Beyond Totalitarianism: Stalinism and Nazism Compared Michael Geyer and Sheila Fitzpatrick Index More Information

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Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-72397-8 - Beyond Totalitarianism: Stalinism and Nazism Compared Michael Geyer and Sheila Fitzpatrick Index More information

Index

Abel, Theodor, 311 Andreev, Andrei, 49 abortion anticapitalist revolution, Soviet (1929–30), Nazi 141 compulsory, 247 anti-Jewish legislation, Nazi (April 1933), 72 differential access to, 113 antisemitism, 68, 247, 254. See also eugenics, 114 persecution therapeutic, 114 anti-Soviet elements, defined, 252 Soviet, 110 appointments, Soviet, 47, 48, 50, 62, 70 1944 decree on, 125 Arbeitswissenschaftliches Institut (Institute for and fertility, 93, 113 Labor Science of the German Labor illegal, 113, 124, 125 Front), 152 justifications for bans on, 113 Arendt, Hannah, 20, 22, 24, 33, 266, 281, 299 outlawed by decrees (June and Arkhangel’sk, 351 November 1936), 112 Arkhitektura za rubezhom (Architecture unauthorized, 124 Abroad), 438 Weimar, 113 armament production, Nazi (1939–44), 82 Achenbach, Oscar Robert, Genealogische Armenia/Armenians, 96, 212, 222 Plauderei, 330 Armia Krajowa, 221 Administration for Special Resettlements, 160 Army Afinogenov, Alexander, On the Eve, 363 Red, 49, 360 Ahnenpass (genealogical passport)/Ahnentafel, casualties, 162, 163 330 compared to Stakhanovite worker, 336 Aktionseinheit, 313, 327 service in, as proletarian credential, 234, album procedures, Soviet, 214 258 Aleksandrov, Grigorii, 435 Soviet, 159, 275, 289, 360. See also Army Alexander Nevsky (Eisenstein, 1938), 439 High Command Algeria, 255 Army Group Center, 165, 371, 381 All-Ukrainian Association of Proletarian Army High Command, 192. See also Army, Artists (VUAPKh), 242 Soviet All-Union Association of Proletarian Army of the East, 354, 358, 371, 374, 375, Architects (VOPRA), 242 378. See also Ostarmee All-Union Communist Party. See aryanization Communist Party of the Soviet Union of Germans, 327, 330, 339 alphabet reform, Soviet, 234 of Jewish property, 255 Alsace, 152, 154 of Polish property, 156

517

© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-72397-8 - Beyond Totalitarianism: Stalinism and Nazism Compared Michael Geyer and Sheila Fitzpatrick Index More information

518 Index

Askaris (auxiliaries), 262. See also auxiliaries Red, 425 asocials Berliner Tageblatt, 123 Nazi, 144, 255, 257 Bevolkerungspolitik¨ , 115. See also population categories of, easily identifiable, 280 Beyrau, Dietrich, 22 defined (December 1937), 256 Bialystok, 155 estimated numbers of, 175 biography, Soviet heroic, 319 preventative detention decree against birth control (December 1937), 256 Nazi, availability of, 105 projected violence against, 176 Weimar clinics, 105 Soviet, social and political, 142 blat, 295 Association of Revolutionary Workers of Bloch, Marc, 21 Cinematography (ARRK), 242 blocking detachments (zagraditel’nye otriady), associations, youth 364, 386 Catholic, 298 Blomberg, Werner von, 74 Nazi, 271–73 Blood Is Our Frontier (slogan), 194 Stalinist, 273–74 Blutschutzgesetz (Law for the Protection of atomization, social, 266, 299 German Blood and German Honor, atrocities, 259, 349, 354, 368, 372, 373, 389. 1935), 115 See also ethnic cleansing; eugenics; Bogdanov, Alexander, 315 genocide; Holocaust; murder, mass Bohemia, 152. Auschwitz (concentration camp), 154, 157, Bolsheviks 377 aspirations to centralism, 43 Austria, 74, 75, 153 and class analysis, 232 autonomy, of Nazi officials, 137 and cultural communities of descent, 226 auxiliaries, 143, 376. See also Askaris and ethnic homogeneity, 214 Azerbaijan, 209, 211, 212 militaristic bent of, 361 nationalizing backwardness, 207 Baberowski, Jorg,¨ 32 as an occupying force during Civil War, 49 Baku, 204 and quest for social order, 201, 204, 208 Balkars, 159, 222 and race, 226 Baltic Republics, 153, 182, 210, 254, 259 and Russia’s historical backwardness, 204 Baltic-Belomor Canal, 319, 416 scorn for prerevolutionary class hierarchies, bandit nations, 210 268 Barbarism and Civilization (Wasserstein, and social transformation, 205, 214 2007), 13 utilitarian morality of, 314 barbarization, 350, 356, 394 and xenophobia, 217, 224 Bartov, Omer, 357 See also Communist Party of the Soviet Bauman, Zygmunt, 32, 50, 180 Union Bavaria, 282 Bonaparte, Napoleon, 408 Beamteneid, 56 bonds Becher, Johannes, 323 associational Beck, Ludwig, 79 Nazi, 293 Belgium, 336, 354 Soviet, 293–95, 296 Belorussia (Belarus), 162, 254, 380 family, 281–87, 299 Belyi, Andrey, 418 approaches to, 281 Beratungsstellen fur¨ Erbgesundheit und Nazi, 281–82 Rassenpflege (counseling centers for Soviet, 282–87 genetic and racial health), 115 social, in the Gulag, 296 Bergson, Henri, 433 workplace, 287–92 Beria, Lavrentii, 81, 86, 159, 166, 217, 219, Nazi, 289 223 Soviet, 288–92 Berlin, 123, 371, 388, 397, 416–18, 421 books, Nazi burning of (1933), 430, 436 Ostbahnhof Europas (Schlogel),¨ 425 Bormann, Martin, 53, 82

Index 519

bourgeoisie, Soviet, 232, 251, 280, 314 Central Institute of Labor, Soviet, 315 Brecht, Bertolt, 348 Central Statistical Administration, Soviet, 92, Brecker, Arno, 419 93, 96 Brest-Litovsk, peace of, 186 centralism, Bolshevik aspirations to, 43 Broszat, Martin, 60, 85 centralization, Stalinist, 50–52 Brown Book, 434 Chaadaev, Pyotr, 409 Browning, Christopher, 33, 134 Charles XII, 408 brutalization, 350, 381 Chechens, 159, 210, 222, 223, 224, 260 Brzezinski, Zbigniew, 20, 300 Cheka, 217 Buddenbrooks (Mann, 1901), 429 Chelmno, Wartheland (extermination camp), Budennyi, Semen Mikhailovich, 365 157 Bukharin, Nikolai, 63, 235, 314, 416, 424 Chernyshevsky, Nikolai, 317, 326 Bulgakov, Mikhail, Master and Margarita, What Is to Be Done?, 435 The, 437 child support, Soviet, 110 Bulgarians, 222 children, Polish, kidnapped by Lebensborn, Bund deutscher Madel¨ (Nazi Youth, BDM), 109 291, 298, 334 Chuev, Feliks, 222 burgerlicher¨ (bourgeois), 108 Chukhrai, Grigorii Naumovich, 382 Byron, George Gordon, 433 Cinema and Life, 242 byvshie (former people), 232, 243, 279, 297 Circus, The (Tsirk, Aleksandrov, 1936), 435 Cabinet, German, 55 civil rights, Soviet, for all citizens (1936), 250 camaraderie (Kameradschaft), 263. See also Civil War community of fate; Mannerbund¨ Soviet (1918–21), 22, 47, 92, 232, 234, camps 314, 362, 386, 411 concentration, 133, 140, 154 society declassed by, 232 Nazi, 334 Spanish (1936–39), 363, 398 lack of social bonding in, 296 civilization, history of, 403 POW deaths in, 162 Clark, Katerina, 36, 37, 398 corrective labour, 140 class distinguishing centrality of, to Nazi and analysis, Bolshevik, 232, 280 Stalinist regimes, 42 as a universal category, 33 Soviet, 240 Soviet POW deaths in, 163 enemy, 280 slave labor, 42 initiatives to end discrimination based UPVI (Administration for Affairs of on, 250 Prisoners of War and Internees), Soviet, and social identity, 232 166–69 and social transformation, 231 Capek, Karel, 413 structure Castoriadis, Cornelius, 20 Bolshevik, 204 Catholic Church, German, 298 diminution of, as a basis for legal Caucasus, 209, 222 discrimination, 250 Soviet expulsion of persons from the, 211 German, 44 censuses, special, 250 Clausewitz, Carl von, 433 Center Party, German, 236, 238 clergy, 279, 297 Central Asia, 160, 227 collectivization, Soviet, 269, 290 Central Committee, 48, 50, 51, 53, 59, 60, 62, forced, 139, 140, 418 70, 79, 86 peasant objections to, 298 April 1929 plenum of the, 63 Comintern, 424 February–March 1937 plenum of the, 69, Commissar Order (Decree for the Treatment 251 of Political Commissars, Nazi, June 6, Central Executive Committee (TsIK), secret 1941), 163, 198, 353 resolution of the (March 24, 1924), 140 Commissariat of Health, Soviet, 97, 102

520 Index

communal housing, 316 Croatia, 154 Communist, Lenin’s ideal, 320 crusade for Europe against Bolshevism, 155 Communist Party of Germany. See KPD culture Communist Party of the Soviet Union, 56, 58, Hitler and oral, 426, 430 59, 71, 253 native, 196 candidates for membership in, 234 Nazi, 426, 427, 430, 432 cells of, in the workplace, 59 Soviet, 318, 425, 428 composition of, 233 appreciation for written, 426, 435–38 congresses of nurturist orientation of, 120, 121 VIII Party Congress (March 1919), 48 proletarian, 315 XII Party Congress (April 1923), 48 and reverse discrimination, 234 XVII Party Congress (January–February as a sub-function of ethnicity (Hitler), 427 1934), 50, 251 Czarnowski, Gabriele, 117 XVIII Party Congress (March 1939), 71 Czechoslovakia, 398 and urban working class, 44 See also Bolsheviks Dagestan, 209 community Danzig-West Prussia, 155, 193, 194, 195 aliens (Gemeinschaftsfremder), 255 Dark Side of Democracy (Mann, M., 2004), of despair, 416 23 of fate (Schicksalgemeinschaft), 263, 374, Darre,´ Richard Walther, 54, 57 393, 402. See also camaraderie Day of the Revolution (Soviet, November 7), companionship, redeeming grace of (Arendt), 270 266 Day of the Seizure of Power (German, January comparison, 36 30), 270 Comrades! A History of World Communism DDP (German Democratic Party), 236, 237 (Service, 2007), 13 decentralization, Nazi, 52 conﬂict, intergenerational family, 286 decrees Congress for the Defense of Culture (Paris, against dangerous habitual criminals, Nazi 1935), 431 (November 1933), 255 conquest, ideological preconditions for Nazi on the exercise of military jurisdiction, Nazi policies of, 188 (May 13, 1941), 353 consciousness, political, value of cross-class on mass operations, Soviet (May 9, 1935), experiences in, 313 68 Conservative Party, German, 236 Degenerate Art exhibition (Munich, 1937), Constitution, Soviet (1936), 250 398 consumption, Soviet, hierarchy of, 244 Deineka, Aleksandr, 397 contraceptives, 105, 106 dekulakization, 136, 139, 140, 174, 178, 240 Nazi ban on (January 1941), 105 Democracy (Rosanvallon, 2006), 13 control of state apparatus demography, 90–91 Nazi, 52–59 denunciations Stalinist, 47–52 individual initiative in, 276 Conversation with a Foreigner (Razgovor s Nazi, political, 174, 258 inostrantsem,Radek,1935), 433 Soviet, political, 174 cooperation, workplace, of necessity, 287 depopulation, and Franco-Prussian War, 91 Cossacks, Soviet deportation of, 212 deportation, 68 Council of Ministers for Reich Defense, 77 Nazi crime and extermination policies, 157 Jewish, 260 of Jews, 194 Nazi, 126, 134, 257 murderous ramiﬁcations of, 157 Soviet, 81, 142, 165, 252 of Poles, 154, 155 state, 140 Soviet, 178, 212, 241 Crimea, 209 of all foreign nationals after Criminal Code, Soviet (1926), 364 the occupation of Poland, 218

Index 521

to Central Asia (1941-44), 219, 222 DVP (German People’s Party), 236, 237 of Chechens and Ingush (1944), 223 Dwinger, Edward, Wiedersehen mit Russland, of Cossacks, 212 416 of Crimean Bulgarians, 159, 222 of Crimean Tartars, 159 Eastern Europe, 75, 151, 153, 175, 176, 185, ethnic, 157, 260 188 against diaspora nationalities Eastern Front (Ostfront) (1935–36), 158 Nazi, 162, 184, 339, 346 during the Great Patriotic War, 158 density of research on, 347 of Germans, 158, 214 economy, Soviet, 47 justification for, 212 prewar, 80 of Koreans, 158, 212 war, 78, 82 of Kuban Cossacks (1933), 211 Edele, Mark, 35 of kulaks, 140, 158, 215, 259 Edelweiss-Piraten, 272 of Kurds, 212 Ehegesundheitsgesetz (Gesetz zum Schutze der mass, 81 Erbgesundheit des deutschen Volkes, of Polish Jews (1940), 217 marital health law, October 18, 1935), of Polish nationals on the 115. See also laws Soviet-German border, 218, 254 Ehegesundheitszeugnise/ from the Ukraine (1940–53), 225 Ehetauglichkeitszeugnis (health of Volga Germans, 222 certificates/certificates of marital fitness), See also ethnic cleansing; extermination, 115 Holocaust Ehrenburg, Ilya, 336, 392, 412, 424, 426, 431, deserters 440 Nazi, 175 Eichmann, Adolf, 195 Soviet, 382, 385, 386 Eindeutigkeit, 201 desublimation, repressive, 107 Einsatzgruppen (task groups), 189, 192, 194, determinism 221, 354 Nazi, biological, 121 Einwandererzentralstelle (Central Bureau for Soviet Immigration), 152 historical, 205 Eisenstein, Sergei, 439 socio-environmental, 121 electricity, and social consciousness, 316 Deutsche Christen (DC), 297 empathy, limits of, and Nazi undesirables, Deutsche Zentral-Zeitung, 424 328, 333 Devil’s alliance, 155 empire diaspora nationalities, 68, 252 and fantasies of utopian purity, 180 dictatorship, 180 multinational, as an expression of Dietrich, Otto, 65 backwardness, 205 Dimanshtein, Sergei, 206 National Socialist Germany, military Dimitrov, Georgi, 433, 434–35 expansion to a multinational, 181 discrimination, reverse, Soviet (in favor of ordering principles (between societies), 191 non-Russians), 234 Ottoman (1908–23), 137 disenfranchised persons (lishentsy), 139, 232, quest for order in, 180, 184 243, 279, 296, 322 Soviet divorce affirmative action, 234 German, 282 multinational, 180, 204, 216 Soviet, 110, 125 enemies of the people, Soviet, 251, 280 DNVP (German National People’s Party), 236, Erbgesundheit (genetic health), 99 237 erbkrank (hereditarily diseased), 278 doctors’ strikes (1920s), 98 erbunwert (hereditarily unfit), 278 Doering-Manteuffel, Anselm, 32 Erbwerte (genetic value), 99 Don Cossacks, 235 Erickson, John, 346 dvoiki (Two-Man Committees), 215 Esperantists, 294

522 Index

Essay on the Principle of Population (Malthus, expansion, Nazi eastern, conditions for, 187 1803), 90 expulsion, Soviet, of Iranians and Turks, 211 etatism,´ Stalin’s, 253 extermination ethnic cleansing Nazi Nazi, 184, 187, 193, 194, 339, 439 as extension of deportation, 157 of Jews, 36, 198 forced marches, 163 in Poland, 190 of Jews, 194, 199, 358 Soviet, 42, 159, 160, 203, 216 legitimizing, 420 at the core of the Stalinist regime, 216 multicausal policies for, 135 of diaspora minorities, 159 selective, toward Soviet POWs, 162 distinguished from Nazi, 213 systemic, 376 as a violent homogenization strategy, war of, against Soviet Union, 22 216 policies of Nazis and Soviets, 181 Tsarist, 202, 203 Soviet, of Nazi soldiers, 259 See also atrocities; deportation; eugenics; war of, 350, 351, 368, 369, 372, 376, 378 Holocaust Ezhov, Nicholai, 214, 215 ethnic Germans (Volksdeutsche), 153, 155, ezhovshchina, 174 199, 262 ethnic groups, enemy, Soviet (1915), 203 face to the countryside campaign (mid-1920s), ethnic order, Nazi goal of new, in Eastern 235 Europe, 151 Factory Worker and Collective Farm Girl ethnicization, Soviet, 207 (Mukhina, 1937), 397 eugenics Fadeev, Aleksandr, Young Guard, 325 appeal of, 103 family Bureau of, Soviet, 102 Nazi emphasis on, 106, 108 fascist, 103 Soviet, campaign to strengthen, 110 International Commission of, 102 famine, Soviet (1932–33), 93, 140 International Congress of (Milan, 1924), Far North, 140 102 fascism, 423 Lamarckian, favored by Marxism, 102 and homosexuality, 110 lebenswert(en) (genetically valuable and interpreted by Soviet ideologues, 321 healthy Germans), 101 Italian, 318, 421 Minderwertigkeit (genetic inferiority), 99, and Soviet eugenics, 103 101, 113 and the written word, 433 and Nazi racial hygiene, 95, 99, 327 Feiler, Arthur, 418 Russian Eugenics Journal, 102 Ferguson, Niall, War of the World, 13 Russian Eugenics Society, 102 fertility Soviet and national power, 94 demise of, 103 indicating ideological superiority, 96 perspective on, 101 rates, Soviet, in the republics, 96 and the social environment, 102 Feuchtwanger, Leon, 429–30 Europa und die Seele des Ostens (Schubarth, Oppermanns, The, 429 1938), 409 Fichte, Johann Gottlieb, 431 Europe, contextualizing (1914–45), 421 ﬁfth column, 68 exclusion, 275–81, 299 Fighters (Kampfer¨ , Wangenheim, 1936), 435 and classiﬁcation, 180 Final Solution of the Jewish Question, 192, legislative and administrative regimes of, 195 275 Finland, 210, 364 Nazi, 245, 254 Fitzpatrick, Sheila, 33, 107 of Jews, 276–79, 293 Five-Year Plan, First, 50, 63, 242, 249, 290 from the project of national revolution, Fleisher, Vera, 283 276 Forster, Albert, 155 Soviet France, 154, 336 based on class, 279 Franco, Francisco, 94 in the late 1920s, 254 Frankfurt School, 20

Index 523

Freikorps (volunteer units), 184–87 as a program of mass murder and ethnic Frick, Wilhelm, 54, 55, 83 reconstruction, 192 Friedrich, Carl, 20, 22, 24, 300 Germanness, defining, 427 Fritsch, Werner von, 74, 79, 188 Germans, Think of Your and Your Children’s Fritzsche, Peter, 34 Health, Handbook for the German frontline brotherhood, 292, 390 Family, and Advice for Mothers, 332 Fuhrerherrschaft¨ (leadership principal), Gesundheitsamt/amter¨ (regional health 185 offices), 99 Fuhst, Herbert, 331 Geyer, Michael, 35 Funk, Walter, 80 ghettos, 194 Furet, François, 24 Gikalo, Nikolai, 210 Gilman, Sander L., 313 Galicia, 193, 376 GKO (State Defense Committee), 77, 78, 79 gas chambers, and the conscience of reorganized (December 8, 1942), 81 perpetrators, 173 Stalin’s management of the war economy Gastev, Aleksei, 315, 317 through the, 78 Gaue/Gau organizations, 57, 74, 75, 83 Glantz, David, 346 Gauleiter, 53, 54, 57, 82 Gleichschaltung (co-optation), 56, 99, 293 Geachteten,¨ Die (von Salomon, 1930), 312 Goebbels, Joseph, 82, 329 Gellately, Robert, 257 Goethe, Joann Wolfgang von, 325 gender roles, 107 Gofshtein, A. S., 111 Genealogische Plauderei (Achenbach), 330 Goring,¨ Hermann, 57, 65, 72, 73, 74, 77, 80, genealogy, Nazi, 226, 323, 330 195, 255, 377, 434 General Council for the Four Year Plan, 57 Gorky, Maxim, 110, 318 General Government, 154, 156, 194 On the Old and the New Man, 318 composition of, 193 Gorky Research Institute of Medical Genetics, death rate in, 165 103 for Occupied Polish Territories (October Gorlitzki, Yoram, 29 12, 1939), 193 Gosplan (State Planning Committee), 79, 226 Generalplan Ost (General Plan for the East), Gottglaubigkeit¨ (religiosity disconnected from 152, 177, 198, 262 churches), 297 Generalsiedlungsplan (General Plan for Gourevich, Peter, 26 Settlement), 152, 198 governance, 29 Genesis of the Final Solution from the Spirit of Nazi, 29 Science, The (Peukert, 1993), 120 Stalinist-stabilized, 29 genetics, Bolshevik revolutionary Graf, Oskar Maria, 431 transformation of Mendelian, 102 Great Break, Stalinist, 317 Geneva Convention (1929), 166 Great Patriotic War (Velikaia Otechestvennaia genocide, 22, 36, 135, 138, 175, 180, 188, voina), Soviet, 158, 346, 363 192, 197, 225, 262 Great Slump, effects of, on German society, defining, 138 268 Soviet, 366 Great Terror, Soviet (1937–38), 84, 215, 216, See also atrocities; deportation; ethnic 398 cleansing; eugenics; Holocaust causes of, 135 Gerasimov, Mikhail, 315 centralization of, 69 Gerlach, Christian, 31 contributory elements of, 67 German blood, 427 familial repudiation during, 284, 286 registering persons of, 199 political purpose of, 69 German Labor Front, 247, 327 secret execution quotas of the, 139 German Operation, Soviet, 214 Greeks, 159, 222 German People’s List, 154 Greiser, Arthur, 155 Germania (future name for Berlin), 397, 419 Griffin, Roger, 13 Germanization, 156, 188, 189, 193, 262 Gross, Walter, 316, 328 Eindeutschungsfahige¨ (persons fit to Grotjahn, Alfred, 95 Germanize), 153 group piece-work (Gruppenakkord), 288

524 Index

Grundel,¨ E. Guenther, 313 histoire croisee´ (entangled history), 26, 35 Gudov, Ivan, 290 Historikerstreit, 403 Guidelines for interruption of pregnancy and history sterilization on health grounds (Germany, comparative, 18, 136, 399–402 1936), 114 aspects of, 27, 90 Guidelines for the Behavior of Troops in case and theme sensitive, 27 Russia, Nazi (May 1941), 354 diachronic context of, 19 Gulag, 30, 133, 141, 169 internal analysis of, 18 Gutt,¨ Arthur, 99, 100 levels of, 18–19 Gypsies Hitler, Adolf German, 257 alliances of, 73 Central Office for the Fight Against the approach to leadership, 65, 66 Gypsy Nuisance, 257 approach to work, 65, 66 Roma, 257, 262, 296 and big business, 73 Sinti, 256, 262, 296 contrasted to Stalin, 61–67 Soviet, 65 cult of the Fuhrer,¨ 42, 58, 85 as Fuhrer¨ and Reich Chancellor, 56 Haffner, Sabastian, 330 Fuhrer’s¨ List, The, 55 Hague Convention (1907), 166 and the Fuhrer’s¨ will, 64 Halder, Franz, 79 image as a Fuhrer,¨ 55, 64 Harrison, Mark, 81 and Jewish Bolshevik internationalists, 426 Haupttreuhandstelle Ost, 195 loyalty statement to, 56 Head Office for Race and Settlement, 152 Mein Kampf, 426 Healey, Dan, 110 as a propagandist, 64 health care socio-Darwinist obsessions of, 66 Nazi, 98 Hitler myth, 248 and reproductive policy administration, 54 Hitler orders, 82 Russian, pre- and postrevolutionary, 97 Hitler salute, 55 Soviet Hitler-Stalin Pact (August 23, 1939), 193 postrevolutionary, 97 Hitler Youth, 298, 327, 333 around World War II, 97 Hoeschen, Hans, 337 universal Hoffmann, David, 29 Russian, 97 Holocaust, 30, 36, 128, 134, 176, 350, 381, Soviet, 97 395 Heartfield, John, 435 as a derivative act, 22 Heer, Hannes, 338 eliminationist policies (ausmerzenden)in, Hegewald, 199 101 Hellbeck, Jochen, 34 See also deportation; ethnic cleansing; helot status, 262 genocide; murder, mass; pogroms Henri Quatre (Mann, H., 1935–38), 438 Holquist, Peter, 361 Herder, Johann Gottfried, 409 homosexuality, 108, 296 heroism, defined by Leninism and Nazism, 60 and fascism, 110 Hess, Rudolf, 65 Nazi Heydrich, Reinhard, 190, 195, 257, 379 as a military threat, 108 hierarchies, Soviet perception of, 256 centralized, 50 Soviet, 110 integrated, 85 hooligans, Soviet, 141 Hilfswillige or Hiwis (auxiliaries), 166 House, Jonathan, 346 Himmler, Heinrich, 58, 65, 74, 83, 105, 108, Hugenberg, Alfred, 73 173, 189, 193, 195, 257, 261, 263, 316, humanism, 428 377, 380 Humboldt, Wilhelm von, 431 Hindenburg, Paul von, 55, 188 Hirsch, Francine, 160 Iagoda, Genrikh, 110

Index 525

Ianushkevich, Nicholas N., 202 Italy, fascist, 402 idealism ITR (Soviet engineering-technical personnel), Nazi, 240, 263 249 Soviet, 274 Iusupov, Prince, 417 identification, Soviet Ivan Susanin (opera, 1836), 419 and social transformation, 231, Izvestiia, 424, 436 264 wartime and postwar, 260 Jean Christophe (Rolland, 1904–12), 438 identity Jehovah’s Witnesses, 296 national Jews Soviet, 253, 320 aryanization of property belonging to, 255 Weimar, 236 as Bolshevik internationalists, condemned social by Hitler, 426 Aryan, 331 civic and social death of (1933–35), 246 assumed right of a regime to impose, 264 confiscated assets and property of, 278 during the Kaiserreich, 236 conspiracies of, 245 meaning of, displaced during World War deportation of, 195 II, 221 as a diaspora nationality, 260 Nazi, wartime, 261 economic boycott of (1933), 276 Soviet, 232–36, 276 economic death of (1938), 254 Weimar, 236 German, defining, 246 ideology Hitler’s 1919 call for the removal of, 246 grounding and projecting action, 28 ideological construction of, by Nazis, 196 Leninist, compared to Marxist, 59 Nazi Nazi, 60 extermination of, 199, 376 Stalinist, class-based, 59 perception of, 190 If Tomorrow Brings War (1938), 363 as threat to Volksgemeinshaft, 245 Illustrierter Beobachter, 328, 330 See also Holocaust imprisonment, Soviet, of Soviet citizens, 176 Johnson, Eric, 258 inclusion, 269–75 Jowitt, Kenneth, 86 and classification, 180 judenfrei (free of Jews), 246 practices of, 267 Junger,¨ Ernst, 311, 315 incorporated territory, German, categories of, 76 Kabo, Vladimir, 270 Independent Socialist Party, German, 236 Kaganovich, Lazar, 48, 49, 62, 66, 86, 205, indigenization, Soviet, 207 208, 212, 226, 411 industrialization, 34, 44 Kalmyks, 159, 222, 260 Soviet Kamenev, Lev, 411 forced, 139 Kampfgemeinschaft, 185, 262 promoted by Germany, 413 Kampfzeit, 82 inflation, hyper-, effects on German society Karachai, 159, 222 (1923), 267 Karaev, Alu Heider, 208 Ingush, 159, 222, 223, 224, 260 Katyn Forest, Soviet execution of Polish insurance, German compulsory sickness, 98 officers at, 218, 366 intelligentsia Kaverin, Veniamin, Two Captains, 325 Soviet, 250, 281, 322 Kazakhstan, 158, 160, 212, 217, 222, 254, classifying, 233 259, 260 hostility toward (late 1920s), 243 Keimzelle (germ cell), 100 International Red Cross, 166 Keitel, Wilhelm, 82, 109 Internationale Literatur (Deutsche Blatter)¨ , Kershaw, Ian, 178, 248 424 Khemshils, 159 Iofan, Boris, 397, 419 Khlevniuk, Oleg, 70, 71 Iran/Iranians, 159, 210 Khrushchev, Nikita, 71, 86

526 Index

Kiehn, Fritz, 294 Laqueur, Walter, 403 Kiev, 212 Russia and Germany, 398 Kireevskii, Ivan, 409 Latzel, Klaus, 334, 337 Kirgizia, 260 laws Kirillov, Vladimir, 315 discriminatory, Nazi (1933), 246, 276 Kirov, Sergei, 49, 212, 243 Law for Ensuring the Unity of Party and Kittelbach-Piraten, 272 State, German (December 1, 1933), 54 Klemperer, Victor, 277, 279, 330 Law for the Ordering of National Labor, Lingua Tertii Imperii, 277 German (January 20, 1934), 73 Kobulov, Bogdan, 159 Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Koch, Eric, 155 Diseased Offspring (Germany, July 14, Kogan, Pavel, 439 1933), 114, 247 Kolkhoz Charter (March 1935), 252 Law for the Standardization of the Health kolkhoznik (collective farmer), 242, 252 Care System, The (Gesetz uber¨ die Kollektivwesen, 420 Vereinheitlichung des Gesundheitswesens, Kollontai, Aleksandra, 107 July 3, 1934), 98 Koltsov, Mikhail, 424, 431, 433, 434, 438 law of combined and uneven development Komsomol, Soviet, 235, 273–74, 292 (Trotsky), 253 Komsomolsk-na-Amure, 274 Law on the Head of State of the German Konasov, V. B., 169, 170 Reich (August 1, 1934), 56 Konsensbereitschaft (readiness for consensus), See also Ehegesundheitsgesetz; marital 248 health law; Nuremberg Laws Korchagin, Pavel, 321 leader-retinue structures, 56, 77 Kovalev, I. V., 66 SS (Schutzstaffel), as exemplary, 58 KPD (Kommunistische Partei Deutschlands, Lebensborn e. V. (maternity homes), 106, German Communist Party), 105, 214, 109 238, 246, 293, 416, 423 Lebensraum (living space), 121, 183, 186, Kraft durch Freude, 248, 327 187, 191, 245 Krakow, 193, 194 and the German struggle for survival, 151 Kraval’, Ivan, 96 origins of, 182 Krokodil, 423 and racial community, 261 Krupp, Friedrich, 73 Lefort, Claude, 20 Krylenko, Nikolai, 111 Leibniz, Gottfried, 409 Kuban Cossacks, 158, 209 Lemberg (L’vov), 194. See also L’vov kulaks, 68, 139, 142, 177, 209, 214, 233, 240, Lenin, Vladimir, 43, 45, 206, 413, 430 250, 252, 258, 276, 280 Leningrad, 162, 212 Kulik, Grigorii, 365 Leninism, 46 Kulturbolschewismus, 403 Levene, Mark, 175 Kultur-Tagung (Hitler’s September 1938 Lewin, Moshe, 233 speech in Nuremberg), 427 Ley, Robert, 82 Kulturtragertum¨ , 419 liberties, individual, reasons for rejecting, Kun, Bela, 413 87 Kurds, 159, 210, 222 Lingua Tertii Imperii (Kemperer, 1947), Kursk, Battle of (1943), 360, 383, 385 109 linguistic islands, 184, 187 labor battalions, Soviet, 168, 169 Literaturnaia gazeta, 424 Labor Defense Council, 51 Lithuania, 154 Labor Educational Centers, 83 Litvinov, Maxim, 410 labor policy, Nazi, and racism, 177 Lodz, 155 Lammers, Hans, 65, 82 Lorraine, 152, 154 Land Oberost, 413 Lublin, 154, 193 Landesschutzenbataillone¨ , 164 Ludtke,¨ Alf, 33 languages, indigenous, 234 Lutsk, 219

Index 527

Luxemburg, 152, 154 Military Council of the Western Front, Soviet, L’vov, 194, 219. See also Lemberg 370 Lysenko, Trofim D., 103 Mischlinge (persons with at least one Jewish grandparent), 246 Machtergreifung (seizure of power), 104 mobilization Madagascar, 255 Nazi, 376 Magnitogorsk, 274 politics as, 85 Main Administration of Political Propaganda political, 42 of the Red Army, 386 wartime Makarenko, Anton, 318 German, 83 male supremacy, Nazi, 240 Soviet, 84 Malenkov, Georgii, 71, 81 Mode, Die, 337 Malia, Martin, 384 Modernism and Fascism (Griffin, 2007), 13 Malthus, Thomas, Essay on the Principle of modernization, 34, 201 Population, 90 Moeller, Robert, 264 Mann, Heinrich, Henri Quatre, 438 Molchanov, Georgii, 212 Mann, Michael, 42 Moldavia, 259 Dark Side of Democracy, 23 Molotov, Vyacheslav, 51, 62, 70, 81, 86, 210, Mann, Thomas, 409 212, 222 Buddenbrooks, 429 Molotov-Ribbentrop pact (August 1939), Mannerbund¨ (comradeship of the fighting 438 unit), 108. See also camaraderie Mommsen, Hans, 29 Marcuse, Herbert, 107 Moore, Barrington, 34 marital health law (Gesetz zum Schutze der Moravia, 152 Erbgesundheit des deutschen Volkes, Morocco, 255 October 18, 1935), 115 Morozov, Pavlik, 241, 284, 285, 299 marriage Moscow law, and Minderwertigkeit, 99, 101, 113 battle of (1941–42), 360 loans, Nazi, 117–19, 123, 127 police raids in (July 1933), 141 policy, Nazi, 115, 332 Mother Homeland (Rodina mat’), 391 and racial mixing, 115 Mother Russia, 391 Martin, Terry, 50, 158, 253 motherhood Marx, Karl, 312 rationalization of, 104 Marx-Engels-Lenin Institute (IMEL), 436 service crosses (Germany), 119, 123, 127 Maschmann, Melita, 272, 291 superficial glorification of, 116 massacres, 366. See also atrocities; genocide; movements, labor, 287 Holocaust; murder, mass; pogroms Muhlenberger,¨ Detlef, 238 Master and Margarita, The (Bulgakov, 1967), Mukhina, Vera, 402, 419 437 Factory Worker and Collective Farm Girl, maternal paid leave, Soviet, 116, 126 397 maternity facilities, Soviet, 116 murder, mass May Day, Soviet, 271 Nazi, 173, 175 Mayer, Arno, 24 Soviet, 175 Mein Kampf (Hitler, 1925), 95, 151, 312, 330, during the Great Terror, 174 340, 426, 430, 439 See also atrocities, genocide; Holocaust; Mekhlis, Lev, 387 massacres; pogroms Mensheviks, 405, 418 Muslims, 166 Merridale, Catherine, 346, 384 Mussolini, Benito, 94 Mertens, Adolf, 334 Mutterschulungskurse (training courses for Meskhetian Turks, 159, 222 motherhood), 332 Metro-Vicker, 418 MVD (Ministerstvo Vnutrennikh Del, Meyerhold, Vsevolod, 316 Ministry of Internal Affairs), 144 Mikoian, Anastas, 81, 205 Myrdal, Alva and Gunner, 94

528 Index

Nabokov, Vladimir, 417 Nolte, Ernst, 22, 24 Nahplane¨ (short-term plans), 177 nomads, 202 Nakhichevan, 211 nomenklatura, 48, 49, 50, 59, 71, 84 nation non-Cossack peasant settlers (inogorodnie), as a community of fate, 205 236 as a cultural community, 207 normalization, Soviet, 71 of descent, 226 Norway, 336 National Liberals, German, 236 NSADP (Nationalsozialistische Deutsche national operations, Soviet (1937–38), 215 Arbeiterpartei/ Nazi Party), 58, 72 consequences of, 216 1930 composition of, 238 national renewal, Nazi social policy on, as an agitational mass movement), 64 101 early-1930s electoral successes, 237 National Socialism and Hitler’s skills as a propagandist, 64 expanding, 182–200 intrusiveness of, 59 similarities to Stalinist Russia, 21 membership growth between 1933–35, 58 social support for, 44 philosophic positions of, 239 unconditional allegiance to Hitler, 46 relationship to state, 54–55 See also NKVD as a vehicle for class mobilization, 238 National Socialist revolution, 72 as a Volkspartei, 238 nationality, Soviet NS-Frauenschaft, 247, 332 confusion about, 206 Nuremberg Laws (Nurnberger¨ Gesetze, and social transformation, 231 September 1935), 115, 246, 257, 279, Naturmenschen, 420 329, 330. See also laws Nazaretian, A. M., 62 Nazi-Soviet War. See World War II Ober Ost (Oberbefehlshaber der gesamten NEP (New Economic Policy, Soviet deutschen Streitkrafte¨ im Osten, Supreme (1921–29), 97, 107, 317, 318 Command of all German Combat Forces NEPmen, 240 in the East), 183, 410 Neues Volk, 328 Oberkommando des Heeres, High Command Neurath, Konstantin von, 74 of the German Army (OKH), 188 New Man, the, 302–41 October Revolution, 43 commonalities in the creation of, 415 Ogonek, 424 Germanic, 313 OGPU (All-Union State Political historical evolution of, 302 Administration), 140, 141, 241, 416 Nazi, 98, 302 On the Eve (Aﬁnogenov, 1940), 363 relationship to history, 314, 318 Operation Bagration (1944), 381 and social self-transformation, 34 Operation Barbarossa, 351–60 Soviet, 314–26 collateral damage implicit in, 354 as liberating all humanity, 302 escalation of violence during, 352–58 mechanistic construct of, 315–17 famine resultant from, 356 as a mixtum compositum, 410, 421 Nazi Night of the Long Knives (June 1934), annihilation of Jews and Bolsheviks 74 necessary to, 352, 355, 358 Nizhnii Novgorod, 71 as a just war, 352 NKVD (People’s Commissariat for Internal targeted killing in, 354 Affairs), 70, 71, 133, 142, 159, 167, 360, terror as a paciﬁcation principle in, 355 366, 385 violence implicit in, 354 and ascribed hereditary status, 253 as war in a new key, 352 mass operations of, 70 Operation Mars (1942), 360 See also National Socialism; police Oppermanns, The (Feuchtwanger, 1933), Noakes, Jeremy, 59 429–30 nobility, Soviet, 280 Orders, Soviet noble savage (Rousseau), 409 Order No, 44/21 (February 2, 1930), 177

Index 529

Order No, 227 (July 28, 1941), 81 as non-European, 409 Order No, 227 (July 28, 1942), 386 as a Shaky Colossus, 410 Order No, 270 (August 16, 1941), 80, 364, of the Russian collective individual, 410 385 of Russian people, 409 Order No, 398 (March 1, 1943), 167 of Russian space, 408 Order No, 447 (July 30, 1937), 69, 177, of Soviet atrocities, 411 251 mutual, of Nazi Germany and the Stalinist Order No, 447 (July 30, 1939), 142, 143 Soviet Union, 441 Ordzhonikidze, Grigori Konstantinovich, interwar, 416 62–63, 205 in World War I, 413–14 Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists, 259 scholarship on German, of the Soviet Organization Todt (OT), 57 Union, 408 organizations Soviet Nazi, 271 of Germany, 422, 428, 440 Soviet, 273–74 of Nazism as the inevitable outcome of Orgburo, 47, 48, 62, 77 capitalism, 425 orgraspred, 48 of the repressive character of the Nazi Orientalism (Said), 407 regime, 423 Orlova, Raisa, 281 Perestroika, effect on historical scholarship, Orthodox Church, Russian (1920s–early 41 1930s), 293, 297 persecution Osoaviakhim (Union of Societies of Assistance Nazi, categories of persons suffering, 296 to Defence and Aviation-Chemical popular participation in, 137 Construction), 273 Soviet, 418 Ostarmee, 393. See also Army of the East See also antisemitism; atrocities; genocide; Ostforschung (Eastern Studies), 186 Great Terror; Holocaust Ostrovskii, Nikolai, 321 Peukert, Detlev, The Genesis of the Final outcasts, 102, 142, 143, 258, 296 Solution from the Spirit of Science, 120 Pfarramt/amter¨ (parish office), 330 Pakhomov, Alexey, 397 physicians, analysis of, in 1933 Berlin, 95 Palace of the Soviets, 397, 419 Pirenne, Henri, 25 Papen, Franz von, 74 Pleyer, Kleo, 338 parental roles, Soviet, 110 Ploetz, Alfred, 95 Paris Congress for the Defense of Culture Podlubnyi, Stepen, 280 (1935), 431, 433 pogroms, 203, 204, 220, 255 Paris International Exposition (1937), 396, Poland, 152, 153, 154, 155, 182, 191, 210, 431, 432, 440 336 partification, 82, 83 Eastern, Soviet activity in, after the Party Chancellery, 53 Hitler-Stalin Pact (1939), 217 party-state bureaucracy, controlling, 67–76 Nazi invasion of, 189 passportization, Soviet, 139, 251, 253, Polish subhumans, Nazi, 190 258 police paternity, importance of, 109, 110 secret, 49 patronage, Stalinist, 48, 60, 84 Soviet, 143, 159 peasants, Soviet, 241, 252, 259, 269 -state, autocratic, 46 landless (batraki), 233 See also NKVD middle (seredniaki), 233 Polish Operation, Soviet (August 1927), 214, poor (bedniaki), 233 216 perceptions Politburo, 47, 48, 51, 60, 62, 69, 70, 78, 112, German 251, 428 of Jewish influence in Russia, 410, 419 political of the 1930s Soviet Union, 408 authority of Russia, 418–22 Bolshevik, 47

530 Index

political (cont.) German Nazi, 47 repatriation by Soviets, 168 Central Commission (National Socialist), used in Soviet reconstruction, 168 53 mortality rates of, 170 order Nazi Nazi, 83 held by Soviets, 166, 167 Hitler’s centrality to, 55 no prisoner policies, 164 Stalinist, 71, 84, 86 policy toward Soviet, 161 system Polish and Finnish, Soviet disregard for the distinctiveness of Nazi and Soviet, 45 Geneva Convention pertaining to, 166 monolithic, 29 Soviet, 170 Soviet in the German Army and Waffen-SS, distinct features of, 30, 80 166 Soviet and Italian metaphors for liquidation on battleﬁeld of, 166 participation in, 321 as Nazi servants, 165 Poltava, deportation from, 211 reasons for Nazi brutality towards, 165 Popular Front (1935), 426, 433, 434, repatriation of German, 169 437 starvation of, 171 population Poznan, 155, 193, 194, 195 as a critical national defensive resource, 91 Pravda, 423, 424, 426, 434, 436 declining prenatalism and German race suicide, 91 ineffectiveness of Nazi and Soviet, 123–28 and mortality rates, 90 Nazi, distinguished from Soviet, as national suicide, 94 122 effects of World War I on, 91–92, 94, 95 Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR European decline in fertility (nineteenth decree (November 26, 1938), 160 century), 91 Pridham, Geoffrey, 59 French decline in fertility (1850–1900), 91 priests, 250 German and Russian, in the 1930s, 58 Progressive Party, German, 236 and nineteenth century fertility, 90 Proletarian Cinema, 242 policy proletariat, 232, 233 cameralist analysis of, 90 as an advantageous social identity, 233 Enlightenment thought on, 90 as a Bolshevik ideological term, 242 and international competition, 96 dictatorship of the, 268 Nazi, 107 Proletarskaia revoliutsiia, 425 Germanization, 183 Proletkul’t, 315 in Poland, 192 Promotion of the Marriage Rate (Germany, and Nazi eugenics, 100 June 1, 1933), 117 zero sum, 109 pronatalism and reproduction for mass warfare, 87, 91 European, 87 Russian Nazi and economic class fertility, 93 and antinatalism, 114, 119 pre– and post–World War I, 51 coercive, 104, 113 and settlement plans, 153 public response to, 123 Soviet Soviet, 110, 121 birthrates (1935–38), 125 distinguished from Nazi, 122 exchange (1939), 151. public response to, 124 See also Bevolkerungspolitik,¨ resettlement propaganda, 36, 112, 114, 390 Potemkin, Leonid, 325–26 Nazi, 82, 353, 366, 372 POWs (prisoners of war), 161–71, 371, 372 Soviet, 218, 365, 382, 384, 389 differences between treatment of German prostitution, Nazi, 106, 108 and Soviet, 170, 171 proverki (veriﬁcations), 67 estimating German and Soviet, 170 Prut, Iosef, 365

Index 531

purges Bolshevik, 46 chistki, 67 differences between, 47, 61 Nazi, 73 Stalinist, emergent background for, 43 compared to Stalinist, 74 rehabilitation, 243 Stalinist Reich Defense Commissioners, 82 as healthy nationalism, 419 Reich Defense Council, 82 institutional, 279 Reich directorate (National Socialist), 52 Party (1937–39), 251 Reich Ministry for Food and Agriculture, effects of, 67, 70–71, 76. 151 See also Great Terror Reich, Das, 329, 336 Pushkin, Aleksandr, 325 Reichenau, Walther von, 359 Reichorganisationsleitung I and II, 53 quota Reichsarbeitsdienst, 333 arrest, 257 Reichsfluchtsteuer, 278 national, for Soviet education and Reichsgau Wartheland, 155 government institutions, 234 Reichskristallnacht (Night of the Broken Glass, November 9–10, 1938), race 277 Aryan master, 87 Reichssicherheitshauptamt (Head Office of Bolshevik conceptions of, 226 Reich Security), 152, 190 goal of racial state, 44 Reichsstelle fur¨ Raumordnung (Reich Office -mixing, 245 for Area Planning), 151 Nazi Reichstag categorization, 220 elections (November 12, 1933), 55 certifying requirements, 261 fire (1933), 430, 433 community of, 245 religion defining reality, 239, 261 of National Socialism, 119, 120, 273 and eugenics, 100 political, 382 fordernden¨ (supportive policies), 101 shaping communities, 297 grooming, 328 in the Soviet Union, 209, 280, 392 hierarchy of, 196, 220 repression, Stalinist, as a convergence of hygiene, 113 several phenomena, 135 purity as objective of social policy, 95, reproduction 231, 245 Nazi Radek, Karl, 424, 425, 431, 433, 438 financial renumeration for, 117 radicalization, 356, 381 militaristic goals for, 101 Radom, 193 political administration of, 96–99, 332 rape, mass, Soviet, 171, 173, 263 politics of, 29 Rasse- und Siedlungshauptamts der SS social goal of, 30 (RuS-Einsatzgruppen), 192, 194, 195 Soviet Rassenhygiene (racial hygiene), 100 and anthropometry, 111 Rassenschande (marriage between an Aryan effects of industrial labor on, 112 and non-Aryan), 246, 278, 279 financial renumeration for, 116, 121, Rationalization, 58 124 rationing, 250 industrial production language for, 111 redemption, eschatological ideology of, 181 nondiscriminatory promotion of, 119, regime cities, 139, 143 121 regimes state intervention in, 90, 104 bonding with, 271 resettlement historical circumstances affecting, 44 camps, categorization of refugees in, 156 Nazi, emergent background for, 43–45 differences between Soviet and German, Nazi and Stalinist 161 commonalities between Nazi and ethnic, 151–61

532 Index

resettlement (cont.) Russian Association of Proletarian Musicians Greater German Reich (Reichsdeutsche), (RAPM), 242 153 Russian Association of Proletarian Writers Hitler’s organizational prerequisites for, (RAPP), 242 193 Russian Question, 234 Nazi Russo-Japanese War (1904–05), 362 of ethnic Germans, 154 Rykov, Alexei, 51, 63 and mass murder, 177 plans for, 176 SA (Sturm Abteilung), 72, 188 non-ethnic, 157 Said, Edward, 407 principal objective of, during World War II, Samara, 48 151 Samokhvalov, Aleksandr, 397 racial screening for, 156 Schacht, Hjalmar, 73, 74 Soviet, administrative, 158 Scheffer, Paul, 418 verdrangt¨ (resettled locally), 154. Schleicher, Kurt von, 74 See also population Schlieffen Plan, 357 Restoration of the Professional Civil Service Schlogel,¨ Karl, 36, 37, 181, 398, 405 (April 7, 1933), 73 Berlin, Ostbahnhof Europas, 425 retinue structures, 58, 85 Schmitt, Carl, 336 Reuter, Ernst, 413 Schmolders,¨ Claudia, 313 revolution from above (Stalin), 362 Schonheit¨ der Arbeit, 287 effects of, 43, 44, 269 schools, elementary, Nazi desire to control, revolution, Bolshevik, 43 297 phases of, 269 Schubarth, Walter, Europa und die Seele des social changes as a result of, 268, 288 Ostens, 409 and Weimar Germany, 403 Schuddekopf,¨ Otto Ernst, 414 Rhineland bastards, 255 scorched earth tactics Ribbentrop, Joachim von, 57 Tote Zonen (dead zones), 380 Right Opposition, Stalin’s defeat of, 62, 63 Verwustung¨ (desertification), 380 Rilke, Rainer Maria, 409 SD (Sicherheitsdienst, Security Police), 119, RKF (Reichskommissar fur¨ die Festigung 189 deutschen Volkstums (Reich Secretariat, Soviet, 52, 62, 77 Commissioner for the Strengthening of Seldte, Franz, 57 Germandom), 151–54, 193, 195 Semashko, Nikolai Aleksandrovich, 113 Rohm,¨ Ernst, 72, 74, 108 Serbia, 154, 376 Rolland, Romain, 438 Serov, Ivan, 159 Romania, 153, 256 Service, Robert, Conrades! A History of World Rosanvallon, Pierre, Democracy, 13 Communism, 13 Rosenberg, Alfred, 55 settlement policy, Third Reich, 151 Rostov, 221 sexual freedom Rousseau, Jean Jacques, 409 Nazi, 106–09 RSFSR (Russian Soviet Federative Socialistic Soviet, 107 Republic), principal object of 1918 Shakhty (1928 trial), 418 constitution of, 232 She Defends the Motherland (1943), RSHA (Reich Security Main Office), 58, 384 194 Shearer, David, 68 Russia, 154, 162 Show Trial, First Moscow (August 1936), 71 historical backwardness of, 43, 318 Siberia, 48, 140, 152, 158, 252, 259, 262 as a non-European land, 351 Sicherungsdivisionen, 164 pre–World War I German influence on, Siegelbaum, Lewis, 33 412–13 Silesia, 193, 195 space, 352 Simonov, Konstantin, 439 Russia and Germany (Laqueur, 1965), 398 Slovenia, 152, 153, 154

Index 533

Smolensk, 357 special settlers (spetspereselentsy), 172, battle of, 360 244 Social Darwinism, 94, 101 specialist baiting, Soviet, 249 reinforced by World War I, 94 speculators, Soviet, 1934 arrests of, 141 Social Democrats, 43 Speer, Albert, 397, 402, 419 social groups, Soviet (obshchestvennye SS (Schutzstaffel), 57, 72, 75, 109, 133, 152, gruppy), 250 155, 189, 326, 332 social hygiene, Nazi, 95 settlement racial screening by, 154 social order, classiﬁcation in, 180 weapons, 58 Socialisme ou Barbarie, 20 See also Waffen-SS socialist offensive, Soviet (1920sand1930s), SS-Ansiedlungsstabe¨ (SS-settlement teams), targets of, 240 199 socialist realism, Soviet, 437 Staff of the Fuhrer’s¨ Deputy, 53 socially alien elements, Soviet, 209, 227 Stakhanov, Aleksei, 320 socially harmful elements, Soviet Stakhanovite movement, 249, 290, 291, 319 (sotsvrediteli), 68, 139–44, 252 Stalin, Joseph, 166, 205, 208, 210, 212, 365, 1933 arrests of, 141 430 categorized, 142, 178 administrative competence of, 61, 64 plan to eradicate, 178 approach to leadership, 66 society approach to work, 64, 66 atomized, regimes creating belonging in an, and centrality, 45 34 contrasted to Hitler, 67 Marxism-Leninism, as advanced science of, and culture, 428, 436 428 as an institution-builder, 62 Soviet, moral-political unity of, 68 as an interventionist, 65 sodomy, Soviet, 110 as a praktik, 85 Solomon, Susan Gross, 102 Stalingrad, 385 Solovki (Soviet concentration camp), 140, battle of (1942), 360, 383 416 Starovskii, V. N., 226 Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr, 296 starvation, 31, 140, 162, 262, 358, 378 Soviet people (sovetskii narod), as Soviet Nazi parallel to Volksgemeinschaft, 253 plans for, 176, 378 Soviet Union, 152 policy of, 162, 197 German pre-1933 and post-1933 images of, state 419 identifying populations, 231 internal concerns (1930s), 139 Nazi, foundations of, 60 as a multinational federation, 96, 180, 203 Stalinist, foundations of, 60 Stalinist welfare, precedence of, over individual interlocking party and state committees welfare, 96 in, 51 state building racializing internal populations, 180–201 Bolshevik, phases of (1919–34), 43 sovietization, of annexed territories Stalinist, 46 (1939–40), 253 phases of, 45, 50 Soviets, Extraordinary Eighth Congress of State Defense Committee (GKO), Soviet, 370 (November 1936), 250 State Peasant Organizations (Nazi), 151 Sovinformbiuro, 169 Statthalter (governor), 47 sovkhozniki, 252 stereotypes Sovnarkom (Council of People’s Commissars), Nazi, 338 51, 54, 70, 79 Soviet, 253 Spain, Republican, 438 sterilization, Nazi SPD (Social Democratic Party), 236, 238, 240, of African-German children, 255 246, 293 mandatory, 114, 247, 255, 257 special settlements, Soviet, 139–41 Stieff, Helmuth, 374

534 Index

Stolypin reforms, 241 Two Captains (Kaverin, 1936–44), 325 Stormtroopers (Stoßtruppen), 72 Tyrol, 153 Strasser, Gregor, 53 Strumilin, S. G., 93 Uglanov, N. A., 50 Sudetenland, 74, 75 Ukraine, 48, 93, 154, 166, 197, 198, 209, suffrage, women’s, Weimar, 237 211, 212, 221, 254, 259, 381 Swing-Youth, 272 Ukrainian Insurgent Army, 259 Syrtsov, Sergei, 49, 50 Umwandererzentralstelle (Central Bureau for Emigration), 152 Tarnopol, 194, 337 unfit for work, 177 Tartars, 260 Untermenschen, 419 tax in kind, 49 Urals, 140 Tehran Conference (1943), 167 Ustrialov, Nikolai, 323–24 Tendriakov, Vladimir, 389 Uzbekistan, 235, 260 Terror. See Great Terror. See also genocide; murder, mass; purges van der Lubbe, Marinus, 434 Thalman,¨ Ernst, 434 van der Rohe, Mies, 397 The party commands the state (slogan), 54 Vareikis, Iosif, 49 theater, agitprop, 243 venereal disease, 92, 100, 106 Third All-Union Conference on the Protection Verbitterung (embitterment), 359 of Maternity and Infancy (1926), 112 Verfugungstruppe¨ (SS military units), 189. See Thomas, Georg, 80 also SS; Waffen-SS Thorak, Josef, 397 Vergesellschaftung (strategies of Thyssen, Fritz, 73 societalization), 33, 35 Timm, Annette, 29 Vertov, Dziga, 316 Timoshenko, Semyon, 365 victory of the child, Nazi, as corollary to Tito, Joseph Broz, 413 victory of the sword, 108 Todt, Fritz, 56 Vinnitsa, 212 Tolstoi, Aleksei, 319, 321 violence, 14 Tomsk, 141 absolute, Nazi plans for, 176 Tomskii, Mikhail, 43 arguments used to demand, 172 totalitarianism essential to totalitarianism, 30 conceptual approaches to the study of, 14 extreme, distinguishing, 32 difficulty in conceptualizing, 20 mass Nazi charismatic, 61 defining, 138 problems of model, 154, 300 Nazi questions to be asked in the study of, 18 as developmental, 175 Soviet ideological, 61 expansionist, 31 transformation, social social aim of, 178 difference between Soviet and Nazi popular support for, 172 objectives, 302 questions surrounding, 136 public arenas for, 269 Stalinist treason, Soviet, 364 as developmental, 175 treaty, German-Soviet nonaggression internal, 31 (August 1939), 419 against kolkhoz peasantry, 176 trenches, Nazi myth of the, 312 planification of, 177 Tretiakov, Sergei, 431 social aim of, 179 troiki (Committees of Three), 70, 82, 141, 214 as a social prophylactic, 213 Trotsky, Leon, 206, 253, 410, 430 against Soviet citizens, 42 Trotskyite, 276 as normative for political struggle (Stalin), Trud v SSSR (1930s), 243 366 Tunisia, 255 popular participation in, 138 Turkey, 210 reconstructing society, 32, 328

Index 535

social acclimation to, 172 War of the World (Ferguson, 2006), 13 Soviet Warsaw, 193 1930s quotas for murderous, 366 Warthegau, 195 orders to halt, 172 Wartheland, 156 vodka, 295 Was ist Rasse? 328 Vogelsang, Thilo, 430 Wasserstein, Bernard, Barbarism and Volga Dam, 321 Civilization, 13 Volga Germans, Republic of, 222 Wehrmacht, 58, 74, 168, 189, 190, 192, 198, Volga River, 351 219, 222, 333, 352, 355, 357, 373, 378, Volk (race), 101, 183, 187 392 volkische¨ Flurbereinigung (ethnic cleansing), Directive 21 (18 December 1940), 351 190 Directive 46 (28 October 1942), 380 Volkischer¨ Beobachter, 123, 332 Weiner, Amir, 36, 259 Volksbeauftragte, 185 Weissberg-Cybulski, Alexander, 214 Volksdeutsche Mittelstelle, 152, 153, 155 Weltanschauungen (world views), 396 Volksdeutscher Selbstschutz, 155 Werth, Nicolas, 31 Volksgemeinschaft (ideological images of Weyrather, Irmgard, 119 living space), Nazi, 87, 109, 120, 122, What Is to Be Done? (Chernyshevsky, 1863), 124, 329 435 evocative power of, 239, 240 White Guard, 210 ideal of, 236, 245 White Russia, 197, 198, 209, 211 ideology of, 239 White Sea-Baltic Canal construction project, and inclusion policies, 261, 293, 299, 244 301 Wiedersehen mit Russland (Dwinger, 1942), message of, 239–40 416 as racial community, 247, 261 Willikens, Werner, 178 and social transformation, 231 Wolf, Christa, 329 Volksgesundheit (people’s health), 99 Woltscht-Kinderman incident, 418 Volkskorper¨ , 129 women Volkstum (ideological concepts of race), 186, emancipation of 191 Nazi opposition to, 240 Volks-und Kulturbodenforschung (Native Soviet support of, 107, 268 Peoples and Cultures Research), 186 perceptions of the role of Volkswerdung (becoming a people), 334 Nazi, 104, 240 von Salomon, Ernst, 312 Soviet, 105, 117, 126 Voroshilov, Kliment, 86, 365 Weimar, 237 vory v zakone (career criminals), 296 work Vossische Zeitung, 123 experience (stazh), and class consciousness, vydvizhentsy, Soviet, 243 234, 243 Vyshinskii, Andrei, 215, 416 redemptive value of, 244 -shy, 256, 257 Waffen-SS, 189. See also SS Work Service and Land Year, The, 248 wage schemes, German, 287, 288 workers Wagner, Richard, Die Walkyrie, 419 foreign, 172, 176 Walkyrie, Die (Wagner), 419 German, 98 Wangenheim, Gustav von, Fighters, 435 bonds among, 288 Wannsee Conference (January 1942), 199, shock, 244 377 Soviet, 93, 111, 207, 233, 234 war bonds among, 289 of annihilation, 155 preparatory schools (rabfaky)for,234 European civil (Der europaische¨ productive, 249 Burgerkrieg)¨ , 402 proletarian identity crisis of, 243 ideological (Weltanschauungskrieg), 402 women as, 112, 116, 126, 129

536 Index

World War I, 362 military and strategic readiness for, declining birthrates due to, 92 361 effects on German society, 267 soldiers taken prisoner, 383 effects on Soviet society, 335 waging war on German terms, 368 as the German War, 413 unrestrained lethality of, 348 human losses in, 91 phases of, 191 World War II postwar changes, 84 analysis of German legislative acts during, and sense of national inclusion, 274 79 Stalinist command structure during, 77 German and Russian See also Great Patriotic War attitudes during, 275 Wort, Das, 424. decision making during, 76–84 Writers Union, Soviet, 436 Nazi-Soviet War (1941–45) Foreign Commission of, 424 asymmetric nature of, 350 atrocities of, 350 xenophobia, Soviet, 135, 158, 211, 217 bifocal orientation of, 348 Bolshevik part in, 217 as a civil war, 349 as a state ideology, 224 Nazi and Zionism, 225 extermination warfare (1941–42), 375 Young Guard (Fadeev, 1946), 325 goals in, 352, 395 Young Pioneers, Soviet, 273, 292 response to Soviet atrocities, 373 Yugoslavia, 153, 336 as pivotal to twentieth century Europe, 35 Zalka, Mate, 438 Soviet Zamosc, 154, 199 de-escalation, 369 zeks, 296 diversity of ﬁghting forces, 382 zemstvo physicians, 97 goal of Nazi annihilation, 360, 368 Zhdanov, Andrei, 71 industrialized core, 371 Zhukov, Georgii, 365 mental mobilization for, 362 Zinoviev, Grigorii, 411