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2 0 - 2 0 Key words: patronage, Islamic societies, vocabulary. societies, Islamic patronage, words: Key theology. and philosophy mathematics, occasionally and astrology medicine, from primarily of the basic problems when dealing with this vocabulary, illustrating diff meaning themtheir with examples diff into for narrating, tapped was manifold linguistic averitable atother while people, between knowledge and tion suffi words afew only Sometimes reality. diff in and centuries the for it. Over term no unambiguous is there Persian and medieval in because societies, Islamic in of «patronage» language the about paper ameaningful towrite easy It byno means is Abstract vocabulario. mecenazgo, sociedades clave: islámicas, Palabras fi dela ocasiones la teología. y losofía yen astrología la medicina, dela ejemplos procedentes mediantes ilustrándolos frentamos, alos que nos en- básicos delos problemas descripción una pretende ofrecer estudio Este de los siglos y en contextos diferentes se utilizan diversos términos para designar tal realidad. realidad. tal de dichas designar palabras, así como para su signifi uso El relaciones. dichas yenjuiciaban calibraban que narraban, por el se términos lingüístico caudal ascenso diversos jerarquía, de relaciones auténtico deun requería se veces que otras mientras expresar personas, utilizan entre las oconocimiento social para se bastaban palabras simples diferentes unas ocasiones En contextos en y siglos los de Através describirlo. para preciso término un no existe medievales persa yel que árabe enel dado islámicas, sociedades enlas mecenazgo del lenguaje sobre el escribir fácil No resulta Resumen 1 2 . i n d b

1 1 Cuadernos delCEMyR,20;marzo2012,pp. 11-22;ISSN:1135-125X ered also territorially and socially. Th IN ISLAMIC SOCIETIES BEFORE 1700 BEFORE SOCIETIES ISLAMIC IN THE LANGUAGE OF LANGUAGE «PATRONAGE»THE Max Planck Institut für Institut Planck Max wissenschaftsgeschichte erent contexts, there were various terms to describe this this todescribe terms werevarious there erent contexts, erentiating and evaluating. Th evaluating. and erentiating Sonja Brentjes cado, estaba también defi también estaba cado, ced to express relationships of hierarchy, promo- relationships toexpress ced is work off nido espacial y socialmente.nido espacial ers a description of some adescription ers e use of the words and and words of the euse 111/12/2012 13:59:28 1 / 1 2 / 2 0 1 2

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12th and the early 16th centuries, namely 16th namely early centuries, the 12th and late the between societies Islamic two relationships in of civilian case the in used most often problems expression the with also discuss 2Iwill section In terms. by such occasionally but astrologers, and described activities the and sciences, other mathematical and ofto geometry scholars physicians to regard in mainly relationships», diff and similarities linguistic the Th over ? changed features before 1700 Which about relationships? such speak How people did diff agree? in where they did and military relationships diff these did aspects which in «patronage», name we usually that existed courtiers and rulers scholars, between «patronage» in textsaboutscholarsandtheirrelationship orcourtiers torulers and obligation( ing feature ofBuyid patronage, namelybenefi were usedforscholars.Nor didthetrianglethatMottahedeh describedasthedefi transcribed this copy for the library of the for copy library the this transcribed (634- fi Shirazi’s al-Din workshop. On art its Qutb an in by a painter illustrated been of having like looks that Iran 705/1306 from copy a work 710/1236-1311) across encyclopedic come to happened even I Lately exist. dedications with instruments as well as other texts scholarly and gical in general? Th protégé ( it as«asurprisinglyformalandseriousrelationship» where amanexpectedfrom his relationship of signifi century andeven more sounder the Buyidcentury tribe. Arabic of an that as immediately ancestry their rewrote others in the 8th and 9th centuries, some men invented their pedigrees as some as men centuries, invented 9th pedigrees and their 8th the in lated. It could be inherited or transferred. Th now applied Such a was converted. newly towhich the adoption an described of custom someone apre-Islamic It tribe. was Arabic by an University Press, 1980, pp. Press, 82-84. University

1 rst folio is a circular motive ( folio acircular rst is 2 ese and similar questions are at the heart of my paper. In section 1 I will discuss discuss of my paper. 1Iwill heart section In atthe are questions similar and ese ed therearing andtrainingof(slave) soldiers.According toMottahedeh, the 4 3 2 1 Does this mean that there was no patronage for the sciences or for scholarship or for sciences for the scholarship no patronage was there that mean this Does A new conceptroseA new toprominence undertheAbbasid caliphsinthe9th In the fi the In R. Mottaheded, MS , Süleymaniye Library, Fazil Ahmad Pasha 867, Pasha f1a. Ahmad Fazil Library, Süleymaniye Istanbul, MS sani Ibidem Ibidem 2 . Icouldnotfi is is barely plausible. Too many mathematical, astronomical, astrolo- astronomical, plausible. Too barely is is mathematical, many ῾ ) alifelongcommitment istina rst centuries of Islamic societies, «clients» were called were called «clients» societies, of Islamic centuries rst . , pp. 70-9. ῾ uhda ῾ wasofamore informalkindthanthe , suchasoath,vow ortheguarantee ofsafeconduct)appear Loyalty and inLoyalty Leadership an Early Islamic Society nd, however, asingle case where INTRODUCTION Shamse erences between military and civilian «patronage «patronage civilian and military between erences Durrat al-Taj 1 ) that claims that Qutb al-Din himself had . Hence, Mottahedeh identifi khidma Great Amir is custom became so prestigious that umara t ( for the characteristic er from those ni dedicated to an emir in northern northern in emir an to dedicated ῾ ’ , meaning service and later also also later and service , meaning in the 10th century: inthe10thcentury: ma ), gratitude( mawla 4 . Th istina us, since relationships relationships since us, mawla erent Islamic societies societies erent Islamic ship was legally regu- legally was ship ῾ oritsverbal forms . Princeton, Princeton Princeton . Princeton, 3 ship. He alsosaw . shukr al-ni ed mawla mawla istina istina s, while s, while s. Th ῾ with ῾ ῾ ma 111/12/2012 13:59:29 . It is n- 1 / 1 ) 2 / 2 0 1 2

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2 0 - 2 0 element obligation namely ( of Mottahedeh’s triangle, coveted or desired ardently ( ardently or desired coveted power, but shared i.e. were not «clients» were powerless: asymmetric, they indicates of this upstart family to win civilian support in the main cities of their new realm new of cities their main the support in civilian to win family upstart of this refl scholars religious to leading military of the economic privileges 1171. in and and of social Egypt transfer increased the to Eddé According in caliphate Fatimid the roseto power by overthrowing that mercenaries Kurdish of a dynasty for Ayyubids, the more regular It became caliphs. for Abbasid the particular period, in classical the in already mentioned is on ascholar occasionally benefi like terms are ops. Examples vocabulary used for relationships between the caliphs or the caliphs the for relationships between used vocabulary on other come or the from the physicians astrologers on one and the hand courtiers ( ( ( person another of someonewith ( else of «patron». someone the or bound to that was or A«client» who connected was of «client» the perspective either the express words that elsewhere, I have explained period it as included, classical the In variegated. and rich fairly was courtier another or members avizier of or adynasty, female male and ascholar tionship between markers of «patronage» for sciences. the of «patronage» markers as usage their and arts the with concerned is section titution My of education. last ins- major the symbolic as of of spread the the result the as relationships» «patronage civilian in about some changes talk employment. 3Iwill section In SOAS/Routledge Studies on the Middle East, Londres, Routledge, 2010, pp. 326-56. Routledge, Londres, East, Middle on the Studies SOAS/Routledge (eds.), J.-P. Fuess, Hartung A. rule the astipend was them paying while farm, a tax some physicians of granted their also Ayyubids the scholars, additionIn to religious ( Verlag, 1999,Verlag, p. 280. 1 irtabata hamala 2 jamakiyya . i n d b 1. LINGUISTIC SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DIFFERENCES AND SIMILARITIES 1. LINGUISTIC

1 MILITARY AND CIVILIAN PATRONAGE RELATIONSHIPS CIVILIAN AND MILITARY 3 ) or hired ( ) or hired Basic terms that were used to talk about relationships between rulers and and rulers about between relationships to talk were used that terms Basic Civilian terminology expressing diff 6 5 ), elevated ( elevated ), S. Brentjes, «Ayyubid princes and their scholarly clients from the ancient sciences», in in sciences», ancient the from clients scholarly their and princes «Ayyubid Brentjes, S. A.-M. Eddé, IN THE CASE OF PHYSICIANS AND ASTROLOGERS AND OF PHYSICIANS CASE THE IN , jiraya )or )or istakhdama haziya inda haziya ittasala bi ittasala ῾ azzaza La principauté ayyoubide d’Alep d’Alep ayyoubide principauté La iqta ῾ (tax farm). Paying Court Cultures in the : Seventh to Nineteenth Centuries Nineteenth to Seventh World: Muslim inthe Cultures Court ), summoned ( summoned ), ishtaqa ila ishtaqa ) and who enjoyed the favor or was in the good graces who enjoyed) and goodgraces the favor in the or was ) someone Th else. ). A«patron»,bound ( contrast, in t ( ni ), beinvited ( could ῾ ma ), honor, ( grace da of arela- erent or perspectives layers

῾ a stipend to or bestowing a tax farm farm a stipend atax to or bestowing a is terminology contains at least one atleast contains terminology is ), ( fetched (579-658/1260). Stuttgart, Franz Steiner Steiner Franz (579-658/1260). Stuttgart, ittasala bi ittasala 6 . istahdara karama da ῾ umara’ a , ) instead of ordered ) instead irtabata irtabata , ected the need need the ected ikram ), carried away away ), carried and their tro- their and , ῾ ), engaged engaged ), azzaza ), stipend stipend ), ). It It ). 5 . , 111/12/2012 13:59:29 1 / 1 2 / 2 0 1 2

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the current offi current the of troops who the with would cooperate service asecondadd physician medical to the remuneration.of the amount the of relationship and the about negotiations to character in the appealed contained also physicians their and princes Ayyubid relationships between the It an that implies element about relationships. such discussions the in soatleast societies, Islamic previous in of merit.Respect, Merit, however, indicates mostly by remunerated asalary. and contract by awritten something employmentnot an regulated new, described if not in was relationship the regard physicians by their patrons royal of the visits daily regular tothe such relationships as rank monthly payment and of stipends despite more regular the or that less underlines ( patron complements above mentioned the «client’s» the verb describing It status. physician Muwaff my the Lord, «O refused: Al-Muhadhdhab service». month the in for youare every dinar Nasiri thirty these and promotion:the front you in sultan of the «Ipraised whom al-Din about he informed Muhadhdhab physician own his recommended expected to travel with the prince wherever the latter went. latter Ibn Usaybi whereverAbi If the prince the to with travel expected of mobility. degree ahigh Th for instance demanded and, if successful, were favored or graced ( History ofMathematics History (eds.), J. Stedall Robson, E. in outcomes», and identities rhetoric, and settlement» below this serve Ido not science and the in a [further] my payment Iknow rank to equivalent them. negative consequences if rejected, since several Ayyubid physicians refused to enter refused physicians Ayyubid several since rejected, if consequences negative consent the of client led to the no and relationship demanded special this be trusted, comfortable income ( doctor, Safi vizier the al-hayat, 1965,al-hayat, pp. 581f, 589, 591, 635, 630, 600, 637, 652, 639, 661, 646, 683f, 718 698, passim. et In addition to honor ( to addition In spoiled or overbearing. were willful, they Attimes, preferences. had were rich, they they skills, had they alternatives, had they refused, chose, they —they relationship a such forming in participants wereshows active physicians beyond the doubt that physicians their and princes Ayyubid description of relationships between the ( favor ( like terms frequently or less

1 suhba 4 ) 8 . Th In 1207/8,In al- Sultan Ayyubid the Companionship fi 10 9 8 7 Ibn Abi Usaybi Abi Ibn Structure societies: Islamic in sciences mathematical ofthe «Patronage Brentjes, S.

Ibidem Ibidem e fi ce holder Muwaff rst two are well known from Mottahedeh’s study. known well are Favor two rst given by the , p. 729. . aq al-Din , Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2008, pp. 301-28. 2008, Press, University Oxford , Oxford, al-Din b. Shukr had taken him in his service paying him a him paying service his in him taken had b. al-Din Shukr jamakiyya ikram ῾ a, Uyun al-anba nally describes a particularly close relationship which close relationship which aparticularly describes nally 9 ) and benefi ) and . When al-Muhadhdhab had begun his career as young young as career his begun had al-Muhadhdhab . When ῾ Abd al- Abd ) since «he knew ... his rank in the medical arts» medical the in ... rank «he his knew ) since aq al-Din ’ huzwa fi ῾ Aziz has every month one-hundred dinar and and month one-hundred every dinar has Aziz tabaqat al-atibba t ( ῾ Adil informed his vizier that he wished to to wished he that vizier his informed Adil ni ), respect ( ), respect haziya ila haziya ῾ ῾ Abd al- Abd ma ), Ibn Usaybi Abi is meant that the physician was physician was the that meant is ῾ ’ . Aziz (d.Aziz 604/1208). Th N. Rida (ed.), Beirut, Dar Maktabat Maktabat Dar Beirut, (ed.), Rida N. ) ihtiram 7 . Indeed, Ibn Usaybi Abi . Indeed, Th ) and companionship companionship ) and e Oxford Handbook of the ofthe Handbook eOxford ῾ a also used more used a also martaba e vizier ), was was ), ῾ a can a can 111/12/2012 13:59:29 ῾ 1 10 a’s / 1 . 2 / 2 0 1 2

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2 0 - 2 0 his (giving) him charitable gifts and being honest towards him. honest being towards and gifts charitable him (giving) his for approached (of « Buyid emir the knowledge something) who had everybody wrote that sciences, of mathematical the scholar well-known 998), emir of Buyid the acourtier other practitioners and by needed ’l-Wafa’ Abu scribes on arithmetic (994- Buzjani ( Service period. classical the in used already As fringes. the to parlance singly blurred when of blurred forms singly and cities of Ilkhanid Iran continued to use amuch continued more to use diversifi Iran of cities Ilkhanid and into It being. however, Baghdad is, preponderance came in writers this that evident study. how when and clear It by further no is means needs of «patronage» language Th . perhaps and fi apparently terms him for being taken into his service». Th service». into his taken for being him approached «they like atranslation to seem allow construction grammatical the nor sense does aliteral in applicants to the emir’s the possibly mean service cannot into such acompanionship into such was a generic term for a relationship between two people ahierarchy, in two ageneric for term while arelationship between was of kind sundry and to any «patronage» term of the usage infl to wish not do we if relationships, social of categories other to belonged what and «patronage» of constituted what problemsserious for understanding the tools), and means on other poses the astronomical and moon mathematical with of new the of beginning prayer the and directions the prayer times, who determined and astrologers physicians, including scholars, one and hand on the courtiers and rulers to relationships between sources Mamluk and Ayyubid application in Its increasing types. secular as well as ones, religious civilian as well 1971, p. 64. companionship from a standard «patron»-«client» relationship. «patron»-«client» from astandard companionship his «patron»: «I had served him with composing abook...» composing with him «patron»:his served «Ihad l-Wafa’ verb applies the however, Abu or afterwards, integrity. honesty and Immediately gifts by charitable signifi emir to the referring 1 2 . i n d b

1 5 What kind of relationships can of can relationships kind What Ibn Usaybi Abi 13 12 11 Th In later sources, sources, later In

A. A. Salim Sa A. Salim Sa Salim A. e diff Ibidem erences between military and civilian terminology became increa- became terminology civilian and military between erences , pp. 673, 696. rst with the smaller military dynasties in northern Iraq, Syria Syria Iraq, northern in dynasties military smaller the with rst ῾ ῾ idan, idan, 2. THE PROBLEM OF ῾ khadama a’s e regional spread of this terminology as the dominant dominant the as terminology of this spread eregional khidma es here his exercise of «patronage» which then is specifi is then which of exercise «patronage» here his es op. cit. istakhdama Tarikh Tarikh 11 suhba . It is unclear though which other features separated separated other features which though . It unclear is khadama , p. 64. seems to cover all sorts of «services», military as as military of «services», sorts to cover seems all to himself in the sense of a service of to a«client» of aservice sense the in to himself (companionship) that to indicate seems ῾ ilm al-hisab al- ῾ Adud al-Dawla (r.Adud al-Dawla 978-983) a and Baghdad in (to serve, to be at service) pushed alternative alternative pushed service) at be to serve, (to (to hire, to engage the service) shows it was shows it service) (to was the to engage hire, us, it bepossible « us, might that khidma khidma and its cognates describe? In a text atext In describe? its cognates and ῾ arabi. KHIDMA ) and its cognates became central central became its cognates ) and

῾ Amman, al-Jami khidma 13 khidmatihi . 12 Here, « Here, . ed language. ῾ a al-urduniyya, a al-urduniyya, » trusting in in » trusting khidmatihi khidmatihi s (scholars khidma ate the suhba ed » »

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disease of treatment the immediate beyond the time of shared obligations term, personal that consisted of singlein Ibn Abi Usaybi professional acts as «patron» royal Ayyubid to his that as well in a case of sickness, but(604-697/1208-1289), as father relationship to excluded his his both described for instance, long- Ibn Wasil sciences philosophical and of mathematical the scholar and historian arelationshipdescribes of more closer with ties personal obligations. Th a. Was the Christian secretary employed or offi appointed secretary by aMamluk Was Christian the a. of diffi range the illustrate dictionary biographical al-Sakhawi’s Din term the «client» apparently occurred. Muhadhdhab al-Din rather became a very successful successful very a princes. Ayyubid became physician of several rather al-Din Muhadhdhab occurred. apparently «client» ungrateful and unwilling his against vizier the from No retaliation colleague. his off the nor he have challenged could the off not could have refused al-Din Muhadhdhab information. and rank skills, sional the to elite doctors.their Th «patron» the from and princes Ayyubid element relationships between the in have acharacteristic been directly came Since to invitations be negotiated. invitation the that «client». When suggest to seems language of broker, cases the In as director, HR soto the speak. positions wereoff positions

1 6 ered position, if his professional self-confi professional his if position, ered 15 «client» or his (well-paid) or«client» his «servant»? 16 15 14 vizierate»... tothe brother his with ... (appointed together and him) things other and lands) post ( long-term (?) the him gave Faraj son al-Nasir his and prestige high in held him fi matters; related Barquq and dence (1382-89,al-Zahir 1390-99) «Sultan nally correspon- secret of the head l-Hijja the 798 h.» becoming ... toraise he continued Sa old replacing years 20 he was before (properties/lands) private of the of administration head the he was until promoted was it and in himself (majordomo) distinguished and mud al-Ustadar for Mah- service tothe himself «he bound secretaries; of Coptic afamily in Cairo Ibrahim b. Th . Th khidma

S. S. Brentjes, S. al-Din al-Sakhawi, e problem to understand what kinds of relationship were subsumed under under subsumed were relationship of kinds what understand to problem e Ibidem e example of Muhadhdhab al-Din quoted al-Din above shows that of Muhadhdhab eexample istaqarra bi khidma , p. 330. ered, not only sought. In the case of Sultan al- of Sultan not case ered, the In only sought. continues for the Mamluk period. Four examples from Shams al- from Shams Four period. examples continues for Mamluk the ῾ a’s khidma of conditions Ayyubid portrayal 16 ῾ Abd al-Razzaq al-Iskandari, known as Ibn Ghurrab; his origin was in in was origin his Ghurrab; Ibn as known al-Iskandari, al-Razzaq Abd . edoctors’ for negotiation potential depended profes- on their op. cit. positions wereon off positions ) of supervising the army in addition to the private (properties/ private tothe addition in army the ) of supervising , 2010, p. 344. Al-Daw’ al-lami Al-Daw’ suhba ered salary if he if of had not ered salary known the salary ῾ d al-Din Abu l-Faraj b. Taj l-Faraj Dhu Abu in Musa d al-Din al-Din were also negotiated, negotiation seems to negotiation seems negotiated, were also ῾ khidma er in the Ayyubid period, they could could period, they Ayyubid the erin li'ahl al-tasi al-qarn dence had not had dence well-developed been 14 . As I have suggested elsewhere, elsewhere, Ihavesuggested . As suhba described arelationship described ῾ ῾ . Cairo, s.d., vol. 1, p. 65. p. 1, vol. s.d., Cairo, Adil, his vizier acted acted vizier his Adil, Ibn Usaybi Abi culties. e Ayyubid cer,his khidma 111/12/2012 13:59:29 ῾ 1 a’s / 1 2

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2 0 - 2 0 d. A Muslim scholar worked (?) for a (Christian ?) secretary in the Mamluk ad- Mamluk worked the in scholar (?) AMuslim ?) for a(Christian secretary d. offi of aMamluk wife the and Scholars c. employed Ascholar (?) promoted and (?) ascholar b. Th for off societies dependencies Islamic in economicand diff become fl had «servitude» and 1 2 e duration of either type of relationship obviously was not a primary criterion of not of obviously aprimary relationship was eduration of either type . i n d b

1 7 property...» rrespondence), Ibn Mazhar..., reputation then he landed acquired and and judge..., the Ibn al-Kuways, served Th of transmission (i.e. the transmission of (i.e. transmission the of transmission sheikhs the he where from took (i.e. Hajar) Ibn toAleppo of my sheikh service the in (things). other and He travelled children small (manuscripts), teaching copying by and others and al-Asyuti, al-Fakhr namely for sheikhs, one of his awitness as al- Hajar Ibn teacher al-Sakhawi’s them among abit ...he of astrology, took studied 19 18 17 (? tenure as him from them he wrested and domains, of his revenues the with disappearance, of his days the in entrusted, he became until Imam, the al-Karaki, of al-Burhani service the he attended ... Likewise she died. until other’s each business in not interfere with the external aff ( tendance at- his in and sheikh of the service ... the in «he rose al-Aqsaray’i of al-Amin Ahmad b. of reading to the promoted him by nominating him in the lifetime of al-Zahir Jaqmaq (1438-53) Ibrahim b. al-Muhibb, who was the wife of the of the wife the was who al-Muhibb, of sister died), he the joined (had sheikh of holder. his its death ... the After after at the affi to give (?, not he betray did and lectures his in present He was things. other and ) ministration: «Ahmad b. al-Qahiri al-Shafi al-Qahiri b. Muhammad «Ahmad ministration: also his wife his also

ese four examples indicate that the boundaries between «patronage» liation to him and his appointments to many posts. He attended the service service the He attended posts. tomany appointments his and tohim liation Ibidem Ibidem Ibidem anfaka Ashrafi yya fatwa , p. 102. , pp. 101-2. , vol. 2, p. 7. 2, , vol. ) him until he died after he had given him the permission to teach and and toteach permission the him given he had after he died until ) him ῾ mulazama erences between labor, employment, service and other kinds of labor, other kinds between and employment,erences service Ali al-Qahiri al-Hanafi al-Qahiri Ali 19 ῾ s according to what was said. He became very wealthy through his his through wealthy very He became said. was towhat s according Umar al-Baqa Umar . (madrasa) as a deputy, and he desired his independence from it from independence his adeputy, he as desired and (madrasa) wa-ntaza‘aha minhu al-mulk wa-ntaza‘aha minhu airs and his wife with the internal aff internal the with wife his and airs ) in the the ) in in the fortress»... the in uent. Iknow, however, about social too the little ῾ i, an inhabitant of Cairo, then of ..., he hajj , the closeness at the two two atthe closeness , the ering more than the following observations. observations. following the more than ering , cer employcer (?) occasionally, and, ascholar khadim fi q h fi majordomo katib al-sirr katib al-sirr (law) in Cairo with a number of scholars, of scholars, anumber with Cairo in (law) hadith 17 . (domestic servant, attendant, «client»?) )»... ) as well as elsewhere ... My sheikh ... My sheikh elsewhere as well as ) ῾ in the year 87. year the in entrusted He was Asqalani; ...«he earned his living living ...«he his earned Asqalani; 18 . (secretary of(secretary the secret co- airs so that the two did did two the that so airs haramayn

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or even murder even or bribery, as byperiod, denunciation, such more of interference violent theft means succeeding administrator/s, offi or choosing not byrecommending merely process this in interfered often scholars or the from among dynasty ruling from the but, as donor, is people of original the either death other powerful the period after this wellin known in particulara successor, chosen also by the donor, would over take function. this In particular for of or right appointing her offi the him alone had the Mamluk Th for offi new procedures were set up, namely by a religious donationwere up, set by areligious ( namely they way the recipients in of «patronage» institutional only were the plus hospitals waqf and intentionsand donor. of the Th for physicians, posts Th element an of aperson-to-person always patronage. werehow run institutions the Th not did exist. other hand, the «patrons», on Institutional case. to have the been seems this Maragha Ilkhanid In i.e. a whether status, recipient on formal depends institutional the such another as beregarded or could enriching themselves as did «patrons». did as themselves enriching looked for 4shows also but example when provingas trustworthy, were praised «Clients» lost its apparently appeal. had behavior or exercised indeed praiseworthy a as either stressed scholars religious among befound sooften can that powerful Th society. Mamluk of echelons higher the in «service» owner of property/land, however, was certainly an important the or bepoor. and rich could Becoming families come ingredientcould from well-regarded of scholarly offi promoted and Th them. were who served those scholars served but also Mamluk ranking High possessed. ship relation- the format of social type which not does clarify formed also relationship was diff pp. 29-30. SaoudAl pour les Etudes Islamiques et les Sciences Humaines [ (ed.),M. Abattouy fi the in and centuries», fteenth twelfth the between education and culture Islamic in sciences exact 1992, pp. 91-107; Press, «Refl University Princeton Princeton, Brentjes, S.

1 8 econcept of the e act of founding such an institution by institution an such of founding eact erentiation between them. Th them. erentiation between gave many opportunities to people engaged in powerful and well-functioning well-functioning and powerful in engaged people to opportunities many gave , , houses of 20 M. Chamberlain, 20 Etudes d'histoire des sciences arabes, Etudes d'histoire . All these kinds of meddling with the legal stipulations of the of the stipulations legal the with of meddling kinds these . All 3. «PATRONAGE» AND THE MADRASA 3. THE «PATRONAGE» AND waqf waqf ce holders were regulated, but in practice not always followed. followed. not always but practice in holdersce were regulated, muwaqqit prescribed that the donor or an administrator chosen by donor the administrator that prescribed or an certifi Knowledge and Social Practice in Medieval Damascus inMedieval Practice Social and Knowledge cate was signed when they were founded or extended. extended. or founded were they when signed was cate ese positions to ese needed befi e «patronage» for institutions contained in the way the in contained for institutions e«patronage» s and other personnel, depending on the purposes other on personnel, purposes s and the depending e rank of superior the erank person whom per sewith the hadith cers, their wives, the sultans themselves, themselves, sultans the wives, their cers, waqf , Sufi waqf ce holders against the wishes of the wishes the holdersce against Casablanca, Fondation du Roi Abdul-Aziz Abdul-Aziz duRoi Fondation Casablanca, ce holders. After his or her his demise, holders.ce After included donating professorships,

). Whether observatories should observatories ). Whether khanqah e rejection of service for the erejection of service sic ], 2007, pp. 15-33, in particular ], 2007, pp. 15-33, particular in s and cognate institutes institutes cognate s and lled. Th lled. ections on the role of the roleofthe on the ections e appointment e «servants» , 1190-1350. 111/12/2012 13:59:30 1 / 1 2 / 2 0 1 2

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2 0 - 2 0 precise and reliable understanding of the «language of patronage». «language of the understanding reliable and precise for needed amore is «class» members of secretarial to relationships the the their and «class».tarial Th ( s.o. s.o., special tomake toprivilege honor an or service, or dedicate todevote and i.e. position apermanent ( of place or living, apermanent give take for instance to appointfor s.o. instance to, to s.o. place ( in richer. to have seem been grew terms New also of «patronage» language centers, the to devote themselves to their studies and writings and to form allegiances and power cabove imply. band examples as only as adjuncts or junior companions, but as «servants», i.e. most likely «clients», not took of and other scholars «patrons» now capacity the acted in scholars also or daughters wives their and military the courtiers, addition to rulers, in that and include language elements of «patronage» also the cases many in system scholarly the refl by avocabulary were dominated Th relationships. fi Th the monetary and cultural gains that these posts off posts these that gains cultural and monetary the who to elite those enter wanted and professorial the it among were networking social Th for posts. struggle the in morewho been had successful older for one an scholar successful one of or ayounger less of as deputizing scholars relationship of the understand we can Insofar obligations. deputies who took hired teaching over cabove shows their they example possible. As eff numerous in engaged of student. Th apreferred hands the or in families their either in remained post the that to ensure activities aprofessor held various apostas undertook actually to infl tried however, people who only werenot Outsiders, the «patron»-«client»-relationships. them with professorships in the various law-schools not but did combinephysicians hold could specialization, only positions their in network. power personal and bargaining fame, his greater a Th administration. or the aposition in atcourt than to have been much more or stable one another mentioned of previously position the seems atamadrasa institutions and formally Th etc. prayer closer times determining number of students, subject to acertain certain to a contractual employmentthe offi of work types addition to payment in its certain amount and aregular stipulated 1 ciaries and exploiters of the madrasa system and its opportunities of «patronage» of «patronage» its opportunities and system exploiters and madrasa of the ciaries ikhtassasa bi ikhtassasa 2 aqāfa al-Dīniyya, 1988, 1, vol. 2vols., p. 519, p. 131. al-Dīniyya, 2, vol. aqāfa . muwaqqit i n d b

ce holder was supposed to carry out such as reading the Qur’an, teaching a Qur’an, the teaching reading out as such holder supposedce to carry was 1 9 21 In addition to the new pecuniary and cultural possibilities for the educated for educated possibilities the cultural and pecuniary addition new In to the Al-Nu choice of professor the uence anew or other offi , an Imam or a physician could acquire the higher his income and the income the and his higher the or acquire aphysician could Imam , an ). But as example 1 above indicates they were also applied secre- to the were also they ). 1above indicates example But as is means more research about the role of the teaching institutions institutions about role the of teaching more the research means is is is made visible too by the fact that the biographical entries which which entries biographical the that visible fact too by the made is is ῾ aymī, aymī, Al-Dāris fī tārīkh al-madāris orts, legal and illegal, to amass themselves as many posts as as posts many as themselves to amass illegal, and legal orts, ecting the studying and teaching purposes of purposes and the teaching studying ecting . J. al-H qarrara hu orfi hu qarrara 21 ered. Th ered. emore positions aprofessor, . asanī (ed.), asanī Beirut, al- Maktabat . . Hence, they too were bene-. Hence, they e reasons for this massive massive for this ereasons ce holder.Th ce edonation certifi Muwaqqit khidma

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scholarship». E.R. Hoffman, «Th A new Islamic context for a late-antique tradition». tradition». alate-antique for context Islamic A new «Th 1959, Hoffman, pp. 163-93; E.R. in Ettinghausen R. (ed.), Islam 1962; Ettinghausen R. Ginebra, Painting. Arab Ettinghausen, (ed.), (ed.), Seljuq «style») in superb (in of are cases Vienna which both (13th painting and c) calligraphy the tidotes in the name of science: Th ofscience: name the in org/qantara4/public/show_document.php?do_id=1496&lang=en, accessed 2 June 2011. 2June accessed org/qantara4/public/show_document.php?do_id=1496&lang=en, Manuscripts, Arabic inIllustrated Text Image and Painting: forms other art and miniatures of frontispieces, transfer the included also manuscripts Persian of scientifi Middle Greek, Syriac and translation century, the twentieth early the since have argued historians element art of As a«patronage»-relationship. an have or may copy been manuscript but particular not the text, only the that ers mark- as serve of illustrations one kinds or of various more calligraphy, and styles in historical chronicles the quality of the handwriting, if in executed particular in were produced. Examples are Arabic, Persian and Ottoman Turkish Ottoman Persian and versions Arabic, of are were produced. Examples scientifi illustrated excellently where many courts workshops attheir sponsored art Ottomans the and Mughals the Safavids, the Timurids, the like ties dynas- powerful and great the particular In other sciences. and mathematical the for for «patronage» amarker as of art forimportance the basis asafer to establish tion period (8 al-Rahman al-Sufi suwar al-kawakib al-thabita al-kawakib suwar mechanical devices (1205/6) devices mechanical book on automata al-Jazari’s other and of amanuscript Ibn is works al-Razzaq splendidly One illustrated context. of these acourtly producedwere in undeniably Medica New or so-called the century thirteenth the in of Maragha court Ilkhanid atthe scholars Medica Persian versions and century, tenth of Arabic the Dioscurides’ in al-Dawla

2 0 . New Haven, Yale University Press, 1987; E. Grube, «Materialien zum Dioskurides Arabicus», Arabicus», Dioskurides zum 1987; «Materialien Press, Grube, YaleUniversity E. Haven, . New

Archaeologica Orientalia in Memoriam Ernst Herzfeld Ernst inMemoriam Orientalia Archaeologica Royal Tables 22 ( , some of the few extant exemplars from the twelfth and thirteenth centuries centuries thirteenth and twelfth from the exemplars , some extant of few the , astronomical handbooks like the the like handbooks , astronomical . Although no illustrated scientifi no illustrated . Although Kitab al-Diryaq Kitab 24 23 22 In addition to dedications, biographical dictionaries and relevant remarks MS Paris, BnF, Arabe 2964; MS Vienna, ÖNB, Codex A.F. 10. See also J. Kerner, «Art «Art J. Kerner, A.F. 10. also See Codex ÖNB, Vienna, MS 2964; BnF, Arabe Paris, MS D.R. Hill (ed. and transl.), K. Weitzmann, «Th Muqarnas th 24 -10 . From the Ilkhanid dynasty onwards, more material has survived survived has more onwards, material dynasty . From Ilkhanid the e beginnings of the illustrated Arabic book: An intersection between art and and art between intersection An book: Arabic illustrated ofthe ebeginnings or or ’s (903-986) (903-986) ’s th , vol. 17, vol. pp. 37-52. (2000), centuries) except for folios rare the from Dioscurides’ e Kitab al-Diryaq in text and image». Abstract, SOAS Conference: Conference: SOAS Abstract, image». and text in al-Diryaq eKitab OF PATRONAGE FOR SCHOLARS Tables Beg of Ulugh ) of which two manuscripts exist in Paris (date Paris in 1198/9) exist manuscripts ) of two which and Aus der Welt der der Aus 4. THE ARTS AS MARKERS AS ARTS 4. THE e Greek sources of Islamic scientifi ofIslamic sources eGreek ) written for the already mentioned emir Buyid already for the ) written 23 . Another one is the Pseudo-Galenic one Pseudo-Galenic the is . Another e author portrait in thirteenth-century Arabic manuscripts: Book of the Constellations of the Fixed Stars Fixed of the Constellations of the Book Th e Book of Ingenious Mechanical Devices. Mechanical ofIngenious eBook

islamischen Kunst, Festschrift für Ernst Kühnel Ernst für Festschrift Kunst, islamischen c manuscripts are extant from the transla- from the extant are c manuscripts produced by another team of scholars Ilkhanid Tables Ilkhanid Muqarnas 2004, pp. 13-4; http://www.qantara-med. pp. 13-4; 2004, , Locust Valley, 1952, pp. 244-66; R. R. Valley, 1952,, Locust pp. 244-66; , vol. 10, vol. (1993), 8-9; pp. pp. 6, 6-20, et al c illustration», in G. Miles Miles G. in c illustration», produced by a team of ., ., Th e Art and Architecture of Architecture and eArt Book of the An- of the Book Dordrecht, 1974. c manuscripts c manuscripts Materia Materia Materia Materia ( , Berlín, , Berlín, ῾ Adud Kitab ῾ Abd Arab 111/12/2012 13:59:30 1 / c 1 2 / 2 0 1 2

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2 0 - 2 0 translation of Dioskorides» work, one produced possibly 1630, around Persian anew undated; other being the of this text copies Arabic of the two atleast seventeenth of century; the middle the 1630 one but 1634 while and undated, by is placed Anthony Welch Mashhad, in in Stars Fixed of the mentioned copies of above; three and seventeenth centuries seventeenth and Splendour of Iran, ofIran, Splendour work ones of this illustrated belong most to splendidly Cairo, the in al-Kutub York Dar the and Public Library New the of Paris, in France Library National the in extant today Khan, Manuchihr lations in its entirety or partially (only images) the or partially its entirety in lations Sufi of copies of production the to scholars as or patrons contributed either as all Khan, Quli period, Mirza this in governor of Azerbaijan Shah and Soltan (d. 1636), Khalife Great viziers Safavid the Khan governor Manuchihr Tusi, al-Din Nasir Safavid the of Mashhad, Beg, Ulugh activities elements as of education, research, policy cultural or political ambitions. were for favored Now such outlets sciences. for they the ofproducts «patronage» Isfahan. Th Isfahan. show developed in aclose relation that styles to the paintings with were illustrated textbook (d. 1550) c. Khafri’s Tusi’s al-Din on Nasir commentary (1201-1274) astronomical the vizier of Amir-Shah b. Muhammad Sadr al-Sa razi’s fi (1394-1449) Beg Ulugh prince of Timurid some the with participation early the in Nationale de France, 1997, France, de Nationale p. 78. Soudavar, Soudavar, scientifi Cultural Continuum and «Science Vesel, Ž. xii; 2004, Ashgate, Worlds Western and Arab Medieval inthe mathematics and P. in reprinted pp.1998, Kunitzsch, 42-3; pp. 41-47, particular in islamique àl’époque iranien monde le dans science La Epesse, des deCrussol Thierry B. et Beikbaghan (1437)», H. Vesel, Ž. in Catalogue Beg’s Star 1998, p. 43; F. Richard, 1998, F. p. 43; Richard, Library. National ScientifiEgyptian the the in cManuscripts Th and Press University Oxford York, Nueva Oxford, Pourfarrokh. Massoud Svat Soucek, Khayyat, by Latif persanes Richard, http://mandragore.bnf.fr/jsp/rechercheExperte.jsp, 5036, BnF, Arabe Paris, MS 1 fteenth century in Samarkand, works on planetary theory like Qutb Shi- al-Din like theory on works planetary Samarkand, in century fteenth 2 . i n d b

Th ῾ 2 Abbas ii (r. ii (r.Abbas 1642-1666) 1666-1694) Sulayman Shah and Safavid the and , p. 78. 1 e Royal Gift eRoyal 27 26 25 A number of these manuscripts and a few others on astrology and technology technology and on others astrology afew and manuscripts A number of these MS Paris, BnF, Arabe 5036; P. Kunitzsch, «Th Kunitzsch, P. 5036; Arabe BnF, Paris, MS B. Schmitz, B. Schmitz, Th e New York Public Library, 1992, fi pp. 55, York Library, eNew 123-4, Public Art of the Persian Courts. Courts. Persian ofthe Art ese manuscripts include the undated undated include the manuscripts ese e Memoirs 3 vols.; vol. iii: C. Parham (ed.), Parham C. iii: vol. 3 vols.; , two of which were made on order of Manuchihr Khan between between on of Khan were made which order, two of Manuchihr , Londres, Booth-Clibborn Editions, 2001, pp. 268-307, 38 colored images; A. A. 2001, pp. 268-307, images; Editions, 38colored Booth-Clibborn , Londres, ( al-Tuhfa al-shahiyya op. cit. Islamic Manuscripts in Th Splendeurs persanes. Manuscrits du ( al-Tadhkira 25 , fi . Many of these illustrated scientifi illustrated of. Many these Materia Medica Materia 27 gure 127; MS Cairo, Dār al-Kutub, MMF9, D.A. King, King, D.A. MMF9, al-Kutub, Dār 127;gure Cairo, MS . Nueva York, Rizzioli, 1992, p. 67; York,Nueva Rizzioli, ῾ Abd al-Rahman Sufi al-Rahman Abd ), both produced in Safavid Iran in the sixteenth sixteenth the in Iran Safavid in produced both ), ) written for Taj) written Mu al-Dim c instruments», in N. Pourjavady (gen. ed.), (gen. N.Pourjavady in c instruments», , Teherán, Institut Français de Recherche en Iran, Iran, en Recherche de Français Institut Teherán, , e New York Public Library York Public eNew ordered by Shah Shah by ordered Islamic Period. Applied and Decorative Arts. Th Arts. Decorative and Applied Period. Islamic . Variorum CS 791, Aldershot, Burlington, Royal Gift e astronomer al- eastronomer Cairo, 1986, pl. iii; Kunitzsch, Kunitzsch, 1986, iii; pl. Cairo, 26 XII ῾ . Th id (13th al-Din C.) or Shams gure 127; D.A. King, e ῾ au Alijan Muhammad Khan of e copies of and and Beg ecopies of Ulugh ’s ’s ’s constel- book on star the XVII Stars and Numbers, Astronomy Astronomy Numbers, and Stars Book of the Constellations by Qutb al-Din Shirazi Shirazi al-Din Qutb by ῾ Abbas i (r. 1588-1629); e c texts were originally were originally c texts siècle. ¼ ūfī as a source ofUlu asource as ūfī , with contributions contributions , with París, Bibliothèque Bibliothèque París, ῾ tazz b.tazz Tahir, A Survey of A Survey Splendeurs op. cit. op. cit. Th e e ġ , ;

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the 4 images on pp. 202-206; for Shifa for on pp. 202-206; 4 images pp. 199-206, 2000, d’Iran, Universitaires Presses Iran, en Recherche de Français Teherán, Institut Examples are miniatures of Nasir al-Din Tusi, al-Din of of Nasir vizier the miniatures are Examples courts. or Timurid Safavid Ilkhanid, the with «patronage»-relationships in linked of scholars emergence of the pictures was scholars and «patrons», arts the between the fi the al-Hasani al-Shifa physician Muzaff head Safavid the and Maragha, in observatory her in her chapter «Science and Scientifi and her her «Science in chapter societies to illustrated manuscripts as suggested by Vesel suggested as manuscripts to illustrated societies Hence, of acloser Islamic science attention in of historians Safavids. and Timurids Ilkhanids, the than of other dynasties courts the with connection befound in also can astronomer/astrologer atranslator, commentator or as copyist or other scholars of scientifi versions production the in of luxury seventeenth to centuries the thirteenth the P07-HUM02594, «Estudios sobre Historia y Filosofía de las Ciencias Físicas yMatemáticas». Físicas Ciencias las de yFilosofía Historia sobre P07-HUM02594, «Estudios in Isfahan in 1663in Isfahan made of sky the degrees of 360° the of each meanings work about astrological the Persian copies of the three at least be related to the art of the court of the art to the be related or may not may that Iran Safavid produced seventeenth-century in manuscripts Ž. Vesel (eds.), Vesel Ž. la collaboration de F. R. et F. Ghasemloo, World Iranian Ghasemloo, F. et R. F. de collaboration la Khan cit.,

2 2 2001, pp. 293-7. Images of Science Islamic . Ginebra, Chateau de Bellerive, 1972, 4 vols., vol. 2, pp. 60-1, 1972, 2, vol. 69-70, 4vols., Vesel, Ž. 122-3; Bellerive, de Chateau . Ginebra, rst Ilkhanid ruler of Iran, Hülägü Khan (r. 1256-1265), Khan Hülägü of Iran, ruler of the director Ilkhanid and rst 32 31 30 29 28 Examples of this role that courts and their art workshops played from art their and courts role that of this Examples Ž. Vesel, Este trabajo se ecuadra en el proyecto de Excelencia de la Junta de Andalucía código See, for instance, B. Schmitz, Schmitz, B. instance, for See, B. Schmitz, For Tusi see F. Richard, «Les ‘portraits’ de Nas.īr al-Dīn T Nas.īr de al-Dīn ‘portraits’ «Les For Tusi F. see Richard, c texts and that involved in several cases the participation of a court of acourt participation the cases involved several in that and c texts . Teherán, UNESCO-IFRI-Fond, M.Van Berchem-Azad University, 2009. M.Van Berchem-Azad . Teherán, UNESCO-IFRI-Fond, Nas.īr al-Dīn T Nas.īr al-Dīn ᾿ 28 i op. cit. 30 . In addition to these copies, there are other illustrated scientifi other illustrated are copies, there addition. In to these . op. cit. , 2001, pp. 268-307; Ž. Vesel, S. Tourkin & Y. Porter (eds.), &Y. avec Porter Tourkin S. , 2001, Vesel, pp. Ž. 268-307; . ūsī, Philosophe et Savant du ūsī, . , p. 61; Welch, A. is urgently needed ᾿ i see for instance MS Paris, BnF, Supplément persan 1572, BnF, f3. persan Supplément Paris, MS instance for i see 29 . A further feature of this triangular relationship relationship triangular of this feature . Afurther Materia Medica Materia Images of Islamic Science. Illustrated Manuscripts from the the from Manuscripts Illustrated Science. ofIslamic Images op. cit. c Instruments» in the the in c Instruments» , p. 61. Collection of Islamic Art. Prince Sadruddin Aga 32 . XIII made in 1645 in made 1657; and a and Siècle 31 , Bibliothèque Iranienne 54, 54, Iranienne , Bibliothèque and well argued for by argued well and .ūsī», in N.Pourjavady, in .ūsī», waqf Splendor ofSplendor Iran ar b. Muhammad at the court of court atthe and 111/12/2012 13:59:30 1 op. / c 1 2 / 2 0 1 2

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