1 Introduction
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Notes 1 Introduction 1 . Report of the British Educational Mission (Manchester: Morris & Yeaman, 1919), 84–6. 2 . See Eckhardt Fuchs and Matthias Schulze, “Globalisierung und transnationale Zivilgesellschaft in der Ä ra des V ö lkerbundes,” Zeitschrift f ü r Geschichtswissenschaft 54, no. 10 (2006): 837–40. On the concept of civil society, see J ü rgen Kocka, “Zivilgesellschaft als historisches Problem und Versprechen,” in Europ ä ische Zivilgesellschaft in Ost und West: Begriff, Geschichte, Chancen , ed. Manfred Hildermeier, Jü rgen Kocka, and Christoph Conrad (Frankfurt/Main: Campus, 2000), 13–39. For the history of international organizations more generally, see Akira Iriye, Global Community: The Role of International Organizations in the Making of the Contemporary World (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002). 3 . On US historians’ interest in transnational historiography, see especially Thomas Bender’s groundbreaking study Rethinking American History in a Global Age (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002); and Mary Nolan, The Transatlantic Century: Europe and America, 1890–2010 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012). The impact of growing international interest in the historical study of transna- tional “flows, ties, and appropriations” can be seen in Akira Iriye and Pierre-Yves Saunier, The Palgrave Dictionary of Transnational History: From the Mid-19th Century to the Present Day (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009). An extensive literature exists on the debate over the benefits and limitations of transnational historiog- raphy in Germany. See, especially, Sebastian Conrad and J ü rgen Osterhammel, eds., Das Kaiserreich transnational: Deutschland in der Welt 1871–1914 (G ö ttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2006); Gunilla-Friederike Budde, Transnationale Geschichte: Themen, Tendenzen und Theorien (G ö ttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2006); Berthold Unfried, J ü rgen Mittag, and Marcel van der Linden, eds., Transnationale Netzwerke im 20: Jahrhundert historische Erkundungen zu Ideen und Praktiken, Individuen und Organisationen (Leipzig: Akademische Verlags-Anstalt, 2008). See also the series of papers on transnational history in the specialist forum established within Clio online and the H-Soz-u-Kult list: http://geschichte -transnational.clio-online.net/?pn=texte&id=584 (accessed January 18, 2013). For an overview of gender-historical approaches in Germany, see the report by Nele Albrecht, “Gender History in a Transnational Perspective,” http://h-net.msu.edu /cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&list=h-soz-u-kult&month=0712&week=b&msg=Lns uGFwJSC4xvTgbAez37w&user=&pw= (accessed January 18, 2013). 4 . See the essay collections edited by Lee Ann Banaszak, The U.S. Women’s Movement in Global Perspective (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2006) and by Kimberly Jensen and Erika Kuhlman, Women and Transnational Activism in Historical Perspective (Dordrecht: Republic of Letters Publishing, 2010); also Rumi Yasutake, Transnational Women’s Activism: The United States, Japan, and Japanese Immigrant Communities in California, 1859–1920 (New York: New York University Press, 2004) and Susan Zimmermann, “The Challenge of Multinational Empire for the International Women’s Movement: The Habsburg Monarchy and the Development 205 206 Notes of Feminist Inter/National Politics,” Journal of Women’s History 17, no. 2 (2005): 87–117. 5 . See Marie Sandell, “ ‘Truly International’? The International Federation of University Women’s Quest for Expansion in the Interwar Period,” History of Education Researcher 82 (2008): 74–83; Christy Jo Snider, “Creating a Transnational Identity: The International Federation of University Women Confronts Racial and Religious Membership Restrictions in the 1930s,” in Women and Transnational Activism in Historical Perspective , ed. Kimberly Jensen and Erika Kuhlman (Dordrecht: Republic of Letters Publishing, 2010), 193–218; Joyce Goodman, “International Citizenship and the International Federation of University Women Before 1939,” History of Education 40, no. 6 (2011): 701–21; Joyce Goodman, “Women and International Intellectual Co-operation,” Paedagogica Historica 48, no. 3 (2012): 357–68. 6 . Here, mention must be made primarily of the groundbreaking studies by Margaret W. Rossiter, Women Scientists in America , vol. 1: Struggles and Strategies, 1870–1940 (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982) and vol. 2: Before Affirmative Action, 1940–1972 (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995). For Britain, see Carol Dyhouse, No Distinction of Sex? Women in British Universities, 1870–1939 (London: UCL Press, 1995). For the Netherlands, see Mineke Bosch, Het Geslacht van de wetenschap (Amsterdam: Sua, 1994); for Germany, Patricia M. Mazon, Gender and the Modern Research University: The Admission of Women to German Higher Education, 1865–1914 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2003); Trude Maurer, ed., Der Weg an die Universit ä t: H ö here Frauenstudien vom Mittelalter bis zum 20. Jahrhundert (G ö ttingen: Wallstein, 2010). For an overview of research in the history of science from a gender and women’s perspective, see Sally Gregory Kohlstedt and Helen Longino, “The Women, Gender, and Science Question: What Do Research on Women in Science and Research on Gender and Science Have to Do with Each Other?” in Women, Gender, and Science: New Directions , ed. Sally Gregory Kohlstedt and Helen E. Longino (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1997): 3–15. 7 . In the German literature, especially, points of contact are rare between the histories of gender, science, and women’s movements. On the history of the German women’s movement, see Barbara Greven-Aschoff, Die b ü rgerliche Frauenbewegung in Deutschland 1894–1933 (G ö ttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1981); Ute Gerhard and Ulla Wischermann, Unerh ö rt: Die Geschichte der deutschen Frauenbewegung (Reinbek: Rowohlt, 1996); Iris Schr ö der, Arbeiten f ü r eine bessere Welt: Frauenbewegung und Sozialreform 1890–1914 (Frankfurt/Main: Campus, 2001); Angelika Schaser, Frauenbewegung in Deutschland 1848–1933 (Darmstadt: WBC Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 2006). For Britain: Linda Walker, The Women’s Movement in Britain, 1790–1945 (London: Routledge, 2006); Elizabeth Crawford, The Women’s Suffrage Movement in Britain and Ireland: A Regional Survey (London: Routledge, 2006). For the United States: Ellen Carol DuBois, Feminism and Suffrage: The Emergence of an Independent Women’s Movement in America, 1848–1869 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1999); Eleanor Flexner and Ellen F. Fitzpatrick, Century of Struggle: The Woman’s Rights Movement in the United States (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1996). For France: Christine Bard, “Feministinnen in Frankreich. Frauenstimmrecht und Frieden, 1914–1940,” in Feminismus und Demokratie: Europ ä ische Frauenbewegungen der 1920er Jahre , ed. Ute Gerhard (Kö nigstein: Helmer, 2001), 84–103, and Les femmes dans la soci é t é francaise au 20e si è cle (Paris: Colin, 2001). 8 . See Karen Offen, European Feminisms, 1700–1950: A Political History (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2000); Leila Rupp, Worlds of Women: The Making of an International Women’s Movement (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997); Margaret H. McFadden, Golden Cables of Sympathy: The Transatlantic Sources of Nineteenth-Century Feminism (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1999). Notes 207 9 . An excellent exception is Molly M. Wood, “ ‘Commanding Beauty’ and ‘Gentle Charm’: American Women and Gender in the Early Twentieth-Century Foreign Service,” Diplomatic History 31, no. 3 (2007): 505–30. On transnational aspects of higher education, see Anja Werner, The Transatlantic World of Higher Education: Americans at German Universities, 1776–1914 (London: Berghahn, 2013). Christophe Charle, J ü rgen Schriewer, and Peter Wagner, eds., Transnational Intellectual Networks: Forms of Academic Knowledge and the Search for Cultural Identities (Frankfurt/Main: Campus, 2004) focuses exclusively on male networks. 10 . Other examples of a cultural history of international relations include Akira Iriye, Cultural Internationalism and World Order (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000); Jessica C. E. Gienow-Hecht, Sound Diplomacy: Music and Emotions in Transatlantic Relations, 1850–1920 (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2009). 11 . Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, “The Female World of Love and Ritual: Relations between Women in Nineteenth-Century America,” Signs 1 (1975): 1–29. See also Blanche Wiesen Cook, “Female Support Networks and Political Activism: Lillian Wald, Crystal Eastman, Emma Goldman,” in A Heritage of Her Own: Toward a New Social History of American Women , ed. Nancy F. Cott and Elizabeth H. Pleck (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1979), 412–44; Mineke Bosch and Annemarie Kloosterman, eds., Politics and Friendship: Letters from the International Woman Suffrage Alliance, 1902–1942 (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1990); Leila J. Rupp, “Women’s History in the New Millennium: Carroll Smith-Rosenberg’s ‘The Female World of Love and Ritual’ after 25 Years,” Journal of Women’s History 12, no. 3 (2000): 8–9. 12 . Edith Saurer, “Frauenbewegung und soziale Netzwerke. Kommentar,” in Das Jahrhundert des Feminismus: Streifz ü ge durch nationale und internationale Bewegungen und Theorien , ed. Anja Weckwert and Ulla Wischermann (K ö nigstein: Helmer, 2006), 77–94. On the ways that women took on this originally masculine con- cept of friendship during the nineteenth