appendix-D. Acceptance letter of first research manuscript by Ph.D. dissertation Appendix-E. Copy of 2nd research manuscript published by Ph.D. dissertation
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I
ABSTRACT II
CHAPTER1 5
1. INTRODUCTION 5
1.1. GEO-CLIMATE OF ZARGHOON REGION: 11
1.2. PARTICIPATORY RAPID/RURAL APPRAISAL (PRA) TYPE PARTICIPATORY APPRAISAL OF NATURAL RESOURCES (PANR): 13
CHAPTER 2 16
2. LITERATURE REVIEW 16
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES 23
CHAPTER 3 24
3. MATERIALS AND METHODS 24
3.1. QUESTIONNAIRES: 24
3.2. THE PARTICIPATORY RAPID/RURAL APPRAISAL (PRA)-TYPE, PARTICIPATORY APPRAISAL OF NATURAL RESOURCES (PANR): 24
3.3. PRA TOOLS APPLIED: 24
3.4. PLANTS UTILIZATIONS: 25
3.5. ECOLOGICAL ASPECTS: 25
3.6. LOCATION: 25
3.7. VEGETATION STUDY: 26
3.8. SOIL ANALYSIS 26
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3.9. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS 27
3.10. GENE DIVERSITY: 27
CHAPTER 4 30
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 30
4.1. ETHNOBOTANICAL ASPECTS: 30
4.1.1. DISCUSSIONS ETHNOBOTANY: 44
4.2. CONSERVATION ASPECT OF JUNIPER FOREST IN ZARGHOON: 46
4.2.1. Discussions Conservations Aspects: 52
4.3. SOIL ANALYSIS: 53
4.3.1. DISCUSSION SOIL: 56
4.4. GENETIC DIVERSITY: 57
4.4.1. DISCUSSIONS GENE DIVERSITY: 63
CHAPTER 5 66
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 66
CHAPTER6 72
REFERENCES: 72
APPENDICES 89
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Acknowledgement
My deepest gratitude to the “Almighty Allah”, the most merciful, the creator and the provider, because all it was possible only by his mercy, kindness and providence. I am extremely grateful to my earnest Supervisor Prof. Dr. Rasool Bakhsh Tareen, Dean Life Sciences/Research University of Balochistan, for providing me amenities, and support during my research work. I am gratified to my co-supervisors Dr. Atta Muhammad Sarangzai & Dr. Muhammad Younas Khan Barozai of Botany Department, University of Balochistan, for the provision of appropriate guidance and facilitation. I pay my special gratitude to Higher Education Commission (HEC), Pakistan for awarding me the Ph.D. Indigenous Fellowship Batch-IV. The HEC’s financial support for this Ph.D. research helped me considerably and improved my work. I thank Prof. Dr. Abdul Kabeer Khan Achakzai, Chairman Department of Botany, University of Balochistan, for his sincere guidance and cooperation in reviewing this dissertation and helping out in writing publications. I am thankful to Prof. Dr. Masoom Yasinzai for the provision of his lab to perform my research. I am particularly thankful to Mr. Yasser. M. S. A. Al-Kahraman, from Department of Biochemistry, for his assistance and support to my lab work. Last but not the least; I am very thankful to Mr. Shai Mazar Baloch for his facilitation in perusal of documentations administratively. Every effort has been made to eliminate any error during the preparation of this dissertation, yet as in case of any human enterprise, mistake does happen.
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Abstract
The Biodiversity assessment using ethnobotanical and ecological inspection complemented by genetic variation investigation of tree Juniperus excela was undertaken in Zarghoon Juniper Forest during the years 2009-11. In contemporary study the illustrious data assortment procedure entitled Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA)-Type Participatory Assessment of Natural Resources (PANR) was applied. PRA tools social map, transit walk, structured, semi structured interviews and pie diagrams were used. PRA was piloted in five villages as central habitat of five constellations embraced of total 17 villages in Zarghoon Juniper ecosystem.Meetings with local communities both male and female separately were conducted and PRA tool carried out using charts and markers. Ethnobotanical assessment revealed that 60%, 35% and 5% medicines were used orally, topically and boiled to inhale, respectively. Correspondingly, in case of parts of plants usage 57, 26, 10 and 7% leaves, seeds, flower and roots were used, respectively. The socio-economic condition of the area indicated local community was deficient of basic amenities of life. The dependency on natural resources was high and unplanned land fragmentation occurred as the major source of income (90%) was from agriculture and livestock rearing and only 10% income by trade, services and labor. Rate of deforestation assessed by counting cut stumps, ranged from 6.69 to 4.70/acre. Average Diameter at Breast Height (DBH) in inches above ground at 4.5 measured and that ranged from highest 37.13 to lowest as 29.40. Goat made the dominant livestock population of 75%, sheep 23% and donkey 2%. Sex ratio of J. excelsa showed predominance of male with a mean value of 103±23ha-¹ (58%), followed by female 64±51 ha-¹ (36%) while bisexual were very rare (6%).Anthropogenic pressure like lopping for timber 28%, fuel wood 56%, debarking 11% and fencing 5% of Juniper tree equally treacherous at all populations. Leaf samples of the key species J. excelsa were collected for DNA isolation as no genetic analysis was ever carried out in this area. Owing to the existence of impurities of high magnitude of secondary metabolites, a novel protocol was generated to isolate pure DNA essentially for tree J. excelsa, which exhibited rich genetic resources and diversity. Six microsatellite primers were inspected and four showed considerable polymorphic amplifications. The percentage of polymorphic bands of populations was great with a variation of 8.8% as of maximum (61.8%) at Killi Shaban and minimum (53%) at Gunda. The polymorphism decreased with decrease in cover. The genetic diversity among populations also varied greatly, from 0.1012 - 0.2012 and their order in five villages were as Killi Shaban > Killi Tor Shore > Medadzai > Sarobai> Gunda. Results revealed a positive correlation between genetic diversity and annual mean precipitation, high and low temp and soil pH, and variance in these due to climate change might intimidate the genetic diversity and resources. The traditional healers are dwindling in number and traditional knowledge is threatened and might be exterminated in near future since younger generation is least interested in it. Therefore, it is preordained to preserve the indigenous knowledge. Geographical distance and density might have sound effects on genetic relationships, because genetic diversity improved even at short distance. Existing anthropogenic pressure on ecosystem can be curtailed by regulations implementations and financial assistance for sustainable resourse utilization to the unique Juniper ecosystem of Zarghoon.
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CHAPTER1
1. Introduction
Balochistan is the largest province, representing 44% of the land cover of Pakistan (Tareen et al.,2010). The Juniper forest ecosystem in province Balochistan is the second largest in the world the first being in California. It is one of the oldest slow growing Juniper trees of the world having trees as old as 700 to 900 years, but the urbanization and population growth are amongst the root causes of deforestation (Marcoux, 2000). Ecologically speaking, Juniper forest is not only a rare genetic resource, but it also one of our national and biological heritage of Baluchistan and Pakistan. These forests also considered as one of the world’s largest, oldest, extremely slow growing and drought resistant tree species, therefore, often termed as "Living Forest Fossil" (Sheikh, 1985). Juniperus excelsa is found from Turkey to Afghanistan, east, and south to Iran (Fisher & Andrew, 1995) at elevations ranging from 1500 to 3000 m. It is also found in Pakistan, where it is fairly common by forming open forests in Ziarat Baluchistan and inner dry valleys of the Himalayas. However, the climate at these altitudes may be marginal for the survival of Juniper, and even small increases in climatic stress could imperil the present status of these woodlands (Andrew & Fisher, 1996). Balochistan has one of the largest remaining tracks of pure Juniperus excelsa forests in the world that has global significance Most of the Juniper forests have open canopy. Juniper trees grow very slowly with poor natural regeneration. They cover approximately141,000 hectares. The most extensive (100,000 hectares)and best known examples are found in Ziarat and Zarghun range near Quetta(Atta et al., 2010). J. excelsa tree is largely acknowledged for its small establishment potential under the closed canopy of mature parent trees. Grazed and non-grazed forests express no difference in the abundance of new and old regeneration (Frijis, 1992; Taketay & Bekele, 1995). Junipers can tolerate poor soils and can survive at extremely low temperature in comparison to other forest trees. In addition, they are highly resistant and they are the last species that abandon areas in the process of deforestation (Pamay, 1955). Within this
5 wide distribution area the juniper trees display great variety in different soils and climatic conditions. Particularly in Juniper forest zones with extreme climatic and soil characteristics, shoot/root ratio is fundamental for biological success. Seedlings planted in arid or semi-arid areas should have a well-developed root system for better absorption of water lost from the soil in shoots and leaves (Hobbes, 1980). Juniper forests always served as an important source of wood for construction, cooking and fuel over ages but they are subjected to over exploitation, heavy grazing and fires; while silivi-cultural practices or other management practices are lacking. Juniper is the most prominent type of vegetation at or above 1600 m elevation (Chaudhary, 1997). Balochistan is a forest deficit province of Pakistan characterized by mountain ranges and deserts, arid and extreme climate and sparse and nomadic population but is endowed with one of the biggest blocks of Juniper (Juniperus excelsa) Forests. The socio-economic values of Juniper Forest to the local communities are due to meeting needs of fuel-wood energy, grazing for livestock, constructional and other timber, fencing material, bark for thatching of huts, medicinal plants for domestic use, shade for human and livestock and privacy of huts. Their importance for marketable produce, watershed value, conservation value, recreation and tourism is great. In Pakistan the field of Ethnobotany is quite a virgin. Only a few papers have been published. Today ethnobotany is widely accepted as a science of human interactions with plants and its ecosystems. The fundamental structure of ethnobotanical research is to examine the dynamic relationship between human population, cultural values and plants; recognizing that plants permeate materially, and metaphorically many aspects of culture, and that nature is by no means passive to human action but interacted with each other. Thus ethnobotany is more than a study of plants useful to people, for it is devoted to understanding the limitations and behavioral consequences of human population’s action on their plant environment. (Shinwari & Khan, 1998) Ethnobotany was described as “The study of direct interaction between human and plant population, through its culture each human population classified plants, while human behavior has direct impact on plant communities with which they interact, the plants themselves also impose limitations on humans, these mixture interactions are the focus of Ethnobotany” (Pei, 1995).
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The emphasis of the restoration approaches on providing alternatives to reduce pressure e.g. Gas, coal, fuel wood from outside, construction material made of iron, barbed wire for fencing and bricks for lining of wells. Evolving grazing management system, de-stocking, delaying spring raising and promoting on farm fodder production are considered as essentials for the improvement of vegetation depleted overgrazing. Adopt try planting of Juniper and alternative tree species, control of mistletoe, encouraging planting outside forest and other forestry, range, watershed, wildlife and socio-economic research topics have been identified (Rao, 1994). In recent years, the interest in rare and narrow endemic species has turned to urgency, as more and more species dwindle toward extinction. In addition, for this group of species predicting the amount of genetic variability in plant species on the basis of their distribution is often not reliable, since some endemic species exhibit equivalent or higher levels of diversity compared to their more widely distributed congeners (Gitzendanner & Soltis, 2000). Conservation of forests is a significance constituent of environmental policies in numerous countries. Genetic diversity is intact quantity of innate features in the genome of a species or a population. Populations in different surroundings and species within populations may have different genetic characteristics (Karimi et al., 2009). Consequently, to study genetic interactions of species within populations and amongst populations in dissimilar environment is the substance for administration of flora. Biotechnology involvement to affluence in scrutinizing genetic mannerisms of an individual species in different environmental conditions is prodigious. Seedlings planted in arid or semi-arid areas should have a well-developed root system for better absorption of water lost from the soil in shoots and leaves (Hermann, 1964; Baer, 1977). Despite some researchers have questioned the relative importance of genetic information, stating that ecological or demographic issues may be more pressing (Lande 1988;Schemske et al., 1994; Avise, 2008), molecular marker shave become part of a repertoire of tools needed to assess the amount of genetic variation in populations of endangered species and to address the ever-increasing loss of biodiversity. Microsatellite DNA marker is a piece of DNA molecule that is associated with a certain trait of organism. It can be of different types like morphological, chromosomal, genetic and 7 biochemical. A specific sequence of DNA bases (nucleotides) made up of mono, di, tri or tetra tandem repeats also called STR= Single Tandem Repeat, SSR= Simple Sequence Repeat, SSLP= Simple Sequence Length Polymorphism. Markers are highly polymorphic, occur abundantly and distributed evenly throughout the genome, are typically short (less than 100bp). In addition are used in application in personal identification, population genetic analysis and easy to detect by PCR. Microsatellites are “junk” DNA and majority of microsatellites are found in non-coding regions of the genome. Microsatellites may provide a source of genetic variations (Mueller & Wolfenbarger, 1999; Savelkoul et al., 1999). Biodiversity has three components and genetic diversity is one of the portions of biodiversity, and therefore is significant in conservation. Conservation of forests is important content of biodiversity conservation (Kate & Larid, 1999). Threats to the biodiversity particularly the medicinal plants have been an increasing concern to conservationists as well as resource users. Uncontrolled trade of wild plants, destructive harvesting technique s, and the destruction of the natural habitats of the plants are mainly causing such threats. The nature, extent and impact of these factors vary and so do the degrees of threat in different places and countries. Global trade for medicinal plants at an annually increasing rate is a major threat to the sustainability of these resources and eventually to the biodiversity. Apart from traditional medications, medicinal plant use has increased and diversified steadily in the last few decades, not only in cookery and popular and modern western medicine but also in different fields that are alien to medicine, such as the cosmetics and dye industries. In Europe alone, about 2000 plant species are traded commercially as medicinal or aromatic plants (Lange, 1998). Over-Exploitation of the wild stock of medicinal plants is another common phenomenon posing a serious threat to the medicinal plants. Traditionally, medicinal herbs have been collected and used locally. People had a small quantity of dried medicinal herbs in store, but collection as well as use reflected the local needs only. Due to the extension of trade relations accompanying urbanization and technological enhancement, medicinal plants have entered trade on a larger scale. Individuals, families or groups started to subsist on the collection of wild herbs and on the medicinal plant trade. Therefore, medicinal plants have become a commodity and obtained an isolated
8 value that is, in many cases, no longer connected to their original function. This development has led to reckless utilization of many medicinal plants, motivated by the benefits of a short-term profit to be gained by exploiting the resource while neglecting all considerations of sustainability. Genetic erosion and changes are also causing threats to the medicinal plant species or plant properties. Other than the natural genetic process and erosion (mutation, speciation and evolution), humans are also inducing genetic changes by mutation. Induced genetic changes in medicinal plants through cultivation and the development of varieties often are intended to intensify the concentration of certain compounds. The changes and the subsequent adaptation to the newly created conditions - unlike in nature - take place very quickly, often within a few years. The desired results are achieved in the beginning, but the equilibrium of the plants is often disturbed. People can use these plants to isolate the desired substances to treat symptoms, but in the long-term, the healing power of these plants is questionable. Moreover, genetic erosion among wild plants is very poorly documented (Annonynous-a, 1997). There would seem to be little doubt from theoretical considerations (Holsinger & Gottlieb, 1991; Menges, 1991) that many medicinal plant species that have been listed as threatened, and indeed others that have not, must be suffering from genetic erosion now, or will do so in the near future. There is no reliable estimate for the number of medicinal plants that are globally threatened, but they are variously calculated as 4,160 or 10,000 (Vorhies, 2000). Increasing human and livestock population in and around these forests and changes in the livelihood patterns from pastoral to a mix of agro-pastoral steadily started degradation in the ecosystem. These “Old Growth” forests has started yielding its area to the human habitation and showing signs of deterioration in the form of soil erosion and decreasing ground cover essential for maintenance of watershed values. Besides, the livelihood source to the local communities, these forests also play an important role in provision of recreation facilities to the inhabitants of the province and people from other provinces. However, the most important aspect of these forests is from the biodiversity point of view. The Juniper forest ecosystem has already been identified as a critically threatened ecosystem. Taking into consideration this situation, IUCN, Pakistan has put up efforts 9 since 1998 to draw the attention of government, Communities, Civil Society Organizations (CSOs), Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), media and other stakeholders to this aggravating situation. These efforts found good response not only at the local community levels but also at the provincial and country levels. Studies found a wide range of scope for biodiversity conservation in forests. Different most important valleys were selected initially as sample clusters for overall ground situation and for sustainable management of the natural resources of the selected valleys (Anonymous-b, 2008). It is a thought-provoking undertaking for scholar of botany and forestry to investigate not only the knowledge of plant world, but also apply the results of the study to biodiversity conservation and community development. One of the objectives is to guarantee that the local natural history becomes a living, written tradition in communities where it has been communicated vocally for many years. It is an effort alongside time, because indigenous knowledge of the environment is threatened in the face of annihilation of natural areas and transformation of traditional cultures. The current study gets hold of importance by the use of Participatory Rapid/Rural Appraisal (PRA) type Participatory Appraisal of Natural Resources (PANR). PANR is based on PRA type where the latter is a generic term covering interactive community participation of a general kind, while the former is topical and stands for such participation around natural resources. The labeling of PANR is to distinguish it from PRA as to focus local communities with natural resource. It is a methodology for interacting with villagers, understanding them and learning from them. It involves a set of principles, a process of communication and a means of methods for seeking villagers participation in putting forward their points of view about any issue enabling them do their own analysis with a view to make use of such learning (Mukherjee, 1994). The research conducted to investigate the cultural aspects, livelihood pattern and people behavior towards plants by the use of different tools like questionnaires, social map, semi structured interviews (SSI), focus group discussions (FGDs), Pie-diagram etc. of famous data collection technique called participatory rural appraisal (PRA), and PANR. The aim of the survey was to provide an insight of different aspects of medicinal plants use and their socio economic influence on them.
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To date, no studies like ethnobotanical, conservation and management, and Genetic variation of Zarghoon Juniper Ecosystem has been done in this part of country. In addition, this study is also exceptional after the use of Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) type Participatory Appraisal of Natural Resources (PANR). This study is a complete set of biodiversity study investigating all three components that is Species Diversity, Ecosystem Diversity and Gene Diversity. Therefore, the distinction of the current research is that it’s an amalgamation of dry lab and wet lab interventions with the use of PRA-type PANR. In current study an optimal and distinctive method for the extraction of genomic DNA was used for Juniperus excelsa at the Zarghoon Juniper Ecosystem in Balochistan, Pakistan to study the genetic variation within the population and among the populations of Juniperus excela.
1.1. Geo-Climate of Zarghoon region:
Zarghoon region is located 20 km to the southern part of Quetta valley lies approximately between latitude 300 39΄ N and longitude 670 15΄ E. It covers an area of about 354 square miles out of which 86 sq miles is piedmont 101 square miles is valley floor and the rest is mountain high land(Hunting Survey Corporation, 1960). The locality has tremendous variation from hill top to valley bottoms and gentle slopes with grasses scattered trees. Babri Shela is the stream along which road separates from Quetta-Urak road. The Kacha track runs through the ridge of Kotal Narai, the Boundary flanked by Zarghoon Reserved Forest, and Urak. This forest drains on the other side into Kotal Narai Stream. The Zarghoon Reserved and Guzara forests have significant pressure for fuel wood from the unrestricted occupants of Urak. High mountain peaks in the area are Tagha (11,334 feet), Sawan Ghara (11,174 feet), Buk (10,015 feet), Chunda (9,617 feet), Loe Tabai (9,540 feet) and Chur (9,004 Feet). The name Zarghoon is derived from a Pushto term, meaning flourishing.
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KS
S
KTS ZARGHOON ▲ M
G
QUETTA
Fig 1. Map of the Zarghoon Juniper Forest Research Area (▲) with five clusters Killi Tor Shor (KTS), Medadzai (M), Gunda (G), Sarobai (S) and Killi Shaban (KS) 20km NE of Quetta City
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1.2. Participatory Rapid/Rural Appraisal (PRA) type Participatory Appraisal of Natural Resources (PANR):
Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) is a methodology for interacting with villagers, understanding them and learning from them. It involves a set of principles, a process of communication and a menu of methods for seeking villagers’ participation in putting forward their points of view about any issue and enabling. It initiates a participatory process and sustains it. Its principles and the menu of methods help in organizing participation. PRA is a means of collecting different kinds of data, identifying and mobilizing intended groups and evoking their participation and also opening ways in which intended groups can participate in decision-making, project design, and execution and monitoring. PRA is sometimes known as Participatory Rapid Appraisal where emphasis is on both ‘Participatory’ and ‘Rapid’. The labeling of PANR is to distinguish it from PRA as to focus local communities with natural resource. It is a methodology for interacting with villagers, understanding them and learning from them (Chambers, 1991). Indigenous Knowledge and its Sources Before discussing the methods it is important to identify the indigenous knowledge sources which are available in rural areas. These sources are a rich repertoire of culture, practices, beliefs and approaches for understanding and appreciating rural people. Learning about rural knowledge base from different sources can be an important aspect of a PRA exercise. Several methods can be combined in different ways in order to analyze issues at hand and conduct an appraisal of the subject under consideration. Some major methods have been described below along with illustrations taken from field situations. In this study; the following PRA methods were applied: Maps and Models Participatory mapping is crucial to PRA and can be on different aspects of rural life such as social issues, resource, health, wealth, literacy, census, livestock, economic activity, social stratification, forms of livelihood etc. such maps can portray the image of dwellings in a village, of farms and fields, water collections, forests, soils and of many other aspects depending on the topic under consideration. In participatory mapping and modeling, villagers prepare the map/model of their village with chalks, colors and other materials either on ground or on paper.
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It is a rich tool and is commonly used in PRA. It has enormous potential. Maps by villagers provide a basis for knowing different aspects of a village. A village resource map can also show different kinds of natural resources and micro environments. In a resource map, the villagers draw the resource profile of the village depicting different kinds of soils, rivers, ponds, trees, crops and micro environments. Transect walk Participatory transect walks systematically involve walking with the villagers through an area and discussing about different aspects of land-use and agro-ecological zones in the village observed during the walk. A transect walk is a useful method for knowing rural ecological condition. A walk from one point of the village to another enables the outsider to observe different aspects of rural ecology and to discuss with rural people about soil condition, land-use patterns, crops, livestock, micro environment, agro- ecological zones etc. Seasonal Diagramming Rural livelihoods are integrally connected with seasonality. Each season has its own problems and the rural people have different strategies for their livelihoods. The seasons bear heavily on the physical conditions which in turn influence their lives. Seasons bring about differences in climatic conditions, in crops frown, in availability of water, food, fuel and fodder which in turn influence the living conditions in rural areas. Seasonal diagramming can lead to comparisons of related aspects of rural livelihoods such as seasonal variations and their linkages with food, employment, work load, disease, etc. Different aspects of rural life can be reflected through seasonal diagramming. A method which reflects the seasonality, aspect of some other method such as a questionnaire survey taken at two different points of a year. In the latter case, the ‘seasonality’ aspect can either be neutralized through ‘averaging’ or conclusions can be drawn on the basis of a partial picture for one season. Mobility Map This shows the pattern of spatial mobility for different sections of a community with respect to different activities. Patterns of group mobility of rural people can emerge from individual maps. Mobility maps of rural people based on socio-economic aspects, gender, age groups and other criteria can indicate the nature of work, wealth, interaction with
14 outside world and interaction within communities and with other communities in a village. It shows the degree of mobility of rural groups and communities and importance of different areas in terms of their different activities. It also indicates location-specific activity profile. Pie Diagram Pie diagrams or pie charts indicate parts of a whole in proportional terms. It can show the use of land, water, credit and patterns of income, consumption and expenditure, sources of debt, medicines, kinds of trees etc. in lives of rural people. It shows that the proportion of land used for agriculture differs from season to season depending on the climate, availability of water and the nature of crops grown. Pie diagrams show the importance of relative items in the lives of rural people. In this case, the proportion of land used for agriculture also indicates the seasonal hardship of the farmer in terms of livelihood. Livelihood Analysis One application of pie diagram can be for analyzing livelihood through the help of pie-charts. This depicts the behavior and adjustment strategies of households with different socio-economic characteristics. Each household has strategies to copy with difficult situations which arise from time to time. Such analysis can account for the size of the household, age and gender composition, wealth, assets, livestock, income and expenditure patter, debt pattern, consumption pattern, seasonality, income by sources, disease and social obligations.
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CHAPTER 2
2. Literature Review
Hocking, (1958) wrote a series of papers in medicinal plants of Pakistan and included some information on Balochistan. Ahmed (1956) listed 356 medicinal plants found in Pakistan, with their vernacular names and medicinal uses. Noy-Meir (1973) observed that unpredictable and highly variable amounts of precipitation in arid ecosystems are limiting to primary plant productivity. However when water is available, the productivity may be influenced or limited by other factors such as soil and air temperature, herbivory, microflora activity and soil nutrient availability. Zaman and Khan (1970) listed 100 drug plants of West Pakistan. Ikram and Hussain (1978) presented a checklist of 171 medicinal plants, their part(s) used, local names. Ettershank et al., (1978); West and Skujins (1978); Sharifi et al., (1990) suggested that nitrogen is generally considered to be the second most important factor limiting growth in warm desert ecosystem and play a major role in determining productivity under conditions of adequate water supplies. Beadle and Tchan (1955) concluded that nitrogen is most limiting factor of arid and semi-arid regions of the world. Other factors such as phosphorus interact and confound the relation between available nitrogen status and growth, because nitrogen, primary control over the fertility of the soil, biological mechanism responsible for nitrogen fixation are controlled by available soil moisture and it is strongly correlated with climate. Mooney et al., (1981); Egli and Schmid (1999) observed the effect of leaf age on leaf nitrogen content with younger leaves having high nitrogen contents than older ones. Koniak and Everet (1982) found that species diversity tended to decrease from grass-forb, shrub-tree, tree-shrub to tree dominated sites. Detecting no change in diversity may be a result of seeds that persist for long periods of time in the seed bank. Kartha (1985) assumed that the meristem have a significant place in domain of plant tissue culture due to its role in clonal propagation as well as in the production of virus free plants. Moreover it is less differentiated and genetically more stable which makes it ideal system for germplasm preservation.
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Lande (1988) have questioned the relative importance of genetic information, stating that ecological or demographic issues may be more pressing molecular markers have become part of a repertoire of tools needed to assess the amount of genetic variation in populations of endangered species and to address the ever-increasing loss of biodiversity. Van der Valk and Peterson (1989) reviewed the possibility of exploiting seed banks for management purposes (including restoration) and made three simple but important points. First, if management is to be successful, the seeds of desired species must be present in the seed bank. Second, undesirable species should be in low abundance and third, the proper environmental conditions for successful germination and establishment of desired species should be met. Walser et al., (1990) observed that temperate zone woody plants have the ability to acclimatize during the fall season and thus withstand extremely cold winter temperatures. Smith and Smith (1989) concluded that aridity, cold temperature, short growing season, long periods of drought and low nutrient supply favor shrubs. In certain environments shrubs have many advantages. Shrubs invest less energy and nutrients in above ground parts than trees. Their structural modifications improve light interception, heat dissipation, and evaporation. The multi stemmed forms of shrubs influence interception of moisture and stem flow, increasing or decreasing infiltration in to the soil, because most shrubs can get their roots down quickly and form extensive root systems, they use moisture deep in the soil. This feature gives them a competitive advantage over trees and grasses Smith and Smith (1989). Ueckert (1985) suggested that many of the shrubs that were valuable as fodder for livestock and for wildlife are almost eliminated in many areas by continuous yearlong grazing by cattle, sheep and goat. Therefore, the shrubs are suitable, because they produce more biomass than other plant groups such as annual and perennial grasses during periods of environmental stress, the level of production may not be sufficient to sustain a consistently high level of uses. Martinez (1992) reported 50 plants used by the rural community of the Distrio Federal, San Lorenzo Acoplic, Cuajimalpa, Mexico. Medicinal and food sources were commonest uses.
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Schemske et al., (1994) have questioned the relative importance of genetic information, stating that ecological or demographic issues may be more pressing molecular markers have become part of a repertoire of tools needed to assess the amount of genetic variation in populations of endangered species and to address the ever- increasing loss of biodiversity. Al-Jaloud et al., (1994) mentioned that the phosphorus content of plant tissue declines with increasing maturity, and the rate and extent of decline varies with species. Davis et al., (1995) obtained the information on traditional veterinary medicines and practices from interviews with Pashton Nomades (Koochi) refugees (17 women and 18 men) from Afghanistan and in around Quetta in Pakistan in 1992. The main animal diseases encountered and medicines to treat them were listed. Mash (1995) reported 65 plants (including tree species) used by tribal and forest dwellers in Madhya Pradesh. Thirty three species used as edible, 8 species as oil and oil seed producing plants; 10 species for gums, resins; 6 species as dye plants; 10 species used for cordage and basketry; and 8 species associated with socio-religious ceremonies. Ravishankar (1995) discussed the ethnobotany of India with regard to the tribal people’s knowledge of the edible, medicinal, fodder and agricultural value of forest plants. Flores and Vermont (1996) conducted an ethonobotanical survey among traditional communities of the Yucatan peninsula region of Mexico and also in Guatemala and El Salvador. Two hundred and seventy four species were listed as medicinal and only exudates of 48 species were used to cure human affections. Johnston and Colquhhoun (1996) carried out a preliminary assessment of the utilization of forest plant species within an American community at Kurupukari, Guyana. One hundred and twenty species of 46 plant families covering 264 different uses were identified, 64 species for medicinal, 53 for ethnological, 43 edible, 20 for timber, 14 for construction and species with miscellaneous uses. Jovel et al., (1996) documented 60 plant species used for medicinal purposes among the Mestizo people of Suni Mirano. Some cultural data on traditional healing and ethiology were also collected.
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Longuefosse and Nossin (1996) carried out ethnobotanical survey amongst the population of Martinique. About 100 people (average age 69, 80% were women) were interviewed and 261 plants were reported as medicinal plants to be used for particular diseases. Shinwari and Shah (1996) carried out an ethnobotanical survey of Kharan district of Balochistan province. They reported 171 species of Angiosperm belonging to 130 genera and 44 families. Among these 26 species had medicinal importance, 27 species as food and house making purposes. Ten wild species as fodder while 44 common weeds of various crops identified. Boruah et al., (1997) reported four species of edible, fleshy fungi used by local people of NE Index. Calvaria coiner, C.aura were collected from Nongpoh (Meghalaya) while Lepidium procera & Termitomyces robustus were collected from Charaibahi areas. Figueireds et al., (1997) worked on the ethnobotany of the community Calhas Beach Jaguram Island, during which 42 adults were interviewed. They observed that old islander had deeper knowledge of medicinal plants than younger. Gupta et al., (1997) carried out a medico-ethnobotanical survey among the inhabitants of Padera forest (Andra Pradesh, India). They reported 16 plants, which were used in medicine. Gurib et al., (1997) carried out a survey of the medicinal plants of Mauritius. Healers and lay people who use medicinal plants were interviewed. Four hundred and sixty one plants were identified and listed in alphabetically order of Latin name, vernacular name, parts used, medicinal properties/diseases treated and chemical constituents. Pal and Jain (1998) carried out an ethnobotanical survey among the following ethnic groups; Lodha, Munda, Oraon and Santal. They documented 343 tribal medicinal plants (Latin name, common name, tribal name, morphology, flowering & fruiting periods and distribution) and >2000 prescriptions, for prevention and treatments of ailments and diseases of human and pets. They described the uses of plants as a source of narcotics, hallucinogens, beverages, poisons, pesticides and in storage of grain.
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Reddy et al., (1998) conducted an ethnobotanical survey on plants used for veterinary purposes, during 1998-96 in Andhra Prasdesh, India. Both tribal and non-tribal peoples were interviewed. Forty-eight medicinal plants were tabulated with Latin, family and vernacular names, part(s) used, preparation/administration and medicinal uses. Roodt (1998) reported the medicinal uses and nutritional value of the trees and shrubs of the Okavango delta. The species included are all indigenous and were chosen because of their abundance, unique appearance or economic, spiritual or medicinal importance. Singh and Pandy (1998) described 610 plant species from Rajastan, India as: botanical and local names, plant morphology and habitat, distribution and tribal uses (medicine, food, timber, fodder, firewood, tannin, dye, oil, fiber, alcohol, gum, resin and religious uses). Information was also provided on plants mentioned in folk songs and proverbs or used as landmarks or in musical instruments as well as those associated with superstitious. Adams (1999) explained that the most surprising aspect of his research has been the divergences of morphologically near-identical taxa in their terpenoids and DNA fingerprints. He showed that even species separated by minute morphological character differences possess considerable terpenoid and DNA differences, which suggest that evolution proceeds at different rates for different character sets Khan (1999) reported 22 genera belonging to 15 families from Chindwara district (M.P.) India. Many of the medicinal plants were most frequently used by the locals for diseases such as bleeding piles, kidney stone, malaria, diarrhea and abscess. Chambers et al., (1999) reviewed the reproductive ecology, seed dispersal, post- dispersal seed mortality, seed dormancy, seed germination requirements, and seedling establishment of pinyon and juniper species of the western US. Included were seed and seedling fate diagrams that helpedto put seed bank dynamics into perspective. Further research in this direction would significantly advance the knowledge base and modeling capacity of the field of vegetation science. Shinwari and Khan (1999) described the multiple dimensions of ethnobotany and its present status in Pakistan.
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Savelkoul et al., (1999) concluded AFLP a promising tool in providing a very large number of polymorphic markers with a very fast and relative simple laboratory work Mueller and P.H.M. (1999) Concluded AFLP is an effective tool and large no of polymorphic bands can be easily obtained using this tool. Hsiang and Huang (2000) used Random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers to assess differences among Juniper and Cedar cultivars. Gitzendanner and Soltis (2000) predicted the amount of genetic variability in plant species on the basis of their distribution is often not reliable, since some endemic species exhibit equivalent or higher levels of diversity compared to their more widely distributed congeners.
Osem et al., (2006) examined the effects of grazing on the similarity between species in the seed bank versus established vegetation. Peak-standing biomass of annuals was used as a measure of annual productivity. They concluded that at low levels of net primary productivity (as measured by peak standing biomass) where soil water and nutrients are limiting, the relationship between seed bank to standing vegetation similarity is positive. At high levels of net primary productivity, where space and light are limiting, the reverse is true. Above this range soil resource availability is no longer the factor limiting plant density. It was hypothesized that grazing encouraged recruitment from the seed bank 6 by diminishing vegetation cover and litter accumulation that could constrain germination, seedling emergence, and plant survival. Allen & Nowak (2008) found that seed bank density and species diversity did not differ between high, medium, and low Pinus monophylla/Juniperus osteospermac over treatments. This is in agreement with second year findings. Reasons for the disparity between these studies are unclear. Site dissimilarity and temporal variation in seed crops related to climatic conditions are possibilities. Avise (2008) have questioned the relative importance of genetic information, stating that ecological or demographic issues may be more pressing molecular markers have become part of a repertoire of tools needed to assess the amount of genetic variation in populations of endangered species and to address the ever-increasing loss of biodiversity.
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Atta et al., (2010) reported Juniperus excelsa (DC.) M. Bieb. (Cupressaceae) is long-lived tree that provides many benefitsto regional ecosystems and local economies of surrounding communities. However, relatively little isknown about the insects, diseases and other factors that affect the health and productivity of Juniperforests in Ziarat district of Balochistan Province, Pakistan. Derwich et al., (2010) reported medicinal value and effectiveness of Juniperus specie against many bacteria. In this study, the essential oils of J. phoenicea collected from Atlas median in the region of Boulmane (Morocco) were obtained by hydro- distillation of the aerial parts and analysed by gas chromatography equipped with flame ionisation detector (GC-FID) and gas chromatography coupled to a mass spectrometry system (GC/MS) for their chemical composition. Their antibacterial activity was studied in vitro on seven bacterial strains: Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Staph. intermedius, Klebsiella pneumonia, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus subtilis and Streptococcus mutans. Twenty tree compounds were identified in leaves oil representing 81.87% of the total oil composition. Douaihy et al., (2011) reported high levels of genetic diversity at species and population levels in the high-mountain Lebanese Juniperus excelsa populations. Biodiversity assessment is an important first step to evaluate the health of an ecosystem and develop management and conservation measures. This comprehensive biodiversity study covers evaluation of diversity of species, ecosystem, and genes. Study is performed in Zarghoon area of Balochistan, Pakistan. Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) type approach is used to assess the socio-economic conditions in the study area and to document the medicinal use of juniper ecosystem. Genetic variation of Juniperus excela is evaluated using DNA technique. The novelty of this research stems from the fact that it is the first attempt to perform genetic analysis in the study area. The issue of presence of impurities in the DNA is addressed using a novel technique to isolate pure DNA.
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Aims and Objectives The aim of the study is to bring sustainable utilization of natural resource. The core objectives of the proposed research work are as under:
Information collection with different stakeholders through Participatory Rural Information (PRA) for identification and role of traditional believes in conservation, economic, medicinal and traditional use of common trees and shrubs.
Collection and preservation of Common trees and shrubs for identification in need of urgent conservation by using Ethno botanical knowledge and placing recommendations.
Nutrient concentration in soil and rain water and physical parameters like stream conductivity, dissolved oxygen percentage and temperature of different watershed will be analyzed to observe the effect of deforestation.
The first ever attempt to analyze DNA in this area, DNA extraction, and use of Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) amplifications and using microsatellites to assess the genetic variability due to climate change between populations and within population of (Key ecosystem species Juniperus excela).
Assessing impact of soil physical and chemical characteristics to observe its correlation floristic diversity and genetic diversity.
Observing the impact of ecological factors and possibly the climate change depending upon the obtainable flair on the genetic diversity and genetic relationship of the traditional use of common trees and shrubs. Overall, this research work will be helpful in understanding the ethnobotanical information, first ever gene diversity in Zarghoon ecosystem and conservation problems of the world’s unique ecosystem known and associated common trees and shrubs, medicinal plants in Zarghoon. The current study will also invoke awareness concerning the importance of all three aspects of biodiversity.
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CHAPTER 3
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Questionnaires:
Two categories of Opinion polls (Questionnaires, Appendices-A&B) were established. (i) To assemble information relating to the information about the usage plants of the area. (ii) To amass socio-economic facts and figures of the region. Every single determination was made to articulate a comprehensive easy going, and efficient questionnaires which were pre tested for the exploration. The motivation of designing the Questionnaires was to discover the factual conceivable depiction of the ethnobotanical study and socio-economic situations and livelihood configuration of Zarghoon Juniper Eco system. The first Questionnaire was completed through discussions and dialogues and the second Questionnaire was filled by the researcher through conducting calisthenics (like Social Map, Pie Chart) of PRA in community consultation. Meetings with local communities both male and female separately were conducted and PRA tool carried out using charts and markers.
3.2. The Participatory Rapid/Rural Appraisal (PRA)-type, Participatory Appraisal of Natural Resources (PANR):
The Participatory Rapid/Rural Appraisal (PRA)-type, Participatory Appraisal of Natural Resources (PANR) was used for ethnobotanical study of Juniper Zarghoon Forest.
3.3. PRA Tools Applied:
The contemporary study was heading to scrutinize the cultural traits, livelihood arrangement and people behavior towards plants by means of different tools like questionnaires, social map, semi structured interviews (SSI), focus group discussions (FGDs) etc. of famous data gathering technique entitled participatory rural appraisal (PRA), and PANR. The use of tools was initiated to assess insight of different aspects of medicinal plants use and socio economic influence on them. The team of six members
24 comprised of both male and female. The notables were communicated to acquire the access point. There are 17 villages in Zarghoon area and five constellations were prepared each representing community members from 3 villages. PRA was conducted in five villages named Killi Tor Shore, Medadzai, Ghunda, Sabozai and Killi Shaban each as central place of five clusters comprised of total 17 villages in Zarghoon Juniper ecosystem. Enthobotanical information was collected from various villages of the Zarghoon, elders and key informants were met from whom enquired the information about which the local people were accustomed with the traditional uses of wild plants for ethnobotanical initiatives. Various native therapists were interviewed in this regard.
3.4. Plants Utilizations:
This ethnobotanical study was applied to prioritize the medicinal plants in need of crucial conservation by using Ethno botanical knowledge and assigning recommendations.
3.5. Ecological Aspects:
In Juniper forest surrounding five villages a total of 15 plots each of 2 acre at the rate of 3 plots per forest locality were positioned indiscriminately. In each and every plot the density of mature trees, the individual ground cover of new regeneration seedlings up to the height of 5 inches and old regeneration saplings up to 5ft were measured, (DBH) Diameter at breast height, and manmade deforestation of mature trees was documented. Average ground cover percentages of Old and New Regeneration, sex ratio were calculated for each location. Deforestation was calculated by counting the number of stumps present in each plot.
3.6. Location:
Ten stands occupying comparatively undisturbed area of Zarghun Juniper ecosystem were premeditated. Around the study area 10 stands were sampled using Point Central Quarter method of (Cottam & Curtis, 1956) for juniper tree population while Circular plot method (1.5 m radius) was used for sampling of the associated vegetation. At each stands 15 points were taken at 30 meter intervals along transect in a stratified
25 random way over an area of at least 3 ha (Ogden & Powell, 1979). GPS was use to record elevation, position of stands, and aspect while degree of slope was recorded by the help of slope meter. Plot sampling quadrate Pol= number of stands in which species occur, RF2 Mean relative frequency with standard deviation, FR3=Range of relative values were calculated.
3.7. Vegetation Study:
After reconnaissance, regular field trips were organized throughout harvest season. Plants specimens of common trees and shrubs were collected and their uses by the local inhabitants were inquired. Later on, these specimens were identified as Identification of plants was confirmed by Flora of Pakistan (Nasir & Ali, 1970-1979, 1980-1989; Ali & Nasir, 1989-1992 and Ali & Qaiser, 1993-2009). Subsequently, deposited in the Herbarium Botany Department, University of Balochistan, Quetta. Interviews of 120 informants including local inhabitants, and Pansaries (local herbalists)were conducted on random bases. Questionnaires were implemented for interviews. The outcome of the results were rechecked and compared with literature. Analysis of the data was carried out and indigenous knowledge was documented. The data were coded, categorized and fed in computer and analyzed using computer software packages MS Excel and SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Science) 11.5 versions. Quantitative data were analyzed by simple statistical tools such as frequency, mean, percentage, standard deviation and range and qualitative data information and attitudes were analyzed by ordering, ranking with descriptive manner. The impacts of various socio-economic factors such as education status, ethnicity, and land holding size, number of livestock and source of income on the diversity of farm trees were analyzed by using SPSS. The results are presented through text, Tables and Figures with interpretation accordingly.
3.8. Soil Analysis
Three soil samples from each location of five habitats were collected at 0-25cm depth and evaluated for their physical and chemical characters. Samples were dried, sieved and soaked paste were prepared with distill water and filtered, filtrate were used.
26 pH of soil saturated paste was used by using glass electrode (pH 3305 Jenway). Soil texture was calculated by hydrometer (Bouyoucos, 1962). NPK concentrations were measured by using Hanna Quick pH/NPK Soil Test Kit.
3.9. Statistical Analysis
Result were expressed in means and standard error of means (Means ±SEM). Mean value and standard deviation of elemental concentrations and other treatments were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA). Level of significance was checked at 0.05 levels. Data was recorded in pre-designed performas for each plot independently and subjected to statistical analysis ANOVA by using SPSS (Appendix-C).
3.10. Gene Diversity:
DNA Isolation Protocol Fresh Leaf samples were used for DNA isolation by the modified PVP method (Duffy, 2009) sowing to its appropriateness to Juniperous excelsa. 8g of leaf sample from each tree were pulverized in liquid nitrogen and grinded using pestle and mortar. 8 ml of CTAB was added then mixed with 20ml extraction buffer containing PVP and (300 m M NaCl, 30 mM EDTA, 0.5% SDS, 250 mM Tris–HCl pH 8.0). 1.5ml eppendorf tubes were filled with it and mixed by vortex and incubated for 1hour at 60°C.and centrifuged at 12,000 rpm for 15 min at RT (room temperature). The decantation of supernatant was carried out carefully and it was poured into new eppendorf tube using micropipettes. add 700microliter(µl) of Phenol: Chloroform: Isoamlealcohol (PCI:25:24:1, v/v/v) in each tube to precipitate DNA and mixed the solution using vortex and centrifuge for 15min at 12000 rpm on -4°C. Repeated the PCI precipitation once again. That turned the color of pellet from brown to white and removed waste from DNA. Then took supernatant into empty tubes and added twice the volume of sodium acetate and kept overnight at -20°C. Next day centrifuged the tubes for 10min at 12000rpm on-4°C. The pellet was then washed with 70% ethanol and air dried. Later on added 30 µl deionized water in each tube and kept at -20°C.
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Basic Modified Method of Gel Electrophoresis The DNA was ready for gel electrophoresis. The TBE solution was prepared and 40ml of 0.5X TBE was taken in a conical flask of 50ml. 1% Agarose powder (0.4gm) was added and heated in oven for 2min. Ethedium bromide (3µl) was added. DNA concentration and purity was determined by running the samples on agarose gel and nucleic acid concentration was calculated following (Sambrook et al., 1989), but modified according to the nature of species used. The modifications included the change of agarose percentage at 1% instead of 0.7%. The amount of DNA used in previous methods revealed two problems high amount of DNA loaded appeared to run fast and size appeared wrong whereas, DNA loaded in small amount was not visible and bands were indistinct. Therefore, the amount of DNA loaded on gel was changed and took around 5 (µl). The loading buffer gave color and density to the sample, when added 1.5µl of Bromophenol blue (dye) to load into the wells with ease. The dyes and DNA moved from positive to negative charge that allowed monitoring the progress of the gel. Finally the accurate voltage was established to be 85- 100 V for 25 min. below or above the mentioned range of voltage and time gel electrophoresis of this species of this meticulous region was not possible. Gel was visualized under UV light in gel documentation and quality and quantity was estimated. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) amplification with given quantity, Time, activity and temperature of Genomic DNA initiated in PCR amplifier done (Tables. 1-2).
Table 1. Quantity of Buffer extraction used for PCR amplification. S.No. Reagents Quantity Concentration 1 DNA (Sample) 1 L 50ng / L 2 PCR Buffer 2.5 L 10X
3 MgCl2 2.5 L 25mM / L 4 dNTPs 2.5 L 2.5mM / L 5 Forward Primer 1 L (Each) 10 mM / L 6 Reverse Primer 1 L (Each) 10mM / L 7 Taq Polymerase 0.1 L 5U / L 8 Deionized Water 14.9 L NIL
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Table 2. Time, activity and temperature of Genomic DNA initiated in PCR amplifier S.No. Activity Time Temperature 1 Initial Denaturation 4 min 95°C 2 Denaturation 30 Sec 94°C 3 Annealing 45Sec 37°C 4 Extention 45Sec 72°C 5 Final Extention 10 min 72°C 6 Store ∞ 4°C
Nuclear simple Sequence Repeat markers (nSSR) markers Jc016, Jc031, Jc032, Jc35, Jc37, and Jc166 (Michalczyk et al., 2006) were used to analyze polymorphism in J. excelsa, these markers were formerly established for J. communis. Jc016 did not exhibit any polymorphic bands for J. excelsa while the rest of four showed significant polymorphism when adapted for J. excelsa.PCR products were genotyped with ABI prism 3130xl genetic analyzer. Statistical analysis for calculation of observed and expected number of alleles, alleles frequency, expected and observed heterozygosity, expected and observed homozygosity, F- statistics, dendrogram based on Nei’s genetic distances using UPGMA and Polymorphic Information Content (PIC) was carried out by using software “POPGENE 3.31 & POWER STAT”.
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CHAPTER 4
4. Results and Discussions
4.1. Ethnobotanical Aspects:
The use of Participatory Rapid/Rural Appraisal (PRA)-type, Participatory Appraisal of Natural Resources (PANR) resulted given results of Juniper Zarghoon Forest. In addition, two categories of questionnaires (Appendices-A&B) were also used. The native community of the area belongs to the tribe Dommar, distributed into 2 sub tribes of Shabozai and Nethozai which are further alienated into five coteries of Daywarzai, Nokerzai, Paozai, Barazai & Sirkosy and two clans of Daulatzai, & Sutrani respectively. Each tribe is further divided into families or sub tribes like Barazai into four families of Sammerzai, Dadu, Jangi & Barai, Naukarzai into four families of Pakarzai, Shawazai, Ghaibizai & Dalian, Piozai into three families of Piozai, Mirzagai & Sulernanzai, Daywarzai into seven families of Shobazai, Haibatzai, Umerzai, Akhterzai, Sheikhan, Boragai, & Khaddar khail Sardar is head of the area, while each clan is commanded by a Malik.Sheikhan, the secular frontrunners are also inherent in the area and have certain rights in the forests and land resources. The noticeable Sardars and Maliks of different sub tribes in the area are Malik Essa & Sardar Tariq of Piozai tribe, Sardar Sawal Khan of Barazai trib, Malik Pakar, Malik Haji Muhammad Akbar Khan & Malik Adam of Naukarzai tribe, Malik Sahib Khan of Daywarzai tribe and Malik Doosmal of Daulatzai tribe. About 55 years ago, a few families, belonging to Sooren Khel, Bandazai and Naseer tribes migrated in and got settled in Zarghoon Garh. They purchased some land from Dommar tribe. They procured some property from Dommar tribe. They are called Kharootis. Although the Kharootis have properties in Zarghoon Ghah (Mountain) yet have no rights in the forests and communal lands. Origin: During the 14th century, Dommar tribe was forced to migrate from Central Asia and Afghanistan. They got settled in Zarghoon Garh. According to their history they fought against Mughals and defeated them.
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Population: More than 20,000 people live in the Zarghoon area in 640 households distributed over 17 Villages (Killis). Average household size is 15.6 with 5 as minimum while 60 maximum. Prominent villages are Killi Tor Shore, Killi Shaban, Killi Tariq Abad, Killi Bridge, Killi Sarki Kach, Killi Kar Kana, Killi Loi Zawar, Kill Shahabzai, Killi Dillow, Killi Soi Khan, Killi Sarobai, Killi Dalwani, Killi Kharotan, Killi Jilgah, Killi Sarkosy and Killi Kala Ragha. The community is semi nomadic in nature. During the heavy snow fall season, the road becomes blocked disturbing the supply of food stuff. Food for livestock also grows limited and survival turnout to be difficult. Maximum people thus migrate to warm places in Hernai and Sibi along with their livestock. Migration, since a local tradition, is socially accepted and is also good ecologically as the pressure on the upland pastures decreases, which ensures accessibility of some food to the local wildlife species. In the late spring the people arrive back along with their livestock and reach upper pastures for grazing their livestock. Some families are perpetually established in the area specifically those who have no or limited livestock. They do not migrate to other places in winter. Social amenities (Health, Electricity, Roads): Zarghoon is linked with Quetta by a grime road. The road construction was started in 1995 by the Pakistan Army as a consequence of an agreement between Army and local communities. This road links 12 villages, out of 17 to the main road. According to the agreement, 5500 acres of Guzara forest land has been handed over to the army in lieu of the road facility. The contract does not confine the Pakistan Army to any definite use of the road. Although three primary school buildings exist in Killi Tor Shor. Killi Ullah and Killi Sirki Kach, but none has a teacher to teach. A small number of families can manage to pay for education for their children exterior the valley. The literacy rate is thus awfully low, and reckons below 5% for males and 1% for females. Health facilities are not available in the entire Zarghoon area. A dispensary building is being constructed in Killi Tor Shor, nevertheless there is no dispenser or health attendant to work yet. There is no lady health visitor obtainable in the valley to provide
31 basic support to expecting women. Because of poverty, and its inaccessibility, inadequate number of people can afford to take their women to hospitals in Quetta. Women Status: In Zarghoon Garh women are not only responsible to take care to household activities including child care but also require assisting their men in various agriculture practices and livestock tending. Apparently Women have no say in family decisions and have diminutive awareness concerning their environment. However, it is believed that some of them have tremendous knowledge about various medicinal plants and their uses. Religion, Traditions, Culture and Disputes: The local communities of Zarghoon Range are Muslims. They wear Shalwar Kamez, waist coat and Turban. More than 90% of local communities are Pashtoon. Speaking Pushto while the rest belong to a Baloch tribe speaking Brahvi. Marriages within own family is a routine except in cases where parents see an attractive future for their sons/daughters. The bride's father takes a dowry in range of Rs.30, 000 to Rs.200, 000 depending upon the financial status of the bridegroom's family. A lunch is offered to the community members by the bridegroom's family. The community has a joint family system. The local community of Zaghoon Garh is very hospitable. According to their traditions they provide protection to people, who have any family problem elsewhere and wish to seek refuge in Zarghoon to escape any revenge, including murder. There are no big tribal disputes in the area amongst the Dummar tribe as is the case in other tribal areas of provinces Balochistan & Khyber Pakhtonkua (KPK). Occasional or accidental disputes arise among the local community, mostly on rights and ownership of land, livestock grazing areas and wood collection. Like other tribal areas in Pakistan, the people of Zarghoon get their disputes settled in general meetings headed by the Chief of the area, called Maliks and Sardars. These meetings are known as Jirgah in a tribal Society. If the Jirgah fails to reach a decision for the dispute, the matter is then taken to the civil courts. However, this is quite rare the people of Zarghoon are quite peaceful. Ownership: Almost each family of Dummar tribe own land within and around the Zarghoon mountain range. The low lands are being owned individually or by families while rights
32 exist for all in the forests to graze their livestock and collect fuel wood. Based on the information, collected from the local people, the following tribes have ownership and rights in the area:
Daywrzar tribe own land at Valla. Barzai tribe own land at Tore Shore. Daulatzai tribe own land at Ghauri, Baranai, Karkarah, Nargasai, Shahmir, Chalak, Howt, Tal, Maghzai. Naukarzai tribe own land at Shaban, Sirki Katch. Paiozai tribe own land at Tore Shore and Shakai. Moreover, the entire tribe owns a communal agricultural land in 'Sarobi" which is rain fed. Wheat is normally grown here. In addition to it, they also have rights in the areas of Margat, Ozghar, Ghaibi Garh, Watch kan, Lound, Lakari, Sinzlai, Tarangah, Hassan Khan, Maghzai and Bukh. The communal lands in the foot hills of Zarghoon Garh have not yet been settled and distributed among the individual community members. This is because of some minor disputes on the ownership and, secondly, for no urgent need for land. Existing Rights: An area of 28,956 acres of Zarghoon was declared reserved in 1890 and 34,430 acres of Tor Shor notified in 1911 through an agreement with the local community. However, the community was allowed to continue exercising their rights of grazing and dry wood collection. According to a rough estimate, Zarghoon range is spread to the north south for about 50 Km. and to the east west for about 100 km. Local community have rights to graze livestock in 1/3 of the area and collect dry wood and leaves for their use. The Balochistan Forest Department is responsible for the protection of forests in Zarghoon which is done through four forest guards who belong to local community. The forest Guards are allowed, in addition to their salary; to also graze their livestock from May till the snow fall season. According to the provisions of the Balochistan Forest Act, tree cutting in reserved forest of Zarghoon is not allowed, nonetheless due to several reasons, these rules and
33 regulations of the Forest Act are not being implemented properly. Green trees are still cut down by the local communities to fulfill their cooking and heating needs. The forests are not being protected properly. People still cut a large number of trees to meet their domestic demands for fuel wood. Commercial logging is also going on. There are a few forest patches which are quite unharmed and support decent forest cover. These sites are known as Oblun, Rode, Narai, Shero Gaza, Lanai, Shakai, Girgai, Shaban, Halq, Sui Khan, Baranai and Koch. Livestock: About 17,000 animals including goats, sheep, cows and donkeys are present in the area. Local communities meet their demand of milk products from their livestock. They keep donkeys and pack animals (for bringing fuel wood from forest and wheat from the nearest town called Urak) and horse & camels as means of transportation. The local community also raises poultry to meet domestic needs. They sell their livestock to purchase the basic necessities for daily life. The prices range between Rs. 2,000-5,000 per sheep and Rs. 1,000-3,000 per goat. In addition to getting food and cash from livestock, they also get wool from their sheep and goats. Average production of wool is about 3 kilograms per sheep, which is sold in Quetta market for 25-30 per kilogram. Range lands are communal property which is divided among various clans of the area. For identification individual clan property geographical boundaries are used. There is no restriction on livestock grazing in the Guzara forest. The nomads graze their livestock during their migration in summer and winter on their way to Sibi and Quetta, respectively. This puts extra burden on the range lands and forests of the area. However in reserved forests grazing is not allowed from May until onset of show fall. Average livestock mortality from various diseases is estimated at about 11% per year. Common diseases of livestock in the area are throat soar, foot & mouth diseases, worms and diarrhea. In addition to diseases, some animals are killed by predators, mainly wolves, however, their exact number is not known. The Zarghoon Juniper Forests The Zarghoon and Tor Shor forests, with an area of 28,956 acres and 34430 acres, correspondingly were acknowledged reserved between 1890 and 1911. In Zarghoon reserved forest grazing is allowed over an area of 5,500 acres and in Tor Shor reserved
34 forests, it is allowed over 1/3rd of the total area from May till onset of snow fall. For protection purposed the Forest department has prearranged 4 forest guards, who are indigenous and are frequently blamed for being involved in the cutting of forests from Reserved Forest, apparently for making money. Details on the biodiversity resources and related issues are given in the following sections. Uses of Juniper Tree’s Wood by the Community” In all the five clusters Killi Tor Shor (KTS), Medadzai (M), Gunda (G), Sarobai (S) and Killi Shaban (KS) information collected through PRA-type PANR on the Juniper forest wood products consumption by the local communities by using different tools. The data clearly indicate that community consumption of the wood products is way too much than the regeneration capacity of the forest and the situation is further aggravated by the smuggling of the juniper wood and natural and other anthropogenic changes in the environment. The data on forest wood products was collected by using PRA technique of Focal Group discussion (FGDs) and a group of 20 persons from each village were selected and a discussion was generated separately in each village on the consumption of wood. A large proportion of community population i.e. 56% used forest wood for fuel, and it is obtained in different forms for instance; by cutting the stems or branches. 28% for timber, 11 % of the local population uses the tree bark of the Juniper trees that make the trees vulnerable to diseases and death ultimately. Another use of Juniper trees is for making the fencing material around the cultivated area and 5% of population (farmers). The data clearly shows the dependency of the poor community on the forest resources which are overexploited by the communities as the poor and uneducated communities of the area are unaware of the importance of the forest for their own livelihood in future.
35
5% 11% 28%
56%
Timber Fuel wood Bark Fencing material
Fig 2. Pie Chart Showing "Percentage of Different Uses of Juniper Tree’s Wood by the Community” PRA also revealed that in Juniper tract four plant species, Juniperus excelsa, Caragna ambigua, Berberis balochistanica, Sophora mollis andSeriphidium stenocephalumbelonging to four families are conventionally utilized as fuel wood by the local inhabitants (Table 3.) Among these five plant species Juniper is used as most abundantly utilized species during all four seasons of the year. The data of fuel wood consumption collected from five clusters and each cluster shoed different data than other.
Table 3. Priority of local community using plant species as fuel wood in Zarghoon Juniper forest S.No. Scientific Name Vernacular Existence Tendency Name 1 Juniperus excelsa Obusht Abundance Top Priority 2 Caragna ambigua Makhai Abundance Second Priority 3 Berberis baluchistanica Zarlog Less abundance Second priority 4 Seriphidium stenocephalum Tarkha Abundance Along with other wood 5 Sophora mollis Ghuzera Abundence Second priority Grazing is one of the major factors in the area that is responsible for decrease in regeneration %age. In the study local community is dependent on the forest for feeding their livestock. According to PRA study made in the area the livestock are grazed on the forest rangeland for about 7-8 months in a year. Individual number of sheep, goats, cattle
36 and donkeys is as in the pie chart below.Sheep make the dominant livestock population of 23%, donkey and cattle 2% and goat population is 75%.
Livestock Population
Donkey, 2% Sheep, 23%
Goat, 75%
Fig 3. Livestock population in Zarghoon Ecosystem owned by local communities
Socioeconomic Findings by Using Participatory Rural Appraisal(P.R.A.): Results revealed during PRA and using village level questionnaire (Appendix-A) revealed that more than 20000 people live in the Zarghoon area in around 2200 households comprised of 17 villages. People live in joint families in large compound and each compound having in an average 4 households. The community is deprived of basic requirements of life like, clean drinking water, gas for energy in winter, health facilities, telephone, educational institutes etc. The community is totally dependent on the forest for their different needs.
The community is mostly dependent on the medicinal plants and berries of juniper for treatment of diseases as the allopathic medicines are mostly unavailable and poor communities are not capable of taking patients to other cities for proper medical treatment. The major source of income is agriculture but only few people are land owners most of the farmers are tenants. In an average 50%, 33%, 11% and 6% people have
37 livelihood of agriculture, livestock, services and trade respectively.
6% 11% 50% 33%
Agriculture livestock Services Trade
Fig 4. Average Income sources of the community in percentage The information collected PRA indicates that the community consumption of the wood products is way too much than the regeneration capacity of the forest and the situation is further aggravated by the smuggling of the juniper wood and natural and other anthropogenic changes in the environment.
It is estimated through PRA studies that approximately 15000-18000 trees are used annually by the community; the amount of wood used per day is appx. 7000 kg. This figure will increase in future with the unchecked population growth in the area and increase in illegal log business. A large proportion of community used forest wood for fuel, by cutting the stems or branches. Many use the tree bark of the Juniper trees that make the trees vulnerable to diseases and death ultimately. Another use of Juniper trees is for making the fencing material around the cultivated area and poles.
Gender Centered Ethnobotanical Knowledge: The women have a major role in preserving the ethnobotanical knowledge about the local herbs and their usefulness, which is useful knowledge and a cultural and historical heritage (Fig. 5). But the alarming issue is that the local communities of the area consider the plant resources as limitless and they use the plants beyond their natural regeneration capacity. The communities are illiterate large in numbers and have no knowledge about
38 the importance of conserving the plant species by growing them domestically or commercially.
The community used the medicinal plants for treating some common illnesses like cough, cold, stomachache, pains etc in contrast some serious diseases like asthma , High Blood Pressure, Diabetes are also treated using the medicinal plants from the valley. The medicines were mostly known by old women of the family as they are held responsible for taking care of men and young ones. Overall 60% women while only 40% men had some ethno botanical knowledge.
100%
80%
60%
40%
20% %age of ethnobotanical %age of knowledge vs ignorance knowledge 0% Ignorant
Fig. 5. Bar Chart showing Percentage of Men/Women with respect to ethnobotanical Knowledge/ Ignorance
Mode of Administration of Different medicinal Preparations: The medicinal preparations (Fig. 6) are used variously by the community. They have this knowledge from their forefathers and use it in the same way. Mostly the plants preparations are five categories, like juice extracted from fresh plant parts (26%), Plants part applied as paste (38%), Powder from fresh or dried plants parts (18%), Fresh parts (7%) and decoction (11%). The external applications of plants parts mostly for wound,
39 skin diseases and snake bites, whereas internal application is inhalation and drinking juice.
40% 35% 30% 25% 20% 15% 10% 5% %age of different modes of plant uses 0% Pa Ju Po To De ste ice wd pic co er al ct ion
Fig. 6. Bar Chart showing %age of Different Routes of Administration
Livelihood Pattern of Local Community: The village level questionnaire (Appendix-A) shows that the community is deprived of basic requirements of life like, clean drinking water, gas for energy in winter, health facilities, telephone, educational institutes etc. The community is totally dependent on the forest for their different needs.
The community is mostly dependent on the medicinal plants and berries of juniper for treatment of diseases as the allopathic medicines are mostly unavailable and poor communities are not capable of taking patients to other cities for proper medical treatment. The major source of income is agriculture but only few people are land owners most of the farmers are tenants. In an average 50, 33, 11 and 6% people have livelihood of agriculture, livestock, services and trade respectively.
The information collected PRA indicates that the community consumption of the wood products is way too much than the regeneration capacity of the forest and the
40 situation is further aggravated by the smuggling of the juniper wood and natural and other anthropogenic changes in the environment.
It is estimated through PRA studies that approximately 15,000-18,000 trees are used annually by the community; the amount of wood used per day is appx. 7,000 kg. This figure will increase in future with the unchecked population growth in the area and increase in illegal log business. A large proportion of community used forest wood for fuel, by cutting the stems or branches. Many use the tree bark of the Juniper trees that make the trees vulnerable to diseases and death ultimately. Another use of Juniper trees is for making the fencing material around the cultivated area and poles.
This livelihood pattern survey was lucrative to probe about why younger generation lacks interest in indigenous knowledge of using medicinal plants to heal diseases. The root cause of their lack of interest is their tendency to migrate to cities for lucrative jobs. Therefore, wealth of indigenous knowledge is declining in this area.
Some medicinal plants used by local inhabitants for treatment of different diseases: The area is rich with medicinal plants and out of which many shrubs and trees were identified and discussed in this study. These plants fit in 20 genera and 13 families that are used by aboriginal people via indigenous knowledge they acquire for the treatment of many diseases. Information regarding different uses of plants collected through ethnobotanical questionnaire (Appendix-B).
60% 50% 40%
30%
plant uses 20%
10% %age of different modes of modes ofdifferent %age 0% Le Se Fl ro av ed ow ot es s er s
Fig. 7. Bar Chart representing percentages of different modes of plants
41
In case of parts of plants usage 57%, 26%, 10% and 7% leaves, seeds, flower and roots are used respectively. Local community using leaves more than any other part of the plants. When they were inquired about why leaves in excess are used as medicine. People replied, since it’s easy to access and huge amount availability compare to other parts. Leaves can be used alone or can be mixed with twigs, stems, and buds. The seeds of many plants used as medicine may be contained within a fruit or are sometimes used on their own. Juniper berries look like fruits but they are actually seeds surrounded by beautiful woody cones. The fleshy or woody roots are used for medicinal purposes. Roots may be solid, fibrous or fleshy and used by local people as medicines using their indigenous knowledge. It is inevitable to preserve the indigenous knowledge for sustainable utilization of natural resources.
In Zarghoon Ecosystem besides Juniperus excelsa, Pistacia atlantica subsp cabulica, Fraxinus xanthoxyloides are another two prominent trees. Juniperus excela: The family Cupressaceae entailing of 55 species of genus Juniperus, occurring all over the northern hemisphere of the world except Juniperus procera, which grows naturally in the southern hemisphere. In province Balochistan, J. excelsa has natural stands distributed between 20°9'N and 30°37'N and between 7°1'E,as well as in some isolated dry valleys. There are three spatially segregated pockets of Juniper forests, namely Zarghoon, Ziarat and Harboi (in districts Quetta, Ziarat, Harnai and Kalat respectively). J. excelsa forests sprawled in Balochistan has approximately 141,000 hectares (ha), the major portion i.e. 86,000 ha is found in Ziarat and Loralai districts. J. excelsa trees typically grow as pure stands, and form characteristically open and multistoried forests between elevations of 2000 to 3000 m (Sheikh, 1985). Juniper forest is evergreen or populated by conifers, which is a widespread low- density forest. This species is small tree and has a small leaf that has small spectral reflectance on multispectral band. High spatial resolution satellite imagery has capability to estimate tree density as one parameter for forest inventories. Juniper tree is largely acknowledged for its small establishment potential under the closed canopy of mature parent trees. Grazed and non-grazed forests express no difference in the abundance of
42 new and old regeneration (Taketay & Bekele, 1995; Frijis, 1992).Junipers can tolerate poor soils and can survive at extremely high and low temperatures in comparison to other forest trees. In addition, they are highly resistant and they are the last species that abandon areas in the process of deforestation (Pamay, 1955).
Fraxinus xanthoxyloides: The commonly known as wild ash or Quetta Ash the Fraxinus xanthoxyloides is, belongs to family Oleaceae and locally called as Shang. A small deciduous tree 3- 7.5mtall, native to the sub-continent, including Pakistan, Afghanistan and India. In Pakistan it is widely found in Gilgit Agency, Chitral, Dir, Swat, Hazara, Kurrum, and Balochistan. It prefers arid and semi- arid conditions, cool temperate, Mediterranean climate with a temperature range of -20 to 35 Cº, and elevations between 1000 and 2500m, (Sheikh, 1993). Ash plant produce compound leaves with toothed leaflets that turn yellow color in autumn. The dull green leaves are 8-15 inches long and consist of 5- 9 oval or lance-shaped leaflets. Plant is wind pollinated and characterized by apetalous flowers. It grows from seed as well as by vegetative means. The growth rate is very slow, but the tree is considered valuable for forestation projects and water shed management. Wood is hard; branches are often cut and used for burning. The leaves can be used for fodder for sheep and goats.
Pistacia atlantica subsp cabulica: Pistacia atlantica subsp cabulicais locally known as Shinea or wild Pistachio and is native to the Mediterranean rangelands of Balochistan. It belongs to the family Anacardiaceae, and grows to elevations of 2500 – 3000m in areas with annual rain fall of 150-300mm. Pistacia atlantica subsp cabulica, is found in dry temperate regions of Pakistan. It occasionally grows on exposed rocky slopes. It is important soil stabilizer and tannin rich specie. Galls produced on the stems and leaf petioles yield gums which are locally used as medicines, seeds of this species are edible in different parts of Balochistan. Over the past few years, population of this plant is gradually decreasing. It has the capability to grow in dry and harsh climates and can withstand temperatures below 0 Cº. The growth rate of this species is very slow; seedling grows at a
43 rate of 8cm / year. Their main uses are fruit, fodder, and fuel. In some areas the trees are lopped to provide fodder for sheep and goats. The Balochistan Forest Department has made sporadic efforts to establish stands of shinae through nursery- grown seedlings and direct seeding in national parks. As growing period starts (early March) of Pistacia atlantica subsp cabulica, therefore early initiation of foliage occurs. Very few male plants as compared to female plants probably of the ratio 1:2 or more found in experimental sites. It was found at the stage of maturity around 50% seeds are hollow.
Interviews of 120 informants including local inhabitants, herbalists and Pansaries (Local Herbalist) were conducted on random bases. Questionnaires were adopted for interviews. The outcome of the results were rechecked and compared with literature. Analysis of the data was carried out and indigenous knowledge was documented.
The overall flora of Zarghun Juniper Ecosystem has been identified and classified into 39 families, 129 genera and 168 species, belonging to gymnosperms (4), angiosperms (164). Among the angiosperms 42 species, 36 genera and 8 families belong to monocotyledons, whereas 122 species, 106 genera and 34 families belong to dicotyledons. The floristic composition was in accordance with (Asif, 1999).
4.1.1. Discussions Ethnobotany:
Pakistan has exceptional biodiversity, encompassing 9 ecological zones with around 6000 plant species out of which 400-600 are considered medicinally important (Hamayaun et al., 2005). Despite having wide variety of medicinal plants Pakistan still imports fair amount for its industry thus have great potential.
In Zarghoon area any diseases are treated by using plants and women possess ethnobotanical knowledge passed from generation to generation. Earlier ethnobotanical and medicinal plants utilization studies in Pakistan and Balochistan are having rarely compatibility with current study. The current study shows that roots and sap of Berberis baluchistanicais used for internal injury and joint pain, which is in accordance with mentioned by (Inam et al.,2000; Shah and Khan, 2006; Hussain et al.,2008 and Abbasi et
44 al.,2009). Seeds and leaves of Peganum harmalaare good for stomach and leg problem in Zarghoon, similarly same plant is useful for asthma, bones crakes (Shah et al., 2006).
Indigenous knowledge about Ziziphora clinopodioides in Zarghoon is that it is used for motion and vomiting and analogous utilization is reported by (Ali & Qaiser, 2009). Seeds of Plantago major are cooked with sugar and butter and fed to infants to control appetite, to control phlegm, cough. Seed tonic useful remedy for dysentery, also useful for chest congestion and cough, while (Abbassi et al., 2005) reported the same plant is used against cough, asthma and phlegm.
Ethnobotany is the first understanding the early man had developed in sight of stipulation, institution, surveillance and research. Archaeological or Paloeobotanical suggestions about assemblage, expenditure and cultivation of any plant products by early man for food, house building etc. and references to herbal medicines in ancient scriptures suggest a very long history of ethnobotany (Hussain and Waqar, 1995).
People in this area are using plants as medicines historically over centuries, even though their use is being supplanted by the allopathic medicine, yet they are not elapsed entirely. Local communities have strong believe that the indigenous medical knowledge appears to have some compensation over the allopathic medical knowledge as stated by Hakims and other local peoples.
Free from side effects Easily available in the far off places Cheaper than allopathic medicines Tried and tested knowledge
It has been found that copious numbers of pants are used by the local people as medicine. They use various parts of the plants-stem, bark gum, leaves, fruits, seeds, flowers etc. for medicinal purpose nevertheless the approach of application fluctuates bestowing to the civilizations of different villages. Discoveries on Medicinal customs of plants illustrated that one plant is used for a number of diseases in dissimilar traditions.
45
4.2. Conservation aspect of Juniper Forest in Zarghoon:
Ecological Aspects: The range of altitude of Juniperus excelsa at Zarghoon and the associated vegetation to grow is between 2100 to 3,100 m on ridge tops, and moderate (20º) to steep (29º) slopes and forms pure, open and dense vegetation without any stratification. The associated flora were also listed and classified on the basis of mean relative frequency level. Main locations, aspect, slope, and canopy of each stand of the study area are given in the (Table 4).
Table 4. Ecological Characteristics of five clusters in Zarghoon Forest Site Field Slope Aspect Canopy Name Code (0) Killi Tor KTS 28 North Open Shore Medadzai M 24 North Open Gunda G 24 North East Open Sarobai S 20 South West Open Killi KS 29 South West Open Shaban
The status Zarghoon Juniper forest was measured calculating different parameters like Diameter at Breast Height (DBH), old regeneration status, new regeneration status, deforestation, and sex distribution. The calculations and SPSS application analysis are as (Appendix-C). Mean Diameter at Breast Height (DBH) in Inches Average Diameter at Breast Height (DBH) of the Juniperus excelsa trees in three plots at each of the five locations Killi Tor Shor (KTS), Medadzai (M), Gunda (G), Sarobai (S) and Killi Shaban (KS) measured at 4.5 feet (1.37m) above the forest floor. The DBH measurement helped in assessing the growth, volume, yield and forest potential. The mean DBH calculated is shown in (Fig. 8).Analysis of Variance was
46 applied on the obtained data to check if there is a difference in the DBH of trees in five locations.
Mean DBH (Inches) of Juniperous excelsa
40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Killi Tor Shore (KTS) Medadzai (M) Gunda (G) Sarobai (S) Killi Shaban (KS)
Fig. 8.Average Diameter at Breast Height(inches) of Juniperus excelsa
Average DBH of Juniperus excela in inches measured at five locations were from highest to lowest as 37.13, 36.86, 32.40, 31.96, and 29.40 at KS, S, KTS, G, and M respectively. The ANOVA results show that at 5% significance level, there is a significant difference in means DBH in trees of five locations. The Levene test was applied to check the homogeneity of variances (assumption of ANOVA). It was found that data comes from homogenous population.
The ANOVA result shows that at 5% significance level, there is a significant difference in means DBH in trees of five locations. The Tukey’s post-hoc test is used to compare the mean DBH in trees of one village to another. The mean DBH of Medadzai was found significant from Sarobai and Killi Shahban whereas no significant differences were found between the mean DBH of other locations. We can say that the mean DBH of Medadzai was significantly lower than those of Sarobai and Killi Shahban.
Sex distribution:
47
The relative richness of male, female and bisexual of Juniperus excelsa calculated and found different from each other in different clusters. It varied like in some clusters the female dominated, but male in majority as well overall with a 58% as a whole with the value 103±23. In addition, the mean density of female calculated was 64±51 or 36% in the area. Bisexual individuals were infrequent, establishing about 6% of the total samples. The dominance of male is conspicuous but the male and female ratio were less significantly different from 1(Chi square =0.39 N.S). The sex distribution ratio revealed very valuable conclusion from conservation point of view. The difference in ratio of male and female juniper stands as less possibility of more stable regeneration process in Juniper ecosystem.
6%
36% 58%
Female Male Bi-Sexual
Fig. 9.Ratio of Sex distribution of juniper in 5 clusters of the study area. New Regeneration: Average of total ground cover percentage by new regeneration (up to the height of 5 inches) for the three plots of each of the five locations calculated. The data is presented in (Fig. 10).
48
Mean New Regenenration Ground Cover % 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 Killi Tor Shore Medadzai (M) Gunda (G) Sarobai (S) Killi Shaban (KTS) (KS)
Fig. 10. Mean New Regeneration Ground Cover %age.
Average new regeneration ground cover %age measured at five locations were from highest to lowest as 4.07, 4.03, 3.49, 3.58, 2.86 at KTS, KS, S, G, and M respectively. The ANOVA results show that at 5% significance level, there is a significant difference in means new regeneration ground cover %age of five locations.
The Levene test was applied to check the homogeneity of variances (assumption of ANOVA). It was found that data comes from homogenous population. The ANOVA result shows that at 5% significance level, there is a significant difference in means new regeneration ground cover %age of five locations.
The Tukey’s post-hoc test is used to compare the mean new regeneration ground cover %age of one village to another. The mean new regeneration ground cover %age of Medadzai was found significant from Killi Tor Shore and Killi Shahban, whereas no significant differences were found between the mean new regeneration ground cover %age of other locations. We can say that the mean DBH of Medadzai was significantly lower than those of Killi Tor Shore and Killi Shahban.
Old Regeneration: Old Regeneration saplings up to height of 5 feet Ground Cover % was measured for trees in three plots at each location and the mean is represented in figure 3. The data was
49 checked for difference in average old regeneration at five villages. The data was checked at 95% level of confidence.
Mean Old Regeneration Ground Cover % 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 Killi Tor Shore Medadzai (M) Ghunda (G) Sarobai (S) Killi Shaban (KS) (KTS)
Fig.11. Mean old Regeneration Ground Cover %age.
There was statistically insignificant difference in old regeneration% of trees at the five locations. Moreover there was found no interaction between the Old regeneration % and the locality. The mean old regeneration ground cover % calculated from highest to lowest was 4.75 at Killi Tor Shores, 3.74 at Sarobai, 3.48 at Killi Shaban, 3.43 at Ghunda, and 3.36 at Medadzai. The ANOVA results show that at 5% significance level, there is a significant difference in means old regeneration ground cover %age of five locations. The Levene test was applied to check the homogeneity of variances (assumption of ANOVA). It was found that data comes from homogenous population.
The ANOVA result shows that at 5% significance level, there is a significant difference in means old regeneration ground cover %age of five locations. The Tukey’s post-hoc test is used to compare the mean old regeneration ground cover %age of one village to another. The mean old regeneration ground cover %age of Medadzai was found significant from Killi Tor Shore and Killi Shahban whereas no significant differences were found between the mean old regeneration ground cover %age of other locations. We
50 can say that the mean DBH of Medadzai was significantly lower than those of Killi Tor Shore and Sarobai.
Deforestation: The data was collected for deforestation status in the three plots for each of the five locations by counting the number of fresh cut stumps present in each plot.
According to the results obtained the mean deforestation status of the five selected locations was mean number of cut stumps as 6.69 at Killi Shaban, 5.95 at Killi Tor Shore, 5.66 at Ghunda, 4.81 at Sarobai, and 4.70 at Medadzai. There was statistically insignificant difference in deforestation at the five locations. Moreover there was found no interaction between the deforestation and the locality. The ANOVA results show that at 5% significance level, there is a significant difference in deforestation of five locations. The Levene test was applied to check the homogeneity of variances (assumption of ANOVA). It was found that data comes from homogenous population.
Mean Deforestation % 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Killi Tor Shore Medadzai (M) Ghunda (G) Sarobai (S) Killi Shaban (KTS) (KS)
Fig.12. Rate of Deforestation in five localities
The ANOVA result shows that at 5% significance level, there is a significant difference in means deforestation of five locations. The Tukey’s post-hoc test is used to compare the deforestation of one village to another. The deforestation of Medadzai was found significant from Killi Tor Shore and Killi Shahban whereas no significant differences were found between the deforestation of other locations. We can say that the
51 deforestation of Medadzai was significantly lower than those of Killi Shaban and Killi Tor Shore.
4.2.1. Discussions Conservations Aspects:
Forest trees regenerate in their natural habitats. However, natural regeneration of tree species occurs in suitable environmental conditions for germination, seed production, and growth (Margolis & Brand, 1990). Regeneration of Junipers was seemingly very poor which is in line with the findings of (Hajar et al., 1991). Authors in (Gardner & Fisher, 1994) suggested climatic change as a possible reason for the poor regeneration of Juniperus excelsa. Natural regeneration may be affected by the difficult seed germination due to drought, increasing recreation activity through forests and over-grazing these findings are in accordance with (Herzog, 1998) who reported that the Juniper seedlings can survive 150 mm rainfall a year, but they cannot survive a ”drought” lasting longer than 2-3 weeks.
The Zarghoon Juniper ecosystem is very disturb due to anthropogenic pressure such as deforestation, over exploitation, up-rooting of plants for medicinal purposes, imprudent land fragmentation for agriculture, livestock rearing, road construction, fuel wood consumption and settlements. The Juniper ecosystem, if depleted or destroyed, it is difficult to restore, regenerate and impossible to recreate with all its components because germination in these forests (Juniper) is nominal due to nonviable embryo. The same way all the associated species with these trees will be on the stage of destruction. The local people save the rooms from water drops in long snowfall, by using bark of Juniper trees. Bark and even cambium is removed for thatching of huts and rooms. The removing of cambium results in the death while the removal of bark exposes the trees to vagaries of extreme climatic conditions, obviously affecting their health and growth. The protection of the Juniper forest is inevitable to local economy and human environment. This provides services like housing, energy, agriculture, forestry, livestock rearing, nature conservation and tourism. The vegetation growing in catchment areas are important for watershed management, water and soil conservation but overexploitation of these vegetation by local inhabitants for fencing, timber, materials, thatching of bark for huts,
52 medicinal plants(Beg & Repp, 1966; Singh & Kumar, 1981;Siddiqui, 1998; Abbasi, 2001; Khan, 2001).
Human disturbance, grazing pressure and climatic change are the factors that could lead to poor regeneration of Juniper was also reported by (Gardner & Fisher, 1994). The regeneration of natural forests is possible by reforestation of the gaps in these forests with endemic species. These suggestions concurs with (Bishaw, 2001) thought that conservation of the natural forests need proper attention and research in these forests should focus in improving natural regeneration of the various species and conservation of bio-diversity. Juniper seedlings grow very slowly, a few centimeters a year only same was reported by (Herzog, 1998).
Population growth and poverty are main causes of the deforestation in Juniper ecosystem of Zarghoon. Juniper trees are the main source of fuel for the local community and demand for wood greatly exceeds that which the forest resources can sustainably supply, these findings are in accord with (Amente, 2005; Thomas & Bekele, 2003). Juniper forests are small and fragmented in its natural habitat due to anthropogenic pressure mainly logging (Aboulfatih et al.,1998).
4.3. Soil Analysis:
Three soil samples from each location of five habitats were collected at (0-25cm) depth and evaluated for their physical and chemical characters. Different elements play vital role in plant growth as they are absorbed from soil. Soil Physicochemical Characteristics of 5 Locations at Zarghoon Juniper Forest (Table.5). Soil has important chemical physiological and biological properties and it varies from place to place, depending upon the parent rock materials, climate topography, age and biological factors. Soil texture is important because it determine water intake rates.
Physical Characters The results of physical analysis showed that pH values of soil vary from 7.4 - 8.1. High pH (8.1) was found from the soil of Killi Shaban, medium (7.6) from Medadzai and almost neutral (7.3) from Sarobai. The quantity of organic matter was not very high in the five study areas. On the basis of organic matter content, soils are characterized as mineral
53 or organic. Mineral soils forms cultivated land and may contain high percent organic matter but here soil is sustaining natural forest. Organic soils are naturally rich in organic matter principally for climatic reasons. It is precisely for this reason that they are not vital cropping soils. Anthropogenic influence and course soil decreases soil organic matter contents and can be increased or even maintained at good levels requires a sustained effort that includes returning organic materials to soils by less erosion and no land fragmentation. Lesser the organic matter less will be the regeneration.
The highest and lowest percentages of OM 2.432 and 1.312 at Killi Tor Shor and Medadzai respectively with a difference between the maximum OM and minimum noticed were 1.11. The organic matter contents of Medadzai and Sarobai was almost the same i.e. 1.312 and 1.353 respectively. When plant residues are returned to the soil, various or compounds undergo decomposition. Decomposition is a biological process that includes the physical breakdown and biochemical transformation of complex organic molecules of dead material into simpler organic and inorganic molecules (Juma, 1998). Overgrazing destroys the most palatable and useful species in the plant mixture and reduces the density of the plant cover, thereby increasing the erosion hazard and reducing the nutritive value and the carrying capacity of the land.
Table 5. Soil Physicochemical Characteristics of 5 Locations at Zarghoon Juniper Forest. Physical Chemical pH Organic W.H.C Sand Silt Clay Texture N K. P Mattr% % class mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg KilliTor Shor 7.8 2.432 22.40 45 18 9 Sandy Loam 33 172 2.92 Medadzai 7.3 1.312 19.04 55 15 8 Sandy Loam 43 203 5.18 Ghunda 8.0 2.429 21.23 53 16 7 Sandy Loam 396 207 2.46 Sarobai 7.6 1.353 23.21 51 18 7 Sandy Loam 29 81 3.5 Killi Shaban 8.1 2.683 24.87 59 19 9 Sandy Loam 38 129 5.4 Mean of Physicochemical Characteristics 7.76 2.041 22.15 52.6 17.2 8 _ 107.8 158.4 3.89
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The soil type of the area was Sandy-loam that predominant soil type analyzed. The mean of fractions of the sand in five clusters of the study area was (52.6%), followed by silt (17.2%), clay (8%) whereas water holding capacity indicated (22.15%) of the total samples across the study area. Soil texture has great effect on the water content, soil fertility, soil erosion, soil temperature and water holding capacity. The soil analyses of J. excelsa stands presented here showed that loamy sand was the predominant soil. Sand fraction represents the main part of the soil sampled analyses (Fig. 13).
The findings were supported by the results of Hussain & Rizvi, (1974). A poor correlation was recorded only between soil texture values; Sand (r= 46; p<0.01) and Clay (r= 57; p<0.01) indicating that density of Juniper trees/seedlings are greatly dependent upon the soil containing sand, clay and calcium carbonate probably due to some animal grazing, human disturbances, climate change particularlyprevailing drought conditions in the past few years.
22% 17% 8% 53%
Silt Sand Clay W.H.C.
Fig. 13.Mean percentage valuesof Clay; Silt; Water holding capacity; and Sand.
Chemical Characteristics: The amount of potassium concentration in soil was recorded from all five studied sites. Highest amount (207mg/kg) was found in soil of Gunda, medium amount (129mg/kg) from killi Shaban and lesser amount (81mg/kg) from Sarobai. Potassium is required in large amount in plants and this cation is involved in maintenance of ionic balance in cells. It also serves as a catalytic role. The critical concentration of potassium is (60mg/kg) as reported by Hanlon et al.,(1990).
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Phosphorus was estimated from the soils of all five sites. High amount (5.4mg/kg) was analyzed from killi Shaban, Medium amount (3.5mg/kg) was found from Sabozai and slightly less (2.46mg/kg) was estimated from Gunda soil. The lowest amount of Phosphorus in the soil might be due to the deficiency of water and that is water stress and drought period the area passed by. The Highest amount of available K was 207 recorded at Gunda while the lowest was at Sarobai i.e. 81.
4.3.1. Discussion Soil:
Soil conditions are important because it influences the growth characteristics of plant and indirectly affects their nutritive value. Site also affects the chemical content of plants and plant parts. Variation in cation uptake selectively occurs between taxa of different ecological habitats (Marschner, 1995). The soil properties as well as the genotype of any plant differentiate the concentration and quantity of different plant materials(Ernst, 1995; Őzcan & Bayçu, 2005). The variation among plants in their abilities to absorb different elements is not always constant and is affected by changing conditions of soil, climate and by the stages of plant growth (Kabata-Pendias & Pendias, 1986; Őzcan & Bayçu, 2005). Where an element is easily soluble, plants may take up very large amount of minerals if water is available. Nutrient which are non-functional in plants are linked to moisture availability.
Any form of human intervention influences the activity of soil organisms (Curry & Good, 1992) and thus the equilibrium of the system. Management practices that alter the living and nutrient conditions of soil organisms, such as repetitive tillage or burning of vegetation, result in a degradation of their microenvironments. In turn, this results in a reduction of soil biota, both in biomass and diversity. Where there are no longer organisms to decompose soil organic matter and bind soil particles, the soil structure is damaged easily by rain, wind and sun. This can lead to rainwater runoff and soil erosion, removing the potential food for organisms, i.e. the organic matter of the topsoil. Therefore, soil biota is the most important property of the soil, and “when devoid of its biota, the uppermost layer of earth ceaes to be soil” (Lal, 1991).
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4.4. Genetic Diversity:
In Zarghoon Juniper forest leaf samples of total 25 trees as per five samples from growth vicinities named Killi Tor Shore, Medadzai, Gunda, Sarobai and Killi Shaban were collected for DNA isolation.
Table 6.List of location, altitude, collection date, and University of Balochistan Botany Herbarium (UoBBH) voucher number of Juniperus excelsa.
SPECIES LOCATION # of Alti COLLECTION VOUCHER # Samples (m) DATE J. excelsa Killi Tor 5 2500 20-07-10 UoBBH201 to 205 Shor J. excelsa Medadzai 5 2400 27-07-10 UoBBH206 to 210
J. excelsa Gunda 5 2300 04-08-10 UoBBH211 to 215
J. excelsa Sarobai 5 2570 11-08-10 UoBBH216 to 220
J. excelsa Killi Shaban 5 3100 18-08-10 UoBBH221 to 225
Fresh Leaf samples were used for DNA isolation by the modified PVP method (Duffy, 2009) sowing to its appropriateness to Juniperus excelsa. The DNA after extraction was ready for gel electrophoresis.
The amount of DNA used in previous methods revealed two problems high amount of DNA loaded appeared to run fast and size appeared wrong whereas, DNA loaded in small amount was not visible and bands were indistinct. Therefore, the amount of DNA loaded on gel was changed and took around 5 (µl). The loading buffer gave color and density to the sample, when added 1.5µl of Bromophenol blue (dye) to load into the wells with ease. The accurate voltage was established to be 85-100 V for 25 min. below or above the mentioned range of voltage and time gel electrophoresis of this species of this meticulous region was not possible. The fingerprints showing DNA in deteriorated form and intact both forms when run on Gel electrophoresis with agarose gel (1%) of Juniperus excelsain (Fig. 17-20).
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Fig. 14. Lanes representing the DNA isolation with agarose gel (1%) of Juniperus excelsa.in gel electrophoresis.
Fig. 15. The DNA isolation but not intact form due to presence of secondary metabolites etc. before protocol modified.
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Fig 16. The DNA isolation with intact DNA shown after protocol modified.
Fig 17. Intact DNA in lanes representing the DNA isolation with agarose gel (1%) of Juniperus excelsa in as fingerprints
Gel was visualized under UV light in gel documentation and quality and quantity was estimated. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) amplification with given quantity, Time, activity and temperature of Genomic DNA initiated in PCR amplifier done (Tables. 1-2).
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PCR products were genotyped with ABI prism 3130xl genetic analyzer. Statistical analysis for calculation of observed and expected number of alleles, alleles frequency, expected and observed heterozygosity, expected and observed homozygosity, F- statistics, dendrogram based on Nei’s genetic distances using UPGMA and Polymorphic Information Content (PIC) was carried out by using software “POPGENE 3.31 & POWER STAT”.
Table 7: No. of Polymorphic Bands (P.B.) per locus from J. excelsa populations of Zarghoon Populations (sites) Locus No. of Samples No. of Bands No. of P.B. Killi Shaban 5 68 42 Jc031 7 Jc032 11 Jc035 7 Jc037 13 Jc166 4 Killi Tor Shor 5 69 38 Jc031 10 Jc032 9 Jc035 5 Jc037 11 Jc166 3 Medadzai 5 56 32 Jc031 4 Jc032 8 Jc035 5 Jc037 12 Jc166 3 Sarobai 5 52 28 Jc031 7 Jc032 5 Jc035 9 Jc037 5 Jc166 2 Gunda 5 49 26 Jc031 9 Jc032 3 Jc035 5 Jc037 7 Jc166 2 Six different microsatellite loci primers initially recognized for J. communis were inspected for J. excela and four out of six primers revealed polymorphism at variable
60 proportions. The maximum number of polymorphic bands i.e., 13 in any J. excela population was recorded at the locus Jc037. There was distinct size range in polymorphic bands which could be easily detected. The Primer for allele Jc166 amplified relatively fewer polymorphic bands for any given population and the amplification products range was 2-3. The amplification products for the locus Jc032 showed moderate to good polymorphism and it ranged between 3-11 bands for any population. Primers for loci Jc031 and Jc35 showed moderate level of amplification of polymorphic bands with a range of 4-10 and 5-9 respectively.
Table 8. Genetic diversity of populations of Juniperus excelsa in Zarghoon Populations No. of No. of No of % of Gene diversity (He) (sites) sample total polymorphic polymorphic bands bands bands
Killi Shaban 5 68 42 61.8 0.2012 (±0.0178) Killi Tor Shor 5 69 38 55 0.1971 (±0.0122) Medadzai 5 56 32 57.1 0.1543 (±0.0145) Sarobai 5 52 28 53.8 0.1422 (±0.0156) Gunda 5 49 26 53 0.1012(±0.0100) Total 25 298 150 280.7 0.796 Mean 5 59.6 30 56.14 0.1592
The level of genetic diversity in wild populations of J. excels obtained in this study (polymorphism = 56.14%, He = 0.1592) is close to the average values for widespread distributed species (polymorphism =58.9%, He = 0.202) (Hamrick and Godt, 1989). It is a little less than populations of J. excels collected only from Killi Shaban. Comparatively, J. excels had rich genetic resources and diversity. The percentage of polymorphic bands of populations was great with a variation of 8.8% as of maximum (61.8%) at Killi Shaban and minimum (53%) at Gunda. The polymorphism decreased with decrease in cover. The genetic diversity among populations also varied greatly, from 0.1012 - 0.2012 and their order was Killi Shaban > Killi Tor Shore > Medadzai >Sabozai> Gunda.
Genetic diversity is intact quantity of innate features in the genome of a species or a population. Populations in different surroundings and species within populations may have different genetic characteristics
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Table 9. Mean Soil Physicochemical Characteristics of 5 Locations at Zarghoon Juniper Forest. Physical Chemical
pH Organic W.H.C Sand Silt Clay Texture N K. P Mattr% % class mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg
Mean of Physicochemical Characteristics
7.76 0.3818 26.95 36.2 27.8 36 _ 107.8 158.4 3.89
The mean percentage of organic matter at different soil compositions was 0.3818, while pH of the most of the soil was slightly alkaline with a mean of 7.76. Nitrogen contents of the soil showed a mean value of 107.8mg/kg which may be due to surface runoff from the orchards applied with Nitrogenous fertilizers. Potassium mean value was 158.4 mg/kg which is sufficient for growth of plants while Phosphorus was way too small in quantity and this important element needs to be applied artificially to the soil for better growth of most of the plant mean P value was 3.89 mg/kg as shown in the table above.
Table 10.Climatic characteristics of different distribution area of Juniperus excelsa populations in Zarghoon region (average values of 1980 - 2010) Mean Mean Relative Mean Lowest Mean highest Mean Tempt Humidity (%) Temperature Co TemperatureCo Precipitation(mm)
10 20 -10 22 290
Different regional climatic parameters were also imperative and presented significant impact on the genetic diversity of J. excelsa trees. Changes in these parameters due to climate change may have radical effects on the genetic diversity of J. excelsa populations. The mean humidity was 20% over the duration of study period which is characteristic of arid to semi-arid climate of Balochistan. The variance between mean maximum and minimum temperatures was 32Co and ranged between -10 to 22 Co. The mean annual temperatures of any area are vital regarding the configuration of vegetation and ecosystem and a slight change in mean temperatures due to climate change has the potential of changing the intact conformation of vegetation of this area as all the species are very temperature sensitive. The importance of mean precipitation for vegetation of this area cannot be denied. Mean precipitation was 290 mm and further decrease in
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precipitation might result in mass extinction of many species and genetic diversity as adaptation is a slow procedure while climate change brings about unexpected changes.
Table 11.Correlation coefficients between genetic diversity and environmental variables for J. excelsa populations in Zarghoon. GD Amh Amp Amht Amlt N P K pH O.M. % P.B. -0.302 0.843* 0.973* 0.714* -0.214 -0.112 -0.145 0.975* 0.125 GD -0.634 0.673 0.674* 0.636 -0.123 0.211 0.451 0.764* -0.321 GD=Genetic diversity, Amt=Annual mean temperature, Amh=Annual mean humidity, Amp=Annual mean Precipitation Amht=Annual mean highest temperature, Amlt=Annual mean lowest temperature, %age Polymorphic Band
The polymorphism was significantly correlated with annual mean precipitation (r = 0.843) and Soil pH (r = 0.975). The gene diversity was significantly correlated with soil pH (r= 0.764) and near significantly correlated with annual mean precipitation (r = 0.673).The polymorphism was significantly correlated with annual mean high temp as (r = 0.973) and annual mean low temp (r = 0.0.714). The gene diversity was significantly correlated with annual mean high temp (r= 0.674) and near significantly correlated with annual mean low temp (r = 0.636). This suggests that annual mean precipitation, high and low temp and soil pH were important factors affecting genetic diversity of populations of J. excelsa
4.4.1. Discussions Gene Diversity:
Genetic diversity is intact quantity of innate features in the genome of a species or a population. Populations in different surroundings and species within populations may have different genetic characteristics (Kim et al., 1997; Karimiet al., 2009).
Consequently, to study genetic interactions of species within populations and amongst populations in dissimilar environment is the substance for administration of flora. Biotechnology involvement to affluence in scrutinizing genetic mannerisms of an individual species in different environmental conditions is prodigious. Juniper forests with extreme climatic and soil characteristics, shoot/root ratio is fundamental to biological success. Seedlings planted in arid or semi-arid areas should have a well- developed root system for better absorption of water lost from the soil in shoots and leaves (Hermann, 1964; Hobbes, 1964; Baer, 1977).
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Junipers can endure deprived soils and persist at exceedingly high and low temperatures in contrast to other forest trees. In addition, they are extremely resilient and they are the latest species that abandon areas in the course of deforestation (Pamay, 1955).
Afforestation revisions on juniper documented that seedlings with low shoot/root fresh or dry weight provided healthier results, chiefly in scorched areas (Yahyaolu & Genc, 2007; Gultakin, 2007). Biodiversity has three components and genetic diversity is one of the portions of biodiversity, and therefore is significant in conservation. Conservation of forests is important content of biodiversity conservation (Kate & Laired, 1999). The objective of this study was to test the hypothesis that populations in different environments have different genetic diversity and to elucidate the genetic relationships between populations of J. excelsa. It embraces high magnitudes of polysaccharides, and secondary metabolites such as phenols alkaloids that inhibit DNA isolation. These compounds directly or indirectly obstruct with the enzymatic reactions. J. excela did not endorse intact and high yield of DNA from one isolation protocol. Therefore, numerous protocols for DNA extraction were applied to many plant species. Microsatellite DNA marker is a piece of DNA molecule that is associated with a certain trait of organism. It can be of different types like morphological, chromosomal, genetic and biochemical.
A specific sequence of DNA bases (nucleotides) made up of mono, di, tri or tetra tandem repeats also called STR= Single Tandem Repeat, SSR= Simple Sequence Repeat, SSLP= Simple Sequence Length Polymorphism. Markers are highly polymorphic, occur abundantly and distributed evenly throughout the genome, are typically short (less than 100bp). In addition are used in application in personal identification, population genetic analysis and easy to detect by PCR. Microsatellites are “junk” DNA and majority of microsatellites are found in non-coding regions of the genome. Microsatellites may provide a source of genetic variations.
At a given microsatellite, different individuals can have different numbers of repeats. Changes in the number of repeats result from mutation. Microsatellites mutate very rapidly (100 -10,000 times faster than normal base pair substitutions), so there is lots of variation between individuals (Caskey et al., 1992; Glowatzki-Mulliset al., 1995;
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Garcia-Moreno et al.,1996). Inter-annual variability in climate is a normal occurrence, even in the absence of long-term climatic changes. Most species tolerate such short-term variability through phenotypic plasticity. However, beyond the point at which individuals (and therefore species) are able to tolerate changes in climate, distributional and evolutionary changes are inevitable (Lynch & Lande, 1993). The accumulating evidence of plant migrations indicates that this point has already been passed for many species.
The preservation of high level of genetic diversity in J. excels is in accord with findings of high genetic diversity in Eastern Mediterranean species and populations that did not suffer from severe demographic and genetic bottlenecks (Fady-Welterlen, 2005). The extraordinary within-population diversitymight also be elucidated by a latest derivation of the shattering joined with a great original degree of diversity, as was suggested for Cedrus spp. (Bou Dagher-Kharratet al., 2007). In addition, some life- history behaviors of Juniper species such as out crossing, wind pollination, conceivable long-distance seed dispersal, elongated duration of life and a widespread scattered population have possibly encouraged and preserved extraordinary genetic diversity (Hamrick et al., 1992;Austerlitz et al., 2000).
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CHAPTER 5
Conclusions and Recommendations
Management-related issues, such as lack of incentives, give the impression to be amongst the most. important constrictions for the maintenance of juniper forest. Abiotic and biotic factors and the undesirable. magnitudes of deforestation and clear-cutting has resulted in to forest decline and to a general loss of. diversity both genetic and at the species level. DNA markers were developed. in recent years for the detection of genetic diversity amongst and within the juniper populations. The consumption of these markers permitted the gathering of significant evidence. about the individual and dissemination of the genetic resources of this. species in relation to the changing local climate, which is one of the core factors determining diversity in forest tree species. A molecular pattern of diversity represents important. preliminary information and a good basis for planning conservation strategies. However, programs of conservation of genetic resources cannot be proficiently comprehended. devoid of the accessibility of documentation on adaptive behaviors, which might. exhibit a diverse geographic configuration than molecular markers. Highly polymorphic. molecular markers and microsatellites are very useful for providing information about. the reproductive arrangements and the effects of population inbreeding on the level of diversity. Studies aimed at analyzing the organization of the diversity within populations. of juniper are evolving. Ethnobotanical endeavors can help ascertain management disagreements, circumstances where proportions of harvest plants exceed. rates of re-growth. The fact that ethnobotany is or should be a combined endeavor. amid individuals in indigenous communities, counting numerous professionals, and technologists. means that a commencement can be accomplished to determine elucidations to .conservation and development concerns, even as evidence on plant usages is being collected. Traditionally, native communities worldwide are tremendously well-informed about native plant. and other natural assets. Continuously upon which they are so instantaneously and .intimately reliant. Regrettably, considerable volume of this fortune of knowledge is .becoming last as traditional culture gnarled. Ethnobotanists can perform
66 effective role in. retrieving diminishing information and recurring it to resident communities. In this approach native ethnobotanical knowledge. can be conserved as part of living cultural-ecological systems helping to sustain an .intellect of vanity in local cultural knowledge and practice, and fortifying links between. communities and the environment, so indispensable. for conservation. Imprudent land development, over exploitation, natural ailments and absence or scantiness of natural renaissance. intimidates the endurance of the Juniper forests. The forests meet the traditional hassles. for fuel-wood, grazing, timber, thatching and fencing material but can no longer withstand. the amplified dimensions of elimination and over use. Cultivation or orchard expansion is good for the economy of local community but to organize it by dissipating the Juniper. forests and paling them by continuous lopping of Juniper trees is injudicious. There are. not many stable surface water sources in the Juniper tract but widespread orchard .cultivation has been undertaken on extensive areas by developing water. The mistreatment of ground. water could overdo recharge rates by treacherously high levels in certain areas. The expansion of horticultural and other irrigated cropping enterprises in the Juniper tract .at Zarghoon forest might pose a great peril to the sustainability of the orchards if ground .water use is not efficient and if the vegetation in the watersheds is not improved. There has been 3-4% annual growth in the .human population near the Juniper tract. A huge migratory population has established at .the orchard gorges and fuel-wood for heating in winter is indispensable for their livelihood. There has also been expansion in housing as a consequence of upsurge in population .as well as due to cognizance to have better house but this activity has disbursed outsized .magnitudes of Juniper timber. Over grazing has turned out to be a constant .object of overall degradation in the density and composition of vegetation in the .Juniper tract. The prevailing shrub communities were naturally selected to .endure barrenness; they are fibrous, musky and generally unpalatable and had .weathered deprivation of the grazing animals. Some communities are degraded .because of the devastation of some floristic constituent. The gradual opening of the .vegetative cover has led to several retrogressive phases including decline of water .withholding. This, however, accompanied with exhaustion of organic
67 material and available nitrogen. The denuded areas are often colonized by nitrogen fixing plants e.g. Sophora, Astragalus, Caragana etc. Although the plants have considerable water and soil .conservation value, the more nutritive palatable forms have been eaten out, and the .remaining ones are both spinose, unpalatable and some moderately toxic to stock. 90% of Juniper seeds are not viable. There is also a very low proportion of germination of viable seed, i.e. less than 1% in the best conditions. Then the seedlings are trodden by livestock and .the poles are cut for fencing, fixing along graves and for other uses. As a result, the .number of sprouts, plantlets and ends surviving in the forests make a very low percentage in the composition of the forests. This suggest the Juniper forest ecosystem is not vigorous. and may not persist long to assist the local, national and international needs. To recover exponentiation of Juniper by seeds, it would, therefore, be advisable that, in .addition to protection against trampling, the ecological conditions for germination. in the open spaces be upgraded. Strictly managed rotational grazing will provide .favorable conditions for germination. There is also inordinate probability of encouraging vegetative progression by natural .layering. Lower branches of the old trees which touch the soil or are buried underneath, often, show formation of roots. Thus, while still being nourished by parent tree in .the most critical time of establishment, daughter trees grow up around the old trees .especially after the mother tree has been cut. Samples of natural populations are most .suitable for in situ gene conservation. Taking benefit of surviving nature protection areas, the assortment and conservation of extraordinary gene reserve forests are comparatively economical. Regeneration ought to take place by natural procedures. Regeneration with non-local seed or genetically improved material should not take place. It can .be anticipated that in the long run the gene and genotype frequencies will modify in .response to selection pressure climate change. In order to eliminate the undesirable effects of inbreeding and random drift, each in situ conservation unit must be rather large. In relation to the total forest area or the area of .national parks, the area of gene reserves is modest. Conclusions:
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Forest cover is becoming more and more open, soil erosion and water runoff are .accelerating, soil productivity is decreasing, forests are unable to meet local needs, and the .conservation, recreation, scientific and educational values are being lost. Thus, sustainable .development in the area might be retarded permanently after the forests are cleared and .existing water reserves are shattered. The re-creation of the ecosystem is either not .conceivable or is very expensive even if that be a man-made secondary ecosystem. There is a .tremendous need of recognition of forested areas confronting threats. Juniper forests are .under great pressure and communities are to be helped in forest conservation and .sustainable exploitation. Government intercession for assistance is necessary as these .must not be neglected simply for the purpose that these forests are not influenced by government.
Recommendations: Genes of Juniperus excelsa trees cannot be packaged and stored in cupboards or just in the form of .words in a book. They must be kept alive in the form of living trees their seeds, fruits, .gametes and provided a habitat in which they can thrive and keep evolving in the .natural conditions. There is a requirement for a transformation in the attitude of government functionaries as .well as communities concerning the ownership and utilization of the Juniper forests. The forests are not only nations but also for the local communities and are to be managed .for them to yield them greater benefits on sustained basis irrespective of the present legal .status of forests. The communities are to be made aware of this change in the attitude .of government, functionaries for enlisting their co-operation. This is important the .objectives of management are well defined and higher priority is given to the insubstantial .benefits such as watershed, recreation and conservation values as the management of .forests for these objectives will supply them essential commodities and services .such as water for orchards and agricultural crops as well as employment and .business due to increasing tourism. However, local basic need such as basic needs such .as fuel wood for energy can be met from the forests which have dry and fallen wood. The .forests, where dry wood is no longer available, should be closed to
69 wood collection .and removal. Letting people take away fire-effected trees encourage them to burn more green trees. The results of the .contemporary trial specified that the combination of CTAB and PVP in modified expanses .facilitated fabricating high excellence and harvest DNA from Juniperus excelsa of Zarghoon Juniper ecosystem. Since it is an original study to evaluate genetic inconsistency in virgin .research land (Zarghoon) and the DNA extraction method used is very lucrative for .supplementary research. Cultivating renaissance of Juniperus excelsa trees in Zarghoon. Nevertheless, it can be concluded that the Juniper forest is facing a major threat of .dilapidation due to high rate of deforestation and rationally low rate of regeneration. The .unparalleled Zarghoon Juniper forest is in dire need of research particularly in disciplines like biotechnology, molecular biology and pharmacology and also for conservation and planning best management practices for sustainable consumption of .forest assets. The annual mean precipitation, temp and soil pH are important factors .affecting genetic diversity. J. excelsa distributed in semi-arid. The geographical distance .might have some effects on genetic relationships, because even at short distance of .nearest populations G diversity is more if more dense. The five populations were .different in genetic resources and diversity with some specials features, and therefore, they all need special conservation as given below. In terms of .gene conservation the conclusion is that neutral marker gene diversity can be preserved .anywhere. The diversity of adaptive traits needs to be preserved in several ecologically .different areas. Thus, the genetic configuration of Juniper stands at the Zarghoon Forest at Balochistan, are unique. In order to sample most of the large within-population .genetic diversity, a large number of trees per population is needed. The goal is to .maintain the adaptive potential of the population over several generations by carrying over .most of the alleles in all polymorphic loci. This is more challenging than sustaining the .modifications of metric traits among individuals at its unique level. If the scheme is based .on marker genes alone, a substantial share of variation in adaptive characters is lost. Rare alleles and .exceptional morphological variants are sometimes declared as the foremost objective of .gene conservation. They are stimulating as research substances
70 and instances of genetic diversity, but they do not fit in to the conventional purposes of gene conservation.
In-situ and ex-situ .conservation of the genetic diversity of Juniper forest. Find solutions .through investigation concerning problem of natural regeneration of forest. Endorse natural .regeneration and vegetative multiplication of the Juniper. Proper management and .funding is required to protect the forest against flash floods. Plantation of the juniper .forest must be promoted on national/local levels Conduct delinquent oriented .research in forestry, range, watershed and wildlife. Establishment and training of .forestry staff. Establish a Juniper national .park/World heritage site. Spatial planning of Zarghoon .forest and villages. Scrutinize revenue generation .undertakings and stimulate them. Separate the conservation of the .genetic diversity of natural populations from the maintenance of adequate genetic .variation in breeding populations. incentives must be provided by the .Government in support of gene conservation as part of the routine silvicultural practice A national approach or program for the .conservation of forest genetic resources
Present findings revealed that existing .extraordinary anthropogenic pressure on ecosystem can be abridged by regulations, .implementations and financial assistance for sustainable recourse utilization to the unique .juniper ecosystem of Zarghoon. A national gene conservation program is .inevitable and all native juniper species of Balochistan should gradually be included in .national gene conservation programs, as well as the introduced species that have at least .potential value as forest trees. Junipers have been on the Earth for hundreds of millions of years. There is a lot we can do to make sure that future generations inherit this .genetic wealth.
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CHAPTER6
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APPENDICES
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Appendix-A Village level Questionnerier
Village level questionnaire for Zarghoon Forest
Name of the District: Total no of respondents:
Name of the Union Council (u/c): Male
Name of enumerator: Female
Name of the Village:
Date;
1. Pattern of the village; (compact/ scattered):
2. Type of house (pacca/semi pacca/ katcha /other):
3. Total no of compound in the village;(more then Ten HH/less then Ten HH):
4. Population size in the village.
5. Main tribes in the village.
6. Major languages spoken in the village.
7. Accessibility pattern: Metal road /shingle road/dirt road)
8. Distance of the village (k ms): (from district town /from main highway /from nearest village.
9. Basic facilities existing in the village:(School-Boys, Girls/BHU/Water supply/ Electricity/Others)
10. Type of leadership dominant in the village :(Tribal Chief/Religious leader/Village elders)
11. Common meeting place:(Mosque/ Hujra / Otaq /School / Bazzar / Other)
12. Main decision makers in the family: [Head of the family /elderly women- (family decisions, financial matters & Child schooling, Children marriages etc.)-Collective approach]
1 Appendix-A Village level Questionnerier
13. Migration pattern exists in the village:(seasonal/for livelihoods/due to droughts/due to political reasons)
14. Is agriculture the primary means of subsistence?
15. What are major crops grown and their yields?
16. Is pesticide spray done to control pests and diseases?
17. What are the major constraints to productivity?
18. What is the source of water used by the community for various enterprises like crops, horticulture, domestic, livestock etc.?
19. What are the limitations and problems associated with water availability and use system in the area?
20. What is the method used for irrigating different crops?
21. Are the users aware of undesired depletion of water table in various areas of the province?
22. If yes, whet is the source of their information?
23. What sort of businesses is established in the village?
24. Who are the buyers? (Villagers, distributors, take to city, others)
25. Are women involved in income generation activities?
26. Who does most of the household activities?
27. Have the women ever involved in a common action? If yes, which type of collective work have you been involved?
28. What were the most important plants and wild life species present 15 to 50 years ago? (local name)
29. What medicinal plants are available?
30. Do they use locally and sell also?
31. What are their preferences in case of using medicinal plants in comparision to allopathic?
2 Appendix-A Village level Questionnerier
32. What kind of health facility is available in the village? Also whether the available health facility is functional or not and equipped with staff, medicines, distance of facility from the community, other facilities.
33. What kind of traditional health practitioners exist in the village? Are they functional? Which Govt/non-governmental agency were they trained by? And where did they receive training? ( in village, at district, U/C, divisional or provincial level)
34. How many girls, boys and women were vaccinated during the past one year in the village
35. What are the problems being faced by the people due to watershed degradation? [Decline of water table flash floods and their damage to crops, Soil erosion, scarcity of fuel wood and forage status of springs in the village flowing but discharge decreased)
36. What is the source of fuel for domestic purpose?
a) LGP b) Kerosene Oil c) Fuel wood purchased d) Cow dung
e) Existing Forest
3 Appendix-B EthnobotanyQuestionnerier
Questionniere Ethnobotanical data Collection
1. Local/Vernacular Name ______
2. Botanical/Scientific Name ______
3. Locality ______
4. Elevation ______
5. Soil Type/Condition ______
6. Date of Collection ______
1 Appendix-B EthnobotanyQuestionnerier
7. Name of Interviewee ______
8. Parts Used ______
9. Purpose of Use ______
10. Method of Medicine Preparation ______
2 Appendix-C SPSS calculations
Diameter at Breast Height (DBH) in inches at 4.5 feet above ground level: Descriptives Diameter at Breast Height 95% Confidence Interval for Mean N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Lower Bound Upper Bound Minimum Maximum Killi Tor Shore 3 32.4 2.8 1.6 25.4 39.3 29.6 35.2 Medadzai 3 29.4 2.5 1.4 23.1 35.6 27.3 32.2 Ghunda 3 31.9 2.3 1.3 26.2 37.6 29.6 34.2 Kala Ragha 3 36.8 1.6 0.9 32.8 40.9 35.1 38.3 Killi Shaban 3 37.1 2.9 1.7 29.7 44.5 34.4 40.3 Total 15 33.5 3.7 0.9 31.4 35.6 27.3 40.3
This table show the averages DBH for five locations along with their standard deviations. The 95% confidence intervals are also produced.
Test of Homogeneity of Variances Diameter at Breast Height Levene Statistic df1 df2 Sig. .238 4 10 .911
This table displays that the Levene test was applied to check the homogeneity of variances (assumption of ANOVA). It was found that data comes from homogenous population.
ANOVA Diameter at Breast Height Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig. Between Groups 134.6 4 33.6 5.4 .014 Within Groups 62.0 10 6.2 Total 196.6 14
The ANOVA results shows that at 5% significance level, there is a significant difference in means DBH in trees of five locations.
1 Appendix-C SPSS calculations
Diameter at Breast Height Subset for alpha = 0.05 Area N 1 2 Tukey HSDa Medadzai 3 29.4 Ghunda 3 31.9 31.9 Killi Tor Shore 3 32.4 32.4 Kala Ragha 3 36.8 Killi Shaban 3 37.1 Sig. .59 .15 Means for groups in homogeneous subsets are displayed. a. Uses Harmonic Mean Sample Size = 3.000.
The Tukey’s post-hoc test is used to compare the mean DBH in trees of one village to another. The mean DBH of Medadzai was found significant from Kala Ragha and Killi Shahban whereas no significant differences were found between the mean DBH of other locations. We can say that the mean DBH of Medadzai was significantly lower than those of Kala Ragha and Killi Shahban.
Descriptives New Regeneration 95% Confidence Interval for Mean N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Lower Bound Upper Bound Minimum Maximum Killi Tor Shore 3 4.0 1.6 0.9 -.04 8.1 2.23 5.44 Medadzai 3 2.6 1.6 0.9 -1.3 6.6 1.29 4.44 Ghunda 3 3.5 1.3 0.7 .27 6.8 2.32 4.97 Kala Ragha 3 3.5 1.1 0.6 .84 6.3 2.32 4.34 Killi Shaban 3 4.0 0.7 0.4 2.2 5.7 3.30 4.70 Total 15 3.5 1.2 0.3 2.9 4.2 1.29 5.44
Test of Homogeneity of Variances New Regeneration Levene Statistic df1 df2 Sig. .742 4 10 .585
ANOVA New Regeneration Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Between Groups 3.7 4 .944 .535 .713 Within Groups 17.6 10 1.763 Total 21.4 14
2 Appendix-C SPSS calculations
Descriptives Old Regeneration 95% Confidence Interval for Mean N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Lower Bound Upper Bound Minimum Maximum Killi Tor Shore 3 4.7 0.8 0.4 2.6 6.8 4.02 5.70 Medadzai 3 3.3 0.9 0.5 0.8 5.8 2.34 4.32 Ghunda 3 3.4 1.0 0.6 0.8 6.0 2.44 4.55 Kala Ragha 3 3.7 0.5 0.3 2.2 5.1 3.07 4.09 Killi Shaban 3 3.4 0.0 0.0 3.3 3.6 3.44 3.55 Total 15 3.7 0.8 0.2 3.2 4.2 2.34 5.70
Test of Homogeneity of Variances Old Regeneration Levene Statistic df1 df2 Sig. 1.538 4 10 .264
ANOVA Old Regeneration Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Between Groups 4.009 4 1.002 1.572 .256 Within Groups 6.375 10 .638 Total 10.384 14
3 Appendix-C SPSS calculations
Descriptives Deforestation percentage 95% Confidence Interval for
Mean N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Lower Bound Upper Bound Minimum Maximum Killi Tor Shore 3 5.9 1.9 1.1 1.1 10.8 3.78 7.55 Medadzai 3 4.7 1.5 0.9 .7 8.6 3.34 6.44 Ghunda 3 5.6 1.8 1.0 1.1 10.2 3.89 7.55 Kala Ragha 3 4.8 1.0 0.6 2.0 7.5 3.55 5.45 Killi Shaban 3 6.6 2.1 1.2 1.2 12.1 4.66 8.99 Total 15 5.5 1.6 .43 4.6 6.4 3.34 8.99
Test of Homogeneity of Variances Deforestation percentage Levene Statistic df1 df2 Sig. .312 4 10 .863
ANOVA Deforestation percentage Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig. Between Groups 8.2 4 2.0 0.6 0.6 Within Groups 31.2 10 3.1 Total 39.4 14
4 Application of the Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) to assess the ethnobotany and forest conservation status of the Zarghoon Juniper Ecosystem, Balochistan, Pakistan Uso del enfoque de valuación rural participativa (PRA) para evaluar el estado de conservación del bosque y etnobotánica del Ecosistema de Junípero Zarghoon, Balochistan, Pakistan
Bazai ZA1, RB Tareen1, AKK Achakzai1, H Batool2
Abstract. The data collection approach called Participatory Rural Resumen. El enfoque de recolección de datos llamado Valuación Appraisal (PRA) was used in five villages: Killi Tor Shore; Medadzai; Rural con Participantes (PRA) se utilizó en cinco villas: Killi Tor Ghunda; Kala Ragha, and Killi Shaban. Up to five groups were Shore; Medadzai; Ghunda; Kala Ragha y Killi Shaban. En cada villa sampled in each village, comprising a total of 17 villages within the se muestrearon hasta cinco grupos, comprendiendo un total de 17 Zarghoon Juniper ecosystem. This area is rich both historically and villas en el ecosistema de junípero de Zarghoon. Esta área es rica culturally for using medicinal plants, mostly by women (60%). In this tanto histórica como culturalmente por el uso de plantas medicinales, study, 26 species of medicinal plants fit in 20 genera and 13 families. principalmente por mujeres (60%). En este estudio, 26 especies de They are used by aboriginal people via the indigenous knowledge plantas medicinales pertenecieron a 20 géneros y 13 familias. Estas they have for the treatment of many diseases. About 60, 35, and 5% son utilizadas por aborígenes a través del conocimiento indígena que of the medicines are prepared to be used orally, topically and boiled ellos tienen para el tratamiento de varias enfermedades. Cerca de to inhale, respectively. Percentage distribution of plant parts used 60, 35 y 5% de las medicinas son preparadas para su uso oral, como with purpose is 57, 26, 10 and 7% for leaves, seeds, flowers and roots, tópico y hervidas para inhalar, respectivamente. La distribución por- respectively. It is important to preserve the indigenous knowledge centual de las partes vegetales usadas con este propósito es de 57, 26, that people have for using vegetation as medicines for a sustainable 10 y 7% para hojas, semillas, flores y raíces, respectivamente. Es im- utilization of the renewable natural resources. The PRA tools used portante mantener el conocimiento indígena que tiene la gente para consisted of social maps, transit walks, structured and semi-struc- usar la vegetación como medicinas para una utilización sustentable tured interviews, and pie diagrams. The socio-economic conditions de los recursos naturales renovables. Las herramientas utilizadas en revealed around 20000 people living in 400 households distributed el programa PARA incluyeron el uso de mapas sociales, sendas efec- in 17 villages, and livelihood depended on the forest. The community tuadas por caminatas, entrevistas estructuradas y semi-estructuradas, lacks basic amenities of life. The major sources of income (90%) are y diagramas circulares. Las condiciones socio-económicas revelaron agriculture and livestock raising, and only 10% comes from trade, cerca de 20000 personas habitando 400 viviendas distribuidas en 17 services and labor. The current high anthropogenic pressure on the villas, y su subsistencia dependió del bosque. A la comunidad le faltan ecosystem can be reduced by regulation, service implementations and cosas básicas para vivir. Las fuentes principales de ingreso económico financial assistance. This should contribute to sustainable resource (90%) son la agricultura y la cría de ganado, y solo un 10% proviene utilization in the unique juniper ecosystem of Zarghoon. de intercambios, servicios y trabajo. La alta presión antrópica actual sobre el ecosistema puede ser reducida por regulaciones, implemen- Keywords: Juniper ecosystem; Zarghoon; PRA; Ethnobotany; tación de servicios y asistencia financiera. Esto debería contribuir a Medicinal plants; Biodiversity. una utilización sustentable de los recursos en el único ecosistema de junípero de Zarghoon.
Palabras clave: Ecosistema de junípero; Zarghoon; PRA; Etno- botánica; Plantas medicinales; Biodiversidad.
1 Department of Botany, University of Balochistan, Quetta-Pakistan. 2 Department of Botany, Sardar Bahadur Khan Women University Quetta-Pakistan. Address Correspondence to: Dr. A.K.K. Achakzai, Department of Botany, University of Balochistan, Quetta-Pakistan. e-mail: [email protected] Recibido / Received 9.IV.2012. Aceptado / Accepted 15.IX.2012.
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72 Bazai ZA et al., FYTON 82 (2013)
Table 1. A detailed taxonomic description of medicinal plant species used in the study area in terms of their parts and folk medicinal uses. Tabla 1. Descripción taxonómica detallada de especies de plantas medicinales utilizadas en el área de estudio en términos de sus partes y usos medicinales tradicionales.
S. Botanical Name *Vernacular Family Part Used Folk Medicinal Uses No. Name 1 Achillea santolina Brinjas Asteraceae Leaves Plant extract is given to children to treat stomach ache and in- (L.) digestion. Also used as blood purifier and refrigerent. It is used to treat diabetes and also as a cooling medicine to reduce heart shocks. 2 Achillea wilhelmsii Boh-e-madran Asteraceae Whole plant Whole plant is soaked in water or boiled to obtain the extract, and it is used to treat stomachache, diabetes, gastric troubles, fat- ness, and used as a blood purifier. 3 Artemisia Tarkha Asteraceae Whole plant Plant extract is used as a blood purifier and heart tonic. Also maritime (L.) useful for treating pain in joints, fever, and, stomach ache/indi- gestion. 4 Berberis baluchistanica Zarlog Berberidaceae Roots and sap Roots are boiled to make decoction, which is used to heal inter- Ahrendt nal injuries in man and cattle. Also for the relief of joint pain. 5 B. callobotrys Khar Zaaulg Berberidaceae Leaves and sap Plants are used to treat jaundice. Leaf extracts are used as a blood purifier and for the treatment of acne. 6 Bunium persicum Tora Zirak Plantagina- Leaves and sap Fruits are aromatic and used as spice. ceae 7 Centaurea phyl- Talkha Asteraceae Leaves It is used to treat stomach ache, swelling up of body, and wounds locephala, Boiss. in cattle. 8 Ephedra foliate, Oman Ephedraceae Whole plant It’s a source of ephedrine, a well known alkaloid. It is used to Boiss and Kotschy treat heart diseases, high fever and asthma. Seeds are used as a cooling medicine. Stem is used to heal the wound of ear piercing. 9 E. intermedia, Sch- Oman Ephedraceae Whole plant The plant is used for the extraction of ephedrine. Used for asth- renk and Meyer ma and cough, and to heal wounds. 10 Ferula oopoda Hing Apiaceae Seeds, leaves Boiled seeds and decoction for infant cough, and stems to kill and sap intestinal worms. Sap locally called Ingapatric is used for tooth- ache. 11 Juniperus excelsa Obusht Cupressaceae Seeds and Oil is obtained from berries (fruit), which is carminative, diuretic Boiss leaves and stimulant. 12 Lepidium repens, Garbust Bashka Brassicaceae Leaves It is used to treat skin infections. Leaves are cooked and eaten Boiss to warm the body. 13 Malva neglecta Khatmi Malvaceae Whole plant It is useful to treat cough; roots are used as a cooling medicine; leaves are cooked and eaten to treat gynecological disorders, and boiled leaves are applied to the body for treating sterility. 14 Mentha longifolia Vialani Lamiaceae Leaves and Leaves are used to treat gastric troubles, diarrhea. Juice of leaves roots is mixed with raw apple juice to treat motion and vomiting. 15 Nepeta practervisa Simsok Lamiaceae Leaves For treatment of flu, cough. Leaves are used to make tea which is useful to warm the body. 16 Peganum harmala Kisankoor/spanda Zygophyl- Leaves and Seeds are used to treat indigestion, stomach ache. Used to treat laceae seeds diabetes, joints ailments and measles. Seeds are mixed in bathing water to treat pain. 17 Perovskia abrotanoi- Gowaridaranai Lamiaceae Leaves, flower Flower and leaves are used for the treatment of typhoid and des Karel and seeds headache. Whole plant is ground and soaked for vomiting. 18 Pistacia atlantica Sharawan Anacardiaceae Leaves, fruits Leaf extracts are used to treat indigestion. Oil is obtained by ssp., Stocks Pistacia and gum grinding the seeds, and the oil is used for cooking. It warms the cabulica Stocks. body and treat cough when applied on to the skin. Oil is used for many other purposes. 19 Plantago lanceolata Ispaghol/ Phidori Plantagina- Seeds Seeds are useful in constipation, purgative and to control fatness. ceae Leaves are applied to wounds. 20 Plantago major (L.) Bar-e-tang Plantagina- Seeds Seeds are cooked with sugar and butter, and fed to infants to ceae control appetite. Also used to control phlegm, cough. Seed tonic useful for dysentery, chest congestion and cough.
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21 Salvia cabulica Metetay Lamiaceae Leaves It is used to treat stomachache and indigestion. 22 Salvia glutinosa (L.) Gul-e-Kakar Lamiaceae Leaves and Used to treat Jaundice and as refrigerant. flowers 23 Whole plant Tora mouri Lamiaceae Whole plant Plant is ground and the oil is added to cure typhoid fever. Decoc- tion is used for cough. 24 Viola kunawarensis Gul-e-Banafsha Violaceae Leaves and sap Useful to treat pain and swelling of liver. Also to treat stomach- Royle ache. 25 Ziziphora Spina mourai Laminaceae Whole plant Whole plant is soaked in water, and decoction is given to chil- clinopodioides Lam dren to reduce their thirst. Good for motion and gastric prob- lems. 26 Z. tenuior (L.) Mourai Laminaceae Seeds Seeds are used to cure dysentery. * Vernacular name is in Pashto, Pushto or Pakh
and leaves of Peganum harmala are good for stomach and leg problems, and measles in Zarghoon. This plant is also useful REFERENCES for asthma and bone fractures (Shah et al., 2006). The indig- Abbasi, A.M., G. Dastagir, F. Hussain & P. Sanaullah (2005). Eth- enous knowledge about Ziziphora clinopodioides in Zarghoon nobotany and marketing of crude drug plants in district Haripur, is that it is used for motion and vomiting; an analogous utiliza- Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Plant Science 11: 103-114. tion was reported by Ali & Qaiser (2009). Seeds of Plantago Abbasi, A.M., M.A. Khan, M. Ahmad, M. Zafar, H. Khan, N. Mu- major are cooked with sugar and butter, and fed to infants to hammad & S. Sultana (2009). Medicinal plants used for the control appetite, phlegm and cough. Tonic made from seeds treatment of Jaundice and hepititus based on socioeconomic is useful for dysentery, chest congestion and cough. Abbassi et documentation. African Journal of Biotechnology 8: 1643-1650. Achakzai, A.K.K. & Z.A. Bazai (2006). Phytoaccumulation of al. (2005) also reported that P. major is used to control cough, Heavy Metals in Spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) Irrigated with asthma and phlegm. Wastewater of Quetta City. Journal of Chemical Society of Pakistan 28: 473-477. Conclusions and recommendations. The previous discus- Ahmed, M., E.E. Nagi & E.L.M. Wang (1990). Present state of sion clearly indicates that local people are intensively depen- juniper in Rodhmallazi Forest of Balochistan, Pakistan. Pakistan dent on the Juniper ecosystem either for fuel wood or medici- Journal of Forestry 40: 227-236. nal plants. However, its utilization is not sustainable because Ali, H. & M. Qaiser (2009). The Ethnobotany of Chitral valley, natural resources of the area are heavily exploited. The juniper Pakistan, with particular reference to medicinal plants. Pakistan forest is under a major threat of degradation due to the (1) Journal of Botany 41: 2009-2041. high rate of deforestation, and (2) comparatively low rate of Ali, S.I. & Y.J. Nasir (Eds.). (1989-1992). Flora of Pakistan. No. 191-193. Karachi and Islamabad. regeneration. Ali, S.I. & M. Qaiser. (Eds.). 1993-2009. Flora of Pakistan. No. 194- The study area encompasses a rich biodiversity that includes 17. Islamabad, Karachi. a large variety of medicinal and other useful plants. Growing Hamayaun M., M.A. Khan & T. Hayat (2005). Ethnobotanical pro- medicinal plants both in situ and in vitro is inevitable for the file of Utror and Gabral valleys, district Swat, Pakistan. Ethno- development and conservation of the area. Extensive research botany leaflets 10: 40-45. must be carried out in the fields of pharmacology, biotech- Hunting Survey Corporation.(1960). Reconnaissance Geol- nology and biochemistry. If it continues, the tremendous de- ogy of part of West Pakistan: A Colombo Plan Cooperation crease in the transmission of knowledge from local Herbalists Project,Toronto, Canada. to local people can reduce the knowledge of aboriginal people Hussain, K., A.Shahzad & S.Z. Hussnain (2008). An Ethnobotani- cal Survey of important wild medicinal plants of Hattar District about their natural resources. The community should be aware Harripur, Pakistan. Ethnobotanical Leaflet 12: 29-35. of the importance of the (1) forest, (2) medicinal plants, and Inam, B., K. Sultana, R.A. Qureshi & S.A. Malik (2000). Checklist (3) current vulnerability of the forest due to the community of plants of Bhogarmong, Siran vally, N.W.F.P., Pakistan. Ham- activities. The community should be trained about the sus- dard Medicus 43: 62-75. tainable use of products other than those provided by the tree Leporatti, M.L. & E. Lattanzi.(1994). Traditional Phytotherapy on forest, particularly medicinal plants and their commercializa- coastal areas of Makran (Southern Pakistan). Fitoterpia 65: 158- tion, which might contribute to raise their economy. 161.
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Malik, S., M. Shah & Q. Marwat (1990). Ethnobotanical Evalua- tion of Valuable Plants of Balochistan, Pakistan. Project No. 123, Pakistan Science Foundation. Marcoux. A. (2000). “Population and deforestation”. SD Dimen- sions. Sustainable Development Department, Food and Agricul- ture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Mukherjee, N. (1994). Participatory Rural Appraisal Methodology and Applications. 2nd edition, Ashok Kumar Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi India, 30 p. Nasir, E. & S.I. Ali. (Eds.). 1970-1979. Flora of West Pakistan. No. 1-131. Islamabad, Karachi. Nasir, E. & S.I. Ali. (Eds.). 1980-1989. Flora of Pakistan. No. 132- 190. Islamabad, Karachi. Shah, S.R.U., G. Hassan, A. Rehman & I. Imtiaz (2006). Ethno- botanical studies of the flora of Musakhail and Barkan in Balo- chistan, Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Weed Science Research 12: 199-211. Shah, G.M. & M.A. Khan (2006). Common medicinal recipies of Siran valley, Mansera, Pakistan. Ethnobotany Leaflets 10: 63-71. Shinwari, Z.K. & S. Malik (1989). Plant Wealth of Dera Bugti area. Progressive Farming 9: 39-42. Tareen, R.B., K. Mohammad & M.I. Zaidi (2002a). Plant Commu- nities, species diversity, medicinal plants and soil relationship of water courses in Shireen valley, Juniper ecosystem, Ziarat Balo- chistan. Research Journal University of Balochistan 1: 41-47. Tareen, R.B., M.I. Zaidi, M.A.K. Malghani, Q.A. Ali & M. Asif. (2002b). Ethnobotanical studies of medicinal and aromatic plants of Juniper ecosystem, Ziarat Balochistan. Research Journal Uni- versity of Balochistan 1: 17-23.
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Study of Anthropogenic Pressure on Regeneration and Deforestation to Assess the Forest Conservation Status at the Zarghoon Juniper Ecosystem in Balochistan, Pakistan
Zahoor Ahmad Bazai, Rasool Bakhsh Tareen, Huma Batool and Muhammad Younas Khan Barozai
Abstract— This research was carried out through field survey silivi-cultural practices or other management practices are in surrounding forest localities of five villages named Killi Tor lacking. Juniper is the most prominent type of vegetation at or Shore (K.T.S.), Medadzai (M), Ghunda (G), Sarobai (S) and Killi above 1600 m elevation [1]. Shaban (K.S.) in study area Zarghoon Juniper ecosystem. Junipers can tolerate poor soils and can survive at extremely Different physical characteristics of Juniperus excels trees were recorded. Rate of deforestation was maximum at (K.S.) with 6.69, high and low temperatures in comparison to other forest trees. and minimum at (M) with 4.70, along with 5.95, 5.66 and 4.81 at In addition, they are highly resistant and they are the last (K.T.S.), (G) and (S.) respectively. Average Diameter at Breast species that abandon areas in the process of deforestation [2]. Height (DBH) in inches measured at five locations were from The natural distribution of this species varies between 300- highest to lowest as 37.13 at KS, 36.86 at S, 32.40 at KTS, 31.96 at 3500m latitudes uprightly [3] [4] [5]. Within this wide G, and 29.40 at M respectively. Sheep made the dominant distribution area the juniper trees display great variety in livestock population of 23%, donkey 2% and goat population was 75%. The community prefers to keep goats because the sheep different soils and climatic conditions. feed on soft grasses which were not easily available in these areas. Particularly in juniper forest zones with extreme climatic There was statistically insignificant variance in the average and soil characteristics, shoot/root ratio is fundamental for (DBH) in all five selected locations due to same atmospheric biological success. Seedlings planted in arid or semi-arid areas conditions. Old and New Regeneration ground cover percentage should have a well-developed root system for better was less due to the high anthropogenic pressure on forest for absorption of water lost from the soil in shoots and leaves [6] different uses like lopping for Timber 28%, fuel wood 56%, debarking 11% and fencing 5% of juniper tree the situation was [7] [8]. Afforestation studies on juniper recognized that equally treacherous. Based on findings it was suggested that seedlings with low shoot/root fresh or dry weight provided existing high anthropogenic pressure on ecosystem can be better results, principally in arid areas [9] [10]. In areas where abridged by regulations implementations and financial assistance summer temperatures are high, seedlings with a long root for sustainable recourse utilization to the unique juniper system are able to reach deeper soil layers comprising ecosystem of Zarghoon. adequate moisture [7].
Population growth and urbanization are amid the foundation Index Term— Anthropogenic, Regeneration, Diameter at sources of deforestation [11] [12]. British environmentalist Breast Height (DBH), Deforestation, Conservation Norman Myers reported, 5% of deforestation is due to cattle I. INTRODUCTION ranching, 19% due to over-heavy logging, 22% due to the growing sector of palm oil plantations, and 54% due to slash Juniper forests always served as an important source of wood and- burn farming [13]. for construction, cooking and fuel over ages but they are Grazed and non-grazed forests express no difference in the subjected to over exploitation, heavy grazing and fires; while abundance of new and old regeneration [14]. Juniperus tree is largely acknowledged for its small establishment potential under the closed canopy of mature parent trees [14] [15]. Its Zahoor Ahmed Rasool Bakhsh Tareen and Muhammad Younas Khan regeneration is adapted to forest clearing, gaps and forest Barozai are with the department of botany at the university of Balochistan, edges where there is bright sunlight. Extensive re-growth is Quetta (87300) Pakistan. found in intensively logged over forest areas with open Huma Batool is with the department of botany at the Sardar Bahadur Khan Women University Quetta (87300) Pakistan. canopies. In the present study the old and new regeneration % age of the forest ground cover was measured in plots at five ACKNOWLEDGMENT selected villages. The deforestation caused by human activities The Financial support by Higher Education Commission (HEC), Pakistan was measured by counting the number of fresh cut stumps in is highly acknowledged. 15 plots selected randomly, to measure the future existence chances of this forest.
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II. GEO-CLIMATE OF ZARGHOON REGION applied to check the homogeneity of variances (assumption of Zarghoon region is located to the southern part of Quetta ANOVA). According to the statistical analysis it was valley lies approximately between latitude 30° N and concluded the tree population was homogenous. The ANOVA longitude 67° E. It shields an area of about 354 sq. miles out result at 5% significance level demonstrated a substantial of which 86 sq. miles is piedmont 101 sq. miles is valley floor difference in mean DBH of trees of five locations. and the rest is mountain high land. The locality has The Tukey’s post-hoc test was used to compare the mean tremendous variation from hill top to valley bottoms and DBH in trees of one village to another. The mean DBH of gentle slopes with grasses scattered trees. Rain and snow fall Medadzai was found to be significant from Sarobai and Killi is dominated in winter; the mean maximum temperature in Shahban whereas, no significant differences were found summer is 25°C and means minimum temperature in winter is between the mean DBH of other locations. The mean DBH of ˗15°C. Medadzai was considerably lower than those of Sarobai and Killi Shahban. A. Material and Methods B. New Regeneration In Juniper forest neighboring five villages a total of 15 plots each of 2 acres at the rate of 3 plots per forest vicinity were Average of Total ground cover percentage by new positioned randomly. In each and every plot the density of regeneration (up to the height of 5 inches) for the three plots mature trees, the individual ground cover of new regeneration of each location was calculated. The data is presented in Fig. seedlings up to the height of 5 inches and old regeneration 2. saplings up to 5ft were measured, Diameter at breast height (DBH), and manmade deforestation of mature trees documented. Average ground cover percentages of Old and New Regeneration were calculated for each location. Deforestation was calculated by calculating the number of stumps present in each plot. Data was recorded in pre-designed Performa’s for each plot separately and subjected to statistical analysis ANOVA by using SPSS. Participatory Rural Appraisal PRA techniques for instance, Fig. 2. Mean New Regeneration Ground Cover %age. Semi Structured Interviews (SSI), Focused Group Discussions Average new regeneration ground cover %age measured at (FGD), transact walk, etc. were used to determine the five locations were from highest to lowest as 4.07 at KTS, community’s dependence on the Juniper forest and the profits 4.03 at KS, 3.49 at Sarobai, 3.58 at G, and 2.86 at M. The they acquire from the forest. The data on livelihood conditions ANOVA results illustrate that at 5% significance level, there of the community especially cattle rearing etc. were also was a noteworthy difference in mean new regeneration ground collected using PRA. cover %age of five locations. The Levene test was applied to check the homogeneity of variances (assumption of ANOVA). III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION It was found that data comes from homogenous population. A. Diameter at Breast Height (DBH) The ANOVA result exhibited that at 5% significance level, Average Diameter at breast height of the trees in three plots there wass a significant difference in means new regeneration at each location was measured. The mean DBH calculated is ground cover %age of five locations. shown in Fig. 1. Analysis of Variance was applied on the The Tukey’s post-hoc test was used to compare the mean obtained data to check if there is a difference in the DBH of new regeneration ground cover %age of one village to trees in the five locations. another. The mean new regeneration ground cover %age of Medadzai was found significant from Killi Tor Shore and Killi Shahban whereas, no significant modifications were found between the mean new regeneration ground cover %age of other locations. We can say that the mean DBH of Medadzai was significantly lower than those of Killi Tor Shore and Killi Shahban. C. Old Regeneration An old Regeneration sapling up to height of 5 feet Ground Fig. 1. Average Diameter at Breast Height (DBH) in inches Cover %age was measured for trees in three plots at each Average DBH in inches measured at five locations were location and the mean is represented in Fig. 3. The data was from highest to lowest as 37.13 at KS, 36.86 at S, 32.40 at checked for difference in average old regeneration at five KTS, 31.96 at G, and 29.40 at M. The ANOVA results show villages. The data was checked at 95% level of confidence. that at 5% significance level, there was a significant difference There was statistically insignificant difference in old in means DBH in trees of five locations. The Levene test was regeneration % of trees at the five locations. Moreover there 128105-6363- IJBAS-IJENS @ October 2012 IJENS I J E N S
International Journal of Basic & Applied Sciences IJBAS-IJENS Vol:12 No:05 40 was no interaction between the Old regeneration % and the locality. The mean old regeneration ground cover % calculated from highest to lowest was 4.75 at Killi Tor Shores, 3.74 at Sarobai, 3.48 at Killi Shaban, 3.43 at Ghunda, and 3.36 at Medadzai.
Fig. 4. Rate of Deforestation in five localities The Tukey’s post-hoc test was used to compare the deforestation of one village to another. The deforestation of Medadzai was found significant from Killi Tor Shore and Killi Shahban whereas no significant differences were found between the deforestation of other locations. Deforestation at Fig. 3. Mean old Regeneration Ground Cover %age. Medadzai was significantly lower than those of Killi Shaban The ANOVA results confirm that at 5% significance level, and Killi Tor Shore. there was a significant difference in means old regeneration ground cover %age of five locations. The Levene test was IV. USES OF JUNIPER TREE’S WOOD BY THE applied to check the homogeneity of variances (assumption of COMMUNITY ANOVA). It was found that data comes from homogenous In all the five village data was also composed on the Juniper population. The ANOVA result shows that at 5% significance forest wood products consumption by the local communities. level, there was a significant difference in means old The data clearly directed that community consumption of the regeneration ground cover %age of five locations. wood products was way too plentiful than the regeneration The Tukey’s post-hoc test was used to compare the mean aptitude of the forest and the situation was further aggravated old regeneration ground cover %age of one village to another. by the smuggling of the juniper wood and natural and other The mean old regeneration ground cover %age of Medadzai anthropogenic changes in the environment. was found significant from Killi Tor Shore and Killi Shahban The data on forest wood products was collected by using whereas no significant differences were found between the PRA technique of Focal Group discussion (FGDs) and a group mean old regeneration ground cover %ages of other locations. of 20 persons from each village were selected and a discussion We can say that the mean DBH of Medadzai was significantly was generated separately in each village on the consumption lower than those of Killi Tor Shore and Sarobai. of wood. A large proportion of community population i.e., D. Deforestation 56% used forest wood for fuel, and it was obtained in different forms for instance; by cutting the stems or branches. 28% for The data was collected for deforestation status in the three timber, 11% of the local population uses the tree bark of the plots for each of the five locations by counting the number of Juniper trees that make the trees vulnerable to diseases and fresh cut stumps present in each plot. death ultimately. Another use of Juniper trees was for making According to the outcomes obtained the mean deforestation the fencing material around the cultivated area and 5% of status of the five selected locations was mean number of cut population (farmers). stumps as 6.69 at Killi Shaban, 5.95 at Killi Tor Shore, 5.66 at The data clearly shows the dependency of the deprived Ghunda, 4.81 at Sarobai, and 4.70 at Medadzai. There was community on the forest resources which were wrecked by the statistically insignificant difference in deforestation at the five communities as the underprivileged and uninformed locations. Moreover there was no interaction between the communities of the area were ignorant of the importance of deforestation and the locality. The ANOVA results express the forest for their own livelihood in future. that at 5% significance level, there was a significant difference Grazing was one of the major factors in the area liable for in deforestation of five locations. The Levene test was applied decline in regeneration %age. It was absolute that local to check the homogeneity of variances (assumption of community was dependent on the forest for feeding their ANOVA). It was found that data comes from homogenous livestock. According to PRA study made in the area the population. The ANOVA result shows that at 5% significance livestock were grazed on the forest rangeland for about 7-8 level, there was a significant difference in means deforestation months in a year. Individual number of sheep, goats, cattle and of five locations. donkeys was as in the pie chart below. Sheep made the dominant livestock population of 23%, donkey and cattle 2% and goat population was 75%.
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VI. CONCLUSION The results of the present trial specified that improving regeneration of Juniperus excelsa trees in Zarghoon Juniper forest is possible through protection of natural forest from anthropogenic disturbance. However, it can be concluded that the Juniper forest is under major threat of dilapidation due to high rate of deforestation and reasonably low rate of
Fig. 5. Pie Chart Showing Percentage of Different Uses of Juniper Tree’s regeneration. Grazing and anthropogenic deforestation are Wood by the Community only some of the important factors, there are many other natural factors like diseases and changing environment. The matchless Zarghoon juniper forest is in dire need of research for conservation and planning best management practices for sustainable consumption of forest resources.
REFERENCES [1] S. Chaudhary, “Flora of the kingdom of saudi arabia,” National Agriculture and Water Research Centre, Ministry of Agriculture, Saudi Arabia, Tech. Rep., 1997. [2] B. Pamay, “Turkiye ardic turleri ve yayililari,” U Orman Fakultesi Dergisi, Tech. Rep., 1955. Fig. 6. Livestock population [3] G. Elicin, “Turkiye doal ardic (juniperus l.) taksonlarinin yayililari ile onemli morfolojik ve anatomik ozellikleri uzerine araitirmalar.” stanbul,Turkey, Tech. Rep., 1977. [4] H. Kayacik, “Orman ve park aaclari ozel sistematii,” U Orman Fakultesi V. DISCUSSION Yayinlari, Tech. Rep., 1980. Forest trees regenerate in their natural habitats. However, [5] S. Al-Shamrary, “Methods of protecting soil from drifting in al-sarah region in the southwestern saudi arabia,” in Desert Studies in Saudi natural regeneration of tree species occurs in suitable Arabia. The Desert Studies Centre, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi environmental conditions for germination, seed production, Arabia, 2-4 Oct. 1994, pp. 248–312. and growth [16]. Regeneration of Junipers was seemingly very [6] R. Hermann, “Importance of top-root ratios for survival of douglas-fir seedlings,” Tree Planters Notes, vol. 64, pp. 7–11, 1964. poor which is in line with the findings of [17]. Authors in [18] [7] R. F. B. C. Baer, N., “Effects of watering, shading, and size of stock on suggested climatic change as a possible reason for the poor survival of planted lodgepole pine,” USDA Forest Serv., Rocky Mt., regeneration of Juniperus excelsa. Natural regeneration may Forest and Range Exp. Sta., Fort Collins, Colorado, Tech. Rep., 1977. [8] B. R. H. D. Hobbs, S.D. and C. Freost, “First year performance of -0 be affected by the difficult seed germination due to drought, containerized douglas-fir seedlings on droughty sites in southwestern increasing recreation activity through forests and over-grazing oregon,” Oregon State Univ., Forest Res. Lab., Corvallis, Res. Pap., vol. these findings are in accordance with [19] who reported that 42, 1980. [9] Z. Yahyaolu and M. Genc, “Fidan standardizasyonu, standart fidan the Juniper seedlings can survive 150 mm rainfall a year, but yetitirmenin biyolojik ve teknik esaslari,” SDU Orman Fakultesi Yayini, they cannot survive a ”drought” lasting longer than 2-3 weeks. Isparta, Turkey., Tech. Rep., 2007. [10] H. Gultekin, “Turkiye ardic (juniperus l.) turlerinin ekolojisi ve Human disturbance, grazing pressure and climatic change silvikultur teknikleri. orman muhendisleri odasi yayini,” Ankara, are the factors that could lead to poor regeneration of Turkey, Tech. Rep., 2007. Juniperus as also reported by [18]. 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essay in practical philosophy,” Swiss Development Cooperation, Tech. Rep., 1998. [20] B. Bishaw, “Deforestation and land degradation on the Ethiopian highlands: A strategy for physical recovery,” in Abstracts of international conference on contemporary development Issues in Ethiopia, Aug 2001, pp. 16–18. [21] G. Amente, “Rehabilitation and sustainable use of degraded community forests in the bale mountains of ethiopia,” Ph.D. dissertation, Faculty of Forest and Environmental Sciences, Albert-Ludwigs University, Freiburg in Breisgau, Germany, 2005. [22] I. Thomas and M. Bekele, “Role of planted forests and trees outside forests in sustainable forest management: Republic of ethiopia country case study,” FAO, vol. , no. , p. , 200 . [23] Z. Bradstock, A. and J. Sultan, “From grassroots to government: Farm- africa’s experiences influencing policy in sub- saharan africa,” London: FARM-Africa andthe Overseas Development Institute, Policy and research series, 2007. [24] A. E. Aboulfatih, H. and A. Hashish, “The influences of grazing on vegetation and soil of asir highland,” Arab. Gulf J. of Sci. Res., vol. 7b, no. 1, pp. 69–78, 1989.
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