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Ethnogenesis of Metis, Cree and Chippewa in Twentieth Century Montana

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Ethnogenesis of Metis, Cree and Chippewa in Twentieth Century Montana University of Montana ScholarWorks at University of Montana Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers Graduate School 2007 Ethnogenesis of Metis, Cree and Chippewa in Twentieth Century Montana Elizabeth Sperry The University of Montana Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.umt.edu/etd Let us know how access to this document benefits ou.y Recommended Citation Sperry, Elizabeth, "Ethnogenesis of Metis, Cree and Chippewa in Twentieth Century Montana" (2007). Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers. 385. https://scholarworks.umt.edu/etd/385 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at ScholarWorks at University of Montana. It has been accepted for inclusion in Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks at University of Montana. For more information, please contact [email protected]. ETHNOGENESIS OF THE METIS, CREE AND CHIPPEWA IN TWENTIETH CENTURY MONTANA By J. Elizabeth Sperry B.A., Anthropology, University of Montana, Missoula, MT, 2001 B.A., Native American Studies, University of Montana, Missoula, MT, 2006 Thesis Presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Anthropology The University of Montana Missoula, Montana Spring 2007 Approved by: Dr. David A. Strobel, Dean Graduate School Dr. Gregory R. Campbell, Chair Anthropology Dr. Richard Sattler Anthropology Dr. Richmond L. Clow Native American Studies Abstract Sperry, J. Elizabeth, M.A., May 2007 Anthropology Ethnogenesis of Metis, Cree and Chippewa in Twentieth Century Montana Chairperson: Dr. Gregory R. Campbell This thesis examines the history of Montana’s Metis, Cree and Chippewa people as “landless Indians” in a twentieth century context. Landlessness among the Metis, Cree and Chippewa became a defining aspect of their identity by the twentieth century that distinguished them from both Indian and white people in the state. This paper discusses the historical processes by which the Metis, Cree and Chippewa became landless, and examines the unique aspects of their social and economic lives as landless Indian people. This paper concludes with an examination of the ethnogenesis of Metis, Cree and Chippewa, which was based upon patterns of merger between discrete multi-ethnic groups. ii Acknowledgements A sincere thank-you to my committee, Dr. Greg Campbell, Dr. Richard Sattler, and Dr. Rich Clow, for questions, comments, and encouragement in support of this thesis. I also thank the Graduate School at the University of Montana for grant money that enabled me to acquire documents from the National Archives, and the staff at the K. Ross Toole Archives for enthusiastically providing assistance with my research. I want to thank my parents, Sam H. and Janet S. Sperry, whose patience, understanding, and encouragement surpass that of any two people I know. Also to my sister, Susan R. Sperry, for reminding me that anything is possible. To my Pappy, Merle L. Hoyt, who worked hard throughout his life to ensure his granddaughter could go to school, and for my Grandmon, Edith M. Petrie Hoyt - Happy 98th Birthday! My thanks to “auntie” Linda Juneau, a dear friend and colleague who walked this road beside me providing laughter, stories, perspective, and a shoulder to lean on when I thought I could not walk any further. I also express my appreciation to Vernon Carroll, for his interest and knowledge, and sharing numerous publications and documents from an expansive personal library that brought fresh perspective to me at a crucial time during this project. I am fortunate to have had the opportunity to learn from a few individuals who demanded quality scholarship. These individuals have shaped my education, and contributed to my academic and personal growth throughout my studies. With the completion of this paper, I want to express my gratitude to historian Dave Walter, for inspiring the researcher in me and never letting me forget to enjoy the journey. A final acknowledgement goes to Professor Rich Clow for his unwavering mentorship, and for guiding me in the right direction, at the right time, and for the right reasons. iii Table of Contents Chapter 1 Introduction ................................................................................................................1 1.1 Identity Choices ................................................................................................................5 1.2 Blood and Identity.............................................................................................................7 1.3 Ethnogenesis .....................................................................................................................9 Chapter 2 Historical Narrative................................................................................................... 11 2.1 Plains Cree...................................................................................................................... 12 2.2 Plains Chippewa.............................................................................................................. 14 2.3 Plains Metis .................................................................................................................... 15 2.4 Change and Continuity.................................................................................................... 16 2.5 Invisible Histories ........................................................................................................... 22 2.6 Mixed Marriage in Montana ............................................................................................ 25 2.7 Summary......................................................................................................................... 27 Chapter 3 The Landless Indian..................................................................................................29 3.1 National Perception of Landless Indians .......................................................................... 30 3.2 The Landless Indian in Montana...................................................................................... 31 3.3 Migratory Wage Labor .................................................................................................... 36 3.4 The 1894 Cree Sun Dance ............................................................................................... 39 3.5 Summary......................................................................................................................... 49 Chapter 4 Landless Indian Settlements ...................................................................................... 51 4.1 Early Settlements ............................................................................................................ 52 4.2 Urban Life....................................................................................................................... 58 4.2.1 Metis, Cree and Chippewa and the Blackfeet Reservation ......................................... 60 4.3 Summary......................................................................................................................... 69 Chapter 5 Landlessness and the Rocky Boy Reservation ........................................................... 73 5.1 Economy and Environment in the Twentieth Century ...................................................... 78 5.2 Landless Indian Political Organizations, 1928-1934......................................................... 83 Chapter 6 Conclusions .............................................................................................................. 85 6.1 Ethnogenesis ................................................................................................................... 88 Appendix A : 1909 Census of the Canadian Indians that are affiliated with Rocky Boy’s Indians of Montana, compiled by Thralls W. Wheat, Clerk, Allotting Service...................................... 100 Appendix B : List of Chippewa-Cree allotted on the Blackfeet Reservation, 1910 and 1911 .... 107 iv List of Figures Figure 1 Page Photo titled “Cree Indians on the outskirts of Butte,” 1900. Photo by John Baptist. Historic Photo Archive, Portland, Oregon……………………………………………………38 Figure 2 “Cree Indian Sun Dancers No. 61,” circa 1900. Museum of the Rockies Photo Archives……………………………………………………………………………………….48 Figure 3 “Metis settlement sites in Montana, circa 1900.” Map by Gerhard Ens in “Borderlands of the American and Canadian Wests,”…………………………………………..……………...51 Figure 4 Cree camp along the railroad right of way near Havre, circa 1900. Fred Miller Collection, Montana State University Northern Photo Archives, Havre, MT…………………………….71 v Chapter 1 Introduction One aspect of Native American identity is the interplay between the ascribed identity and self-identification of ethnic groups. For the Metis, Cree and Chippewa people of Montana, ascribed identity weighed heavily throughout the course of their social, economic and political history in the state. These groups were collectively referred to in Montana as “Canadian Cree” or as “landless Indians.” Such generalizations have overshadowed their distinctive social, economic, and political history and placed them into a unique social category that distinguished them from the state’s federally recognized Indians and whites. Through a shared historical experience of landlessness, and a collective understanding of that experience, the Metis, Cree
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