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Downloaded License Church History Church History and and Religious Culture 101 (2021) 234–262 Religious Culture brill.com/chrc Inflating the Prestige of Demons Johan Wier’s Role-Playing Hans de Waardt Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands [email protected] Abstract In the sixteenth century, witchcraft was generally thought to be a grave danger. Specific people, a majority of them women, were believed to threaten the world as servants of the Devil. In his De praestigiis daemonum, published in 1563, the Dutch / German physician Johan Wier argued that human beings were unable to perform witchcraft and that the women who were accused were innocent but often deluded by demons into believing that they were guilty. In his plea for tolerance Wier was inspired by his brother Matthias and the spiritualist prophet David Joris. In order to convince his read- ers he used their prejudices, that he himself rejected, about the power of demons and the intellectual capacities of women. Keywords JohanWier –De praestigiis daemonum – MatthiasWier – witchcraft – demonic power – tolerance In sixteenth-century Europe witchcraft was considered a major problem. Many learned theologians and magistrates believed that witches had concluded a pact with the devil to wreak havoc with his assistance.1 It should, however, be emphasised that this view was not adopted unimpaired.2 The spiritualist 1 The major analysis of this subject is without doubt the magisterial study of Stuart Clark, Thinking with Demons: The Idea of Witchcraft in Early Modern Europe (Oxford, 1997). 2 On this see Walter Stephens, Demon Lovers: Witchcraft, Sex, and the Crisis of Belief (Chicago, 2003). © hans de waardt, 2021 | doi:10.1163/18712428-bja10030 This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the cc by 4.0Downloaded license. from Brill.com09/29/2021 10:51:18PM via free access inflating the prestige of demons 235 conception of the universe for one thing fundamentally undermined the basis for this view by postulating that the devil was not an anthropomorphic entity but the principle of evil that is present in every person. A demonic pact with such an abstract principle was impossible. It is argued here that the physician Johan Wier (1515–1588) was inspired by the teachings of his brother Matthias Wier and the spiritualist David Joris in his opposition to the prosecution of sup- posed witches. In order for this stance to be effective, he seemingly embraced dominant demonological conceptions, but only to carry these to their ultimate consequences. By stating it was the devil and his demons who did evil in the world, but then deluded humans to believe that specific women were the guilty ones, he tried to exonerate these usual suspects. In none of the biographies of Wier that have appeared thus far is this aspect discussed thoroughly.3 This is mainly due to the fact that relevant sources have been overlooked or not anal- ysed enough to spot this important element. Johan Wier’s fame mainly rests on his De praestigiis daemonum (On the Illu- sions of Demons), the first edition of which appeared in 1563 in Basel with Johannes Oporinus (1507–1568).4 New issues followed in 1564, 1566, 1568, 1577, and 1583, each time with Oporinus or his heirs. In general, Wier’s biographers base their analysis of his line of arguing and thinking on the sixth and last edi- tion of 1583. It is part of the Opera Omnia that appeared in Amsterdam in 1660, and was also the basis of the English translation of 1991.5 This suggests that the 1583 edition was not only the last, but also the final version. It needs, however, to be emphasized that, had he lived longer,Wier would have altered its contents 3 Some of the more noteworthy studies are: Carl Binz, Doctor Johann Weyer, ein rheinischer Arzt, der erste Bekämpfer des Hexenwahns: Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Aufklärung und der Heilkunde (Berlin, 1896). For its time this was a ground-breaking study. The biography by the Dutch physician J.J. Cobben, Jan Wier, Devils, Witches and Magic (Philadelphia, 1976), added many details drawn from archival sources. The best biography is at present the study by the Italian scholar Michaela Valente, Johann Wier: agli albori della critica razionale dell’occulto e del demoniaco nell’Europa del Cinquecento (Firenze, 2003). A number of often highly rele- vant sources were, however, not used by her, perhaps because many of them are in Dutch. The present article is an addition to my “Witchcraft, Spiritualism and Medicine: The Reli- gious Convictions of Johan Wier,” Sixteenth Century Journal 42 (2011), 369–391. I am preparing a monograph in which this matter and many until-now undetected aspects of Wier’s life will be discussed. 4 Johan Wier, De praestigiis daemonum, et incantationibus ac veneficijs, libri v (Basel: Oporinus, 1563). Johan Wier, Witches, Devils, and Doctors in the Renaissance: Johann Weyer, De praestigiis daemonum, ed. George Mora, Benjamin Kohl, John Shea, and Erik Midelfort (Binghamton, 1991). 5 Johan Wier, Opera omnia (Amsterdam: Pieter van den Berghe, 1660); Wier, Witches, Devils, and Doctors (see above, n. 4). Church History and Religious Culture 101 (2021)Downloaded 234–262 from Brill.com09/29/2021 10:51:18PM via free access 236 de waardt yet again. Each time, as will be seen, Wier added, removed, or altered words or sentences, and added or re-phrased paragraphs or indeed whole chapters. In 1564 he re-arranged the structure of his book by introducing a breakdown in chapters. The first three editions of De praestigiis contain five books, but the fourth one of 1568 has six. De praestigiis daemonum was and remained a work in progress. Another aspect, one that is of particular interest here, is that Wier used new editions, particularly that of 1577, to disclose feelings and beliefs that inspired or even guided him. Perhaps “disclose” is not the right term, because he habitually used a sort of coded phrasing.6 Another major deficit of most studies of his life and work is their relative neglect of his many other publica- tions. And finally, the translations of his works that he himself produced and especially their forewords are barely touched upon in most studies. This contri- bution will show, in fact, that these introductory notes shed considerable light on Wier and his personal convictions. The central element of all of the De praestigiis editions is Wier’s argument that human beings, in his case always women, should not be prosecuted for witchcraft. Even suspects who are convinced that they caused setbacks and disasters are in truth misled by demons who in reality do all the evil. The rea- son why these women are open to this fraud is, apart from the general weak- mindedness of the female gender, the fact that many of them are suffering from melancholy. This enables the demons to take possession of their brains and minds after which they can delude their victims with all sorts of illusions. Wier showed himself to be a faithful follower of Galen, the classical author- ity of medicine whose works were printed extensively in the sixteenth century and for a prolonged period dominated the field.7 Galen taught that a person is healthy if the four humours (blood, yellow bile, black bile, and phlegm) are in balance. If there is an excess of one of them, in this case black bile, the patient will fall ill and become melancholic. So, Wier argued, these women are inno- cent and should not be tried, tortured and executed, but referred to physicians. 1 Wier’s Introduction to Natural Magic In January and March 1529 Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa ab Nettesheim (1486– 1535),8 a famous humanist but also a notorious advocate of natural magic, cor- 6 A first survey of such encodings is De Waardt, “Witchcraft, Spiritualism and Medicine” (see above, n. 3). 7 Susan P. Mattern, Galen and the Rhetoric of Healing (Baltimore, 2008), 13. 8 The standard biographical study on Agrippa still is Charles G. Nauert, Agrippa and the Cri- Church History and Religious CultureDownloaded 101 from (2021) Brill.com09/29/2021 234–262 10:51:18PM via free access inflating the prestige of demons 237 responded with a studiosus called “Joannes” who was about to join his house- hold.9 Johan stayed with Agrippa until 1533, during the years when his men- tor was preparing his two main works for the printing press, which implies that Johan was fully familiar with Agrippa’s magical thinking.10 Wier himself tells us that he found much in Agrippa’s library about magic, for instance the Steganographia of the abbot Trithemius who had been instrumental in Agrippa’s introduction to that field.11 Johan took great interest in these works; he not only read them, but also copied parts of them without his mentor notic- ing it. He also got actively involved in Agrippa’s lab research. Shortly after Wier’s arrival in Antwerp, his mentor, who was also a medical doctor, was called away to Mechelen to attend to a patient. From there he corresponded with an unnamed member of his household about amongst other things the progress of alchemical tests in his laboratory. The letters are in Latin and there was at that time only one person in his household who commanded this language: young Johan.12 In other words, Agrippa’s pupil was closely involved in his men- tor’s alchemical experiments. We may therefore assume that during his years in Agrippa’s household he received not only a scholarly training, but also an introduction to the art of careful alchemical observing, in other words to natu- ral magic.
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