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Benali-Mohamed Rachid.Pdf Democratic and Popular Republic of Algeria Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research University of Oran Faculty of Letters, Languages and Arts Department of Anglo-Saxon Languages Section of English A SOCIOLINGUITIC INVESTIGATION OF TAMAZIGHT IN ALGERIA WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE KABYLE VARIETY Doctorat d’État Thesis in Sociolinguistics Presented by: Under the supervision of: Benali-Mohamed Rachid Pr Bouamrane Ali Members of the Jury: President: Professor Farouk Bouhadiba (Oran University) Supervisor: Professor Ali Bouamrane (Oran University) Examiner: Professor Mohamed Dekkak (Oran University) Examiner: Doctor Abbes Bahous (Mostaganem University) Examiner: Doctor Zoubir Dendane (Tlemcen University) 2007 This is to certify that i. The thesis comprises only my original work towards the Doctorat d’Etat; ii. Due acknowledgement has been made in the text to all other material used Signed Rachid Benali-Mohamed To the memory of my father To my mother To Bouchra To Syphax and Anir To my sisters and brothers To all those who through their efforts and sacrifice made the presentation of such a work in an Algerian university possible ACKNOWLEGEMENTS I am deeply indebted to Pr professor A. Bouamrane whose moral help and scientific orientations have been the key for the achievement of this work. His patience and critical mind have been factors without which this work would not have been achieved. My special thanks also go to Pr F. Bouhadiba and Pr M. Dekkak for their constant encouragement and scientific inspiration. I am also grateful to Pr D. Caubet and Pr J. Lentin from the INALCO, Paris for their scientific inspiration either through their seminars or through discussions on the subject of this work. Last but not least, special thanks go to my beloved Bouchra whose patience, encouragement and help have undoubtedly greatly contributed to this work. CONTENTS Abbreviations…………………………………………………………………………….I Key to phonetic transcription…………………………………………………………....II Abstract………………………………………………………………………………….III General Introduction……………………………………………………………………..1 CHAPTER ONE: THE LINGUISTIC SITUATION IN ALGERIA 1.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………….17 1.2 Diglossia……………………………………………………………………….18 1.2.1 Marçais’s Definition…………………………………………………………18 1.2.2 Ferguson’s Definition………………………………………………………..20 1.3 Bilingualism……………………………………………………………………23 1.4 The Languages of Algeria……………………………………………………...26 1.4.1 The Arabic Language………………………………………………………...26 1.4.1.1 Standard Arabic…………………………………………………………….27 1.4.1.2 Algerian Arabic…………………………………………………………….30 1.4.1.3 Educated Spoken Arabic…………………………………………………...31 1.4.1.3.1 Blanc’s Classification …………………………………………………...31 1.4.1.3.2 Badawi’s Classification …………………………………………………33 1.4.2 French ……………………………………………………………………….35 1.4.3 Berber ……………………………………………………………………….37 1.4.3.1 A Historical Background ……………………….……..………………….38 1.4.3.2 The Geographical Distribution……………………………………………44 1.4.3.3 Tamazight in the Hemitic Semitic Language Family……………………...48 1.4.3.4 Tamazight: One language or many languages? ….………………………..52 1.4.3.5 The Algerian Political Environment……………………………………….58 1.5 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………..60 CHAPTER TWO: AN EXAMINATION OF CODE-SWITCHING AMONG KABYLE SPEAKERS 2.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………………62 2.2 The Phenomenon of Code-switching ……………………………………….63 2.3 Code-switching versus Borrowing …………………………………………65 2.4 The Present Study …………………………………………………………...67 2.5 The Data …………………………………………………………………….69 2.6 The Structural Dimension of Code-Switching ……………………………...70 2.6.1 Switching at Category Boundaries ………………………………………..70 2.6.1.1 Switching between a Main Clause and a Subordinate clause …………...70 2.6.1.2 Switching within the Clause …………………………………………….72 2.6.1.3 Switching within the Sentence (S) ………………………………………75 2.7 Cases of Structural Non-Equivalence ……………………………………….85 2.8 The Matrix Language Frame Model ………………………………………...92 2.8.1 Content Morphemes versus System Morphemes ………………………….93 2.8.1.1 Content Morphemes ……………………………………………………..93 2.8.1.2 System Morphemes ……………………………………………………...94 2.8.2 The 4M Model ……………………………………………………………..99 2.8.2.1 Early system Morphemes ………………………………………………..100 2.8.2.2 Late System Morphemes …………………………………………………101 2.8.2.2.1 Bridge System Morphemes ………………………………………….....102 2.8.2.2.2 Outsider System Morphemes …………………………………………..103 2.9 The Social Dimension of Code-Switching …………………………………...105 2.9.1 Linguistic Deficiency …………………………………………………..…...105 2.9.2 Solidarity Marker ……………………………………………………..…….107 2.9.3 Marker of Attitude towards an Interlocutor ……………………….……......108 2.9.4 Situational Code-switching …………………………………….…………...109 2.9.5 Metaphorical Code-switching ……………………………….……………...110 2.9.6 The Markedness Model ……………………………………...……………...111 2.9.6.1 Unmarked Choice Maxim ………………………………....……………...112 2.9.6.2 Marked Choice Maxim …………………………………...………………113 2.9.6.3 Exploratory Choice Maxim ……………………………………………….115 2.10 Conclusion …………………………………………………………………...118 CHAPTER THREE: LANGUAGE CHOICE AMONG KABYLE BILINGUALS 3.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………120 3.2 Factors relevant to language choice …………………………………………...123 3.2 Types of interlocutor …………………………………………………………..125 3.2.2 Types of Setting ……………………………………………………………..129 3.2.3 Types of Topic ………………………………………………………………131 3.2.4 Types of Communicative Purpose or Mood ………………………………...135 3.2.5 The Written Medium ……………………………………….……………….139 3.2.6 Preferences in Performing Certain Tasks ………………….……………….141 3.2.7 Preference for the Media …………………………………………………...143 3.3 The Interaction of Factors Relevant to Language Choice …...……………….148 3.4 Conclusion …………………………………………………...……………….165 CHAPTER FOUR: TAMAZIGHT BILINGUALS’ TOWARDS THEIR LANGUAGES 4.1 Introduction ………………………………………………..………………….169 4.2 The Bilingual’s Attitudes towards his Languages ……….…………………...171 4.2.1 Factors Determining Language Attitudes …………….…………………….172 4.2.1.1 Standardisation …………………………………….……………………..173 4.2.1.2 Autonomy ……………………………………….………………………..174 4.2.1.3 Historicity …………………………………….………………………......175 4.2.1.4 Vitality …………………………………….…………………………...…176 4.2.1.5 Psychological variables …………………..…………………………..…..177 4.3 Tamazight Bilinguals’ Attitudes towards their Languages ………..…..……..178 4.3.1 Beauty and Richness …………………………………………..….………..179 4.3.2 Practicality …………………………………………………...….…………181 4.3.3 Modernity ………………………………………………..………………...182 4.3.4 Usefulness and Necessity ……………………………………………….…184 4.3.5 Identity …………………………………………………………………….186 4.4 The Indirect Technique …………………………………………….………..191 4.4.1 Attitudes towards French ……………………………………….…………192 4.4.1.1 Moral Qualities ………………………………………………………….193 4.4.1.2 Status …………………………………………………………………….194 4.4.1.3 Solidarity …………………………………………………………………195 4.4.2 Attitudes towards Standard Arabic ………………………………………...196 4.4.2.1 Moral Qualities …………………………………………………………..197 4.4.2.2 Status ……………………………………………………………………..198 4.4.2.3 Solidarity …………………………………………………………………199 4.4.3 Attitudes towards Semi-Standard Tamazight ………………………………200 4.4.3.1 Moral Qualities …………………………………………………………...202 4.4.3.2 Status ……………………………..………………………………………203 4.4.3.3 Solidarity ……………………………………………………………...….205 4.4.4 Attitudes towards Kabyle …………………………………………...……...206 4.4.4.1 Moral Qualities ………………………………………………...…………208 4.4.4.2 Status ……………………………………………………………………...209 4.4.4.3 Solidarity ………………………………………………………………….210 4.4.5 Summary Rating of the Different Varieties ……………...…………………211 4.5 Conclusion ……………………………………………...…………………….214 CHAPTER FIVE: TAMAZIGHT LANGUAGE MANAGEMENT 5.1 Introduction…………………………………………………...………………. 217 5.2 Reversing Language Shift.………………………………..…………………….218 5.2.1 Language Shift…….…………………………………..……………………..218 5.2.2 Reversing Language Shift….………………………..……………………….219 5.2.2.1 Fishman’s Model…..……………………………..……………………...…219 5.2.2.2 Crystal’s Model……..…………………………..……………………….....224 5.3 Language Management/ Planning…..……………..………………………...…227 5.3.1 Language Ecology…..…………………………...………………………..…229 5.3.2 Corpus Management……………………………………………………..…...234 5.3.2.1 Standardisation…..…………………………………………………….…..238 5.3.2.1.1 Selection.. ……………………………………………………….………238 5.3.2.1.2 Codification…..……………………………………………………….…243 5.3.2.1.2.1 The Writing System……………………………………………………244 5.3.2.1.2.1.1 Tifinagh Prints………………………………………………………245 5.3.2.1.2.1.2 Arabic Prints………………………………………………...………249 5.3.2.1.2.1.3 Latin Prints.………………………………...………………………..253 5.3.2.1.2.2 Lexis………………………………………….……………………….257 5.3.2.1.2.2.1 Lexical Revival …………………………………………………….259 5.3.2.1.2.2.2 Neologism…….……………………………………………………..260 5.3.2.1.3 Elaboration of Function………………………...……………………....263 5.3.2.1.4 Acceptance………………………………...…………………………...264 5.3.3 Status Planning.…………………………...………………………………...264 5.4 Conclusion…………………………..……………………………………….269 General Conclusion………………..……………………………………………..271 Appendix 1: Questionnaire on language choice………………………..………...277 Appendix 2 : Questionnaire on language attitudes (direct method)..…………… 281 Appendix 3 : Questionnaire on language attitudes (indirect method)…………....283 Bibliography……………………………………………………………..……….284 ABBREVIATIONS AA: Algerian Arabic Ber: Berber CA: Classical Arabic CNPLET: Centre National Pédagogique et Linguistique pour l’Enseignement de Tamazight CS: Code-switching ESA Educated Spoken Arabic F: French HCA: Haut Commissariat à l’Amazighité K: Kabyle MLF: Matrix Language Frame SA: Standard Arabic SST: Semi – Standard Tamazight T: Tamazight I Key to phonetic transcription Unless otherwise indicated, the phonetic symbols used are taken from the IPA ﺏ b ﺕ t ﻁ ÿ
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