The Case of Macedonia

CEU eTD Collection Thesis Supervisor:Michael Professor Miller Effects of Security Discourse on Post on Discourse Security of Effects Nation In requirements for fulfillmentof the thedegree partial - Building: the Case of Macedonia of Case the Building: Nationalism Studies ProgramNationalism Studies Central European University Aleksandar Sazdovski Budapest, Hungary Master of Ar Submitted to Submitted 2013 By

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CEU eTD Collection antiquisation the result, a As dilemma. security societal narrative2014 Project culminationand sought asits theSkopje address these to concerns. the intensify to served it State the of eth the in seen requirements security societal Macedonians‘ ethnic address to failing legitimizer main State‘s the as nation, t both around revolve to Macedonia in discourse security shaped Macedonian neighbors, immediate distinct Macedonia‘s a by identity of national disputes continuous the with together Albanians, ethnic the by purpose, the State, that in For reflected phenomenon threats. state identity weak perceived the external while and internal to response a as developed post the that argues thesis security of School Copenhagen the by developed literature the on Drawing building. h peet hss xmns h efcs f euiy icus o post on discourse security of effects the examines thesis present The he State as the only protector of Macedonian national identity, and the the and identity, national Macedonian of protector only the as State he - conflict nation conflict -

it was the OFA that exacerbated its potential. Namely, by Namely, potential. its exacerbated that OFA the was it - building project that has taken shape in Macedonia was was Macedonia in shape taken has that project building Abstract i

osat hlegs f h caatr f the of character the of challenges constant

- ofit nation conflict nic character character nic studies, the the studies,

- CEU eTD Collection comments, or questions any have [email protected] you If mine. Istressful. be For will eternallygrateful. that and love unconditional throughout studies. my emotional, and material both support, constant their for Oliver dearest and Marija, and Dimitar are who those of all and department, Nationalism youunmentioned (doesn‘t that are mean forgotten). CEU whole the years, two these in Empire), (Crystal Vasic, Vargovic, Marina Emil Todorova, Jovana Fligler, Bojan Ivankovic, Viktor Ivanovska, Milka thank: t related and this on talks endless the forSharevski Mario thank to Ilike Furthermore,would is. have it whatbeenwouldnot thesis this helped meresearch shape my whic suggestions and comments insightful their for Vankovska Biljana and Roe Paul Professors to goes also gratitude Special project. the throughout guidance, and comments contribution, their I would also like to thank Karolina Koziura and Olimpija Hristova, without whose help whose without Hristova, Olimpija and Koziura Karolina thank to like also would I li would I all of First It goes without saying that any inconsistencies that may occur in the thesis are solely solely are thesis the in occur may that inconsistencies any that saying without goes It whose Todorova, Simona beloved my to goes thanks greatest the finally, And Jovan parents, my to goes also thanks Special

Milos Radovanovic, Francesco de la Rocca Daniel Hartmann and Eugen Russo Russo Eugen and Hartmann Daniel Rocca la de Francesco Radovanovic, Milos

Edinstvena Makedonija, the Republic of Macedonia, of Republic the Makedonija, Edinstvena

support kept me going and made this rather difficult period seem less less seem period difficult rather this made and going me kept support . ke to thank my supervisors, Michael Miller and Florian Bieber for for Bieber Florian and Miller Michael supervisors, my thank to ke

Acknowledgments opics throughout the years. And finally, I would also like to like also would I finally, And years. the throughout opics ii

and Makedonka, my brother and his wife his and brother my Makedonka, and

el re o e to free feel

all my CEU friends I met I friends CEU my all - al e at me mail h CEU eTD Collection Bibliography: Conclusion 4: ofChapter Effects Security on Post Discourse the 3: ArmedChapter 2001 Conflict and theOhrid Framework Agreement Phase “Oasis Peace” 2: Chapter The of (1991 1: Chapter Theoretical Framework Introduction 4 Narrative4.2. Antiquisation Project and theSkopje 2014 4.1. NationalAuthenticity Myths and Continuity of of3.4. Securitization theOhrid FrameworkAgreement Implementation3.3. of theOhrid Agreement Framework 3.2. Escalation ofthe Crisis Happened3.1. What Macedonia in2001? 2.3. Macedonia‘s State 2.2. The inHistory Macedonian Question Question2.1 The New Macedonian 1.4 The Weak State Phenomenon 1.3 Societal Security 1.2. Securitization 1.1. Societal Security .3. Skopje 2014:Nation.3. Skopje 3.3.4. Decentralization and Territorial Organization Languages3.3.3. Use of 3.3.2. State and Religion 3.3.1. The Preamble 2.2.4. Albania 2.2.3. Greece 2.2.2 Serbia 2.2.1. Bulgar

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CEU eTD Collection Agenda 1 this because identity, of question a is society a for ―survival argue Waever and Buzan as i state‖, ―the alongside security of object referent a as ―society‖at look to analysis security the enables identity‖. the and communities, by search political consequent discrete of identity the to threats perceived with up post which to extent the highlighted CS the this, In conc the broadening of This issues. and concerns of range broader much a encompass to order in security of concept Copenhagen School ofsecurity. to attempted that school One world. transformed the account non into various take to failed threats security of aspects military the on focus their sta predominant The order. political global new the in security explaining in concepts existing of applicability the challenged Yugoslavia of dissolution the from out sprang that conflicts ethnic of array the and States national di the followed that dynamic security dangerous The security. international about thinking of ways new by permeated increasingly been has studies

Lisbeth Aggestam and Adrian Hyde Adrian Aggestamand Lisbeth

(Palgrave Macmillan, 2000), 6. 2000), Macmillan, (Palgrave h Cpnae Sho pooe re proposed School Copenhagen The bi the of demise the With 1

o ta proe te itoue te ocp o ―oitl euiy which security‖ ―societal of concept the introduced they purpose, that For - n which identity based threats and insecurities are of primary concern. For, concern. primary of are insecurities and threats based identity which n iiay iett bsd ocrs ht mre i te post the in emerged that concerns based identity military, uh omnte fr as f rsrig n epesn their expressing and preserving of ways for communities such

ept emphasized the crucial link between security and identity. identity. betweenandsecurity link crucial the emphasized ept

- Price, eds., eds., Price,

- polar Cold War political order, the field of security security of field the order, political War Cold polar Introduction Security and Identity in Europe: Exploring the New the Exploring in Europe: Identity and Security 1

- ocpulzto ad tecig f the of stretching and conceptualization te - centrism of the existing concepts and concepts existing the of centrism -

Cold War security ―has been bound been ―has security War Cold

vroe hs iaiiis s the is inabilities these overcome sintegration of large multi large of sintegration - Cold War War Cold - CEU eTD Collection 57 1998), Press, Minnesota 3 Europe 2 which in thesecuritycontext and was discourse triggered. examinetheresponse it framed process in to response a post the that argues thesis the study, case a as Macedonia of case the using Namely, thesis. the nation to input significant a provides that discourse security of performance‖ political producing boundary ―specific this is it Thus, time‖. same the at merge might Them and Us or outer, p and state of identities, both of constitution of process the sense, this In from. us defend should State the what the and not are threatening we what as ‗Us‘ ‗We‘…telling dangers certain ―portray discourses security argues Campbell as security such, as something re time of same the at discourse interpretation of matter a always is threat security nation and threats security between threats. security as constructed thus and identified, are issues certain which through discourse ‗us‘‖ as live to able be longer no will we happens, this if threats: existential about talks society way the is

David Campbell, Campbell, David Kelstrup, Morten and BarryBuzan, Waever, Ole - conflict nation conflict

(Palgrave Macmillan, 1993), 25. 1993), (PalgraveMacmillan,

- It is the effects of sec of effects the is It understand for crucial is that discourse security of notion this is It oriented - building project. Writing Security: United States Foreign Policy and the Policyand Foreign States United Security: Writing ternal and external perceived identity threats. As such, the thesis offers a offers thesis the such, As threats. identity perceived external and ternal rte ta actor than rather , - building project that has taken shape in Macedonia was developed as developed was Macedonia in shape taken has that project building 2

– Furthermore, they introduce the notion of security as a mode of of mode a as security of notion the introduce they Furthermore, 62.

urity discourse on nation on discourse urity -

constitutes and re and constitutes

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the New Security Agenda in in Agenda New Security the Politics of Identity of Politics ol, h inr and inner the eople, tself. Accordingly, tself.

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CEU eTD Collection research. future for implications and limitations, possible discuss and argument my summarize I Fin threats. security perceived internal and external the to response nation the how elaborate I Project, 2014 Skopje the in culmination its and narrative antiquisation the deconstructing fourth the In elites. political Macedonian ethnic by State, the of the identity to related provisions the to opposition the in reflected was discourse security the how show and Agreement Framework Ohrid the of implementation the around debates main conf armed 2001 the of its overview an provide I chapter third the as In legitimizer. nation the and State, the around both security revolve shaped to Macedonia neighbors, in discourse immediate its by identity national Macedonian distinct cha disputed the and population, Albanian ethnic domestic Macedonia‘s by challengesweakembeddedconstant character of state phenomenon, inthe totheState the how at look I Namely, framed. was Macedonia in discourse security which around pre the multi in securitywhichdiscourse in phenomenon state we the discuss also I Furthermore, security. of School Copenhagen the by developed as dilemma, security societal the and securitization security, societal of concepts the on - F ofit hs i odr o uln te nenl n etra securi external and internal the outline to order in phase conflict or that purpose, in the first chapter I provide the theoretical framework focusing focusing framework theoretical the provide I chapter first the in purpose, that or

which has been neglected by the Copenhagen School Copenhagen the by neglected been has which - ulig rjc ta ws ntae, a dvlpd s a as developed was initiated, was that project building - ethnic states is shaped. In the next chapter I into chapterlook next Inthe shaped. is states ethnic 3

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chapter, by by chapter, lict and the the and lict atr f a of racter clusion ak ak CEU eTD Collection 7 6 Era War 5 4 t in threats the militaryremained sectorof primary importance. Buzan for Furthermore, security. national of sectors as remained essentially sectors these of all as sovereignty, state still was however, object referent sta religious culture, language, of patterns traditional concerns. environmental society Fear”, and States viewedand thatreferent can asworthy object abeofanalysis. threatened State, the ―society‖,alongside CopenhagenSchool, the for Thus, analysis.security two, the St the for While world. Neo transformed and Realist a dominant in security explain to attempt an in existing concepts, and paradigms dominant the challenging began security international about 1.1.

Paul Roe, Roe, Paul Ibid. BuzanBarry Ole. Waever, ate, the Copenhagen School of security, described as seeking a middle ground between ground middle a seeking as described security, of School Copenhagen the ate, tes. Societal Security Societal

, 2nd ed. (European Consortium for Political Research Press, 2 ResearchPress, Political for Consortium (European ed. 2nd , h tr ―oitl euiy ws is itoue b Bry ua in Buzan Barry by introduced first was security‖ ―societal term The thinkin of ways new end, its towards progressing slowly War Cold the With s uh scey s ut n o te ie etr ta cud e hetnd The threatened. be could that sectors five the of one just is society such, As 4 was one of the sectors, alongside with political, military, economic and and economic military, political, with alongside sectors, the of one was

Ethnic Violence and the Societal Security Dilemma Security Societal the and Violence Ethnic nrdcd oitl groups societal introduced , “Security Agendas Old and New and how to Survive them” them” Survive how to New and and Old Agendas “Security People, States, and Fear: An Agenda for International Security Studies in the Post in Studies Security International for Agenda Fear:An and States, People, in which he distinguishes five different sectors of security, in which which in security, of sectors different five distinguishes he which in Chapter1: Theoretical Framework

oitl euiy eerd o the to referred security Societal - Realist theories the only referent object of security was the the was security of object referent only the theories Realist

–

uh s ain ad tnc groups ethnic and nations as such 4

and national identities, and customs of customs and identities, national and

(Routledge, 2004), 42. 2004), (Routledge, 008), 122 008),

utial dvlpet of development sustainable 2000, Buenos Aires, p.4 Aires, Buenos 2000, –

23.

–

s nt of units as “People, “People, - Cold Cold

can be be can he g CEU eTD Collection 10 9 8 ethno significant ―politically are security Waev For necessary…‖ is it therefore to survive, has it say: and to point can you which that is object referent The collectivity. a to, reference with and of, behalf on taken always is action ―security that concludes then He concerned withthe security necessarily is security societal such, As society. to correspond group social of kinds all not that asserts and group‖, ―social and ―society‖ between distinction a make to attempts word the enables ―what as simplyidentity collective defines then community‖ a of members as themselves identifying individuals and communities los identity to threats to refers security societal sovereignty state to re Waever‘s in notion right. own its in security of object referent a also is of it but sector security, a national as retained is security societal such, As security. societal state of duality re a suggested he Therefore, Europe. Post in important increasingly become have securities‖ ―societal that argued Europe‖ in Agenda Security New the and Migration ―Identity, in Waever Ole further, referen other introducing was needed was What enough. not simply was security state of sectors more introducing important,

Ole Wæver, Wæver, Ole Kelstrup, and Buzan, Waever,

Ibid., 26. Ibid., es identity. its avr ugss ht Scey s bu iett, bu te self the about identity, about is ―Society that suggests Waever is agenda security the of widening the to contribution significant Buzan‘s While

Identity, Migration and the New Security Agenda in Europe in Agenda New Security the and Migration Identity, 9

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con h Sae il o srie s Sae f t oe is sovereignty, its loses it if State a as survive not will State the

ceptualization is survival. While state security refers to threats threats to refers security state While survival. is ceptualization Identity, Migration and the New Security Agenda in Europe Agenda the New Security and Migration Identity, of

society as a whole ratherasociety than whole as - con t objects of security. Taking Buzan‘s approach approach Buzan‘s Taking security. of objects t - ceptualization of the five sector approach into a a into approach sector five the of ceptualization national and religious entities‖. Taking this into into this Taking entities‖. religious and national 5 –

the society will not survive as society if it it if society as survive not will society the er, the main units of analysis of societal of analysis of units main the er,

security of groups groups of security

(Pinter, 1993), 251993), (Pinter, we

to be u be to - ocpin of conception sed‖. He then He sed‖. , 24 , – 26. - 8 in – Cold War War Cold

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He CEU eTD Collection Replies,‖ School 15 14 13 Studies 12 11 ―thing‖,a socially ―thing constructed but a as identity societal of conceive still They manner. constructivist more a in assertions view, are thatsocieties identities and social groups‖ interest and people of negotiation of process a is it of society; of fact a not system is ―identity such, As a embraces ―which negotiated, indivi the together connects which interrelationships something is society McSweeney, identity‖ societal of conception positivistic ―near a adopting for approach analy of unit coherent a as defined be could is, society as phenomenon dynamic and fluid a how about scholars among doubts serious than, andfr being different more having as societies of security the as approached be must security societal account,

Barry Buzan and Ole Wæver, ―Slippery? Contradictory? Sociologically Untenable? The Copenhagen Copenhagen The Untenable? Sociologically Contradictory? ―Slippery? Wæver, Ole BarryBuzanand Roe, Ibid School,‖ the Copenhagen and Security: Buzan ―Identity and Mcsweeney, Bill Roe, ., ., 85.

Ethnic Violence and the Societal Security Dilemma Security the Societal and Violence Ethnic Dilemma Security the Societal and Violence Ethnic 22, no. 01 (1996): 8 (1996): no. 01 22, it becomesit afor referent possible object through constru groups is identity an when and practices, and people by constructed being of think not one can Why analysis. ‗deconstructionist‘ posi why do) we (as identities established the around politics If such. as product a never is there all: at then‗thing‘ a becomes never formed, are identities which by processes the only studies one If their redefined School Copenhagen the criticism, the to respond to attempt an In Definedas identity the ofcollectivities, conceptsecurity security ofsocietal raised

Review of International Studies International of Review dniis s . . . . as identities 13 . Thus, McSweeney accuses Buzan and Waever of taking an objectivist an taking of Waever and Buzan accuses McSweeney Thus, . 3 .

om the sum ofitsindividualom the sum parts.

mual ad intractable and immutable

‖: 23, no. 02 (1997): 242 (1997): no. 02 23,

―things‖ that somehownaturally―things‖ exist. 6

i. il cwee ciiie Waever‘s criticizes McSweeney Bill sis. security? , 46. , 44. , cted,

duals who share a common culture‖. common a share who duals

and becomes socially sedimented, sedimented, socially becomes and 15

– 3. 11

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dniis s definitely as identities Review of International International of Review

by sociological, sociological, by 12

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CEU eTD Collection 18 17 16 worship of places of closure through dress, and names language, of use the forbidding to unable and suppressed triggers‖. this behavior what and basis this on mode security a in act to starts it when threatened, process the ―studying important is it security societal and understand to order in and custom‖ and identity association national and religious culture, language, of patterns traditional of evolution for a conditions is it specifically, More threats. actual or possible and conditions changing under character essential its in persist to society take place‖. arou objects they become construction: identity dominant a with, accordance in behave so and to, adhere group the of members most dynamics. security their pe long sufficiently a for stable remain nonetheless constructions a construction. identity of conceptions fixed and fluid between balance appro School‘s Copenhagen the such, As fixed. temporarily regarded be constructed they oncealso can are are sociallySocial identities thus, they constructed, but tog ethno lthough

Wæver, Wæver, 47. Ibid., Roe, Ethnic Violence and the Societal Security Dilemma Security the Societal and Violence Ethnic codn t Bzn te oitl dniy s hetnd hn oe dniy is identity ―one when threatened is identity societal the Buzan, to According as security societal defines Waever account, into this Taking Ident 18

17 ity, Migration and the New Security Agenda in Europe Agenda New Security the and Migration ity,

- national identity is invariably constituted by shifting values, identity identity values, shifting by constituted invariably is identity national 16

Societal identities can thus be seen as ―objects in the sense that sense the in ―objects as seen be thus can identities Societal erdc isl ad hn r peet h patcs of practices the present are when and itself reproduce

hrb a ru cms o ecie t iett as identity its perceive to comes group a whereby 7 ot h ssanblt, ihn acceptable within sustainability, the bout

, 48. ,

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riod of time to study study to time of riod ― ach represents a represents ach s o argues, Roe As t he ability of a a of ability he

particular,

CEU eTD Collection 24 23 121. 1998), 22 Research 21 20 19 suppression of form the in come to likely most are societies to threats sector, political the fro transmitted being from identity prevent or ―hinder depopulation arme its societies. uses regime the when aggression, internal from threatenedbe alsoidentity society Societal can it. the within sois borders,then its outside from militarily threatened is State the if be would threat obvious most the sector, military environmen and economic political, military, sectors: four other the through narrower or wider either identities. towards pushed are groups disintegration or integration, either when competition, vertical finally and another; from influence cultural or linguistic overriding the of because ways their change to have groups when competition, th of influx the by changed is structure society‘s host the when migration, namely: security, on whether depends identity the to threat of perception the that argues Roe account, into this Taking effect‖. real have yetstill and real, be not may threats perceived the and seen accurately diffi is perception threat the community‖. the of members of killing or deportation the to education, and

Roe, Roe, Kelstrup, and Buzan, Waever, Wilde, De Jaap BarryBuzanand Dilemma: Security Intrastate ―The Roe, Paul Ibid. 43. Ibid., ose from the outside, or from a shift in the composition of the population; horizontal population; the of composition the in shift a from or outside, the from ose

Ethnic Violence and the Societal Security Dilemma Security the Societal and Violence Ethnic Buzan, Waever and de Wilde identify three main categories of threat to societal to threat of categories main three identify Wilde de and Waever Buzan,

36, no. 2 (March 1 2 no. (March 36, 23

the particular actiondefinedthe particular is a ofthe part societal asrequirement. security iiay het t scea iett tu, a mil b se i trs of terms in seen be mainly can thus, identity societal to threats Military Furthermore, Buzan argues, as with the State, society can also be threatened be also can society State, the with as argues, Buzan Furthermore, –

where a significant amount of the society is killed or deported, to either to deported, or killed is society the of amount significant a where , 1999): 196 , 1999):

Identity, Migration and the New Security Agenda in Europe Agenda the New Security and Migration Identity, cult to assess, for as Buzan argues, ―real threats may not be be not may threats ―real argues, Buzan as for assess, to cult Security: a New Framework for Analysis for a New Framework Security:

Ethnic Conflict as a ‗Tragedy‘?,‖ ‗Tragedy‘?,‖ a as Conflict Ethnic 8

, 4 9 - 50 m one generation to the next.‖ the to generation one m .

fre t sprs its suppress to forces d

(Lynne Rienner Publishers, Publishers, Rienner (Lynne Journal of Peace of Peace Journal , 46 , 19

tal. In the the In tal. However, – 48.

due to due

21 In 20

CEU eTD Collection 30 25 (2003): 29 28 27 26 25 about ultimately identity‖. ―always is security societal of logic the concludes, Buzan as Thus, a preservation self ultimately is which survival to claim a it ―afford members its that is community identity mod in communities collectiveness. of feeling a them giving identity social distinct a by constituted are which societies, within landscape…canthe existence people sometimes ofculture themselves‖. threatenand the to threats of types ―certain sense, that In territory. particular a to attached is identity sec environmental the in Finally, life. of way traditional their enjoying from societies prevent might which depression economic and unemployment cause can market free the second, and ones; contemporary st and attitudes products, global generating by distinctiveness cultural undermine can system capitalist the first, twofold: insecurities. societal generating contr overwhelmingly is machinery state multi sense, that In government. own their by minorities, of

Waever, Buzan, and Kelstrup, Kelstrup, and Buzan, Waever, Psychology,‖ Social and ―Societal Security Tobias Theiler, 17. Ibid., 56. Ibid., Kelstrup, and Buzan, Waever, 50. Ibid., - eeeta. ic i‘ bud p ih hi iett, hy au te community‘s the value they identity, their with up bound it‘s Since referential. sec societal sum, In 1 30

s an end in itself, rather than just as a means to achieving other ends‖. other achieving to means a as just than rather itself, in end an s 28

codn t te oehgn col te ot motn identity important most the School, Copenhagen the to According r ie ae tnc rus n ntos Wa caatrzs every characterizes What nations. and groups ethnic are times ern

Identity, Migration and the New Security Agenda in Europe Agenda the New Security and Migration Identity, in Europe Agenda the New Security and Migration Identity, rt i nt bu scey t ag, u aot collectivities about but large, at society about not is urity

o, het t sceis r ms lkl t ocr when occur to likely most are societies to threats tor, In the economic sector, threats to societies are mainly are societies to threats sector, economic the In ls teey elcn taiinl dniis with identities, traditional replacing thereby yles, le b a oiat oit ae rn to prone are society dominant a by olled 9

Review of International Studies International of Review - ethnic countries where the the where countries ethnic , 122. , 51 ,

29, no. 02 no. 29, – 55.

29 26

CEU eTD Collection 34 33 32 11. 2003), College, Budapest CEU, (Budapest: 2003/36 Theses Master Studies Department European and Relations International 31 themselves inthe 1998 security dynamics activated arereference often toidentity‖. by societies, facing insecurities potential many, are there While security. to threats articulate not‖. self a as group the endure, may (people) group the comprising units the While exist. to fail will groups societal identity collective of sense a ―without the of maintaining the on ultimately rest to seen be can group the of survival the that is one first The points. two making by this answer to attempts society?‖ of collectivity the to attributed be can which and value about concerned countless among from identity ―why…choose questions collectivity. given a of vulnerabilities and threats of terms in defined is security which around principle organizing the as identity of problem 1.2.

Ibid., Roe, 84. Security,‖ ―Identity and Mcsweeney, Hafner, Tanja Securitization 33 Dilemma Security the Societal and Violence Ethnic

rfrn‘ o ti dsore s n dniy ru (ain r h lk) Te the Then like). take follows the that argument or (nation group identity an is discourse as this installed for is ‗referent‘ which that when is security societal and etc., primacy, political S discourse. security category: generic the of variant characteristic one discourse, of mode a Itis threatened. is objectgiven whethersome of question a not is securitySocietal a Waever Buzan, from comes response important most the However, securi societal of concept the against chargeserious most The h scn pit s ht dniy s ―invariably is identity that is point second The State - making and and making crt dsore en t age n em o eitnil threats, existential of terms in argue to means discourse ecurity

Security: aNewforAnalysis Framework

Security in the Balkans: The Case Studyof Macedonia The Studyof Case Balkans: the in Security

s on some specific features because the logic of threat of logic the because features specific some on s

, 52. ,

n ht es, il McSweeney, Bill sense, that In tlzd n em o hw actors how of terms in utilized 34 :

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Paul Roe Paul CEU eTD Collection 38 37 55. 1995), Press, University 36 35 everything will else problem, this tackle don‘t we ―if because issues other all over priority necessitates which and politics, normal above measures, emergency requires which threat existential an politic above as or politics of kind special a as either issue the frames and game the of rules established the beyond politics isre it self a becomes security Thus, ―Securitization and Desecuritization‖ wheredefines securitya act‖ ―speech he as ofthetool Copenhagen School a modeof as ofsocietalThis notion security

Ibid., 23 Ibid., Wilde, Buzanand Ole. Waever, Wilde, Buzanand al, because but issue ispresentedas―the such‖. ua epan te oin f euiiain ute, s te oe hc takes which move ―the as further, securitization of notion the explains Buzan block it. m whatever use to right special a uttering claims thereby By and area, . . . done. is something st a it ‗security‘, saying By act. the is itself utterance the real; more something to refers that sign a as interest of not is security usage, the With piece 1995 his in Waever Ole by introduced was ―securitization‖ term The the one about which state survival instance for to contrast in ‗identity‘ of terms in conducted be to has survival and

“Securitization and Desecuritization” Desecuritization” and “Securitization 36

help of language theory, we can regard ‗security‘ as a speech act. In this this In act. speech a as ‗security‘ regard can we theory, language of help Security Security

be irrelevant (because we will not be here, or be free to deal in it free bewith to not be here, or (becausewebe irrelevantwill ate

: a New Framework for Analysis for a New: Framework a New: Fram

- representative moves a particular development into a specific specific a into development particular a moves representative

- referential practice; an issue becomes a threat not because because not threat a becomes issue an practice; referential –

securitization. s‖. ework for Analysis for ework 38

In order to be securitized, the issue is presented aspresented is issue the securitized, be to In order takes the track of ‗sovereignty takes thetrack of 11 discourse became the central methodological thecentral became discourse in

Ronnie D. Lipschutz, Lipschutz, D. Ronnie , 24. , 46. , 37

On Security On eans are necessary to necessary are eans . 35

(Columbia

CEU eTD Collection 44 20 Budapest, Thesis, Relations International Department of 43 42 41 40 39 on external andinternal ―facilitatingconditions‖. He identifies such three conditions: as a―securitizing move‖ successful. is securitization the the then threatened, when is object‖ ―referent Only the that ―audience‖. convinced is audience the by played is role decisive the discourse, particular securitized. viewed as politicization‖. extreme no the ―break which means extraordinary using requires handling its and State) the (or society way‖. own our

Ibid., ― Senada. Lamovska, Roe, 23 Ibid., I 24 Ibid., bid., rmal political rules of the game‖the of rules political rmal Dilemma Security the Societal and Violence Ethnic held to be threatening be to held can one that certain likely are there if threat security a conjure more is it threat: a with associated historically conditions third, and act; speech the with success guarantee to taken nor authority, official authority of position a in be to has who actor, securitizing the enunciator, the of capital social the second, out; way possible a and return no of point threat, existential with plot a constructing and t internal demand the First, depends argues, Waever as audience, the by act‖ ―speech the of acceptance The become necessarily will presented issues all not notes, Roe as However,

43 42

If the audience does not respond to the ―spe the to respond not does audience the If eie te scrtzn atr (h oe h ―ut who one (the actor‖ ―securitizing the Besides 39

As such, the issue is presented as a threat for the very survival of the the of survival very the for threat a as presented is issue the such, As Security is what the State Makes of it: the Greece the it: of Makes State the iswhat Security 44

–

be they tanks, hostile sentiments, or polluted waters. In waters. polluted or sentiments, hostile tanks, they be 41 o the speech act of following the grammar of security security of grammar the following of act speech the o

Thus, as Buzan concludes, ―securitization can becan concludes,―securitization Buzan as Thus, 12 , although this should neither be defined as as defined be neither should this although ,

, 53. , 12, 16 12, objects to refer to which are generally are which to refer to objects

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CEU eTD Collection 50 49 48 47 46 Community and Security, Power, Integration: European the of Politics and Theory Order” Security sovereign 45 still could it that so security of conception traditional basic the revise ―to tried security of scholars security frameworkstudies, the of within fully addressed ethniccould conflictbe 1.3 their realityperceptions. and security defining of principle main the as identity and units coherent as function groups societal the and actors securitizing of threats‖. existential what against by survival whose ―effects discourse‖. the at look to study the process a becomes security self a foremost and first is security pe security identify to us enables it but exist, andsociety. otherwho some have authority persons inthe secu Buzan, to According

Ibid., 12 Ibid., Ibid., Ibid., Hafner, Wilde, Buzanand Ole. Waever, Societal Security Dilemma

n n tep t cntut co a construct to attempt an In that threats real about little reveals discourse as security of notion the sum, In facilitatingconditions. defi are they but securitization, necessary for make never they themselves, State

48 -

“The EU as Security Actor: Reflections from a Pessimistic Constructivist on Post on Constructivist Pessimistic a from Reflections Actor: Security as EU “The making and Security in the Balkans the in Security and making n,―fscrt s bu sria, t s h pehat httls s about us tells that act speech the is it survival, about is security ―if And, Security in : a New Framework for Analysis for a New: Framework Morten C. Kelstrup and Michael Charles Williams, Williams, Charles Michael and C.Kelstrup Morten

ritizing actors can be politicians, bureaucrats, the government, government, the bureaucrats, politicians, be can actors ritizing - oriented, instead of an actor an of instead oriented,

audience, rather than on objectively defined threats, makes threats, defined objectively on than rather audience,

- referential practice. referential 50

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47 - 46 oriented project, which enables enables which project, oriented

As such, the study of societal of study the such, As

International Relations Relations International

(Routledge, 2000 (Routledge, - ), 252. ), nitely nitely

CEU eTD Collection 55 54 157 1950): 53 52 51 interprimarilyapplied to enhance one‘sin theless secure‖. end, own causescan security reactions that, leave one dilemma security the is ―This up: it sums neatly Posen Barry as Or ―tragedy‖dilemma, oras the―irreducible ofthe it, hecalls security dilemma‖.asse He the or paradox, the is Butterfield to according this, exactly And conflict. unintentional misunderst so the appeared has unity, higher a into organized being without other each alongside live groups ―where setting b introduced right‖ own their in concerns identity an treatmentdilemmafor security―explicit allowedconceptreformulation ofthe of the of bu things old the say

Butterfield, Herbert Sir Dilemma,‖ the Security and ―Idealist Internationalism Herz, H. John Roe, 242. ―Slippery?,‖ Wæver, Buzanand Barry R. Posen, ―The Security Dilemma and Ethnic Conflict,‖ Conflict,‖ Ethnic and Dilemma Security ―The BarryR.Posen, Ethnic Violence and the Societal Security Dilemma Security the Societal and Violence Ethnic Prior youthat have. h mind, your of inside the see cannot he since that properly remember or release to you isfor possible it never and safety own your for guarantees save him, from nothing want you that par be counter man‘s other the into enter cannot you describing…that am I you thatbut party, other the youofhave that fear terriblethe feel vividly yourselfmay situation the of characteristic peculiar the In .

anding, and fear of the other‘s intentions on both sides, can lead them to an an to them lead can sides, both on intentions other‘s the of fear and anding, y John Herz and Herbert Butterfield in an attempt to explain the Cold War War Cold the explain to attempt an in Butterfield Herbert and Herz John y to the end of the Cold War, the concept of the security dilemma was was dilemma security the of concept the War, Cold the of end the to ticularly nervous. For you know that you yourself mean him no harm, and harm, no him mean yourself you that know you For nervous. ticularly t also include the new things in their own right‖. own their in things new the include also t 54 " History and Human Relations Human and History

- state conflict. However, since the end of the Cold War there has there War has Cold ofthe end since the However, state conflict. - ald euiy dilemma‖. security called

e can never have the same assurance of assurance same the have never can e 52 Te ocp o scrt dlma a first was dilemma security of concept The . 14

(Collins, 1951), 21. (Collins,1951), 55. , - fear, or even understand why he should should he why understand even or fear,

53 Survival

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35, no. 1 (1993): 1 no. 35, Politics – 51

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CEU eTD Collection 59 58 57 56 the that argues who Kaufman Stuart is author such One conflict. ethnic explain to written history, which 'proper' in than myths and poems, stories, in more preserved been have will rivalries old positi own their consolidate to record historical multi in regimes first, reasons: of number a to due is This misleading. and inaccurate be to out turn often will last behave others‘ mechanism intention―the groups useishistory: main will group howdidthe other time?‖ over diminish or grow threat the Will threat? a of much How neighbo any about questions following the ask must protection ethnic states, orempires. newly themselves find suddenly security‖ own their for responsible people of group one ―when situation the in states within occur dilemmas security that argues He groups. neighboring between violence intra the incorporate to dilemma securit of concept the of application the furthered Posen Conflict‖. Ethnic and Dilemma inter on dilemma security of terms in dilemma security the utilizing toward writers many among tendency increasing an been

Ibid., 3 Ibid., Conflict,‖ Ethnic and Dilemma Security ―The BarryR.Posen, Ibid., 27. Ibid.,

Since Posen, other scholars have also utilized the c the utilized also have scholars other Posen, Since that saying by begins Posen 1.

time‖. the intrastate level of analysis of level intrastate the 58

However, he claims that the histo the that claims he However, will havewill been -

tnc tts a wl hv sprse o mnpltd the manipulated or suppressed have well may states ethnic

- ethnic conflict was Barry Posen in his article ―the Security Security ―the article his in Posen Barry was conflict ethnic

- state level, providing an explanation for the outbreak of of outbreak the for explanation an providing level, state 56

This usually occurs after the collapse of large multi large of collapse the after occurs usually This undoubtedly magnifiedundoubtedly intelling a ru sdel cmeld o rvd is own its provide to compelled suddenly group ―a . The first author to utilize the concept of the the of concept the utilize to author first The . 15

on. Second, within the groups themselves groups the within Second, on. Survival rical views that ethnic groups take groups ethnic that views rical oncept of the security dilemma dilemma security the of oncept

35, no. 1 (1993): (1993): 1 no. 35, ring group: is it a threat? a it is group: ring 57 .

59 When judging the judging When

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CEU eTD Collection Security International 65 64 63 62 61 149 (1996): 02 no. 60 mustextinction exist. of fears mutual successful, be to dilemma security the for order in concludes, Kaufman states other threaten measures decision when occurs exists. it which in system the of nature by not occurred has which situation a to refers dilemma dilemma‖. security ―perceptual a and dilemma‖ security ―structural the people theirrole and leade of the somehow threat that as representing issues symbolic emotive to appealing by and "proof", as claims factual som is group ethnic the that myth key them‖ reactingto than securityrather adilemma, and however fear‖ and hostility exacerbates turn in which dilemma and fear and spontaneously, emerge hostilities where approach up bottom a is conflict ethnic led war. ethnictypes:mass two into conflict ethnic dividing for elements required three of one is dilemma security

Stuart J. Kaufman, ―Spiraling to Ethnic War: Elites, Mas Elites, Ethnic to War: ―Spiraling Kaufman, Stuart J. 151. Ibid., Ibid 158 Ibid., 157. Ibid., ofInter Theory ―An‗international‘ Kaufman, Stuart J. ., ., 170. utemr, afa ietfe to ifrn tps f euiy iem: a dilemma: security of types different two identifies Kaufman Furthermore, ―the process is different because elites intentionally cause intentionally elites because different is process ―the . itut tigr pnaeu out spontaneous ―trigger mistrust

– 7 2

. 21, no. 2 (1996): 112. no. (1996): 2 21,

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Thus, Kaufman makes a clear distinction between to role of role to between distinction clear a makes Kaufman Thus,

al o eonz te ere o hc ter security their which to degree the recognize to fail n teeoe prov therefore and rs when ethnic explaining conflict.

ehow threatened, by offering false or misleading or false offering by threatened, ehow On the other hand, hand, other the On 16 - led conflict and conflict led -

breaks of violence, activating a security security a activating violence, of breaks - ethnic War,‖ War,‖ ethnic ses, and Moscow in Moldova‘s Civil War,‖ Civil War,‖ Moldova‘s in Moscow and ses, 62 61 k hostility‖ oke . He writes that ―l that writesHe . . With the elite the With .

state design, but of the anarchic the of but design, state Review of International Studies International of Review a perceptual security dilemma security perceptual a

elite - led conflict. The mass The conflict. led

A structural security structural A 64 both, mass both, -

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22, 22, - CEU eTD Collection 69 68 67 66 itself‖. reproduces society the that ensure to and distinctiveness and mean cultural using by done be can This identity. societal Waever as identity, suggests its strengthening by itself protect to tries it identity, its of terms non for calls often identity societal non of not, than often more are identity societal state predominant concept‘s traditiona the While it. secure to ―how‖ and secured be to is ―what‖ refocuses dilemma playstill a role inexplaining war. what dilemma security ―loose‖ a in finally, And other. the for insecurity necessitates side one for security where insecurity‖, s as seen requirements security their of terms in incompatibility be still employ may thus protagonists the and while relationship their incompatibility illusory of an on based countermeasures nature the misperceive requirements, o dilemma security ―tight‖ A dilemma. ―security requirements‖. of compatibility fundamental the to ―goals‖ of compatibility ―fundamental conflict ethnic on application

Wæver, Wæver, 56 Ibid., Ibid. Roe,

Ethnic Violence and the Societal Security Dilemma Security the Societal and Violence Ethnic y mhszn iett iscrte, o age, h cnet f h security the of concept the argues, Roe insecurities, identity emphasizing By its and dilemma security the of concept the to contribution Roe‘s Paul Likewise,

– Identity, Migration and the New Security Agenda in Europe Agenda New Security the and Migration Identity, ―for threatened societies, one obvious line of defensive response is to strengthen to is response defensive of line obvious one societies, threatened ―for 59.

e itnuse bten ―ih‖ ―eua‖ n ―os‖ security ―loose‖ and ―regular‖ ―tight‖, a between distinguishes He

- centrism focused on the military sector of security, threats to threats security, of militarysector the on focused centrism

atmt to attempts , 67

military means. military is most important is that offense that is important most is ccurs when ― when ccurs 17

refoc , 13. , - military nature. Thus, the defense of of defense the Thus, nature. military ecurity us

68 two actors, with compatible security compatible with actors, two . This is what Roe calls a ―required ―required a calls Roe what is This .

. When the society is society the When the security dilemma from the the from dilemma security the In a In s to reinforce societal cohesion cohesion societal reinforce to s , , 191. - ekr, there seekers, ― regular

‖

69 - security dilemma, dilemma, security defense variables variables defense

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xss real a exists threatened in threatened l CEU eTD Collection 73 72 71 70 theconstitute collectivity and relations its withthe Other: c ―the to contributes often it ―we‖, some threatening as something of construction the of question object ofsecurity(perceived is it until tobe) threatened‖ security a relevant which not is identity around societal because is object This place. take the will processes of nature the constitutes which identity new, revised this is It strengthened. also thus and (re)constructed is identity societal threats, identity. societal of reconstruction cultural sense, that In weakened. historyand traditionsinventing and and reconstituting ofthe formtakesoften nationalism been has identity societal when identification past... glorious a to dona link the since depression and crises of times in mode attractive unity its from detract might various emphasizes religion It language, as identification. such self commonalities of feeling strong a generate to designed John what of terms in manifest Hutchinson nationalism. cultural calls often Hutchinson may argues Roe as culture‖, with ―culture

Buzan and Wilde, Wilde, Buzanand 195. Dilemma,‖ Security Intrastate ―The Roe, Wæver, Smith, AnthonyDavid and Hutchinson John tes immediate relief, pridetes immediate shame‖. relief, and shield against ipy a o i; dniy icus i aot n cud e r should or be could one about is discourse identity is; off sets or identity has of simply defense a identity, self of often and complicated nature paradoxical the to Due a are…always identity to ―threats that argues Buzan as that, account into Taking self of feeling strong a generate to designed is nationalism cultural such, As onstruction or reproduction of ―us‖. of reproduction or onstruction Identity, Migration and the New Security Agenda in Europe Agenda New Security the and Migration Identity, Security : a :

New Framework for Analysis for New Framework

‖ . 70

- ned a Wae as Indeed, defeating pro defeating Or , Nationalism

s o asserts Roe as

18 73 n hsoy ad only ohr is that ties other downplays and history, and

Similarly, Waever explains how threats re threatshow explains Waever Similarly, cesses. Identity is never something one one something never is Identity cesses.

(Oxf maintai , 31. , ver ord University Press, 1994), 123 1994), University Press, ord

claim . i dfnig gis perc against defending ―in 72

71 , , 21 ns

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eived eived larly - - CEU eTD Collection 77 76 64. Giroux,1995), 75 AiBuenos Tella Di Torcuato Universidad World‖, the Third for Agenda:Inferences Security the and New Traditional ―Theon 74 action an dynam activate reaction identity group strengthen to societies by its attempts (weakens The security identity). societal society‘s first the decreases hand other the on which, own its about secure when identity onereinforces its security), society(itssocietal feels the less society second Roe, byPaul explained best is dilemma security societal the of dynamic the sense, that In devel Other‖ ―the of perceptions which in processes experience can ―societies activated is dilemma security societal the when own‖. their of dynamic a acquire to seem conflict social of processes self construction of theSelf. the of part as ―enter often which Other‖ ―defining a IgnatieffThus, what Michael calls logic ofidentity‖ involves ―the athreat necessarily and

Ibid., Barry, Micha Wæver, Ole

el Ignatieff, Ignatieff, el codn t Bzn societ Buzan, to According producing self be to sector…tend societal the in security‖ ―defend to attempts Therefore, insecurity. more produces thus and identity, one‘s of characterproblematic the to out points also however it lack; the for explanation Oth an and threat a producing by identity, own one‘s stabilize to is sense one in identity, one‘s to threat a about issue an raise to be…Therefore, People, States, People, “Security agendas old and new, and how to survive how to them”, and new, and old agendas “Security

c hc cn e ocie i trs f saaig ainlss And nationalisms. escalating of terms in conceived be can which ic res, September, 2000 11 2000 September, res, Blood and Belonging: Journeys into the Nationalism the New into Journeys and Belonging: Blood . 74

and Fear and identity, and as a response tries to strengthen its societal security, security, societal its strengthen to tries response a as and identity, 75

, 46. ,

l euiy iems ih epan wy some ―why explain might dilemmas security al op into mutually reinforcing ―enemy pictures‖. ―enemy reinforcing mutually into op 19

- defeating -

paper prepared for theWorkshop prepared paper dniiain ad h re the and identification‖ , Reprint (Farrar, Straus and Reprint (Farrar, , u thereby but er and thereby the thereby and er 76

eage that argues He

lo self also 77 - - -

CEU eTD Collection 80 79 78 r the more the that paradox the upon consent. by not coercion, by rule to have will regime the that is it likely more the is, state the weaker the and groups, gov the between commonality of lack the to refers state the of weakness the such, As threats. security internal third, and cohesion; social of lack and identity weak a second, population; its of conditions economic basic the meet conce state‖ ―weak the of features main three identifies approach, constructed. is discourse security its which state in context the the understanding for of crucial is Macedonia, symptom important ―most the as phenomenon, control. social of institution central the as society multi better a for provide to attempt an state and nation where cases in dynamic in security the of understanding state‖, ―weak the of setting the in dilemma 1.4 means, action this political and legal existing through addresses adequately not are grievances if ultimately,

Roe, Roe, Hafner, Roe, The W - ethnic societies lead to problems in state consolidation and its penetration into into penetration its and consolidation state in problems to lead societies ethnic Ethnic Violence and the Societal Security Security the Societal and Violence Ethnic Dilemma Security the Societal and Violence Ethnic rm n ra o dfntos f h wa sae Re bidn o Bin Job‘s Brian on building Roe, state, weak the of definitions of array an From security the of concept the addressed has literature studies Security World Third State eak State eak State Phenomenon

- making and Security in the Balkans the in Security and making - reaction processculminatereaction violence. inthe outbreakethnic may of

Or as Job asserts, ―The weakness of the state . . . hinges . . . state the of weakness ―The asserts, Job as Or egime attempts or needs to exercise the coercive coercive the exercise to needs or attempts egime

Dilemma , , 2. 20

, 66. , 73. , erning power and the various societal societal various the and power erning

n ht es, h wa state weak the sense, that In pt: first, an inability to to inability an first, pt: - making making

making projects in projects making rcs‖ in process‖ 78

CEU eTD Collection 33. 2006), 84 83 82 1992), 81 betweenthe state,relationship namelyasand awhole thesociety the state. ofexpense minority i the mayachievedat this onlybe security,of purposes the forpursued be mayprojectwell nation the concludes,while Roe asNevertheless, createidentity.new ato goalis ide the to adhere to forced are groups nation the that argues nation within identities cultural various which to extent the nation the population, its for identity overarching nation the legi domestic of lack the how explaining by dilemma, security loyalty its leads express the populationto elsewhere. wi combined differences ethnic state‖. the of border the within others all, not if most, for security reduced and threat increased of environment an create consequently securities or security the it calls he aga as acting or ―Groups dilemma‖: dilemma ―insecurity security the and state‖ ―weak the between relation weakness‖. its is obvious more the . . . state the of machinery

Albert Rakipi, Albert Rakipi, Roe, Ibid, ed., L. Job, Brian . 12 - Ethnic Violence and the Societal Security Dilemma Security the Societal and Violence Ethnic building projects can pose serious threats to societal security. Furthermore, he he Furthermore, security. societal to threats serious pose can projects building On the other hand, Joel Migdal and Barry Buzan study the power dynamic within dynamic power the study Buzan Barry and Migdal Joel hand, other the On the and state weak the between relation the addresses Glenn John Similarly, -

18. -

ulig rcs. ln age ta i te teps o rae common, a create to attempts the in that argues Glenn process. building Weak States and Security and WeakStates The Insecurity Dilemma: National Sec National Dilemma: Insecurity The dentities. - building project can take the form of assimilation assimilation of form the take can project building

th the state‘s inability to meet the demands of its citizens, its of demands the meet to inability state‘s the th

(Department of International Relations of Bilkent University, University, ofBilkent Relations International of (Department ntity of the majority; or acculturation or majority; the of ntity 21 inst perceived threats to assure their own own their assure to threats perceived inst

urity of Third World States Third of urity , 66. , - building projects often fail to evaluate to fail often projects building 83

the state are rooted. In that sense, sense, that In rooted. are state the timacy is tackled through tackled is timacy 81 82

Thus, the explains then He

(Lynne Rienner Pub, Pub, Rienner (Lynne –

84 where minority minority where Roe concludes, Roe

In sense, that –

where the the where - building

CEU eTD Collection 88 87 86 85 threats thenationstate andaslegitimizer. to the its nation the to challenges all concludes, Hafner consequence, a As theirs. exclusively as it defining by state the over monopoly establish to seeks group ethnic dominant the because state, the and nation the both around itself argues, Hafner Tanja as situation, a such In making. its in is multi fragmented, in discourse security the the needs ofthe broadest state the sense, that for providecapture and to able is it ―onlyif control In social of institution main becomesthe behavior. social of rules create to ability the and control for for is state the Moreover, society. within organizations social many of one as looked and decomposed is state the which in model ways‖. determined in resources use and actions…capabilities andreg society, penetrate to capacities the include policies planning, state through sought have leaders their that society the in changes achieve to state the of capabilities ―the on depends strength state. the of expression institutional the third, andhuman resources; andnatural of territory,population, up made borders, is which state the of base physical the second, ideology; organizing the in and nation the in sources its of idea the first, state: weak the of feature main three identifies Buzan

Ibid., 17. Ibid., Hafner, Rakipi, Barry, Hence, the weak state phenomenon becomes the main condition that underlines that condition main the becomes phenomenon state weak the Hence, People, States, and Fear and States, People, Weak States and Security and WeakStates State

- making and Security in the Balkans the in Security and making

range ofpopulation‖. , 65. , , 34. ,

ced to compete with other social organizations social other with compete to ced 86 , , 15. - 22 ethnic societies where the nation the where societies ethnic

hs Mga dvlpd state a developed Migdal Thus, -

ulate social relationships, extract resources extract relationships, social ulate

st 87 ate

85 88

- Co making project are seen as existential as seen are project making

nversely, for Joel Migdal state‘s state‘s Migdal Joel for nversely, security discourse polarizes polarizes discourse security

the state which has has which state the - state project state - in - society CEU eTD Collection applywill findings thetheoreticalcase. onthe Macedonian multi in discoursesecurity the which in context identified was phenomenon state weak the finally, And state. between the within societies dynamic security the explains which concept dilemma security societal f the School, Copenhagen the introduced section next of The construction. discourse security of process at tool the investigating looked methodological it main Then the groups. as ethnic securitization, and nations namely collectivities, significant‖ ―politically of concerns security identity examines and security, of object referent a as place which security,societal of concept the introduced Itfirst case. Macedonian the of analysis the for used framework theoretical the laid chapter This 23

- ethnic states is shaped. The next chapters next The shaped. is states ethnic

s society s

as the the as or CEU eTD Collection 11. 89 came independence Macedonia‘s tradition, statehood independent of lack the as well regional hostile and potential th conflict environment, high its of because security, for Federation Declaration. the of adoption the after days five just ―asymmetr of formula constitutional ―Quixotic‖ a devised Izetbegovic Alija President Bosnian with together 25 the on Independence minor played 2.1 Macedonianand identity, national State‘s thenationmain as legitimizer. the revol to Macedonia in discourse disputed the security shaped neighbors, immediate and its by identity Macedonian population, distinct a of character Albanian ethnic domestic Macedonia‘s by State the phenomenon state weak the how investigate will chapter this account, into this Taking structured. is discourse security Macedonia‘s which in background the examine to important is it Macedonia, conflict

Biljana Vankovska Biljana

TheMacedonian New Question At the beginning of Yugoslavia‘s turmoil and eventual disintegration, Macedonia disintegration, eventual and turmoil Yugoslavia‘s of beginning the At understand to order In Chapter2: The “Oasis of Peace” Phase (1991

role. Even though the Macedonian Parliament adopted the Declaration of Declaration the adopted Parliament Macedonian the though Even role. e dire economic situation as the poorest Republic in the federation, as as federation, the in Republic poorest the as situation economic dire e , Civil ic confederation‖, in a desperate attempt to preserve the federation, federation, the preserve to attempt desperate a in confederation‖, ic - military Relations in Macedonia in Relations military

of January 1991, Macedonia‘s President Kiro Gligorov, Gligorov, Kiro President Macedonia‘s 1991, January of

h dnmc f h scea scrt dlma n post in dilemma security societal the of dynamic the , embedded in the constant challenges to the character of of character the to challenges constant the in embedded , ve both around the State as the only protector of of protector only the as State the around both ve

(Copenhagen Peace Research Institute, 2000), 2000), ResearchInstitute, Peace (Copenhagen 89

en haiy eedn o the on dependent heavily Being –

2001)

CEU eTD Collection Question Macedonian 96 95 visit: Constitution the and Preamble ofThe the full version For 94 201. 93 92 in 91 90 Gree to refers Petiffer James Balkans the in issues contentious most the of one as emerged history, and language symbols, name, its state, constitutional its under recognition ethnic domestic its by Albanian population. posed dilemma security societal internal an and neighbors, dilemma‖ security ―double a calls Vankovska one‖. democratic a and civil a as well as state, independent and sovereign ―a as Macedonia of Republic and legally Parli the ―peacefully, by adopted Constitution, new and referendum, successful democratically‖ a after independence, Slovenia andwithout Croatia or wouldlead domination, ―Serboslavia‖. toSerbian own‖ her not were which conflicts in f the from came state intended an of than necessity, of out more much

Dreyzov, Kyril. ― Kyril. Dreyzov, Per Dimitar. Mircev, Vankovska, Dimitar. Mircev, 10 Ibid James Pettifer, ed., ed., Pettifer, James The C The

sonal Interview by the author sonalInterviewthe by fe independence After o Thus, onstitution of the Republic of Macedonia, ― ofMacedonia, Republic onstitution ofthe - 11

Civil te 8 the n 93 act that staying in the federation, for Macedonia would mean ―taking part part ―taking mean would Macedonia for federation, the in staying that act - Macedonian Identity: an Overview of Major Claims” Major Overview of an Identity: Macedonian “Engineering the Foreign Policy of a New Independent State: the Case of Macedonia” the of Case State: Independent aNew of Policy Foreign the “Engineering Macedonia” the of Case State: Independent aNew of Policy Foreign the “Engineering military Relations in Macedonia in Relations military

94 ”, Question New Macedonian The dissociated itself from the Yugoslav Federation. The Preamble of the of Preamble The Federation. Yugoslav the from itself dissociated

47 meitl atr oig no en, h nw tt fcd what faced state new the being, into coming after Immediately 95 ‖ .

96 th

Whereas, all of Macedonia‘s neighbors, or The Four Wolves, as Wolves, Four The or neighbors, Macedonia‘s of all Whereas, of September 1991, the Republic of Macedonia declared its its declared Macedonia of Republic the 1991, September of

ce, Serbia, Bulgaria and Albania, recognized the new State, new the recognized Albania, and Bulgaria Serbia, ce,

h cuty ea is tuge o an international gain to struggle its began country the

name. ament on 17 on ament 91 ad lo ay om f rvsd Yugoslavia‖ ―revised of form any also, and ,

However, in the process the in However, 25 The Preamble” Preamble” The , , 11.

(Palgrave Macmillan, 2001) Macmillan, (Palgrave

, an external security dilemma posed by its its by posed dilemma security external an ,

th http://www.sobranie.mk/en/default

of November, now established the established now November, of - ulig policy. building Official Gazette No. 52, 1991 52, No. OfficialGazette in in James Pettifer, ed., ed., Pettifer, James , 206 , ―t he identity of this this of identity he

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CEU eTD Collection 100 Affairs1944 99 Question” New Macedonian 98 Review Anthropology Legal and Political PoLAR: 97 wh (1878), Berlin of Congress the after century, nineteenth late years. hundred Macedonia‖ of territory the 2.2. discourse. security Macedonia‘s affect that factors the and position each of survey general a provide today, Pettiferaccording are―New Macedonian of Question‖. toJames the part ethnicState Albanian withits population. Ma towards claims direct any laying not the denies it language, while Albania finally, and Church; Orthodox and Macedonian autocephalous an of existence nation Macedonian distinct a of existence the dispute and is ―was, that name a Macedonia, claims however State, and nation Slavic separate a of existence the recognizes hand, other the on Greece language; existe the denied nevertheless it state, Macedonian the recognize to defined. country was first the nation being Macedonian while Bulgaria, the Namely, which in segment a denied each entity, an as

Petiffer, James. James. Petiffer, ― Kyril. Dreyzov Question,‖ Macedonian Conflict: The National on Influences ―Transnational Danforth, LoringM.

Danforth, ―Transnational Influences on National Conflict,‖ 19. Conflict,‖ National on Influences ―Transnational Danforth, The Macedonian inHistoryQuestion The Macedonian Question Macedonian The i look not will chapter this While -

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68, no. 3 (July 1992): 475, doi:10.2307/2622967. 475, no. (July1992): 3 68, 100 ―The New Macedonian Question,‖ Question,‖ New―The Macedonian Macedonian Identity: an Overview of Major Claims” Claims” Major Overview of an Identity: Macedonian

It appeared 15

- 27

ht Slavic a that

on the political and historical scene of the Balkans in the in Balkans the of scene historical and political the on nce of a separate and distinct Macedonian nation and and nation Macedonian distinct and separate a of nce a dmntd akn oiis n hsoy o oe a over for history and politics Balkan dominated has - that is, ―the issue of who would c would who of issue ―the is, that

always will be Greek‖ be will always n full detail the positions of each country, it will will it country, each of positions the detail full n 98

cedonia, it still contests the relationship of the of relationship the contests still it cedonia, 18 (1995): 21. 18

26 These issues thatThese are very prevalent issues still much

International Affairs (Royal Institute of International International of Institute (Royal Affairs International people

had misappropriated the name of of name the misappropriated had

47 97 - 59 and James Pet James and 59 ; Serbia while it does not does it while Serbia ; r ree eba and Serbia Greece, ere ontrol the people and and people the ontrol ifffer ― ifffer 99

The The CEU eTD Collection 105 9. Review,1994), 104 103 102 p. 11 2001. Skopje/Brussels, 101 the localsubjected was population to substantially. increased identity national Greek of sense a had who Macedonia Greek in people of number the result, a As destroyed. was literacy Slavic of evidence all and Hellenized were names place and personal Slavic all Greek in Macedonians Slav as territory the to referred and Greece, in minority Macedonian a and nation Macedonian a of existence the both consistentlydenied hasgovernment Greek forced to policy its Serbian mainstream the into Slavs Macedonian the of assimilation directed Serbia and Serbs, Southern actually were Macedonia from Slavs the all that was hand other the on position, Serbian official The Bulgarians. it instead nation; Macedonian a distinct of kind any to recognition identity. Macedonian slightest the give to disposed was Macedonia minorchanges.with some Macedonia (Vardar today until remain 1913, in established were which borders, These emerged. Macedonia) Serbia and Macedonia) (Aegean Greece Bul betweenMacedonia of split tripartite a Treaty, Bucharest the Europe in Empire Ottoman for contended Bulgaria

Danforth, ―Transnational Influences on Nationa on Influences ―Transnational Danforth, Andrew. Rossos, Ibid. 20 Conflict,‖ National on Influences ―Transnational Danforth, Group: Crisis International

n h itra period interwar the In

Greeks, or perhaps ― perhaps or Greeks,

" The British Foreign Office and Macedonian National Identity National Macedonian and Office Foreign British The 102

The Bulgarian Government Bulgarian The ―

“Macedo h lret eann, ainly neemnd oto o the of portion undetermined nationally remaining, largest the

‖ . 101

With the conclusion of the Balkan Wars 1912 Wars Balkan the of conclusion the With none of the countries countries the of none Slavophone Greeks Slavophone nia’s Name: Why the Dispute Matters and how to Resolveit”. to how Mattersand Dispute Why the Name: nia’s

Slav the all that claimed assimilation andevenassimilation depor forced l Conflict,‖ 21. l Conflict,‖ 27

105

Thus, ‖ has officially denied the existence of existence the denied officially has .

104

that had taken a part of ethnic ethnic of part a taken had that

in all in After 1913, After three parts of Macedonia, of parts three fo Mcdna are Macedonia from s garia (Pirin Macedonia), Macedonia), (Pirin garia society. - oa Rpbi of Republic today , 1 a s Danforth shows, Danforth s 918 tation. - 103 194

Finally, the Finally, 4" 4"

- 1913, and 1913, 1

(Slavic

CEU eTD Collection 108 107 Diplomacy 106 as Macedonia of Republic People‘s the of establishment the with and frozen, temporarily governmentsand policy persecutionassimilation. continued the of not. were Macedonians Slav return, to allowed later were refugees communist Greek ethnic while and confiscated, were Greece in properties their Europe, Eastern in countries other and Yugoslavia to fled within Macedonia communist autonomous, an Yugoslavia. in Macedonia of parts Bulgarian inter the in Comintern communist in living population and culture recognized. officially was people, Macedonian distinct a of existence the history in time first Yugoslavia‘s of one the for Macedonia of Republic People‘s of establishment as the With Republics. constituent established was Macedonia of Republic People‘s the 1944 partisans resistance. Macedonian the supported territories, Yugoslav the movement self

Evangelos Kofos, Kofos, Evangelos Group. Crisis International Sokalski, J. Henryk - determination and creation anddetermination Under Yugoslavia many of the issues regarding the Macedonian Question were were Question Macedonian the regarding issues the of many Yugoslavia Under (1946 War Civil Greek the When During

took advantage of the Yugoslav assistance to realize their nat their realize to assistance Yugoslav the of advantage took (United States Institute of Peace, 2003), 38. 2003), ofPeace, StatesInstitute (United . The communist leader Josip Broz Tito, whose plan was the unification of all all of unification the was plan whose Tito, Broz Josip leader communist The . - led 107

the Second World War, World Second the Following the communists‘ defeat in Greece some 35, some Greece in defeat communists‘ the Following atsn oeet I ln wi line In movement. partisan Nationalism and Communism in Macedoni in Communism and Nationalism An Ounce of Prevention: Macedonia and the UN Experience in Preventive in UNExperience the and Macedonia Prevention: of Ounce An

the northern part of Greece made up a a up made Greece of part northern the -

a pro, hy ogt o nt te uolv Gek and Greek Yugoslav, the unite to fought they period, war “Macedonia’s Name: Breaking t Name: “Macedonia’s

108 an

independent state, started an active ant an started independent state, n h dcds ht olwd consecu followed, that decades the In

Macedonian communists Macedonian 28

9 boe out, broke 49) th the policy Tito inherited from the the from inherited Tito policy the th he Deadlock” Deadlock” he a

(Institute for Balkan studies, 1964), 184. 1964), Balkanstudies, for (Institute Pristina/Brussels, 2009. 3 p. 2009. Pristina/Brussels, h Sai Macedonian Slavic the , led ,

significant part of the the of part significant with distinct language distinct with 106

ional cause, and in and cause, ional by 0 Macedonians 000 h Macedonian The i - fascist fascist aspirations for aspirations ie Greek tive partisan partisan

CEU eTD Collection 112 Macedonia” 111 110 3. 2002, Macedonia,‖ of Republic in the Relations 109 Bulgarian a than else nothing is Macedonian that argues, Poulton as view, the prompted languages Slavic other the from language Bulgarian the distinguishes that characteristics raised was it recognition, official the Bulgarian. in mentioned explicitly not was the nation the of issue the from Although distinct nation, separate a as nation, Macedonian the recognize republic; Macedonian 2.2.1. Macedonia‘s four be neighborswill outlined. bi andsecond,any equalall ofthem; and fromnotentering politicaldistance into inter relations good equal of sense the in countries, neighboring all with equidistance active of war)‖ of (absence peace ―negative rather or peace, preserve to attempt leadership an In pragmatic. political very be to Macedonian proved the by challenges these to reaction The neighbors. indep gaining after immediately as revived, been have identity national Macedonian regarding insecurities resolved. been finally has Question c six the of one -

Engstrom, ―The Power of Perception,‖ 5. Powerof―ThePerception,‖ Engstrom, Dimitar Mircev, Vankovska, Inter on Question Macedonian Impact the of The ofPerception: Power―The JennyEngstrom, lateral or multi or lateral Bulgaria ugra a te is cuty o fiily eonz te needne f the of independence the recognize officially to country first the was Bulgaria , 210 Civil

. niety truh h ise f language. of issue the through indirectly,

- “Engineering the Fore the “Engineering military Relations in Macedonia in Relations military - 110 nttet eulc, t a ee cniee ta te Macedonian the that considered even was it Republics, onstituent lateral alliances. lateral

endence, Macedonia found itself into various disputes with its its with disputes various into itself found Macedonia endence, at

however, from the outset it was made clear that Bulgaria does not does Bulgaria that clear made was it outset the from however, any cost, two strategic principles were adopted: first, the principle the first, adopted: were principles strategic two cost, any

111 109 ign Policy of a New Independent State: the Case of the of Case State: Independent aNew of ignPolicy

Below, a general survey of the official positions of positions official the of survey general a Below,

However, with the dissolution of Yugoslavia, the Yugoslavia, of dissolution the with However,

29 , , 21.

112

hrn ms o the of most Sharing - ethnic ethnic - state, state, CEU eTD Collection 117 116 115 Macedon the 114 113 Bu and ―Macedonia that arguing Macedonians national Bulgarian of part history. significant a Macedonia considers still it as Macedonia, explicit with brother‖ ―big of role has the assumed it territory, Macedonian on claims official any make not does Bulgaria although territory. Macedonian on claims asserted repeatedly the both then since and State, Bulgarian the of territory the San from Macedonia excluded the Berlin, of Congress of the at Treaty revision Stefano The Macedonia. geographical of most included 1878 in Treaty ―Greater The Question. Macedonian recognize alanguage, the existence separate of a Macedonian and nation. implicitly, i documents of drafting official the enabled which Constitution‖, Macedonian the to Macedonian according Constitution, language Bulgarian the to according language ―Bulgarian formula politica the Macedonians. by opposition them for need no was there that claiming Macedonia, dialect.

Engstrom, ―The Power of Perception,‖ 6. Powerof―ThePerception,‖ Engstrom, Roudometof, 5 Powerof―ThePerception,‖ Engstrom, Roudometof, Victor in quoted HughPoulton 113 utemr, ugra a cniuul eetd n vr clua pesr on pressure cultural overt an exerted continuously has Bulgaria Furthermore, the with occupied closely most country the been has Bulgaria Historically, 117

As a As ianQuestion laes f oh tts ind jit elrto epoig practical a employing declaration joint a signed states both of leaders l Collective Memory, National Identity, and Ethnic Conflict Ethnic and Identity, National Memory, Collective eut ugrarfsdt epo nepees n fiil elns with dealings official in interpreters employ to refused Bulgaria result, Collective Memory, National Identity, and Ethnic Conflict: Greece, Bulgaria, and and Bulgaria, Greece, Conflict: Ethnic and Identity, National Memory, Collective bt Blain n Mcdna, ihu Blai hvn to having Bulgaria without Macedonian, and Bulgarian both n

(Praeger, 2002), 41. (Praeger,2002), Ibid., 7. Ibid.,

114

Since 1999, the language issue has taken a new turn, as turn, new a taken has issue language the 1999, Since –

ugra ta ws rae wt te a Stefano San the with created was that Bulgaria‖

30 Bulgarian State and its intelligentsia have have intelligentsia its and State Bulgarian

lgaria have a shared history that cannot be be cannot that history shared a have lgaria

neet n h oiia dvlpet of development political the in interest 116 –

a claim that warranted a fierce fierce a warranted that claim a ic idpnec however, independence Since , 39. ,

115

CEU eTD Collection 124 123 122 121 120 119 118 Ilinden‖ ―Second a considered was it 1944, in established state facto de and struggle national the of memory brightest ―the considered is Macedonia in which l which Republic, Krusevo the established and 1903 Day Elijah‘s Bulgaria‖. motherland its with right a and Macedonia; the within division left a wings: two a into Organization to led Macedonia of future the over quarrels Internal Empire. Ottoman the against aimed activities terrorist in engaged became soon and intellectuals, (VMRO). Organization Revolutionary Macedonian Internal the of legacy the is dispute, this of heroes. Bulgarian as figures historical consiste has Bulgaria position, this with accordance In President Zhelev in1992: other‖. each fromseparated

Ibid 8 Ibid 4 Ibid Vankovska, Roudometof, 8. Powerof―ThePerception,‖ Engstrom, in Quoted 8 Ibid

h VR ws rgnly omd n Thessaloni in formed originally was VMRO The ourselves toimposea nation allow cannot we politically, But right. own its in nation a not is Macedonia that Bulgarian of majority vast the For religion… common a language, common a history, common a have We 121 - Roudometof, Roudometof, building‖.

Civil Collective Memory, National Identity, and Ethnic Conflict Ethnic and Identity, National Memory, Collective - military Relations in Macedonia in Relations military 123 Collective Memory, National Identity, and Ethnic Conflict Ethnic and Identity, National Memory, Collective

ig r ―Vrhovists‖ or wing codnl, hn h Pol‘ Rpbi o Mcdna was Macedonia of Republic People‘s the when Accordingly,

118

This view has been most explicitly expressed by Bulgarianby explicitly expressed most been has view This 122

s, and for our historians, the idea has therefore arisen arisen therefore has idea the historians, our for and s, h Ognzto sae te lne Ursn o St. on Uprising Ilinden the staged Organization The - al identity onthe Macedonians. wing or ―Macedonists‖ ―Macedonists‖ or wing

120

According to Roudometof, what lies at the heart the at lies what Roudometof, to According 31 , , 3.

–

doaig h ―eno o Macedonia of ―reunion the advocating ty lie te Macedonian the claimed ntly – i n 83 y gop of group a by 1893 in ki

, 42. , advocating an autonomous an advocating 124 asted only ten days, and and days, ten only asted

cre , 119

, 40. , tn a symbolic a ating

CEU eTD Collection 128 127 126 125 propaganda‖.Comintern and Titoist or language, and nation Macedonian a of realitycontemporary the deny either ―Bulgarians Question, Macedonian Southern Balkans‖. an than more a nothing War, Cold the are of construct ―ideological identity national Macedonian and nation Macedonian the Bulgaria, in public the of majority the for as well as nationalists, Bulgarian for shows, i and view Bulgarians which in manner exists. minority such that indicated have Bulgaria in activists rights human that fact the despite minorit national Macedonian a that denial categorical Sofia‘s is issue the of core the At Bulgaria. in minority national Macedonian of expression Bulgarian struggle. liberation national an as Uprising a Ilinden the having and as consciousness, members national its Bulgarian organization, national Bulgarian a considered is the however, VMRO Bulgaria, In VMRO. original the of ideals the with party, the of ideals pre of ―reunification‖ at aimed VMRO party nationalist the of emerging the Similarly, VMRO. of ideals the and State new the between relationship

Dreyzov Kyril. ― Kyril. Dreyzov Ibid 41. Ibid., Roudometof,

126 osqety a Krl rzv us p h ofca Blain oiin n the on position Bulgarian official the up sums Drezov Kyril as Consequently, Macedonia the in issue important Another

According to Roudometof, the central contemporary controversy concerns the concerns controversy contemporary central the Roudometof, to According

Collective Memory, National Identity, and Ethnic Conflict Ethnic and Identity, National Memory, Collective Macedonian Identity: an Overview of Major Claims” Claims” Major Overview of an Identity: Macedonian 127

–

- when they acknowledge it it acknowledge they when DPMNE in Macedonia, in 1990, with ―an irredentist agenda irredentist ―an with 1990, in Macedonia, in DPMNE

- 1913 Macedonia‖ 1913 128

nterpret Macedonian national identity. As he he As identity. national Macedonian nterpret nd Tito‘s effort to expand his reach into the the into reach his expand to effort Tito‘s nd 32 eit wti te onais f Bulgaria, of boundaries the within exists y

125 - ugra ipt i te su o the of issue the is dispute Bulgaria , also suggested a li a suggested also , –

srb i etrl t Serbian, to entirely it ascribe 51 , 42. ,

nk between the between nk

the CEU eTD Collection 133 132 131 130 Neighborhood” 129 Seselj, Vojislav leaders nationalist prominent most the of One territory. Macedonia‘s independence Macedonia‘s to opposed much Republic. Federal Yugoslav the joining on referendum a organized Belgrade from support with re Serbia sense, that In Macedonia. back win to desire its express however did it It move. the opposed as clearly nor accepted, unclear neither was independence Macedonia‘s on position its militarily, react not did Serbi large with alliance its an population, given Albanian and state, weak a be inevitably would Macedonia state, independent withdrawal. its upon barracks the allo who Gligorov, especiallyPresident achieve bloodshed. independencewithout to managed which and peacefully, withdrew Army People‘s Yugoslav the which from disloyalty. of move a as o the was Macedonia Federation, the considered of parts other the unlike wasNevertheless, and Serbia, in surprise with met was this independence, declared Macedonia when Thus, Croatia. and Slovenia with case the ind about vocal not was Macedonia Federation, the of disintegration 2.2.2

Ibid Ibid Rakipi, Ibid 90 Ibid., ― Nina. Dobrkovic,

Serbia

Nina Dobrkovic identifies a reason for this in Macedonia‘s pragmatic leadership, leadership, pragmatic Macedonia‘s in this for reason a identifies Dobrkovic Nina the about bring later would which crisis, Yugoslav the of stages early the In Weak States and Security and WeakStates

133

Similarly, as Petiffer and Dobrikovic show, Serbian nationalists were very were nationalists Serbian show, Dobrikovic and Petiffer as Similarly, in

Pettifer, Pettifer, Yugoslavia and Mac and Yugoslavia The New Macedonian Question TheNew Macedonian

, 152. ,

131 edonia in the1991 years in edonia

nte iprat esn s h fc ta a an as that fact the is reason important Another wed the YNA to remove everything possible from from everythingpossible remove to YNA the wed lied on its Serbian minority in Macedonia, who Macedonia, in minority Serbian its on lied 130 33

a would be very likely. very be would a and claimed historical rights of Serbia over over Serbia of rights historical claimed and

, , 84.

- 6: from Brotherhood to Brotherhood from 6: 132 pnec,a was as ependence,

Although, Serbia Although, nly Republic Republic nly 129

CEU eTD Collection 138 137 136 135 Neighborhood” 134 and explicit 2.2.3. self national serve did and it external tointensifythediscourse. surroundings, Macedonian the in part integral identifica an considered is which Church, the Macedonian autocephalous denies nation, it Orthodox theexistencean of Macedonian administrative borders, rather ones. thanas international merely as seen were Macedonia and Serbia between borders the 1996, in Macedonia of Bulgarians‖ ―true‖ fl and Serbs between―true‖ masse ethnic ―une particular of part any a of represented always devoid and were characteristics, Slavs Macedonian the ages the throughout ―that up sums Drezov which academics, Serbian of position the to similar was position Mac undermine to attempt an in Macedonia‖ in live Bulgariansand Greeks―only Serbs, that Macedonia,declaring about Bulgaria Greeceand Macedonia and Bulgaria, between wit Serbia Macedonia occupy could that divisions army two of spoke even

Rakipi, ― Kyril. Dreyzov Rakipi, Pettifer, ― Nina. Dobrkovic, Greece Unlike Serbia and Bulgaria, Greece‘s opposition to Macedonia was much more much was Macedonia to opposition Greece‘s Bulgaria, and Serbia Unlike and state Macedonian the both recognizes officially Serbia although then, Since with talks bilateral held Milosevic Slobodan President Serbia‘s time, same the At Weak States and Security and WeakStates Security and WeakStates tion. While this dispute was not seen as a major issue, in the prevailing internal internal prevailing the in issue, major a as seen not was dispute this While tion. The New Macedoni The iet ad hl Gec de nt ey h eitne f dsic Slavic distinct a of existence the deny not does Greece while and direct,

Macedonian Identity: an Overview of Major Claims” Claims” Major Overview of an Identity: Macedonian Yugoslavia and Macedonia in the1991 years in Macedonia and Yugoslavia

an Question an

, 153. , 153. ,

, 25. ,

34 137 h few small areas small givenh few toAlbania.

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This - CEU eTD Collection visit: Constitution ofthe the full version For 141 140 http://www.eastbordnet.org/working_papers/o 139 c a of pretext the under Greece of affairs internal the i them‖. to ties promotes and development cultural their in them assists and states neighboring in living Macedonians the with accordance Consti in changed be may Macedonia of Republic the of borders ―the that stated 3 Article 49. Article and 3 Article Constitution, Macedonian the of Articles n a of state, such any against acts hostile in engage not would it that and state neighboring any against claims territorial no had ―it that guaranteed it until Macedonia Eu the Greece, of insistence the at 1991, of December In Community. European the by recognition gain to Macedonians themselves call to entitled are Greeks, ancient except the people, no with and Macedonia identified of or kingdom associated be can Macedonia of province Greek the the name. its as ―Macedonia‖ term the of application the around is dispute the State, the of independence the recognizes and Macedonia, in nation rredentism by Macedonia as well as creating an excuse for the Republic to interfere with interfere to Republic the for excuse an creating as well as Macedonia by rredentism

The Constitu The 21. Conflict,‖ National on Influences ―Transnational Danforth, 2, 2010), Eastbordnet, (Oslo: Dispute‖ Naming the ―Beyond Dimova, Rozita re is only one ―Macedonia‖ one only is re ame which implied territorial claims‖. territorial implied which ame tution‖ and Article 49 stated that ―the Republic cares for the status and the rights of and cares and―the thestatus tution‖ Republic 49statedfor Article that The wasattempt dispute by first majorofthe focus theMacedonia theRepublic of , either as a culturaleithera as , tion of the Republic of Macedonia, Sluzben Vesnik br. 52, 1991 52, br. Sluzben Vesnik ofMacedonia, Republic the tionof ropean Community stated that it would not recognize the Republic of of Republic the recognize not would it that stated Community ropean

141 -

- Greek Macedonia and no region in the Balkans, except Balkans, the in region no and Macedonia Greek ethnic or a geographic aethnic or hs a se i Gec a nruig ciae of climate a nurturing as Greece in seen was This http://www.sobranie.mk/en/default pen/.

35 140

Specifically the EC was referring to two to referring was EC the Specifically The Greek official position was that was position official Greek The

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139

CEU eTD Collection 347. 1994), NijhoffPublishers, 145 144 Officia Yugoslavia: In States its Member byECand the 143 Reconstruction and Disintegration Balkans: In Revisited.‖ 142 term Macedonia‖ a wh name bordersunder existing its within recognize country the Lisbon the that stated adopted it EC which the in Declaration 1992 June in addition, In Macedonia. not Arbitration but Croatia, its of 15 recommendation January on the announced accept and Commission, to not State‖. decided another EC against the claims However, territorial any cannot…imply Macedonia name re recommended and conditions these fulfill Macedonia and Slovenia only that stated also It conditions. necessary the fulfills Macedonia neighbors, its towards pretension territorial any preclude which Constitution, independe chose majority the which on 1991 8 on held referendum the after that stated 6 no. Opinion its in Badinter internal states affairs of other int not would Republic the that 2) and law; international with accordance in changed be only could Republic the of borders the that and state neighboring any against claims territorial no has Republic the that 1) Constitution: the to amendments 2 adopted ― Macedonian" minority Macedonian"

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Yugoslavia through Documents: From Its Creation to Its Dissolution Its to Creation Its From Documents: through Yugoslavia

(BRILL, 1997), 1270 (BRILL,1997), ‖.

142

As a result, result, a As .

B. G. Ramcharan, G. B.

(East European Monographs, 2002). Monographs, European (East Te uoen oni epess t raies to readiness its expresses Council European ―The cognition. On January 6, 1992 the Macedonian Parliamen Macedonian the 1992 6, January On – ct for a Name? FYROM‘s Dispute With Greece Greece With Dispute FYROM‘s Name? a for ct 1275. 36 The International Conference on the Former theon Former Conference International The

nce, and after the two amendments of the of amendments two the after and nce, th

143 ht t wou it that

Moreover, it held that ―the use of the of use ―the that held it Moreover, d eonz Soei and Slovenia recognize ld ich does not include the does ich

p.90

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CEU eTD Collection 289. 149 148 System,‖ 147 146 international strong under Consequently, countries. both in place took demonstrations countries two the between relations the embargo, the constitution. and name its change to refused continuously country neighboring the because it do to had they that argued They 1992). in being one first (the Macedonia se a of enforcement the announced Greece name, provisional its under Macedonia, with relations diplomatic full established have countries of theremaining issues between them Secretary the of auspices the under efforts their ― which 845 Resolution adopted Council the year same that Macedonia‖ of Republic temporary Yugoslav Former the ―the name under provisional UN the to admitted 1993, be would April Republic the from which 817 to according Resolution its with Macedonia of admission recommended War. Civil Greek f facts historical certain through region, the and Greece to threat security a represented name its with Macedonia how explain to tried and problem the on views its declared openly it which in Macedonia, of Republic a the of of admission form a in time this fierce side, a Greek the with from faced opposition also was attempt This admission. for applied Macedonia when

John Shea, John 156. Ibid., Nations in the United Macedonia for Name Provisional the a Use of Aspectsof ―Legal Janev, Igor Mukoska Vesela

n h bgnig f 94 anyd y h fc ta svrl West several that fact the by annoyed 1994, of beginning the In Macedonia the of focus the 1993, In The American Journal of International Law International of Journal American The

Macedonia and Greece: The Struggle to Define a New Balkan Nation New Balkan Define a to Struggle The Greece: and Macedonia - Čingo. " Čingo. 146

ne sc srn Gek rsue te N euiy Council Security UN the pressure, Greek strong such Under Constitutionalism" Constitutionalism"

‖ 148

(Praven fakultet ―Justinijan Prvi‖, 2007), 217. 2007), Prvi‖, ―Justinijan (Pravenfakultet .

93, no. 1 ( 1 no. 93, -

Greece naming dispute shifted to the UN, the to shifted dispute naming Greece - General to arrive at a speedy settl speedy a at arrive to General January 1999): 155, doi:10.2307/2997959. 155, January1999): cond economic embargo towards towards embargo economic cond

seriously worsened and massive massive and worsened seriously urges both parties to continue to parties both urges o Wrd a 2 n the and 2 War World rom

eoadm gis the against Memorandum 147 . Additionally, later Additionally, .

(McFarland, 2008), 2008), (McFarland,

- 149 European European

During ement ement

CEU eTD Collection 154 153 152 151 isr Macedonia and Part‖ 150 Mac ethnic the to exclusively belong not does State a such that maintained it State, and nation Macedonian the of existence the recognized Greece‖. to irritant an and Serbia to counterweight ―a as seen A 2.2.4. agreea ―a until process this blocking Greece hand other the on and EU, the and NATO continuously internatiogainstrugglinga wider to diplomacy Macedonian hand, one the on with stalemate, a reached has intern important most the specifically theagreement. withenumerated in accordance in act to bilateral relations in agreed and inviolable, and permanent be to borders existing the declared name). provisional the (under Republic the of sovereignty recogniz and embargo economic the lifted Greece return in the it, to and flag, national its from symbol Vergina‖ of According ―Sun the removed Macedonia of Republic level. every on normalized and defined clearly were countries bilate the agreement, the With Accord. Interim an of form the in reached was embargo Greek the ended which agreement bilateral a pressure,

Engstrom, ―The Po ―The Engstrom, Pettifer, Group. Crisis International 13 Accord, of14the and Interim 9 2, 1, Articles first as ―the ofthe isParty referred Greece instead used, specificnonames are Accord the of Inthe text ble solution for the name for issueis ble solution the In Albania, the independence of Macedonia was was Macedonia of independence the Albania, In Macedonia the Accord, Interim the of signing the Since lbania The New Macedonian Question New Macedonian The

wer of Perception,‖ 10. werofPerception,‖ eferred as ―the Party of the second Part‖ the second as ―the Party of eferred

“Macedonia’s Name: Breaking the Deadlock” Deadlock” Breaking the Name: “Macedonia’s

nal recognition under its constitutional name, join and underrecognition itsconstitutional nal , 21. ,

found 151 th 38

of September, 1995. New1995. York ofSeptember, ‖

152

edonians.

a rltos ewe te two the between relations ral eevd oiiey a i was it as positively, received 150 154 153

ed the independence and and independence the ed utemr, oh parties both Furthermore,

Whereas Albania did not did Albania Whereas p.6 However, while Albania while However, - Greece naming dispute dispute naming Greece

ational documents documents ational mutually mutually CEU eTD Collection 156 155 concerningandcharacter of State. thenew the majority between relations the were dynamic this of center The core. its at was that dynamic nation the which on course 2.3. impact onthe nation nationalism‖. Macedonian strengthening to contributed internat for struggle The issue. identity state the regarding insecurity of feeling growing the of terms in decisive were factors external the of effects negative ―the out points Vankovska as result, a As defined. segment a challenging by dilemma, security few a just with manner, occasional backlashes. neighborly good a in established and peaceful been have in interfere to Albania of attempt affairs. internal Macedonia‘s an as perceived was Macedonia, in Albanians ethnic of rights the regarding Berisha Sali president Albanian the by statements frequent and from university party Tetovo the PDP concerning Albanian Macedonia, the of wing radical the for leadership political Albanian the by support open the Macedonia, of integrity territorial the to threat serious any pose

Vankovska, Vankovska, 11 Ibid., Macedonia’s State hl te xenl hlegs ned evd s aiiaig odtos o the to conditions facilitating as served indeed challenges external the While a posed them of each neighbors, its with relationship Macedonia‘s in sum, In

- ethnic Macedonians, and the biggest ethnic minority minority ethnic biggest the and Macedonians, ethnic Civil - military Relations in Macedonia in Relations military - state

– - Building: towards a Weak S aBuilding: Weak towards building Macedonia. projectin - 155 state

ional recognition was more than difficult, but the obstacles the but difficult, than more was recognition ional

Nevertheless, relatio Nevertheless, - ulig rjc ws e, t a Mcdnas internal Macedonia‘s was it set, was project building 39 , , 25.

by which Macedonian national identity was was identity national Macedonian which by

ns between Macedonia and Albania and Macedonia between ns the language issue, as well as the the as well as issue, language the 156

This in turn had a significant a had turn in This tate

- ethnic Albanians Albanians ethnic the CEU eTD Collection 161 160 159 158 57. 1996), Press, University (Cambridge 157 voters eligible 92% the of shows, Roudometof As Macedonia. Western in areas inhabited so the of establishment the for referendum Alban ethnic the of support the without 1991 in proclaimed was independence When independence. self to right well as grievances, Albanians‘ ethnic to government Macedonian the of unresponsiveness the with dissatisfaction growing The population. Albanian ethnic Macedonia‘s by challenged the accepted factions magical +FYROM‖. formula…VMRO 100= moderate the ―even that shows Vankovska coalition, or party multi free natio a building doing, were others what doing nation the adopted also Macedonia states, successor Yugoslav other the of examples the Following different. no the of hegemony state nominally political or flourishing, economic position, demographic culture, dominant thelanguage, elites ―promote ―nationalizingwhichsome form the of project‖in Bruba as them, of each undertaken, have republics

Vankovska, Vankovska, Roudometof, Vankovska, in Quoted RogersBrubaker, Howev state the in differences the Despite as the optimism that once Yugoslavia disintegrated, Albanians could gain their their gain could Albanians disintegrated, Yugoslavia once that optimism the as -

party elections in Macedonia, did not bring to power a strongly nationalist nationalist strongly a power to bring not did Macedonia, in elections party Haffner, Tanja. ― Tanja. Haffner, - Civil Civil determination Collective Memory, National Identity, and Ethnic Conflict Ethnic and Identity, National Memory, Collective a pplto, eea Abna pltcas ntae a unofficial an initiated politicians Albanian several population, ian er, from the outset, the legitimacy of the nation the of legitimacy the outset, the from er, - bearing nation‖. bearing - - military Relations in Macedonia in Relations military Macedonia in Relations military Nationalism Reframed: Nationhood and the National Question in the Newin Europe Question National and the Nationhood Reframed: Nationalism - state model, as Denko Maleski points out ―Macedonia was just just was ―Macedonia out points Maleski Denko as model, state

State 161 -

making and Security in the Balkans” the Balkans” in Security and making e t ter oct o te aeoin eeedm for referendum Macedonian the of boycott their to led 157

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CEU eTD Collection 144. 2005), (Budapest, LGI Books rve, J Priit and 163 162 State ofthepeople: Macedonian a and State, democratic a as Macedonia defined clearly Preamble its 1991, November elites were a for bi opting political Albanian ethnic the hand other the on State, new the of character ―Macedonian‖ Hollida evident an was Graham there As Albanians. ethnic and Macedonians ethnic the between views the that in disparity showed State the of character the about Constitution the represente implications. political and symbolic wider had it hoax, a be to proved Ilirida of Republic the that fact i participated who hs o te n hn, tnc aeoin oiia eie wr dtrie aot a about determined were elites political Macedonian ethnic hand, one the on Thus,

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Collective Memory, National Identity, and Ethnic Conflict Ethnic and Identity, National Memory, Collective

h rfrnu, 4 oe frtrioil autonomy. territorial for voted 74% referendum, the n , The Fate of Ethnic Democracy in Post Democracy Ethnic of Fate The nd issues of history, language, religion and culture as a means of of means a as culture and religion language, history, of issues nd

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of CEU eTD Collection 1993), Research,, European East Soviet and for Council National D.C. :: 165 visit: Constitution the and Preamble ofThe the full version For 164 groups‖ ―ethnic incorporated third the and SFRY; the outside states kin had that ―nationalities‖ of groups included second the SFRY; the within republics three a in ranked popu which to according Constitution, Yugoslav 1974 the in before had ethnic struggle,and ―constitutional nationalism‖ the for such, As nation State. the Macedonian Macedonians the of main existence the the as for people‖ legitimation Macedonian the of heritage statehood and spiritual ―cultural, Constitution the Preamble the in Thus, country. the in religion and language official the as Church, Orthodox Macedonian the as well as Cyrillicalphabet its language and proclaimedtheMacedonian Moreover, theConstitution

Robert M Hayden, M Robert The Constitution of the Republic ofMacedonia, Republic Constitution ofthe The For the ethnic Albanians the new Constitution guaranteed fewer rights than they they than rights fewer guaranteed Constitution new the Albanians ethnic the For as wel the on state, independent and sovereign a as Macedonia intent of Republic the of establishment and Macedonia, of Republic the in living nationalities other and Romanies Vlachs, Turks, Albanians, for provided is people Macedonian the with Macedon nation a as established is Macedonia that fact historical the upon as well as ... Macedonia of Liberation Peoples' the of Assembly Antifascist the the upon particularly and state, statehood own their of creation for as well as freedom, l as a civil anddemocraticas a one. ian people people ian - - legal traditions of the Krusevo Republic and the the and Republic Krusevo the of traditions legal tier system. tier Constitutional Nationalism in the Formerly Yugoslav Republics / Republics Formerly Yugoslav the in Nationalism Constitutional

- state in which full equality as citizens and permanent co permanent and citizens as equality full which in

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165

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164 became mainexpression. its

stressed the historical continuity and the the and continuity historical the stressed http://www.sobranie.mk/en/default e udmna t ter national their to fundamental me Official Gazette No. 52, 1991 52, No. OfficialGazette

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Ibid., 99. Ibid., Republic Socialist the Constitution of 1989 in the wasincluded already State ofthe ethnic definition The ― Zoran.Ilievski, Koinova Maria Koinova territory. attempt, an albe region, the in elsewhere the as Albanians, represented, the Constitution Macedonian For perpetuated. be would structures, state from excluded been had they when era, Yugoslav the from practices discriminatory and primacy Albanian amongst perception the solidified This to objections Albanian the underlined that factors main two identifies Ripiloski

, ( the ethnic Albanian demands was demands Albanian ethnic the it a much more subtle one, to create a nation a create to one, subtle more much a it Socrates Socrates , “Three Outcomes of Ethnic Conflict: The The Ca Conflict: Ethnic of Outcomes “Three , Sasho Ripiloski, ―Macedonia 1991 ―Macedonia Ripiloski, Sasho 169 Ethnic Mobilization in Macedonia”. Macedonia”. in Mobilization Ethnic

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Ilievski, Zoran. ― Zoran.Ilievski, Ibid., 98 Ibid., 172

103. Nevertheless, the Constitution of the Republic the of Constitution the Nevertheless,

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n te country the and ” International Studies Association Conference, San Francisco, 2008, 9 2008, Francisco, San Conference, Association Studies International 171 The Ohrid Framework Agreement in Macedonia: in Agreement Framework Ohrid The

s multi 's

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Vankovska, Biljana. Biljana. Vankovska, 1991 ―Macedonia Ripiloski,

One of the spheres where inter where spheres the of One byand securitycontrol other emphasizing mechanisms. social the of part so significant a of the within unity more perception build to state the the enforces gap legitimacy is The population. that least at or group, ethnic an or elites political dominant of interests narrow the of expression an primarily insti state Consequently, citizenry. the of understandings the within state the either when evident particularly becomes strength state greater for need The the to challenges constant the by about brought insecurity of feeling growing The “Ethnocentrism, Mino “Ethnocentrism, ciety, by constructing national identity and creating legitimacy in artificial ways ways artificial in legitimacycreating andidentity national constructing ciety,by - idea is not clearly crystallized as political structures or it is not embedded embedded not is it or structures political as crystallized clearly not is idea s oftheMacedonian repressive character State. ofthe ned with suppressing internal security threats. In that sense, the Tetovo the sense, that In threats. security internal suppressing with ned - “Ethnicity and Sovereignty: The Macedonian State Strength Dilemma” Strength State Macedonian The Sovereignty: and “Ethnicity

was out of the question on the grounds that it would undermine the the undermine would it that grounds the on question the of out was

- 2001,‖ 100. 2001,‖ rity Rights and Civil Society in the Balkans the in Civil Society and rityRights

d the Macedonian language and its Cyrillic alphabet Cyrillicalphabet its language and theMacedonian d - ethnic tensions throughout the 1990‘s were most were 1990‘s the throughout tensions ethnic 45

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174

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- CEU eTD Collection 177 176 Conflict? Ethnic 175 however itremained unaccredited 2004. until Un Albanian. ethnic one of death the in resulting protesters, Albanian the ethnic by down closed and and forces security State‘s the between clash violent a to leading authorities, Macedonian unconstitutional declared immediately was University Albanian funded, unilaterally privately a municipalities established Albanian predominantly three of councils municipal the nationhood. Albanian of repression Skopje‘s of indication further belligerence government‘s the and autonomy cultural community‘s the to ―central as Albanians ethnic the by perceived was tongue mother their in education university to right Thedemands. such dismissed government Macedonian the nationalism, Albanian Albanian an that Suspecting Albanian an of establishment the for elite Albanian ethnic the from came demands increasing 1990, in University the down close to decided Milosevic the when However, Prishtina. of University the at enrolled usually was exclusively inMacedonian performed language. m in education secondary and primary languages. nationalities‘ for respect minority. ―considerable a where government,

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War Kalevi J. Holsti, ―The Perils of the Weak: The State The ofthe Weak: Perils ―The Holsti, Kalevi J. Crisis International 105. Ibid., , Cambridge Studies in International Relations (Cambridge University P University (Cambridge Relations International in Studies Cambridge , In conclusion, in the first decade of its existence, Macedonia managed to escape to managed Macedonia existence, its of decade first the in conclusion, In another was crisis flag the issue, University Tetovo the to addition In 178 180

hn h Cntttoa Cuts re t rmv te lg fo the from flags the remove to order Court‘s Constitutional the When Group Group “Macedonia: Not Out of the W the of Out Not “Macedonia:

or States and avoid armed conflict. As a result, the result, a As conflict. armed avoid and States or 179

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CEU eTD Collection 182 181 the nation. and State, the both around revolve to discourse security Macedonia‘s shaped legitimizer, eth environment‖. secure no has State the States, other of ―minds‖ the in planted firmly is State the of idea the the of minds the in planted firmly is State the of idea the ―unless argues: Buzan as And, internally. and nation the linguisticall and religiously governing the into power informal initiating party and coalition political Albanian ethnic strongest the including through Mi Spillover OSCE UNPREDEP, (through Community International the of presence the by secured was transition peaceful external While Peace‖. of Oasis ―the it dubbed Macedonia independent of president first

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People, States, and Fear and States, People, State -

state making project‖, making state - population, the State as a whole has no secure foundation. Equally, unless Equally, foundation. secure no has whole a as State the population, making and Security in the Balkans the in Security and making 182

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y divided society were not taken into account when designing when account into taken not were society divided y , 78. ,

181 ssion, etc), internal peace was secured by pragmatism pragmatism by secured was peace internal etc), ssion,

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CEU eTD Collection 107. 2012), FDV, Založba Macedonia of Republic Yugoslav Former the of Case The Context: Security 183 concern. primary inter than rather situation, economic severe the was perceptions,it Macedoniansethnic different had While Albanians. amongethnicrelations be shortly conducted polls opinion Public surprise. by caught were authorities Macedonian 3.1. reflected inthesecur impleme of the process of analysis an through then, and conflict armed 2001 the of overview an provide Albanian ethnic address and peace restore s a and through grievances violence to end an put to sought which Agreement, Framework Ohrid the of signing the with prevented Albanian was war civil (ethnic Army Liberation National paramilita unknown previously the between conflict, armed an 2001 in when shattered was image this however independence; its

fore the outbreak of the conflict showed a high degree of satisfaction with inter with satisfaction of degree high a showed conflict the of outbreak the fore Mitrevska, Marina. In Marina. Mitrevska, Chapter3: theArmed2001 Conflict andtheOhrid Framework What Happenedin 2001? in Macedonia hn n tak n h plc sain n ere curd n aur 2001, January in occurred Tearce in station police the on attack an When of decade first the throughout image peace‖ of ―Oasis the maintained Macedonia y raiain ad h Mcdna Scrt Fre boe u. Widespread out. broke Forces Security Macedonian the and organization) ry 183

tto o te F i wl show will it OFA the of ntation itization of theOFAethnicitization Macedonian by elites. Anton Grizold et al., al., et Grizold Anton h rsosblt fr h atc ws lie b te previously the by claimed was attack the for responsibility The

eries of measures. Taking this into account, this chapter will first will chapter this account, into this Taking measures. of eries

A " greement Conflict Prevention and Conf and Prevention Conflict 49

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(Faculty of Social Sciences, Sciences, (FacultyofSocial lict Management in the New the in lict Management

s their their s - ethnic CEU eTD Collection 185 51. 2008), Makedonija, InstituteFoundation, 184 f spill a was 2001 from conflict armed the Macedonians ethnic the by embraced one, first the to According emerged. 2001 in Macedonia to happened what character the question. attacksin of ―indigenous‖ the put Serbia, South in and Kosovo in border the across just developments the as well as Albanian), in UCK are (both Organization the for acronym same the of use methods the of similarity the Nevertheless, Two days later,programNLA the onthe published was official ofthe that: claimed they which in 4 no. communiqué their in Army, Liberation National unknown rom across the border in Kosovo and South Serbia. The initial ―spark‖ that triggered the triggered that ―spark‖ initial The Serbia. South and Kosovo in border the across rom

Ibid., " Ismanovski, Sandra

sarsl,topealn,mtal poigdsore atmtn o explain to attempting discourses opposing mutually prevailing, two result, a As constitutionally Macedonia becomes a Macedonian until fight will NLA The continue. can it before M the rendered has far so pursued has government Macedonian the policy Albanian anti The ignored… been have demands Our way. peaceful and constitutional a in dialogue through rights our sought have Macedonia in Albanians the we, far So plan Macedonian illusory the forAlbanian population. lives their give not and homes, their to return to forces police the upon call We people. Albanian the of liberation Slav the of uniform the target will We acedonian - Conflict in Macedonia 2001: Te 2001: Macedonia in Conflict

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184

Albanian or Albanian

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CEU eTD Collection 190 189 188 Macedonia of Republic Yugoslav Former the of Case 187 Conflict?” Ethnic of Resolution nor Settlement Neither 186 in Mission Finding Fact International the on based Mincheva, Lyubov of analysis the insurgency. the joined increasingly population Albanian domestic the began, nevert He occurred. have not would Macedonia Macedonia the of crossing illegal the without and Kosovo, from smuggled weapons the as well as support, organizational and logistical dissatisfact growing the to contribute did Macedonia in population Albanian the of discrimination and repression while that argues He factors. external and internal both of result a was Macedonia in conflict the him, to unfair treatmentpopulation inMacedonia‖. oftheAlbanian daily ―the from resulting rebellion, domestic a exclusively was Macedonia in conflict from support methodological and Kosovo‖. logistical the for weren‘t it if occurred have not Macedonia. were which large a when 1999, in Kosovo in intervention‖ ―humanitarian NATO the of damage‖ ―collateral Mace Yugoslav the demarcating Yugoslavia, and Macedonia between treaty demarcation border the of ratification the was conflict

Zoran Ilievski, ZoranIlievski, Ilievski, Lebamoffand author Interviewthe by Personal ― Marina. Mitrevska, Zoran Ilievski, and R.Lebamoff FrancesMary donia one. donia

However, Ilievski argues that the explanation the that argues Ilievski However, nlx f eues aon 360.000, (around refugees of influx 188 187

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In that sense, Frckovski concludes, ―violent conflict in Macedonia would Macedonia in conflict ―violent concludes, Frckovski sense, that In “Country Specific Report: Conflict Settlement Agreement Macedonia,” Macedonia,” Agreement Settlement Conflict Report: Specific “Country 186

Moreover, according to this view, events in Macedonia are seen as a as seen are Macedonia in events view, this to according Moreover, Conflict Prevention and Conflict Manag Conflict and Prevention Conflict

“The Ohrid Framwork Agreement in Macedonia,” in Agreement Framwork Ohrid “The o the second discourse, embraced by ethnic Albanians, the armedthe Albanians, ethnic byembraced discourse,second the o

- “The Ohrid Framwork Agreement in Macedonia: Macedonia: in Agreement Framwork Ohrid “The aeoin odr, nldn te Kosovo the including borders, Macedonian 51 ”, o o te tnc lain, ihu the without Albanians, ethnic the of ion

(March 26, 2008): 15, 15, 2008): 26, (March 103

predominantly ethnic Albanians, among among Albanians, ethnic predominantly - heless maintains that, once the conflict the once that, maintains heless

Kosovo border, the armed conflict in in conflict armed the border, Kosovo

ement in the New Security Context: The The Context: New Security the in ement is located in the middle. According middle. the in located is 189

15.

2007, 6 2007, 190

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- CEU eTD Collection 194 87. 2006), Press, 193 192 2005. Skopje, Issue9, Politics Ethno Albanian The 191 unstable‖. be to countries inci terrorist where countries many are greater ―much that Georgievski There unstable. be to country one in Ljubco situation the consider to happen should disturbances time the at Minister Prime Macedonia‘s A NLA. the with deal to ability its emphasized and normality stressed continuously Government the conflictinginformation, forces. police Macedonian the of side the NL the and unit police the between clash violent a situation, the investigate to Tanusevci to sent was unit police a When Kosovo. with border the on village mountainous a Tanusevci, in NLA the to belong to claiming TV private a when occurred 3.2. ethnic Albanian emerged fighters and joined theinsurgency. importe was crisis the stage first the Macedonia. in conflict the of Kosovo the of sides both on operating (ETSM) trans Albanian the to points Macedonia,

Hafner, Židas Daskalovski, Ibid., Lyubov. Mincheva, Escalation of the Escalation Crisis

n eray 16 February On State -

making and Security in the Balkans the in Security and making - T erritorial Separatist Movement and the and Movement Separatist erritorial Walking on Walking “Dissolvin

, several weeks after the Tetovo attacks, another incident incident another attacks, Tetovo the after weeks several , 194 g Boundaries between Domestic and Regional/ International Conflict International Regional/ and Domestic between Boundaries g

the Edge: Consolidating Multiethnic Macedonia, 1989 Macedonia, Multiethnic Consolidating Edge: the

191

- utemr, h Gvrmn icesnl itniid its intensified increasingly Government the Furthermore, tto cr station

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Macedonian 2001 crisis 2001 Macedonian - ertra Sprts Movement Separatist Territorial 192

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(Globic (Globic : CEU eTD Collection 199 7 2001): 198 197 196 195 considerdeclaring inorder ―statewar‖ tohavegreater aflexibility of the NLA. indealing with to began Government the and Kumanovo, and Bitola Tetovo, in introduced Albanian at aimed were which Bitola and Veles Skopje, in Macedonians ethnic by riots to led soldiers eightMacedonian kidnapped. was one and killed, were forces securityMacedonian the Skopje the in Vaksince, of village the in time this NLA, the by Similarly, 3 onMay three. and wounding eight Tetovo killing region, the in Vejce, of village the in convoy police and army Macedonian a ambushed NLA regi Skopje and Kumanovo Tetovo, the around areas the occupy forces. NLA the of withdrawal the to led which offensives of series a launched Government w negotiation no be will ―there that claiming proposal, this rejected dialogue. political for a called announced and it ceasefire however unilateral ultimatum; the rejected leadership NLA The country. the 24 a issued Government The Macedonia. Western in town populated Albanian ethnic predominantly sought and divideest Macedonia to who Kosovo, from criminals and extremists terrorists, as NLA the portraying in rhetoric

Ibid. Conflict,‖ Recent and Background Country ―Macedonia: Kim, Julie Ibid. Ibid. Daskalovski,

197 . The crisis continued to intensify throughout April and May as the NLA began to began NLA the as May and April throughout intensify to continued crisis The mid by escalated crisis the As

- hours ultimatum demanding the NLA to lay down lay to NLA the demanding ultimatum hours Walking on the the Edge on Walking

, 2006, 87 2006, , - we bsnse. s respo a As businesses. owned ablish aGreaterAlbanian state. - March, the NLA occupied the hills above Tetovo, a Tetovo, above hills the occupied NLA March,the .

196

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their weapons and leave and weapons their s, oie ufw was curfew police nse, region, two members of of members two region, 195 ons. On April 28 April On ons. ith terrorists‖, and the the and terrorists‖, ith 198 rd

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CEU eTD Collection 203 202 201 200 the to equals as considered be to ―Albanians about talked May of end the by issued Slav the from lands Albanian freed‖ are people Slav Albanian the the of until occupier uniform Macedonian the ―targeting like statements included issued communiqués which additionally the relations strained thecoalition. within Government, the in representatives Albanian the and NLA the between coordination and cooperation on Agreement Prizren the signed and Kosovo Prizren, in NLA the of NLA. the against offensives forces‘ security the criticized parties Albanian ethnic the NLA, the high condemned coalition parties Albanian inthe twoethnic ofthe critical fact that none ofthe were parties Macedonian ethnic the While fragmented. was government new outsetthethe argues,from Nevertheless,Daskalovskias PDP. and DPA parties,Albanian VMRO the namely parties, Macedonian la two the of comprised which created, was Unity‖ National of ―Government resolution‖ conflict peaceful towards step a long prevent to represent would coalition broad―a that believed community international specifically,the order in reforms institutional and legislative enact to Macedonian) and Albanian (both elites political Macedonian the encouraging started and solution, military of instead political, a required conflict the that emphasizing

Ibid., in Macedonia,‖ Surfaces Group ―AlbanianGuerrilla Ibid. Daskalovsk 201

t h same the At community international the deepen, to continued crisis the As

Furthermore, at the end of May, both the DPA and PDP met with met PDP and DPA the May,both of end Furthermore, the at i, Walking on the the Edge on Walking

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―Multi Dnevnik acter. The Consequences of Identity Politics: Security Di Security Politics: Identity of Consequences The d Framework Agreement. For a full version of the Agreement visit: visit: Agreement ofthe version full a For Agreement. Framework d - ments to redress power asymmetry between the two communities, communities, two the between asymmetry power redress to ments JEMIE JEMIE 210 ethnicity or Bi or ethnicity

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Ibid., 7. Ibid., R Macedonian Ethnic Agreement: the Ohrid of Implementation ―The UlfBrunnbauer, Hafner, Ibid.,

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State - making and Security in the Balkans the in Security and making

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Ilievski, ―Country Specific Report: Conflict Settlement Agreement Macedonia,‖ 22. Macedonia,‖ Agreement Settlement Conflict Report: Specific ―Country Ilievski, 4. Ibid., sto pris Dmcai Atraie n Ra VR) ad ht hy ol not would they that said VMRO) Real and Alternative (Democratic parties osition The Preamble oee, tnc aeoin oiia eie ad nelcul immediately intellectuals and elites political Macedonian ethnic However, Republic ofMacedonia. good common the towards obligations and rights in equal Macedonia, within coexistence to and generation future to that everything responsible develop and and preserve Macedonia, of State sovereign and independent an create to struggle and endeavors their in dedication and sacrifice their of future and present the for responsibility taking Macedonia, of Republic the of citizens The Albanians ethnic and Macedonians ethnic between contention of point main The

218

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Ilievski, ―Country Specific Report: Conflict Settlement Agreement Macedonia,‖ 22. Macedonia,‖ Agreement Settlement Conflict Report: Specific ―Country Ilievski, 10. Agreement,‖ Ohrid ofthe Implementation ―The Brunnbauer, State Religion and Taking into account that the majority of ethnic Macedonians were Christian Christian were Macedonians ethnic of majority the that account into Taking decidedRepublic ofMacedonia. toestablish the the people, Vlach the people, peoples…haveother of and Bosniakpeople, the people, Roma the people,Serbian Turkish the people, Albanian the of members Re the of borders the within live who citizens those as well as people, Macedonian the Macedonia, of Republic the of citizens The rsl, cmrms ws e i ngtain ld y oeto and Robertson by led negotiations in met was compromise a result, a 219

tution of 1991 gave preferential treatment to the Macedonian Macedonian the to treatment preferential gave 1991 of tution

n h ohr ad ehi Abna pris eetd n re any rejected parties Albanian ethnic hand, other the On the Church and gives religious communities the right to establish to right the communities religious gives and Church the Islamic Religious Community, the Catholic Church and other other and Church Catholic the Community, Religious Islamic

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220

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Ibid., Reforms Political Over Rage Church ―Macedonia: Stojanovska, Gordana 23. Ibid., 221

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Engström, ―Multi Engström, Ibid., Group Crisis International 13. Powerof―ThePerception,‖ Engstrom,

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Ladislav Lesnikovski, ―Macedonia‘s Ontological Insecurity and the Challenges of Stabilizing Inter ofStabilizing the and Challenges Insecurity Ontological ―Macedonia‘s Lesnikovski, Ladislav Ibid., ― Ulf. Brunnbauer,

Nevertheless, in 2004, according to the decentraliza the to according 2004, in Nevertheless, 156

Eurasia Border Border Eurasia - Western Macedonia, the ethnic Macedonian political parties rejected the the rejected parties political Macedonian ethnic the Macedonia, Western - The Consequences of Identity Politics: Security Dilemmas in the Republic of of Republic the in Dilemmas Security Politics: Identity of Consequences The ranging powers for local communities in education and health care, as as care, health and education in communities local for powers ranging

Review

2, no. 1 (2011): 68. (2011): 1 no. 2, 63

Agreement. tuals and civil society actors actors society civil and tuals tion provisions in the Ohrid Ohrid the in provisions tion - Government which which Government 230 lbanians, once in in once lbanians,

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CEU eTD Collection University P Princeton N.J: 233 8 2001, 232 231 In this nation. Macedonian the existence very of the threat to as a character perceived was ‗theirs‘‖ exclusively as represents often language their that State a in vested as security their see Macedonians ―many as Consequently, opposition. the sparked which identity, national Macedonian for ‗losses‘ the rather but the to granted OFA the that ‗gains‘ the not was it sense, that the and themselves perceived Macedonians ethnic how to related that issues symbolic around focused debate entire the opposition, any without passed power other as well as representation, equitable and just the to related provisions or veto, legislative broad a Albanians ethnic the granted which OFA the of provisions while Accordingly, State. the of character the to relating OFA the of p the to opposition Macedonians‘ ethnic the in reflected was discourse security 3.4. referendum failed. the country‖ of ―stabilization for was it that arguing name constitutional its under Macedonia recognize to decided USA the referendum the before days three However, successful. hi was referendum the for support that showed time that

Keith Brown, KeithBrown, to How and DisputeMatters the Why Name: ―Macedonia‘s Group, Crisis International 70 Ibid., Securitization ofSecuritization Framework the Ohrid Agreement .

The analysis of the process of implementation of the OFA reveals how the the how reveals OFA the of implementation of process the of analysis The 231

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ress, 2003), 135. 2003), ress,

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Brunnbauer, Ulf. ― Ulf. Brunnbauer, 15 Ibid., 9 Agreement,‖ Ohrid ofthe Implementation ―The Brunnbauer, Muslims EthnicMacedonian see: Macedonia in results analysis census of detailed a For Inter Stabilizing of Challenges the and Insecurity Ontological ―Macedonia‘s Lesnikovski, On the other hand, the securitization of the OFA was further intensified by by intensified further was OFA the of securitization the hand, other the On

ov.mk/OblastOpsto_en.aspx?id=31 237 - 47

In addition, the heavy concentration of ethnic Albanians in the North the in Albanians ethnic of concentration heavy the addition, In The Consequences of Identity Politics: Security Dilemmas in the Republic of of Republic the in Dilemmas Security Politics: Identity of Consequences The

Western Macedonia.

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239

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Hafner, 157 Ibid., Loomis, A.,Da Loomis, 241 ethnic intensify to served indeed 2001 from conflict armed the sum, In as: Changing Contexts in the Changing Balkans Changing the in Contexts as: Changing 242 State

n ht es te F fie t me ehi Mcdnas scea security societal Macedonians‘ ethnic meet to failed OFA the sense that In

- making and Security in the Balkans the in Security and making vis, L. and Broughton, S L.Broughton, and vis, - state building project and adopt it to its social reality by addressing by reality social its to it adopt and project building state ances, by ethnic Macedonians it was perceived as ―genuine security security ―genuine as perceived was it Macedonians ethnic by ances,

rtco o te aeoin nation. Macedonian the of protector ” u, h scrt dsore a rfetd n h ethnic the in reflected was discourse security the hus, . Paper presented at theat conference presented Paper .

nlc suh t rdes tnc lain grievances. Albanian ethnic redress to sought onflict ition by ethnic Macedonian elites. As the State was was State the As elites. Macedonian ethnic by ition . ― Politics & Identity in Macedonia. Intrinsic Macedonia. in &Identity Politics 66 , , 55.

‖ , London, 14 , 240

their fragile and insecure national insecure and fragile their ― Macedonia - 16 June, 2001. June, 16 In such a situation situation a such In –

CEU eTD Collection 245 1 pp. 2010, July19, 244 Review 243 nation in antiquity of myths national of functions the introduce briefly I chapter this of part first the in Therefore, Project. 2014 Skopje the nation the in reflected and selective past of the version state nation a as ―a Project here.‖ started practically Civilization tan a create to chance a have we time is communities religious with relations for commission ‗classical‘ with structures facades. existing of decoration the as well as styles, architectural buildings public various and figures religious serie a through city the of reconstruction i as city the of through Project 2014‖ Skopje of ―Visions the announced Gruevski, Nikola Chapter4: Effects ofSecurity onDiscourse Post

―a statement of all that we have had from the ancient period until today. For the first first the For today. until period ancient the from had have we that all of statement ―a Kubiena, Mic Kubiena, 2014 ―Skopje Michael Kubiena, Dimishkovska, Ljubica Grozdanovska (2010). ―A New Ancient City‖ Transitions Online, Transitions City‖ Ancient ―A New (2010). Grozdanovska Ljubica Dimishkovska,

2, no. 1 (2012): 87. (2012): 1 no. 2, Taking this into account, this chapter will examine how the security discourse was chapterexaminehowthe discourse this will security account, Taking into this VMRO nationalist the 2009 In 243

mythical representation of an imagined singularity of Macedonia‘s formation formation Macedonia‘s of singularity imagined an of representation mythical The Project, in the words the in Project, The hael. t is supposed to look like by like look to supposed is t - was 5. ―

Skopje 2014 2014 Skopje

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244 of Building gible manifestation of Macedonian identity. […] […] identity. Macedonian of manifestation gible

In that sense, as Kubiena concludes, through the through concludes, Kubiena as sense, that In - DPMNE Valentina Bozinovska Valentina

o mnmns n saus f itrcl and historical of statues and monuments of s the year2014. the 67

- conflict Macedonia whose cul whose Macedonia conflict eebig neo resembling

Government, led by Prime Minister Minister Prime by led Government, - - inventing History,‖ History,‖ inventing - inventing History?‖, inventing , and a member of VMRO of member a and , building as discussed by Anthony Anthony by discussed as building

The Project envisaged an urban urban an envisaged Project The -

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mination is mination - - DPMNE DPMNE baroque baroque - CEU eTD Collection 248 164 2005), 247 246 ‗goldenwith its ages‘, heroes, and poetic spaces.‖ past communal putative the to appealing people‘ ‗the mobilize and purity to aspire elites pr and authenticity nation‘s uncover diversity‖ internal and heterogeneity its over glosses thus and version naturalandauthentic as the the nation ―particular of formations Furthermore,present they identity‖ has twomeanings: unique for quest their and identity specific 4.1. Macedonian identity. national an internal perceived the to response a as developed Macedonia nation the how examine I Finally, Project. 2014 Skopje the in culminated which continuity, and authenticity namely narrative‖, ―antiquisation importa most two the highlight I perspective this Following Smith.

Anthony D. Smith, D. Anthony Umut Özkiriml Smith, D. Anthony National of Myths Authenticity values and heroes. revere and admire we that heroes and values up hold they for here, part important an play ages golden more or one of Memories individuality. our character, distinctive our in sharing other the ‗outsider,‘ the with relations our by determined is we are who difference: of that is second descent…The and origin of myth a came,‘we by ‗whence determined is arewe who origin: of that is firstThe MythsAnthony arguesas ofauthenticity, Smith satisfy thecommunity‘sneeds for .

i, Contemporary Debates on Nationalism: A A Critical Engagement Nationalism: on Debates Contemporary The A The National Identity National ntiquity of Nations of ntiquity

246

–

(University of Nevada Press, 1991), 68 1991), Press, (UniversityofNevada hc ohr cno d, eas the because do, cannot others which ofound sameness of the co the of sameness ofound

(Wiley, 2004), 221. (Wiley,2004), and Continuityand 68 -

es I ta sne h a he sense, that In ness. 248

who is marked off from ‗us‘ by not not by ‗us‘ from off marked is who

- building project in post in project building

- nationals – 69. d external threats to to threats external d

(Palgrave Macmillan, Macmillan, (Palgrave 247 t set o the of aspects nt ge ―authentic rgues hv different have y

And finally, ―to finally, And - to - be, cultural cultural be, - conflict CEU eTD Collection 254 253 252 Macedonia,‖ in Antiquization called 251 96. 2000), 250 49 249 of continuity.to Smith: According group‖, ―‘our‘great sages,heroes saints, and menfought‖ lived, worked,prayed and our of state national a was question in territory the controlled time territory homeland‘ the‗historic into dominion‖. its manifest to right more the thus symbols and territories certain right historical the ―determines that principle citizenship‖. of rights the circumscribe) maybe (and define to right the have also primacy have who those that and ethnicity of those to place rights the say that, meaning others, all over territory that homeland. sacred its space, historic own its in community the locates and group the of origin the

– Smith, A Kolsto, Pal ―Nation Vangeli, Anastas Schöpflin, George Schöpflin, George and A.GeoffreyHosking 50. nthony D. Smith, D. nthony

heroicgenerations realize genuine age(s), theirheroic later own individuality. es age…By great the of sages and heroes the of the descendants are and we change, social time of vicissitudes of ravages all despite that, suggests age golden a to return The aut of myths to related closely Very authentic of myth the that argues Smith Anthony addition, In

The Antiquity of Nations of Antiquity The 249 Myths and Boundaries in South Eastern Europe South in Boundaries and Myths

In that sense, the community which was ―prior to everybody has the right to right the has everybody to ―prior was which communitythe sense, Inthat Nations, Identity, Power: The New Politics of Europe of New Politics The Power: Identity, Nations, Myths and Memories of the Nation the of Memories and Myths - building Ancient Macedonian Style: The Origins and the Effects of the So ofthe the Originsand Effects The Style: Macedonian Ancient building

tablishing genealogical descent as well as cultural affinity with affinity cultural as well as descent genealogical tablishing , 223. ,

Nationalities Papers Nationalities –

the older the nation is imagined, the more powerful it is, it powerful more the imagined, is nation the older the

―what is asserted is that an old state that once upon a once asserted isthatanoldstate―what is that upon Myths and Nationhood and Myths henticity, Smith introduces the national myths myths national the introduces Smith henticity, 69

f h priua ntos vr controlling over nations particular the of

(Oxford University Press, 1999), 150 1999), University (Oxford Press, 39, no. 1 (2 1 no. 39, 251

250 (C Hurst & Co Publishers Ltd, 2005), 22. 2005), Ltd, &Publishers Co Hurst(C osqety b tasomn the transforming by Consequently,

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t & Co. Publishers, 1997), 1997), Publishers, t &Co. identity sanctifies identity 253

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CEU eTD Collection 257 32. 2012), College, Budapest CEU, (Budapest: 2012/14 Theses 1991 After Macedonia of Republic the in Albanians and Macedonians 256 255 A of ―the name that contends further He populism‖. political resembled and spontaneous rather Macedonians. ancient the and authenticity of myth the both by continuity, reflected it sense, that In Great. of the figure Alexander the given was importance uppermost the which in present, the to antiquity ―antiquisation‖. as known became n antiquisation discourse public Macedonian the in which identity, national Macedonian reconstructing and redefining of process a initiated Gruevsk 4.2. its as Project 2014 Skopje the culmination. and narrative, antiquisation the in reflected were antiquity, pedigree glory. and past of virtue by dignity special a with them investing generations between commonality of beco it easier the appears, antiquity that glorious, more the greater, ―the that highlights he Furthermore,

Vangeli, ―Nation Vangeli, Lomonosov, Matvey 213 Ibid., Antiquisation Narrative the Skopjeand 2014 Project With the coming to power of the VMRO the of power to coming the With authenti of myths the both, how examine I follows what In i, the nation the i,

eadr h Get a ue t sml dpc te ains rner n to and grandeur nation's the depict simply to used was Great the lexander

mes to mobilize people‖. mobilize to mes

linking the roots of the modern Macedonian nation to antiquity, to those of of those to antiquity, to nation Macedonian modern the of roots the linking arrative stressed a linear continuity of Macedonian national identity from identity national Macedonian of continuity linear a stressed arrative - building Ancient Macedonian Style,‖ 13. Style,‖ Ancient Macedonian building National Myths in Interdependen in Myths National - building project in Macedonia took a new turn. Namely, the Party Party the Namely, turn. new a took Macedonia in project building

The initial antiquisation measures, as Vangeli argues, ―were ―were argues, Vangeli as measures, antiquisation initial The

256

255

Thus, the myths of continuity establish a sense a establish continuity of myths the Thus, 70

ce: The Narratives of Theancient Past Among Among Past Theancient The Narratives of ce: - DPMNE, under the leadership of Nikola of leadership the under DPMNE,

, CEU Nationalism Studies Master Studies Master Nationalism CEU ,

city and continuity continuity and city 257

The CEU eTD Collection 262 261 S of Social Journal Mediterranean 260 259 258 read: not was initiated. was ―Pride‖ title the under campaign another 2009 it since off, backs never who retreat. to ―Macedonian‖ warrior brave a as Great the Alexander vide of consisted campaign The Macedonia‖. are ―You titled optimism‖ and dignity national the ―raising for campaign a initiated government the Moreover, respectively. Macedonia‖ of ―Alexander and II‖ Philip Arena ―National pan the of part was which highway main the and multifaceted‖. and ―numerous were argues Vangeli issue name the of because Greece by blocked Parliament, VMRO of between borderlines unfounded expanded that the events historical of and identity Macedonian materials ancient historical ―shadowy the glorified that textbooks of editions printed govern antique new and Airport‖ Great the ―Alexander spirit‖. people's the nourish

Ibid., 18 Ibid., ―Nation Vangeli, Later,‖ Years Ten in Macedonia, Justice Transitional and ―Reconciliation Frckoski, D. Ljubomir Brussels,‖ and Ohrid Between ―Macedonia AndyMcNelly, 20 Ibid.,

ets ulig entrance. building ment‘s were Macedonians. Saint Clement Ohridski was Macedonian, Tsar Samuel was was Samuel Tsar Macedonian, was Ohridski Clement Saint Macedonians. were Methodius and Cyril Saints Macedonian. was Alexander Macedonian. was Philip after assertive more much became narrative antiquisation The

purely theheroic 'ours',purely and thedirty ‗theirs'

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262

258 ciences

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Macedonia‘s

In this regard, in 2006 2006 in regard, this In 259

(September 1, 2011): 4 2011): 1, (September

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kpe ipr ws eae to renamed was airport Skopje 2008 antiquisation measures as as measures antiquisation 2008 cis n pses portraying posters and clips o om The posters of the campaign the of posters The , 28, ,

accessed June 4, 2012 June4, accessed ht ae year same that the second victory second the

were .

CEU eTD Collection 266 265 264 in S Discourse National and Identity Macedonian 263 U national ―Ilinden ―Ilinden‖ the celebrates the which holiday, of celebration the in Similarly uniforms. style ―ancient in Macedonian‖ dressed are celebration the in participants which in 2008, in government th of example the gives he regard, past.‖ the with continuity implies automatically which repetition, by behavior in to seek which nature, symbolic practices…of traditio new of invention the that suggested findings whose iGenea project ―Macedonians ancient thanGreeks‖. have Macedonian blood more Swiss the by conducted survey region‖ the of development the ancient defined and prevailed the features Macedonians, Ancient native the and Slavs the immigrant ―during the claimed of which interaction History National for Institute the by published People‖ the of History ―The of version official newest the of examples the gives pseudo and scientific gained gradually process antiquisation the shows, Vangeli as addition, In

Ibid., ―Nation Vangeli, Study A Macedonian‘ Not You‘re VMRO Vote Don‘t You ―‗If Andreassen, Dehli Morten Eric J. Hobsbawm and Terence O. Ranger, Ranger, O. Terence Hobsbawm J. and Eric

- (1992), (1992), was Vangeli to according discourse antiquisation the of feature importantAnother was youour ancestors. areBe proud that Macedonia Gruev Dame of proud be history; our of proud Be Macedonian. was Chento Andonov Metodija Macedonian. Macedonian. was Misirkov was Krste Macedonian. was Karev Delcev Nikola Macedonian. Goce Macedonians. were Gemidjiite Macedonian. was Karpos Macedonian. was Marko King Macedonian. scientific support from ethnic Macedonian intellectual circles. In that sense, he he sense, that In circles. intellectual Macedonian ethnic from support scientific 19.

- building Ancient Macedonian Style,‖ 20. Style,‖ Ancient Macedonian building

ns, as referred to by Eric Hobsbawm as a ―set of of ―set a as Hobsbawm Eric by to referred as ns, e ―Xantica‖ holiday, promoted by the VMRO the by promoted holiday, ―Xantica‖ e " The Invention Invention Tradition The of kopjee‖ (June 17, 2011): 43 2011): (June 17, kopjee‖ rsn‖ rm 93 te osmn rse in dressed horsemen the 1903, from prising‖ 72

- aclt cran aus n nrs of norms and values certain calculate

n! 263

(Cambridge University Press Press University (Cambridge 264 .

; as well as the g the as well as ; 265

Macedonian

of 266 - DPMNE DPMNE

In this In enetic CEU eTD Collection 268 267 o size sheer the and Project the in position central The II. Philip father his and Great the self authentic toignore‖―impossible national a towards trajectory linear a suggests century, twentieth early and nineteenth late the of figures revolutionary and millennium Roman the and their antiquity and monuments the of ― the with proximity together area central the in concentration spatial the Furthermore, conflict. ethnic recent from monuments inter the and Era Ottoman the of monuments of series a through Samuel; Emperor ―Macedonian‖ the Ages Middle Era Roman the through antiquity from stemmed mon of re 1963, in earthquake re the includes project the Namely, Skopje the ancient Macedonian soldiers. like dressed units cavalry new with replaced been have uniforms ―Komiti‖ traditional

Kubiena, ―Skopje 2014 2014 ―Skopje Kubiena, ―Nation Vangeli, uments and statues of ―Macedonian‖ heroes from all eras. The heroes represented heroes The eras. all from heroes ―Macedonian‖ of statues and uments Furthermore, the link to antiquity satisfied ethnic Macedonians‘ needs for an an for needs Macedonians‘ ethnic satisfied antiquity to link the Furthermore, in reflected explicitly most were continuity and authenticity of myths the Finally, 2014 Project which represented a culmination of the antiquisation narrative. antiquisation the of culmination a represented which Project 2014 - - -

a pro; n fnly ouet fo te omns Ea s el as well as Era Communist the from monuments finally and period; war definition, in which uppermost importance was to be given to Alexander to given be to was importance uppermost which in definition, Cyril and Methodius, and Naum and Clement, as well as the monument to monument the as well as Clement, and Naum and Methodius, and Cyril - building Ancient Macedonian Style.‖ Ancient Macedonian building - . - 268

creation of authentic Macedonian architecture, as well as building building as well as architecture, Macedonian authentic of creation Musealizing the City, Re City, Musealizingthe -

- Macedonian history Macedonian

the monument of Iustinianus Primus; the Slavic Era and the the and Era Slavic the Primus; Iustinianus of monument the lxne te ra ad i fte Pii I o Macedon; of II Philip father his and Great the Alexander - yatn Epr t Crsin isoais f h first the of missionaries Christian to Empire Byzantine

267

- construction of the buildings destroyed by the the by destroyed buildings the of construction 73 - inventing History,‖ 90. History,‖ inventing -

the monument for the victims of the 2001 the of victims the for monument the

p. 21 p. dniy, hc Kbea ocue is concludes Kubiena which identity‖, simple fact that the statues range from from range statues the that fact simple

f CEU eTD Collection 271 270 269 nation Macedonian Macedoni ethnic whose State Macedonian the to challenge internal the as well as identity, national Macedonian perceived threa itself‖. reproduces society the that ensure to and distinctiveness and cohesion societal reinforce to means cultural using by defensive of line obvious one Waever as identity, its strengthening by itself protect triggers‖. behaviorthis in act to starts it when threatened, as identity ― the study to necessary is it argues 4.3. the nation which around past glorious a to link a nation, Macedonian the of Age Golden the to link antiquisation the such, As nation. wasnarrative Macedonian the of Age Golden the as seen was Macedonia ancient Project, 2014 Skopje the culmination its and narrative, the antiquisation in Thus, claim. the substantiated further just figures two these of monuments the

Roe, ―The Intrastate Security Dilemma,‖ 195. Dilemma,‖ Security Intrastate ―The Roe, Ibid., Wæver, Skopje 2014: Skopje 2014: 191. s rvos hpes ae hw, h etra cnetto o a distinct a of contestation external the shown, have chapters previous As Waever as dilemma, security societal the of effects the understand to order In Identity, Migration and the New Security Agenda in Europe Agenda New Security the and Migration Identity, -

building projectcouldtake place. designed to generate a strong feeling of self of feeling strong generatea to designed ts, societal identityts, societal and also thus is(re)constructed strengthened -

Nation by Macedonia‘s domestic Albanian population, perpetuated the the perpetuated population, Albanian domestic Macedonia‘s by 269

n hrce ws ecie a te ny rtco o the of protector only the as perceived was character an When the society is threatened in terms of its identity, it tries totries identity, it its of terms in threatened societyis the When - Bu

response is to strengthen societal identity. This can be done done be can This identity. societal strengthen to is response ilding ilding 270

In the process, Roe concludes concludes Roe process, the In process whereby a group comes to perceive its its perceive to comes group a whereby process under

the Societal the Societal DilemmaSecurity scrt md o ti bss n what and basis this on mode security a suggests - identification by constructing by identification , , 23.

―for threatened societies, societies, threatened ―for ―in defending against defending ―in ‖. 271

a -

CEU eTD Collection 275 61, 2009), University, (CentralEuropean Ancient Past‖ ofthe Narrative 274 273 272 t the ―Macedonia‖ name throughout affirmation and existence centuries‖. ―unceasing nation‘s the emphasizing exi perennial now theywant take our to over land‖. and there out somewhere from come have ―they since State, the of ownership equal for time same the at and others, the than resources its and territory the on rights historic more much having implies territory, the of people indigenous and autochthonous the as land, the Macedoniansover the rightof ‗natural‘ the the to prior territory peoples other of ancestors this inhabited have ancient ancestors the ―their from that means descendants Macedonians direct as Macedonians contemporary the depicting M distinctaexistence of the challenged who Bulgaria), and (Serbia nations Slavic neighboring from claims expansionist the disputes origins, pre its highlighting thus antiquity, in rooted as identity Macedonian ―authentic‖ compatriot different ethnically and neighbors the from differ unique and authenticity‖ for ―quest the identity that theSkopje 2014Pr national Macedonian to threats perceived these was it Indeed dilemma. security societal

Lomonosov, Greco the on Reflections Musing: ―Antiquity Vangeli, Anastas Ibid., ―Nation Vangeli,

The organic bonds of the Macedonians with their ―homeland‖, co ―homeland‖, their with Macedonians the of bonds organic The satisfies antiquity, to nation Macedonian modern the of roots the tracing Namely, 275

National Myths in Interdependence in Myths National tne f hs dniy n otniy rm niut t te rsn, thus present, the to antiquity from continuity in identity this of stence oe pcfcly te rjc ipiil etbihd h peec o the of presence the established implicitly Project the specifically, More - building Ancient Macedonian Style,‖ 23. Style,‖ Ancient Macedonian building hroughout all periods from antiquity to the present. In that sense, sense, that In present. the to antiquity from periods all hroughout

–

Greeks, Bulgarians, Serbs, and A and Serbs, Bulgarians, Greeks,

oject sought address. to 274 -

ness of the Macedonian nation and the ―urge to ―urge the and nation Macedonian the of ness

,46. 75

played down ethnic Albanians‘ demands demands Albanians‘ ethnic down played

- acedonian nation. Furthermore, by Furthermore,by acedoniannation. Macedonian Symbolic Contest Over the Over Contest Symbolic Macedonian

s‖. lbanians‖. 272

The portrayal of the of portrayal The 273 - relates with the with relates

In that sense, that In - Slavic CEU eTD Collection 278 (NewBulgar Macedonia‖ of Republic the and Bulgaria 277 276 history‖. natio our of denials constant by monuments…accompanied without Macedonia to end an puts 2014 Skopje ashes. the from nations many raised has values inherited and past one‘s for love The spirit. national the is success each of power driving national identity by Macedonia‘s neighbors. Macedonian distinct a of existence the denying for grounds as served has which tradition Great the Alexander Project‖. the in indirectly included been has Greece with issue naming ―the that argues Kubiena

International Crisis Group, ―Macedonia: Ten Years After the Co Afterthe Years Ten ―Macedonia: Group, Crisis International of Cases the (on inDiscourse Ethnic Boundaries Group Redefining and ―Myth Elchinova, Magdalena 89 pp. Ibid., n ht es, h Pie iitr resi xlie te P the explained Gruevski Minister Prime the sense, that In 278 276

utemr, y ikn te otmoay tt t te nin epr of empire ancient the to State contemporary the linking by Furthermore, - 92.

n hs ahr te rjc cmests h lc o statehood of lack the compensates Project the father, his and

76 277

ian University, Sofia, 2003), 23. Sofia,2003), University, ian

nflict,‖ 2011, 2 2011, nflict,‖ n, language, identity, language, n, .

oet ―h main ―the roject:

CEU eTD Collection digr possible Such avoiding for as Macedonia. well as limitation, spatial of fact mere the from about come has limitation in dynamics security the discussing in view of point Macedonian status. equalfor ―others‖ Albanian ethnic repudiatingclaims bythe Macedonian any nation, thus the of character continuous and autochthonous the verify to serve also would antiquity ex disputing and character, its of authenticity the demonstrating thus antiquity, into nation Macedonian the of roots the tracing by concerns, these address to sought culmination its as Project dilemma security societal the intensify to served it State the of character ethnic the in seen requirements security societal Macedonians‘ ethnic address to failing by Namely, potential. its exacerbated l main State‘s the the as and nation, identity, national Macedonian of protector only the as State the both around revolve to Macedonia in discourse security shaped neighbors, immediate Macedonia‘s continu the with together phenomenon state Albanians, ethnic the by State, the of weakcharacter the of challenges constant the in reflected the While threats. identity perceived external and internal nation post the that confirmed it Macedonia of study case the analyzing By building. -

building project that too that project building n p One nation on discourse security of effects the examined thesis this Generally,

sin. n diin ti tei fcss n set o scrt concerns security of aspects on focuses thesis this addition, In essions. sil lmtto i ta ti tei fcss rmrl o te ethnic the on primarily focuses thesis this that is limitation ossible asoit lis y egbrn ntos I dig o te ik to link the so, doing In nations. neighboring by claims pansionist A a eut te niusto nraie n te kpe 2014 Skopje the and narrative antiquisation the result, a As . ous disputes of a distinct Macedonian national identity by by identity national Macedonian distinct a of disputes ous egitimizer k place in Macedonia was developed as a response to the to response a as developed was Macedonia in place k Conclusion -

t a te hi Faeok gemn that Agreement Framework Ohrid the was it 77

- conflict - CEU eTD Collection terms. re another yet for need the ―supr of notions how examine to research future a of task the be would it such, As terms. exclusivist and ethnic in defined is identity national ―shar in which society a inMacedonia, dynamics play thesecurity national into identity‖ would on emphasis their how seen be to yet is it improbable, Macedonia the in conflict violent making now ―overlay‖ an as serves for integration EU of prospect While Macedonia. in dynamics security affect will ―Europeanization‖ 2017‖ project by evengovernmentrelevant. announced themore becomes ―Macedonianew the ofprospect the in place,which take Skopje2014 like Projectswhich prim focusing hand, other the state weak a of conditions in on However, dynamics. security of analysisthe in inclusion their for needthe emphasizes prevalence their and and concerns poverty such of namely importance security, human a of well as aspects unemployment, to related concerns security identity from stemming

ial, t s e t b se hw h pr the how seen be to yet is it Finally, - ae tras I dig o i nget t tk it account into take to neglects it so, doing In threats. based cruto ad raie cie Tkn it acut the account into Taking crime. organized and corruption s - definition of Macedonian national identity in purely civic civic purely in identity national Macedonian of definition rl o iett cnen ses ih o te rcs by process the on light sheds concerns identity on arily 78

a - national identity‖ would highlight would identity‖ national cse o goaiain and globalization of ocesses d aus ad ―supra and values‖ ed

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