ISSN 0258-2244 May/June 2008 Volume 7 No 3

Vaal River System under scrutiny Official sponsor

WDSA2008

The 2008 WDSA Conference (WDSA2008) will be the 10th in the WDSA series and the first to be hosted outside of the USA. WDSA2008 will take place from 17 to 20 August 2008 in the Kruger National Park, South Africa, a world famed wildlife sanctuary and one of the world’s greatest natural assets. WDSA2008 is hosted by the University of Johannesburg.

CONFERENCE TOPICS

Abstracts are solicited on virtually all topics of relevance to water distribution systems analysis. Applied, theoretical, and methodological studies are welcome. Topic categories include: • System Operation and Control • System Design • Optimisation Algorithms for System Design • Real-Time Forecasting, Operational Analysis, and Control Event Detection • Decision Support for Sustainable Water Management • Vulnerability/Consequence Assessment • Security and Reliability of Water Systems • Water Quality Sensing and Monitoring • Case Studies and Field Applications • Hydraulic Transient Analysis • Leak Detection • Infrastructure Asset Management • Model Calibration Algorithms and Applications • Network Demand Modeling • Network Hydraulic Models and Algorithms • Network Water Quality Models and Algorithms • Stochastic Simulation and Analysis • Systems Integration or Integration with GIS/SCADA/CIS • Water Supply in Developing Countries • History and Heritage of Water Supply

WDSA2008 CONTACT INFORMATION

Email: [email protected] • Fax: +2711 559 2395 • Website: www.uj.ac.za/wdsa2008

CONFERENCE ORGANIZER

Carla de Jager, Ph: + 2783 376 2368 • Email: [email protected] Table of contents 3

Letters 4

upfront 5

Sanitation 12 International Year of Sanitation

Water resources planning 14 Start saving or start paying, river studies warn

SA’s water history 19 Taming the poort ISSN 0258-2244 May/June 2008 Volume 7 No 3

Water conservation 22 Water & energy join hands to avert future crisis

Irrigation planning 24 Improved irrigation planning a mouse click away

EDCs 26 The ABC of EDCs: Building an armoury of knowledge

Ecological sanitation 29 Vaal River System Recycling human waste still taboo in SA Under Scrutiny

Cover: Excessive and unlawful water basic sanitation 32 use is placing strain on the Vaal River On-site sanitation challenges tackled through research System, studies have revealed. (See page 14). Policy & legislation 35 Water law publication a first for SA

Water Kidz 36 Stop killing our rivers and streams

the last word 38 WRC team leads visit to peatland

THE WATER WHEEL is a two-monthly magazine on water and water research published by the South African Water Research Commission (WRC), a statutory organisation established in 1971 by Act of Parliament. Subscription is free. Material in this publication does not necessarily reflect the considered opinions of the members of the WRC, and may be copied with acknow­ledgement of source.

Editorial offices: Water Research Commission, Private Bag X03, Gezina, 0031, Republic of South Africa. Tel (012) 330-9031. Fax (012) 331-2565. WRC Internet address: http://www.wrc.org.za Editor: Lani van Vuuren, E-mail: [email protected]; Editorial Secretary: Rina Human, E-mail: [email protected]; Layout: Drinie van Rensburg, E-mail: [email protected]

The Water Wheel May/June 2008 4 Letters Letters to the Editor More than one mechanism  increasing water tariffs resulting in volun- for water licensing tary sale of entitlements;  reviewing and amending or replacing the In the article on pages 30 to 31 of the March/ conditions of licences; and April 2008 edition of the Water Wheel (The intervene, and the interventions should not  developing the water resources. Business of Compulsory Licencing) Mr only be economical in nature. Mr Van Niekerk Peter van Niekerk argues strongly that using mentions some of these. Each of these mechanisms has a specific role a market mechanism to effect the equitable The problem is what to do with water uses to play, depending on the circumstances, allocation of water holds great advantages that were undertaken legally when the National and the argument should not be which is the over a purely administrative system like the Water Act commenced (the so-called “existing best but which of these together and in what compulsory licencing process. lawful water uses”), which may be continued sequence are the best in a specific case. In During these arguments one has to take with subject to the conditions and obligations certain cases, for example where intensive into account Principle 7 of the Fundamental attached to that use until it is replaced with a water application practices are used for Principles and Objectives for a New Water licence, if these conditions and obligations irrigation, objectives could probably only Law for South Africa which states that “the do not meet the relevant objectives. As the be achieved if all the water users concerned objective of managing the quantity, quality Acts reads at the moment this could only be are holders of licences and not just existing and reliability of the nation’s water resources achieved by following the compulsory licens- lawful water users. Therefore all the exist- is to achieve optimum, long-term, environ- ing procedure (as the market mechanism may ing lawful water uses should be transferred mentally sustainable social and economic take too long and only addresses the water to licences, probably by implementing the benefit for society from their use”. Further the uses involved in the trading). compulsory licencing process. In spite Constitution of the Republic states that there The compulsory licensing process forms thereof, objectives could still be achieved, is a commitment from the nation to reform in part of a bigger process to achieve water for example through authorizing the use of order to bring equitable access to the water allocation objectives. It is a mechanism to water by new users resulting in that less water resources. transfer existing lawful water uses to licences, is available for the existing users (due to One cannot argue against Mr Van and while doing that water reform actions changes in the assurance of supply) so that Niekerk’s concerns on the complex nature of may (or should) also be taken. Thereafter, all they have to implement water conservation the compulsory licencing process to affect the licences should be reviewed regularly to measures to ensure that their undertakings this. In the same vein, one can also not argue give effect to the relevant objectives. are not adversely affected. against his viewpoint of the simpler proc- It is submitted that not the one or the The organisations involved should there- ess of a market for entitlements and thereby other mechanism should be considered to fore apply their minds to decide which of the effecting equitable allocation (but unfortu- give effect to the Fundamental Principles various mechanisms should be used in a spe- nately over a longer period). One should ask and Objectives for a New Water Law and the cific case and how. Applying the minds should the question whether we can afford such a Constitution, but both, either separately or not be a once off decision but a process. longer period, and the answer is probably no. jointly, including other mechanisms such as Lastly, most (if not all) of the mecha- The market mechanism is a slow  voluntary surrendering of an existing lawful nisms have their practical and administrative approach to water reform (but a necessary water use for a licence (even for a lesser shortcomings, which should be rectified by one with great benefits) and is based on a use), usually if there is a benefit for the the necessary amendments to the National willing-seller willing-buyer concept (in spite user to do so; Water Act. If not, water reform is going to thereof that state authorisation is necessary to  enforcing water conservation and water remain a nightmare. give effect to a transaction). For the mecha- demand management principles; nism to be effective, the State should actively  expropriating entitlements to use water; Hubert Thompson, Pretoria

Water on the Web

www.eol.org Institution and Biodiversity Heritage Library – Development (DFID) and their develop- This free Internet encyclopedia, the Encyclo- a group that includes London’s Natural History ment partners in environment, water pedia of Life, is part of a US$100-million, Museum, the New York Botanical Garden and resources, water and sanitation and 10-year project aimed at listing all the crea- the Royal Botanic Garden in Kew, England. climate change. The website provides a tures and plants on the planet. About 30 000 range of free information databases for the species have been listed to date. The project www.dewpoint.org.uk wider development community. Topics is led by the US Field Museum, Harvard The DEW Point Resource Centre generates include bioenergy, climate change, envi- University, Marine Biological Laboratory, and disseminates knowledge on behalf ronment, hygiene, technology, water and Missouri Botanical Garden, Smithsonian of the UK Department for International sanitation and water resources.

The Water Wheel May/June 2008 Upfront 5

FBW reaches 70% level Funds to save Vaal

Parliament in March. “The 6 kℓ does not, from pollution however, provide sufficient water for water- borne sanitation. Several municipalities are he Gauteng Provincial Government has providing an additional allocation free of Tallocated R50-million towards investiga- charge or at a lower rate to cater for flush tions into wastewater spillages into the Vaal toilets to poor people,” she said. River. With regard to Free Basic Sanitation, During a visit to sections of the Vaal Hendricks told Parliament that a revised River in April, Local Government MEC strategy would be submitted to Cabinet for Dorothy Mahlangu said some of the major approval by the second quarter of this year. causes of the spillages were big industries “Once approved, Free Basic Sanitation must operating in the Vaal area who “dump waste be rolled out gradually, taking into account such as animal skins and animal carcasses in municipal managerial capacity, financial stormwater pipelines.” Regular sewage spill- viability, ability to operate and maintain ages have also been experienced from failing systems, billing at affordable levels, accept- municipal sewerage infrastructure. able payment levels and proper use of the According to the MEC communities also Equitable Share.” needed to be educated on how the sewerage The minister further cautioned that not system worked as some of the spillages were ore than 72,5% of poor people receive all municipalities were the same and all caused by people blocking wastewater pipe- Ma free basic water allocation of 6 kℓ per had different levels of capacity and financial lines with foreign objects. “We need to work household a month, reports Minister of Water resources. “They will have to approach Free with the police with regard to the offenders Affairs & Forestry Lindiwe Hendricks. Basic Sanitation in line with their implemen- and the companies that contaminate the river. She was responding to a question asked in tation capacity,” she noted. Most importantly, we need to discourage communities to contaminate the water,” she commented. New manual for detection of According to Johnny Thabane, Member of the Emfuleni Local Municipality Mayoral phytoplankton Committee, the Department of Water Affairs condensed laboratory methods manual to the WRC that resulted in the publication of & Forestry (DWAF), the Department of Amonitor phytoplankton, including cyano- this methods manual. It is envisaged that Provincial and Local Government and the bacteria, in South African water resources this publication will aid to the much needed municipality have lobbied Treasury for funds has been published by the Water Research capacity building in the South African drink- to upgrade the municipality’s troublesome Commission (WRC). ing water industry. Rietspruit Wastewater Treatment Plant and Reservoirs provide the bulk of South To order the report (Report No: TT Leeuwkuil Water Treatment Works. DWAF has Africa’s raw, potable, irrigation and live- 323/08) contact publications at Tel: (012) already contributed R9,5-million towards stock water. These reservoirs are variously 330-0340 or E-mail: [email protected] the elimination of troublesome pumps and

upgrading of the two treatment works. impacted by eutrophication arising from their Freshwaters SA in Cyanobacteria, Including Phytoplankton, Monitoring for Methods Laboratory Condensed 323/08 TT catchments. Associated with these conditions is the excessive development of phytoplank- National wetlands ton, especially cyanobacteria. The monitoring of phytoplankton, cyano- conference calls bacteria and their related organic compounds for papers is essential to the production of water safe for human and animal consumption. A need for here has been a call for papers for the a comprehensive methods manual for phy- T2008 National Wetlands Indaba, to be toplankton was identified during encounters held in Skukuza, Kruger National Park, on with South African laboratories tasked with 28 to 31 October. water quality monitoring. Condensed Laboratory The Indaba is a cross-disciplinary Most of the smaller laboratories do not Methods for Monitoring Phytoplankton, Including gathering of practitioners involved with the possess the capacity and/or expertise to Cyanobacteria, in South conservation and sustainable use of South African Freshwaters develop methods essential for the effective Africa’s wetland resources. These include Annelie Swanepoel, Hein du Preez, monitoring of phytoplankton. To address this, Carl Schoeman, Sanet Janse van Vuuren TT323/08 scientists, decision-makers, researchers, & Ashogan Sundram a project was initiated in association with Water Research Commission

The Water Wheel May/June 2008 6 Upfront

conservationists, and educators hailing from water, medicinal plants etc. – and the direct Water by numbers various organisations. negative effects of mismanaging wetlands The theme for this year’s Indaba is that result in the impairment of communities’ • R3,1-billion – The money budgeted by ‘Healthy Wetlands – Healthy People’, adopted health and well-being. the Gauteng Housing Department for the from the theme for Wetlands Day 2008. In Abstracts for papers, workshops and coming financial year for the eradica- line with the theme there will be discussions poster may be submitted no later than 31 tion and formalisation of the remaining on the benefits that can be derived from wet­ July. Submissions can be made to André informal settlements in the province. lands from both the direct, positive effects on Beetge from Working for Wetlands; Tel: 084 • 9 – The number of major water resource human health on maintaining healthy wet- 240 2264; Fax: (013) 262-8140; E-mail: capital projects at the planning stage lands – such as the provision of food, clean [email protected] or [email protected] at present to be constructed in the next five to ten years at a cost of R12-billion, Research boost for alien busters according to the Minister of Water Affairs & Forestry Lindiwe Hendricks. long-term these efforts • 1391 – The year toilet paper was first Acollaborative by undertak- made for the Chinese emperor, according research agreement ing targeted to WaterAid. The British Perforated Paper has been signed applied Company first produced toilet paper in between Working research, Great Britain in 1880. for Water (WfW) for example, • 4% – The proportion of Africa’s total and the Depart- using genetic annual renewable water resources which ment of Science techniques have been developed for irrigation, water & Technology and to identify supply and hydropower use to date, National Research the source of according to the African Development Foundation’s Cen- South African Bank. About 340 million Africans lack tre for Excellence invasive plant access to safe drinking water. for Invasion Biology populations, • 98% – The proportion of the Egyptian (CIB), based at and ecologi- population who have access to piped the University of cal techniques water. Stellen­bosch. to compare • R1,4-million – The amount for which the The agreement the biodiver- eThekwini Municipality is suing a Durban is designed to sity impacts waste disposal company for allegedly improve the gov- of different dumping waste in a council pipeline, ernment initiative’s alien clearing which caused pollution in the Umhlatu- effectiveness of methods. zana River. At the signing of the collaborative agreement between alien plant clearing The • US$1,2-billion – The value of a project the DST-NRF Centre of Excellence for Invasion Biology operations in rural research by Mexico City authorities to refurbish the (CIB) and Working for Water (WfW) were (front) and urban fresh- programme city’s sewerage system. A total of 160 km WfW Director Mandisa Mangqalaza; CIB Deputy Direc- water catchment will include of sewerage pipes will be renovated under tor: Science Strategy Prof Dave Richardson, (back) CIB areas. The research in-depth the project. Post-Doctoral Associate Dr John Wilson and to be done by the research to • 160 – The number of water treatment CIB Deputy Director: Operations Sarah Davies.) CIB will address improve the plants operated by international food the integrated management of alien invasive effectiveness of biological control (i.e. the group Nestlé. species. It will incorporate training of post- use of natural enemies, often herbivorous • 866 – The number of inspectors working graduate students, particularly at the doctoral insects, to control invasive species) using for the so-called Green Scorpions across level, and short courses on invasive species molecular techniques and to understand the the country. ecology and management for environmental impacts of biological invasions on freshwater • US$500-billion – The projected finan- managers in government agencies. and terrestrial ecosystems. cial cost of a hurricane to US coastal The management of alien invasive spe- “Partnerships of this kind are exactly cities by 2020. Despite the increasing cies is best done by integrating a range of what are required to reduce the rates and hurricane threat, construction continues tools to control or halt the spread of the spe- impacts of biological invasions in South unabated along the country’s Atlantic cies and developing strategies to prevent the Africa, and the CIB looks forward to a close and Gulf coasts. Hurricane Katrina, which introduction or establishment of new popula- and fruitful working relationship with the WfW swamped New Orleans, was the costliest tions. The CIB-WfW research programme, and programme,” commented CIB Director Prof natural disaster in US history, with dam- the students that form part of it, will support Steven Chown. ages of US$80-billion.

The Water Wheel May/June 2008 Upfront 7

SA identified as alien fish hotspot

outh Africa has been identified as a at river-basin scale (gross domestic product, S‘species-invasion hot-spot’ in an interna- percentage of land urbanised, population tional study into exotic freshwater fish spe- density), that can yield determination of the cies in natural environments. relation between anthropic pressure and non- The country is one of several areas native species diversity. identified around the world where non-native The three hypotheses’ relative weight species make up more than a quarter of the was measured using statistical methods. For freshwater fish species recorded. The recently the whole set of river basins investigated, published study was undertaken by an inter- the environmental conditions of fluvial national research team comprising scientists ecosystems were found to have practically from Canada, Belgium and France. The other no influence on the exotic species diversity. hotspot areas are the Pacific coast of North On the contrary, it is the human factors, and America and Central America, Patagonia, especially the intensity of economic activi- southern and western Europe, Madagascar, ties, which determine the number of non- central Asia, the south of Australia and New native species present in a river basin. Zealand. These results thus suggest that the The study demonstrated that human economic development foreseen in the activity is the main driving factor behind the tested: namely the biotic resistance, biotic developing countries should be accompa- establishment of exotic fish species popula- acceptance and human activity. nied by a rise in the number of non-native tions in river ecosystems. Data was examined The first suggests that a higher diversity freshwater fish species. Given that biological on the presence of around 10 000 freshwater of freshwater fish in the host ecosystem acts invasions are considered as one of the main fish in 1 055 river basins covering both as a barrier to the establishment of non- causes of biodiversity loss, such a scenario 80% immersed lands and 80% of globally native fish species populations. The second would probably be detrimental to the aquatic recorded freshwater fish species. postulates conversely that, for a given eco- biodiversity conservation of these regions. The team also sought to determine the system, non-native species diversity follows Interestingly, the study indicates that extent of the relative influence of the particu- that of native species because favourable exceptional river basins, such as the Amazon lar characteristics of each ecosystem and conditions for the latter are also suitable for Basin in South America and that of the Congo human activities on the diversity of the non- the newly-arrived species. As for the third, in central Africa, are still hardly affected by native fish species. Three hypotheses were its takes account of the different indicators species introduction.

WATER DIARY GROUNDWATER infornia, in the US. The conference will focus val.com.au or Visit: www.riverfestival.com.au JUNE 25-28 on all aspects of the water cycle, water and An International Conference on Groundwater wastewater technology, engineering and man- WATER and Climate in Africa will be held in Kampala, agement. E-mail: [email protected] SEPTEMBER 7-12 Uganda. The conference, co-organised by Visit: http://www.iwa-ywpc.org/tem- The IWA World Water Congress & Exhibition the University College London, Directorate of plates/ld_templates/layout_654239. will be held in Vienna, Austria. The confer- Water Development (Uganda) and UNESCO- aspx?ObjectId=654242 ence aims to bring together water profes- IHP, seeks to bring together water and climate sionals to advance their common goal of scientists, government departments, the pri- DISTRIBUTION sustainable water management. Enquiries: vate sector and the donor community to share AUGUST 17-20 E-mail: [email protected]; Visit: knowledge and expertise and thereby improve The 10th International Conference on Water www.iwa2008vienna.org present understanding of the impact of cli- Distribution System Analysis will be held in the mate variability and change on groundwater Kruger National Park (Skukuza). The conference SANITATION resources in Africa. Enquiries: Richard Taylor; will be hosted by the University of Johannesburg. SEPTEMBER 24-26 E-mail: [email protected]; or E-mail: Enquiries: Carla de Jager; E-mail: wdsa2008@ The International Network for the develop- [email protected]; Visit: www.gwclim.org uj.ac.za; Visit: www.uj.ac.za/wdsa2008 ment of Sustainable Approaches for Large Scale Sanitation in Africa (NETSSAF) will YOUNG PROFESSIONALS RIVERS be hosting an international conference on JULY 16-18 AUGUST 29-SEPTEMBER 7 Sustainable Sanitation in Africa in Ouga- The Fourth IWA Young Water Professionals The 2008 River Festival will take place in dougou, Burkina Faso. Visit: www.netssaf. Conference will take place in Berkeley, Cal- Brisbane, Australia. E-mail: info@riverfesti- net/170.0.html

The Water Wheel May/June 2008 8 Global news

Scientists discover Unlocking the ‘rain-making’ secrets of E. coli

bacteria sing new genetic techniques, scientists are unlocking the secrets of how E. coli US Montana State University (MSU) U bacteria contaminate food and make people professor and his colleagues have found A sick. evidence suggesting that airborne bacteria Michigan State University, in the US, has are globally distributed in the atmosphere nuclei because only these biological nuclei developed a new technique to test the DNA and may play a large role in the cycle of can cause freezing at warmer temperatures. of E. coli bacteria by examining very small precipitation. The bacteria were found all over the world, genetic changes called single nucleotide The research of David Sands, MSU pro- including the US, Australia, South Africa, polymorphisms or SNPs. Using SNPs, fessor of plant species and plant pathology, Morocco, France and Russia. The team’s scientists analysed 96 markers, making along with his colleagues Christine Fore- research also show that most ice-nucleating genetic analysis of pathogenic bacteria pos- man, an MSU professor of land resource and bacteria as associated with plants and some sible at a rate never before accomplished. environmental sciences, Brent Christner from are capable of causing disease. “It used to take three months to score Louisiana State University and Cindy Morris, While the implications of a relationship one gene individually,” explained Prof was published in Volume 319 no 5867 of the between rain and bacteria could be enor- Thomas Whittam of the National Food Safety international journal Science, published on mous, they are yet to be proven, said Prof and Toxicology Centre at MSU. “Now, we are 29 February. Sands. For example, a reduced amount of working on a new, more rapid system that can The researchers’ study show that most bacteria on crops could affect the climate. do thousands of genes per day.” active ice nuclei are actually biological in Because of the bio-precipitation cycle, over- origin. Nuclei are the seeds around which ice grazing in a dry year could actually decrease is formed. Snow and most rain begin with the rainfall, which could then make the next year UN calls for formation of ice in clouds. Dust and soot can even drier. also serve as ice nuclei. However, biological To access the Science article, go to improved climate ice nuclei are different from dust and soot www.sciencemag.org observations

he United Nations weather agency, the ‘Virtual water’ innovator wins TWorld Meteorological Organisation (WMO), has called for improvements to cli- international prize mate observation technologies to help people and economies adapt to climate change, rof John Anthony Allan from King’s Col- cially in water-scarce regions, and has climate variability and extreme weather. Plege London and the School of Oriental redefined discourse in water policy and The call was made on World Meteorologi- and African Studies has been named the management. By explaining how and why cal Day, celebrated on 25 March. The theme 2008 Stockholm Water Prize Laureate. nations such as the US, Argentina and for this year was ‘Observing our Planet for a Prof Allan pioneered the development of key Brazil ‘export’ billions of litres of water Better Future’, highlighting the necessity of concepts in the understanding and com- each year, while Japan, Italy and Egypt monitoring meteorological and hydrological munication of water issues, and how they are ‘import’ billions, the virtual water concept phenomena to aid countries in their quest to linked to agriculture, climate change, eco- has opened the door to more productive achieve sustainable economic development. nomics and politics. water use. Natural disasters are increasingly impacting The professor introduced the ‘virtual National, regional and global water developing countries, the WMO pointed out, water’ concept in 1993, which measures and food security, for example, can be with nine out of ten of them being linked to how water is embedded in the production enhanced when water intensive commodi- hydrometeorological hazards – a phenomenon and trade of food and consumer products. ties are traded from places where they are that has collectively caused 1,2 million deaths For example, behind a cup of coffee lies economically viable to produce to places and US$900-million in damages between 140 ℓ of water used to grow, produce, where they are not. While studying water 1980 and 2000. WMO Secretary-General Dr package and ship the beans. That is scarcity in the Middle East, Prof Allan Michel Jarraud urged developed nations to roughly the same amount of water used developed the theory of using virtual water, help poorer countries through the transfer of by an average person daily in England for via food, as an alternative water ‘source’ to technology and providing access to satellite drinking and household needs. reduce pressure on the scarcely available information. He also appealed for the “build- Virtual water has major impacts on domestic water resources there and in other ing of human capacity”, or training the next global trade policy and research, espe- water-short regions. generation to operate sophisticated equipment.

The Water Wheel May/June 2008 Global news 9

PPP brings hope to Rwandan communities community water project inaugurated in implemented through the LWF Department AKirehe, Rwanda, offers a new model of for World Service programme in Rwanda. cooperation between religious communities The provision of piped water services and public and private sectors in pursuit of in Gatore supplements existing water human development. infrastructure and contributes to ensuring “This is a historic milestone for inter- access to water and sanitation facilities faith cooperation and public private part- The IFAPA in the region. This is expected to have a nerships (PPPs) in Africa,” remarked Rev project will significant impact on health, hygiene and Dr Ishmael Noko, General Secretary of the provide more economic output in Kirehe. Under the Lutheran World Federation (LWF) and presi- than 21 000 oversight of the Inter-Religious Council of dent of the Inter-Faith Action for Peace in people with Rwanda, the IFAPA Water Project is man- Africa (IFAPA) at the project’s inauguration safe water. aged by a local water users committee. in March. The project will bring safe water to Women are reported to play a key role in up to 21 600 people in the sector of Gatore giant Nestlé S.A provided financial and ensuring community ownership and good in Kirehe district. International corporate technical support for the project, which is management of the project.

Saudi Arabia boosts nano­tech research audi Arabia is to launch several new announced an agreement earlier this year Research to identify and develop promis- Scentres to boost nanotechnology research to establish the Nanotechnology Centre of ing opportunities in nanotechnology. It will in the region. Excellence at the King Abdulaziz City for create research materials for solar energy The Saudi Arabian national research Science and Technology in the capital, and nanomembranes for the desalination of WaterWheelMonoand development 4/16/07 organisation7:04 PM Page and 1 interna- Riyadh, reports SciDev.Net. seawater. Researchers will also investigate C M Y CM MY CY CMY K tional research organisation IBM Research The centre will collaborate with IBM new methods for recycling plastic materials.

The Water Wheel May/June 2008 Composite 10 Company news

Water treatment in a box WS Envig offers a range of water treat- They are designed for minimal operator inter- Vment package plant technology products. vention and make use of robust equipment Package plant technology is characterised that is able to withstand adverse conditions in by its compactness, cost-effectiveness and remote areas,” said Taljaard. mobility and is suitable for use in remote VWS Envig’s package plants have been locations. installed on mines throughout Africa, in According to Wayne Taljaard, General remote towns, air force bases and industrial Manager: Engineered Systems, package plants plants. One such an installation took place are a viable alternative to traditional full-scale in Zambia for Lumwana Mining Company. water treatment plants. “The range of package With the construction of a new copper plants encompasses all the conventional treat- The company designs and assembles the mine underway, a potable water treatment ment processes, including clarification, sand plants according to customer specifications. plant was required to serve the campsite filtration, reverse osmosis, and ion exchange. The plants are skid mounted and occasionally occupied by the mine’s employees. The Several package plant models also contain installed in containers. They are then shipped plant, which has a capacity of 350 m3/day, innovative treatment elements tailored for to the customer ready for operation. has been operational since 2006. A similar particular applications. The main advantage of These plants are extremely cost-effective plant to accommodate the growth taking using this technology, however, relates to its and, because they are preassembled, instal- place at the mining site was delivered late modularity and ease of operation.” lation costs on-site are kept to a minimum. last year. Uitenhage wastewater plant upgrade completed

pecialist consulting to 1 mg/ℓ and nitrogen to Sengineering and project 15 mg/ℓ in the final efflu- management group SSI has ent. These new standards successfully commissioned a required a redesign of the R21,5-million extension to the treatment process, effectively Kelvin Jones Wastewater Treat- converting a conventional ment Works outside Uitenhage, activated sludge treatment in the Eastern Cape. system into a stepped Originally built in 1986, aeration process capable of the existing plant reached removing phosphates and full capacity in 2000 and the nitrogen.” Nelson Mandela Bay Municipal- Challenging aspects of ity subsequently approved its the contract included the extension through a new poor state of the soil, the 10 Mℓ/day module. This high groundwater table in the brings the total capacity up to area, as well as the fact that 24 Mℓ/day, which is sufficient to manage the Project manager Marius van Aardt the alterations had to be made to the plant municipality’s wastewater treatment require- explains: “Shortly before this contract was while it remained in operation for 24 hours ments in the Uitenhage area for the foreseea- awarded, the Department of Water Affairs & a day. The civils contractor on the project ble future. At the same time, the existing plant Forestry promulgated new effluent stand- was URSA Concrete cc, the main mechani- was modified to harness a stepped aeration ards for the Swartkops River catchment cal and electrical contractor was Lektratek process to provide flexible operating alterna- to improve water quality. The new regula- Water Technology and the electrical sub- tives for phosphate and nitrogen removal. tions limited phosphorus concentration contractor was Service Electrical.

WATER DIARY (continued) DESALINATION GROUNDWATER tions for the protection of groundwater OCTOBER 20-22 OCTOBER 14-17 against anthropogenic domestic effluents in A conference titled ‘Membranes in Drinking A symposium on Coupling Sustainable the context of developing countries. Water Production and Wastewater Treatment’ Sanitation and Groundwater Protection will Enquiries: Dr Thomas Himmelsbach; will be held in Toulouse, France. take place in Hannover, Germany. The Tel: +49-511-6433794; E-mail: Visit www.mdiw2008.com symposium will focus on applicable solu- [email protected]

The Water Wheel May/June 2008 WRC reports 11 New from the WRC

VOLUME 2 OF 2: MAIN REPORT EXTENSION VOLUME 1 OF 2: MANUAL On- water-use sector. Energy which Report No: 1687/1/08 Farm Application of Field Rainwater Harvesting Farm Application of In- Techniques onI n-Field Rainwater On- Plots in the Central RegionS mall TT 313/07 On-Farm Application of In-FieldHarvesting Rainwater Harvesting Techniques Vol 1 Techniques on Small is consumed in excess has to The Determination of Annual Phosphorus of South Africa Plots in the Central Region JJ Botha, NN Nhlabatsi, of South Africa & JJ Anderson be dissipated. This is frequently Loading Limits for South African Dams JJ Botha, JJ Anderson, DC Groenewald, N Mdibe, MN Baiphethi, through the use of wet cool- (William R Harding) NN Nhlabatsi, & TB Zere ing towers, where the excess Managing dams such that levels of eutrophi- energy is used to evaporate cation do not exceed thresholds above

IRWH Technique Matangwana water. This results in a two- which problems are encountered should be a

(Sotho) Madanyana (Xhosa) fold problem for the environ- primary focus of South African water resource

TT 314/07 Water Research Commission ment: firstly, the evaporated management. The fundamental point of Report No: TT 313/07 water is lost from the departure in any eutrophication assessment (Vol 1) and TT 314/07 national water cycle and, is to be able to determine the relationship TT 313/07 Water secondly, the salts con- between the level of nutrient loading, in (Vol 2) Research Commission On-Farm Application of tained in the cooling water particular phosphorus, and the in-lake condi- In-field Rainwater Harvesting Techniques remain behind for discharge or tion. A number of simple relationships exist on Small Plots in the Central Region of disposal as cooling tower blow-down. The for predicting in-lake phosphorus conditions South Africa (JJ Botha; JJ Anderson; DC overall aim of this project was to promote based on hydro-morphological data and Groenewald; N Mdibe; MN Baiphethi; water and energy savings in the South Afri- catchment land use. Such models, sup- NN Nhlabatsi and TB Zere) can process industry through more efficient porting screening level assessments, have Research has shown that rural communities use of both process water and cooling and not been tested for their relevance in South can benefit greatly from the use of in-field heating utilities. This was to be achieved by Africa, i.e. across a range of impoundment rainwater harvesting (IRWH). This technique creating awareness of potential water and types. Given the importance of having such has the potential to reduce total runoff energy savings in the process industry and workable models available it was therefore and evaporation considerably, resulting in through the development and promotion important that their local relevance be deter- increased yields due to increased plant- of tools incorporating water and thermal mined. This project has, for the first time, available water. The WRC has contributed pinch and mathematical modelling for the undertaken a preliminary testing of a suite of to IRWH research for a number of years. In optimisation of water and heat exchanger models across a set of 30 dams. this project the technique was implemented networks. in a number of rural communities around Report No: 1603/1/08 the towns of Thaba Nchu and Botshabelo Report No: KV 205/08 On-line Real-time Enzymatic Biosensor over two years. The project was aimed at Hydrological Information Requirements and System for the Rapid Detection of Faecal exchanging the technology as effectively as Methods to Support the Determination of Contamination of Water Intended for Drinking possible and to assist and support the farm- Environmental Water Requirements in Purposes (B Pletschke; C Togo and J Limson) ers and extension officers with the applica- Ephemeral River Systems (DS Hughes) Inadequate sanitation frequently results in the tion of the IRWH technique. The research This consultancy project was designed to channelling of untreated sewage and faecal output comprises two parts: The main report provide hydrological data analysis sup- material into marine and freshwater catch- is captured in Volume 1 while Volume 2 is port for a large WRC project undertaken ment areas and riverine systems. Current an extension manual to aid in the teaching of by the University of the Free State on the tests to detect pathogens (or rather indicator the IRWH technique. environmental water requirements (EWR) in microorganisms i.e. total faecal coliforms, non-perennial systems. The first component E. coli etc.) are in place to detect and quantify Report No: 1368/1/07 was to identify the hydrological issues that the presence of faecal contamination, but Water Conservation through Energy Conser- are considered of ecological importance these require laborious and time-consuming vation (D Fraser; K Ndwandwe; P Basnal; A within EWR determinations for non-perennial processes. In this project the use of a Isafiade; NS Nyathi; T Majozi; CJ Brouckaert river systems. The second component was sequential flow injection analysis system and BM Brouckaert) to establish appropriate hydrological mod- with a spectrophotometric detector or in Industries with thermal processes (as els, calibrate or calculate their parameters combination with an electrochemical detector opposed to electrical processes and and critically assess the initial results. The was tested to determine whether this was the excluding electrical power generation) are models were tested on the Seekoei River, a cheapest and most rapid method to detect a significant sub-class of the industrial tributary of the Orange River. faecal contamination in water resources.

To order any of these reports, contact Publications at Tel: (012) 330-0340; fax (012) 331-2565; E-mail: [email protected] or visit: www.wrc.org.za

The Water Wheel May/June 2008 NI T E R N A T O I N A LY E A R O F S A N TI A TO I N 12 2 0 0 8 International Year of Sanitation Kenyan inmates CT sewage pumps protected when pioneer sanitation lights go out project

t the Shimo la Tewa prison in the Kenyan Acity of Mombasa, inmates are pioneering a sanitation project that is working with nature to neutralise human waste. The initiative which involves the devel- opment of a wetland to purify sewage, is expected to cost a fraction of the price of high-tech treatments in addition to many he City of Cape Town has installed spe- sewage treatment plants, as well as coopera- environ­mental, economic and social benefits. Tcial safeguards against load shedding tion with the City’s Electrical Department to The sewage collection and wetland purifica- to reduce the risk of sewage spills resulting plan power cuts in such a way that sewage tion system, as well as labour and construc- from non-functioning sewage pumps. flows can be managed and spillage into the tion costs and including upgrading of sanitary “During 2006, the Koeberg power environment reduced,” noted Mosai. facilities inside the prison amount to some failures affected almost all of the City’s 390 In addition, Cape Town has upgraded US$110 000 or US$25 per person served. sewage pump stations, resulting in over- its telemetry system which links the 26 Apart from wastewater management, the flows. This has been reduced significantly municipal pump stations across the entire project is also to assess using the wetland- by the introduction of telemetry systems and city to the Schaapkraal control centre via its filtered water for irrigation and fish farming, upgrading maintenance schedules,” reported base station at the Steenbras Water Treatment giving prisoners a new source of protein with Director of Water Services Sipho Mosai. Plant. The system alerts the control centre excess to be sold to local markets. According to Mosai, most pump stations as soon as it detects a pumpset failure. This Part of the wastewater will also be used for are equipped with a duty pump and a standby enables the centre to mobilise response the production of biogas. The biogas can pump. When one of the pumps malfunctions, teams quickly. be used as a fuel for cooking, heating and it is removed and sent away for repairs. The “Experience has shown that power cuts lighting, thereby cutting electricity bills and standby pump then takes over. It is when a for two hours or less do not cause overflow saving the prison service. pump is being repaired and there is only one problems. However, longer blackouts can The project is being financed by the pump at the pump station when the risk for cause problems, as retention facilities at the government of Norway and the Global Envi- overflows is high. stations have a limited capacity,” explained ronment Facility with support from a range of “The City has now implemented contin- Mosai. “During sustained power cuts, partners, including Kenya’s Coast Develop- gency plants for future load shedding and the residents are advised to use water sparingly, ment Authority and National Environment wet winter season. These include the instal- and to flush toilets only when necessary to Management Authority supported by the Uni- lation of back-up generators for strategic reduce the City’s volume of wastewater.” versity of Dar es Salaam in Tanzania and the University of Wageningen, the Free University of Amsterdam and the non-governmental New booklet to help girls organisation Aqua-4-All in the Netherlands. Source: UNEP

n celebration of the International Year of the problems of poor menstrual hygiene ISanitation a guidance booklet on menstrual management have been ignored or misunder- ‘First-of-its-kind’ hygiene management has been launched in stood. MoU signed New Delhi, India. Unicef developed the guidance booklet While menstrual hygiene is an important on menstrual hygiene management to serve he US’ Millennium Challenge Corporation sanitation issue it has long been in the closet. as a reference and support girls and women (MCC) and the UK Department for Inter- An aspect that every girl and women deals in providing basic factual information about T national Development (DFID) have signed a with in their lives, the taboos surrounding this menstruation, its hygienic management, and first-of-its-kind Memorandum of Understand- issue in society prevents girls and women to clarify some myths and taboos surround- ing (MoU) to increase coordination between from articulating their needs. Subsequently ing the topic. the two organisations and make their poverty

The Water Wheel May/June 2008 NI T E R N A T O I N A LY E A R O F S A N TI A TO I N 13 2 0 0 8

reduction efforts more effective. Japan donates Political will biggest Focusing initially on Africa, the MoU identifies practical areas for cooperation on the US$4-m for girl- barrier to improving ground in countries in which both the US and friendly schools sanitation UK are engaging in poverty reduction, includ- ing Ghana, Malawi, Mozambique and Tanzania. he government of Japan has announced The agreement builds on existing cooperation a grant of more than US$4-million, via INTERNATIONALto identify new areas where collaboration T YEAR OF UNICEF, to support free primary education between the two organisations can better help and to promote primary healthcare in the partner countries and improve development Democratic Republic of Congo. practice, such as data and statistics shar- This funding, from the government of ing, coordinated approaches to issues such Japan’s Grant Aid scheme for community as environmental protection, infrastructure empowerment, will give some 6 650 pupils projects, transparency in large-scale procure- access to primary education and will ensure ments, rigorous evaluation of aid effectiveness, that Congolese students benefit from child- and future staff exchanges, among others. friendly and girl-friendly schools that possess It is reported that the MoU provides a lack of political will remains the greatest essential school equipment, school supplies, solid framework for in-country cooperation obstacle to efforts to drastically reduce the safe water and latrines. A to take place between MCC and DFID in a number of people without access to basic sani- SANITATION The grant will also fund the opening of number of sectors, including education, water tation and clean, running water, according to seven new community daycare centres that and sanitation, and governance. United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. are expected to service some 500 children Speaking on World Water Day, celebrated aged between three and five, along with eight on 22 March, he called on the international health centres to provide care to Congolese Collaborative community to take firmer and faster steps to women and children. efforts needed to tackle the problem. “If we take up the chal- tackle sanitation lenge, the positive impact will reverberate far Limpopo communi- beyond better access to clean water. Every challenge ties to get improved dollar invested in water and sanitation yields an estimated seven dollars worth of productive here is an urgent need to address the sanitation activity. And that comes on top of the immeas- Tissue of sanitation in a sustainable manner urable gains in cutting poverty, improving involving all stakeholders, especially local he Mopani District Municipality in health and raising living standards.” governments, communities and investors, TLimpopo is to spend R103-million on The Secretary-General described it as maintains UNESCO Director-General Koïchiro upgrading water and sanitation services this unconscionable that a child dies on average Matsuura. year, with projects already underway in all every 20 seconds because of sub-standard “Significant advances have been made five local municipalities in the district. sanitation conditions – a situation endured by in the development of low-cost technologies “We are committed to providing all com- an estimated 2,6 billion people worldwide, for sanitation, overcoming the technology munities in the district with clean water and or more than a third of the global popula- barrier which was regarded, in the past, as decent sanitation by 2010,” said municipal tion, that are preventable. “Poor sanitation a main cause of slow progress in ensuring spokesperson Tumelo Malaka. He reported combines with a lack of safe drinking water sanitation for all. Mainstreaming sanitation at that the projects are being implemented with and inadequate hygiene to contribute to the the national level and prioritising sanitation assistance from the Development Bank of terrible global death toll. Those who survive in national policies and strategies is a start- Southern Africa, DWAF and the Department face diminished chances of living a healthy ing point to accelerate progress,” he said. of Provincial and Local Government. and productive existence. Children, espe- “Strengthened international partnerships will The projects include the construction of a cially girls, are forced to stay out of school, help leverage investment and provide new new sewerage system in Modjadjiskloof and the while hygiene-related diseases keep adults technological options.” installation of bulk water pipelines in Mamaila from engaging in productive work.” Matsuura reaffirmed UNESCO’s com- village in the Greater Letaba Municipality. Ban said that achieving the Millennium mitment to promote science and knowledge Between 2000 and 2007, the district has Development Goal of halving the proportion of to tackle water-related sanitation problems. spent R371-million on water infrastructure, people without access to basic sanitation by Among others, the organisation supports resulting in more than 60% of the estimated 2015 was far from being achieved. Population research and capacity building in the fields million residents having access to a potable growth, widespread poverty and insufficient related to sanitation through postgradu- water supply. “We will continue to prioritise investment are among the key obstacles, but ate research and training programmes at water provision,” said Mokgobi. the Secretary-General noted that the “biggest UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education.2008Source: BuaNews culprit” is the lack of political will.

The Water Wheel May/June 2008 14 Water resources planning Start Saving or Start Paying, River Studies Warn Lani van Vuuren Lani van

Extensive urbanisation, economic development and he Vaal River System is focused around three water management industrial­isation coupled with water wastage and illegal Tareas (WMAs), namely the Upper water use are placing increased pressure on the Vaal River Vaal, Middle Vaal and Lower Vaal. It also System, recent studies have revealed. Unless users start saving includes various water resource systems that are linked to the Vaal River WMAs water immediately a new bulk water transfer scheme would through inter-basin transfers, such as the have to be implemented as a matter of urgency. Thukela-Vaal Water Transfer Scheme and Lani van Vuuren reports. the Lesotho Highlands Water Project.

The Water Wheel May/June 2008 Water resources planning 15

Running through the economic heart- conservation and water demand was 1 060 million m3/a. Up to land of the country, this system has long management (WC/WDM) potential 240 million m3/a of irrigation water use Start Saving or Start Paying, been known as the ‘workhorse’ of South assessment; and the development of an in the Upper Vaal WMA is estimated to Africa’s water resources, serving major Integrated Water Quality Management be unlawful. economic activities, such as mining and Plan (IWQMP). River Studies Warn power generation, agriculture as well It is believed that some farms located as a population of around 12 million Several consulting firms are involved in along the Ash-Liebenbergsvlei, which people. Due to extensive development this integrated and complex process, receives the water flowing from the in the Vaal River System as well as the including WRP, SRK, Golder Associates, Lesotho Highlands Water Project, could be Crocodile (West) WMA, which is supplied DMM Development Consultants, PDNA taking much more than their registered with water from the Upper Vaal, the local and Diversity and Transformation Solu- share of run-of-river water. “This has been surface water resources in all three of tions. Zitholele Consulting is driving the a shocking discovery, and probably the the Vaal WMAs have been fully exploited stakeholder consultation process. main reason why the Vaal River System more than three decades ago. is currently in deficit,” reports Rademeyer. Negative water balance “This is water that has already been paid In 2004, the Department of Water Affairs for by urban users in the WMA that is not & Forestry (DWAF) initiated the develop­ One of the most important revelations reaching them.” ment of a strategy for the Vaal River of the studies has been the high level System that will define management of unlawful water use taking place in The negative water balance has largely measures to meet the growing water the Vaal River System, mainly for irriga- been obscured by the good rainy season requirements of the industrial and urban tion. The studies show that irrigation South Africa is experiencing at present. sectors served by the system. DWAF water use in the Vaal River System has However, this could all change if the coun- project leader Seef Rademeyer explains increased by more than 100% between try were to enter a drought year. “Therefore, that the series of studies includes the 1998 and 2005 for the area upstream of curbing this unlawful water use is non- development of a large bulk water the Vaal Dam alone. Estimated irrigation negotiable if we want to avert a potential supply reconciliation strategy; a water water use for 2005 in the three WMAs water crisis in the system,” notes Rademeyer.

The Vaal River management areas.

The Water Wheel May/June 2008 16 Water resources planning

Vaal River System already in deficit a decision will have to be taken imme- diately unless other solutions can be found.

In looking for these solutions the WC/ WDM component of the studies focused on the potential of water savings in the main urban areas of Johannesburg, Tshwane, Ekurhuleni, Emfuleni, Rusten- burg, Mogale City, Matjabeng, Govan Mbeki and Randfontein.

Some of the municipalities are already implementing successful WC/WDM measures, In general, however, there is a lack of accurate and reliable water bal- ance information which influences the effective implementation and measure- Drinie van Rensburg Drinie van ment of the various WC/WDM interven- Water leaks have been found to be a serious challenge in several municipalities in the tions. In fact, says Rademeyer, getting Vaal River System. reliable, usable information from the Additional water the most preferred option. Both projects local municipalities in general, especially transfer schemes are at advanced stages of assessment in lieu of the shortage of technical skills and either could support growing water present, has been one of the challenges of the project. The demand for water in the Vaal River requirements in the Vaal River System System, especially in the Upper Vaal WMA area, reports Rademeyer. The lack of technical expertise further is set to grow in the immediate future as contributes to inadequate preventa- the area experiences further economic Curbing water wastage tive maintenance while insufficient development and population growth. political support to promote con- The urban sector represents the largest The problem is that both these sumer billing and cost recovery needs portion of the system’s water use. In augmentation options will take more are also evident. Irresponsible water Gauteng, especially, substantial increases than ten years to implement. With the in water use have occurred historically as a result of the increasing urban popula- tion and expanding economic activities.

Additional water transfer options are already being investigated. Two schemes are currently being consid- ered, namely a further phase of the Lesotho Highlands Water Project or further water resource development in the Thukela River System. The two pro- posed dams for further development of the Thukela are one on the Bushman’s River (Mielietuin Dam) and the other on the main stem of the Thukela River (Jana Dam). This could provide a nomi- nal transferable yield of 15 m3/s.

In turn South Africa and Lesotho issued a joint feasibility study into the Lesotho WRP Highlands Further Phases in 2005. The The Sebokeng Pressure Management project is one of the successful water demand proposed Polihali Dam has been sited as management projects implemented in the Vaal River System.

The Water Wheel May/June 2008 Water resources planning 17

use practices have been found in all of the municipal areas, such as garden Characteristics of Vaal River watering during very hot periods and Water Management Areas (WMAs) not tending to leaking taps and toilets. High levels of leakages and wastages occur in some municipalities which have to be managed more effectively.

The coordination of WC/WDM efforts by government departments has been found to be essential. For instance, DWAF’s advocacy programme about the disadvantages of hosepipe irrigation must be coordinated with the Department of Agriculture’s efforts where hosepipes are provided to consumers as motivation to develop vegetable gardens.

If no WC/WDM measures are imple- mented, it is projected that Rand Water’s supply, the bulk water supplier to most of Tourism SA the urban centres studied, will increase Upper Vaal WMA from the present 1 300 million m3/a to almost 1 800 million m3/a in 2030. “The Land use in the Upper Vaal is characterised by the sprawling urban and industrial areas good news is that the impact of even in the northern and western parts of the WMA. This WMA is considered economically small savings through water conservation important, contributing nearly 20% of the GDP of South Africa. There is also extensive and water demand management could coal and gold mining activities in this part of the system. These activities are generat- result in a substantial postponement of ing substantial return flow volumes in the form of treated effluent from the urban the date an additional bulk water transfer areas and mine dewatering that are discharged into the river system. These discharges scheme would be required,” says Rade- are having significant impacts on the water quality in the main stem of the Vaal River meyer. “A mere 15% water saving would be throughout all three the WMAs. The potential for future economic growth in this sufficient to delay the decision to proceed WMA remains strong. Growth will largely be attracted to the already strong urban and with an infrastructural option to 2012.” industrial areas in the Johannesburg-Vereeniging-Vanderbijlpark complex.

Growing industrial Middle Vaal WMA demand The Middle Vaal WMA is rural in nature, with land use characterised by extensive dry Given the present growth projections for land agriculture. Irrigation is practiced downstream of dams along the main tributar- the Vaal River System, even with ies as well as at locations along the Vaal River. The largest urban areas are Klerksdorp, WC/WDM additional bulk water Welkom and Kroonstad. The economy of the Middle Vaal WMA contributes about 4% resources would eventually be required. of GDP of South Africa, with the most dominant economic activity being the mining The Vaal River System supports three sector, generating more than 45% of the GDP in the area. Few of the gold mines in of the most important industries in the the area have a secure future beyond 2010, although the reserve base could support country, namely electric power gen- mining up to the year 2030. As in the Upper Vaal WMA, mine dewatering and the erator Eskom, petrochemical company subsequent discharge into the river system impacts on the water quality. Sasol and Mittal Steel. All of these indus- tries are large water consumers. Lower Vaal WMA

At present, Eskom operates 12 coal-fired The land use in the Lower Vaal WMA is primarily livestock farming, with some dry power stations which receive a substan- land cultivation in the northeast. Intensive irrigation is practiced at Vaalharts as well tial volume of water from the Vaal River as locations along the Vaal River. Diamond-bearing intrusions near Kimberley (the System. Some of these stations were most important urban area) and alluvial diamonds are found near Bloemhof. Iron decommissioned decades ago, but are ore and other minerals are found in the south-eastern parts of the WMA. now being reinstated to increase sup- ply in response to the growing demand Source: DWAF

The Water Wheel May/June 2008 18 Water resources planning

Only Mittal Steel, which also receives its water from Vaal Dam, has not indicated an increase in water use in its projections. In fact, the company plans to decrease its present water use from 17 million m3/a to 16 million m3/a by 2010, from where onwards it is expected to remain constant.

Water quality

The water quality study was aimed at developing management measures to maintain and even improve the water quality in the Vaal River System for the planning period up to 2025. The study’s water quality status assessment con- firmed the major issues of salinity and

Lani van Vuuren van Lani eutrophication in the Vaal River System. The Sterkfontein Dam, part of the Thukela Water Transfer Scheme. Dissolved salts from urban effluents, mines and industries in the catchment continue to increase the salt concentration of the Vaal River. The specific catchments con- tributing to the deteriorating water quality of the system include Waterval, Suiker- bosrand, Rietspruit, Klip River, Mooi River, Koekemoerspruit, Schoonspruit, Vierfon- tein and the Harts River catchment.

The upper part of the catchment’s water is of fairly good quality. The areas of con- cern, however, include the Vaal Barrage, Middle Vaal River, and Lower Vaal River downstream of the Harts River confluence, where total dissolved salt (TDS) levels are high. Of further worry is the impact of high TDS concentrations on downstream water users below the Vaal Barrage and Lani van Vuuren van Lani those abstracting water from the barrage. The Vaal Dam is one of the main water infrastructure features on the Vaal River. In addition, a high risk of eutrophic con- for electricity to fuel the South African through the Vaal River Eastern Sub- ditions in the Vaal River reach from the economy. system Augmentation Project (VRESAP) Vaal Barrage to Bloemhof Dam has been once it becomes operational later this found. This is mostly due to sewage spills In addition, there are plans to develop year. This project involves the construc- and sewage effluent discharges into the three new power stations, envisaged tion of a 120 km, 1,9 m-diameter pipeline Vaal River and its tributaries. Initial indica- to receive water from the Vaal River from the Vaal Dam to the Knoppiesfon- tions are the situation could be improved System. This means water requirements tein diversion structure and from there by releases from the Vaal Dam. However, from Eskom is due to increase from into the Bosjesspruit and Trichardsfontein present assessments point to the need for about 313 million m3/a in 2006 to dams near Secunda, Mpumalanga. the removal of nutrients from the system 397 million m3/a in 2030. through improved final effluent quality. In turn, the petroleum giant’s Sasol- Sasol has two plants receiving water from burg complex is supplied from the Vaal In the end it is up to all the water users the Vaal River System. The Sasol Secunda Dam. Sasol’s total water requirement is of the Vaal River System to ensure they Complex’s main source of water is Groot- expected to increase from 118 million can continue to benefit from South draai Dam, which will be supported m3/a to 166 million m3/a by 2030. Africa’s hardest working river.

The Water Wheel May/June 2008 SA’s water history 19 Taming the poort SA Tourism SA

Hartbeespoort Dam, situated on the border between North West and Gauteng, is one of the oldest and most interesting dams constructed in South Africa. Lani van Vuuren reports.

t was Boer General Hendrik J One man’s dream The outbreak of the Anglo-Boer War in Schoeman who first saw the poten- October 1899 put a hold on the imple- Itial for a dam on the Crocodile River, At the opening ceremony of the dam mentation of the project, however. 30 km west of Pretoria, in the 1890s. In on 28 May 1898, Genl Schoeman made 1898, he completed the construction of a pledge to President Paul Kruger to When the war ended in 1902, the a dam on his farm Hartbeespoort, and build a dam using government funds. total reconstruction of South Africa named it Sophia Dam, after his wife. The purpose of such a project would be got underway. It was in this same year to irrigate a few plots of land on which that the viability of the site for the con- The dam was of concrete, and was poor whites could be settled. struction of the dam was investigated. about nine metres high. This dam did Interestingly, original investigations into not impound any water, but was used On 1 April 1899, Genl Schoeman wrote the potential of constructing the Hart- for the leading out of water and the irri- a letter in which he stated that he was beespoort Dam were conducted with gation of adjacent land. Unfortunately, willing to sell a portion of his farm for the view to providing urban water to the dam was washed away in a flood on the above-mentioned project. President Pretoria and Johannesburg, and not for 9 January 1909. Kruger reportedly welcomed this idea. irrigation for settlement purposes.

The Water Wheel May/June 2008 20 SA’s water history

Work on the river diversion was started in March 1921 and completed in May of that year. The first foundation concrete was placed on 29 July, and by Septem- ber 1922 the wall was two metres above the riverbed. By April 1923 the wall was completed, and only the finishing of the parapets and crest road remained. During the construction phase the dam impounded the floods of 1922/23. The whole scheme, including the canals, was completed in 1925.

The dam was filled on 11 March 1925, The Hartbeespoort Dam’s most and a maximum flood of 2 700 cusecs distinguishable feature is the passed down the spillway on 26 March miniature Arc de Triomphe on the of that year. After completion, 97 farmers western side of the dam wall. and 65 lessees made use of the water

Lani van Vuuren van Lani from the Hartbeespoort Dam.

Politics intervene costs of the project due to the difficult The west end of the dam wall sports terrain through which the canals were an unusual feature, an arch built as a The then Transvaal Irrigation Depart- constructed. Some of the rock forma- replica of the Arc de Triomphe. There ment investigated the site, and pro- tions on which the dam wall itself was are two inscriptions on the arch. The posed a 43 m-high gravity dam. The constructed had to be excavated deeper inscription on the eastern side reads establishment of the Union of South than was thought previously. Dedi in deserto aquas, flumina in invio Africa in 1910 postponed any further which means ‘I give waters in the wil- work on the scheme, until 1914. The There were also some gaps in the legisla- derness and rivers in the desert (Isaiah Hartbeespoort Bill Act was rather sud- tion, which led to litigation regarding the 43:20). The inscription on the western denly passed in 1914, allowing work on expropriation of land. Lastly, the war led side reads Sine aqua arida ac misera the project to continue. The estimated to a decrease in State funds for the con- agri cultura which means ‘Without cost at the time was £605 000. struction of the scheme as funding for water it is arid and miserable in a number of government departments agri­culture’. A possible reason for the sudden was slashed to pay for the war effort. flare-up of interest in the Hartbeespoort White and black labour Dam is the political occurrences of 1913 As a result, work on the dam only started and 1914, including the miners’ strike in 1916. Two years later progress was One of the main aims of the Hartbee- and uprisings on the Witwatersrand. It hampered when floods destroyed much spoort Irrigation Scheme was to provide is said that the government could have of the work. In 1918, government passed employment to soldiers demobilised passed the project to appease the white the Hartbeespoort Irrigation Scheme after World War One as well as poor electorate. (Acquisition of Land Act) which author- whites. However, it is reported that the ised the expropriation of land required for attitude of these groups towards hard On 16 June 1914, the House of Assembly the construction of the dam. Pressure to labour resulted in a request for permis- voted for the scheme. Start of construc- complete the project mounted and, as a sion to use blacks, which was granted tion of the dam and irrigation canals was result, special provision was made in the in 1919. planned for the end of 1915. However, 1921/22 budget for the scheme. At that South Africa’s involvement in World War stage, the dam was one of the largest At the peak of construction, some 1 835 One meant that the project was side- schemes implemented in the Transvaal. men were employed at the dam, and lined once again. 3 500 on the scheme as a whole. The The dam design was adapted from a more experienced workers were used at The implementation of the scheme gravity structure to a varying radius arch the dam itself, while others were used did not go as planned. A number of structure 59 m high. This allowed for on the canals. The workers were accom- obstacles were in the way of imple- much less cement to be used. In addi- modated on-site in houses, semi- mentation. Firstly, the Department of tion, the foundation could be completed detached houses and housing blocks Irrigation was not prepared for the rising in one dry season. with four living quarters. The site also

The Water Wheel May/June 2008 SA’s water history 21

had an office block, store, blacksmith, and a small hydropower station.

In 1928, the Brits magisterial district was proclaimed. This was as a direct conse- quence of the increased activity in the Hartbeespoort area, and rapid develop- ment that took place under the scheme.

Raising the dam wall

In 1964, the Department of Water Affairs proposed that the dam be raised to increase its capacity and to make a larger volume of water available for Civil Engineering Magazine Engineering Civil irrigation purposes. The raising of the Hartbeespoort Dam during construction of the wall. dam was done by means of ten 2,74 m radial crest sluices on the spillway raising the full supply level by 2,4 m. The dam has a crest length of 140 m and a capac- ity of more than 200 million m3. Today, the dam still irrigates almost 14 000 ha of land.

The dam has unfortunately become famous not for its aesthetics or water storage ability. Rather it is cited as one of the worst examples of eutrophication, resulting from high levels of phosphates Civil Engineering Magazine Engineering Civil and nitrates washing into the dam. Cable way at Hartbeespoort Dam during the construction of the foundations, 1922.

This had had a negative affect on the water quality, the fish life, use of the dam and the environment. Last year, the Department of Water Affairs & Forestry initiated a remediation programme called Harties Metsi a Me (meaning ‘Harties, my water’, which is working towards improving the situation at the dam. Rand Water is the implementing agent for the programme. National LibraryNational of SA Completed Hartbeespoort Dam.

Sources: Hydropolitical History of South Africa’s International River Basins (WRC Report No: 1220/1/04)

Civil Engineering Magazine Engineering Civil Fifty Years of Consulting Engineering in South Africa published by SAACE Completed Hartbeespoort Dam as seen ‘The Construction of Hartbeespoort Dam’, Civil Engineering, June 2004, Vol 12 No 6 from the air. www.dwaf.gov.za

The Water Wheel May/June 2008 22 Water conservation

Water & energy join hands to avert future crisis Lani van Vuuren van Lani Minister of Water Affairs & Forestry Lindiwe Hendricks and Eskom CE Jacob Maroga at the signing of the Memorandum of Understanding between the two parties at Kwa-Thema.

Lessons learnt from the present electricity crisis should be applied to ensure similar deficiencies are not experienced in the water sector, said Minister of Water Affairs & Forestry Lindiwe Hendricks. She was speaking at the signing of a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) between the Department of Water Affairs & Forestry (DWAF) and Eskom at Kwa-Thema, in Gauteng, in March. Lani van Vuuren attended the event.

he MoU is aimed at facilitating current electricity crisis. That experi- we need to start constructing the next broader cooperation on issues ence teaches us in the water sector water scheme.” Trelating to efficient water use of the need to ensure that our water at Eskom’s power generation plants. conservation and water demand man- According to the minister municipalities “While the country is not experienc- agement programmes are high up on play a key role in initiating and driving ing a water crisis at present, there is the agenda and are comprehensively local water conservation programmes no denying that South Africa is water implemented,” the minister continued. and, along with provincial governments, scarce, and we cannot afford to rest on “Dams are extremely expensive to build needed to work towards creating a more our laurels and think that because we and by implementing water conserva- water efficient South Africa. “Measures to have good infrastructure and recently tion measures not only do we contrib- be implemented include public educa- had good rainfall that there is a guar- ute to environmental sustainability, but tion campaigns, water pricing (tiered antee of long-term water security. We also help to delay the date by when water or block tariffs to penalise exces- cannot afford to waste water, we can- sive use), and subsidies,” Hendricks said. not allow people to take more than their allocation, and we cannot allow “Both DWAF and Eskom The latest MoU signed by DWAF and people to use water unlawfully,” recognise that there is still Eskom seeks to establish a strategic Hendricks said. partnership between the two parties in significant room for improve- best water management practices and “Our colleagues at Eskom will only be ment in water efficiencies, water performance improvement within too aware that the timely implementa- power generation in South Africa. This tion of effective and comprehensive which will be further explored will create a platform for sharing infor- energy demand management would within the scope of this MOU.” mation and guiding regulatory initiatives have dramatically lessened the and exploring synergistic opportunities

The Water Wheel May/June 2008 Water conservation 23

This has implications for water conserva- “Eskom is also committed to ensure tion. (In fact, for every kilowatt hour of that its water usage adheres to laws Lani van Vuuren van Lani electricity that is saved, about 1,32 ℓ of and regulations governing water water is also saved on average.) “Eskom allocations and quality objectives,” has pioneered dry-cooling technology noted Maroga. “As far as our new build as its main cooling method to reduce its projects are concerned, we have been water consumption, and this technology working closely with DWAF to ensure has been adapted for the company’s new that our water requirements are met. power stations inland.” A conventional We are therefore confident that water wet-cooled power station consumes will be delivered to meet the com- about 50 Mℓ/year of water as opposed to missioning dates of the various power a dry-cooled power station which con- station units.” Chair of the Portfolio Committee on sumes about 3 Mℓ/year of water. Water & Forestry, Connie September, Chair of the Portfolio Committee on said water and energy were “twins” and Examples of dry-cooled power stations Water and Forestry, Connie September, “one cannot conserve the one without include Matimba near Lephalale, in who also attended the MOU signing, conserving the other.” Limpopo, and Kendal, near Witbank, in expressed her delight at the signing Mpumalanga. Medupi power station, of the MOU. “Water and electricity are between Eskom’s energy efficiency and under construction near Lephalale at twins. The Portfolio Committee hopes demand side management programme present, will also be dry-cooled. In addi- that this agreement will bring long- and DWAF’s water conservation and tion, the power generation firm is work- term solutions and that the minister water demand management pro- ing towards making its de-mothballed will be able to report positive actions gramme, among others. power stations Komati, Grootvlei and to us soon.” Camden more water efficient. “Both DWAF and Eskom recognise that there is still significant room for improve- ment in water efficiencies, which will Water in power plants: be further explored within the scope wet cooling vs. dry cooling of this MoU,” Hendricks explained. “We are looking forward to working with conventional wet-cooled power station uses a re-circulating system in which Eskom to develop innovative solutions cooling takes place via evaporation in an open cooling tower. About 75% of the and improve current levels of water use A total quantity of water supplied to such a power station evaporates through these efficiency in their power plants.” open cooling towers. In contrast, dry cooling technology does not rely on open evaporative cooling for the functioning of the main systems. As a result, overall Water is critical to the power genera- power station use is about 15 times lower than a conventional wet-cooled power tion process. Eskom is one of the coun- station. try’s largest consumers of fresh water, Source: www.eskom.co.za accounting for some 2% of South Africa’s total water consumption annually. The company’s power generation plants use about 325 Mℓ/year of water. Matimba power station near Lephalale, in Limpopo, is the largest direct dry- “It is therefore critical for Eskom and cooled station in the world, with a DWAF to enter into a strategic partnership capacity in excess of 4 000 MW. to encourage the sustainable use and availability of water and energy sources into the future,” noted Eskom CE Jacob Maroga. “Eskom acknowledges the scar- city of water in South Africa, and actively supports the initiatives of the department in areas of water conservation, water demand management and water quality.”

He reported that the company was active in the field of electricity conservation.

The Water Wheel May/June 2008 24 Irrigation planning

Improved irrigation planning a mouse click away Lani van Vuuren van Lani

The latest version of the celebrated SAPWAT program to be launched later this year promises to be a powerful and user-friendly irrigation water planning tool, writes developer Pieter van Heerden.

ith some 60% of South Africa’s History of SAPWAT water use being in the agricul- “SAPWAT 3 weather Wtural sector it is important that In 1992, the Food and Agriculture water supply planners, irrigation scheme Organisation (FAO) of the United Nations database is 50-year managers, system designers and irriga- published CROPWAT, a computer tion farmers have access to reliable program to help agro-meteorologists, daily weather data methods for estimating the irrigation agronomists and irrigation engineers requirements of crops. In the early years, to carry out standard calculations for for more than 2 000 guidance was provided by the so-called evapotranspiration and crop water use quaternary drainage ‘Green Book’ titled Estimated Irrigation studies and, more specifically, the design Requirements of Crops in South Africa, and management of irrigation schemes. regions for South published in 1985. This publication The program proved very simple to use, became the accepted methodology for even by first-time computer users with Africa.” determining irrigation quotas. little or no training.

The Water Wheel May/June 2008 Irrigation planning 25

CROPWAT became the internationally irrigation methods. In addition, the effect SAPWAT 3 integrates an upgraded accepted irrigation planning methodol- of soil water management options, such version of PLANWAT with the latest ogy and still maintains that position. as deficit irrigation, can be evaluated. SAPWAT crop irrigation requirement However, it never came into general use engine. One of the shortcomings of in South Africa. A report on the expert It extended the applications provided CROPWAT and SAPWAT was that cal- consultation on procedures for revi- by CROPWAT and facilitates so-called culations were based on long-term sion of FAO guidelines for prediction of ‘designing for management’. It creates average climatic data. Included in the crop water requirements indicated that a ‘computer game’ atmosphere that SAPWAT 3 weather database is 50-year there was a need to develop crop fac- promotes consultation and interaction daily weather data for more than 2 000 tors based on calculating evaporation between farmers and advisors. quaternary drainage regions for South and transpiration separately to cater for Africa as produced by the University of non-standard crop growth situations KwaZulu-Natal. The user can estimate and irrigation practices. This was particu- “A crop budgeting year-on-year irrigation requirements for larly important in South Africa and other any sub-period of the 50-year data set countries where emerging farmers with routine was added to and can compare different periods with limited resources required specialised assess the influence of each other to investigate the effect of support. wet and dry years. various cropping The Water Research Commission systems on irrigation All data tables, except the climate financed a project by MBB Consulting table, are open for adding or editing Engineers to develop a procedure to water requirements and data by the user so that data can be succeed the Green Book. In consulta- on gross income, expenses adapted to local situations. The climate tion with Martin Smith of the FAO it was data is based on the internationally decided to start with CROPWAT and to and gross margin.” accepted Köppen climate system and concentrate on separating evaporating SAPWAT 3 uses weather station data to and transpiration as well as on upgrad- place a weather station and its associ- ing procedures to cater for ‘modern’ Updating the program ated region in a climate zone. In addi- irrigation methods such as micro, drop, tion, crop data is adapted for different centre, pivot and short furrow irrigation Pieter van Heerden, the developer climate zones. while maintaining CROPWAT’s simplicity of SAPWAT 3, became frustrated and user-friendliness. when applying SAPWAT to a wide The new program also provides for: range of conditions because export-  Storage of data on different hierar ­ Naturally this had to be in context of ing results was a chore, and in many chical levels to simplify irrigation South African crops, soils and practices cases involved utilising external water planning, use and analysis of utilising extended databases and rel- spreadsheets. To solve this problem he use on different levels; evant research data. SAPWAT – a com- developed, under the auspices of the  Comparison of the effect of different puter program for establishing irrigation International Water Management Insti- irrigation strategies on evaporation requirements and scheduling strategies tute, the PLANWAT program in dBase loss; in South Africa was finally released in that made it possible to manipulate  Comparison of the effect of differ- 1999, and by and large achieved the and process SAPWAT-generated out- ent irrigation strategies on irrigation envisaged objectives. The program has put applicable all the way from a single water requirement; gained general acceptance in South vegetable bed to a 10 000 ha water  Comparison of year-on-year varia- Africa. user association. tion in irrigation requirement due to year-on-year variation in climate; SAPWAT is not a crop growth model. He also added the methodology required  The influence of irrigation systems It is a planning and management tool to estimate the volume of runoff that and their efficiencies on irrigation relying heavily on an extensive South could be harvested from a household plot water requirements; African climate and crop database. It is in the rural areas during the rainy season  The influence of soils and their general in applicability in that the same as well as the storage volume of water characteristics on irrigation water procedure is used for vegetable and field required to see the garden through the requirements; and crops, annual and perennial crops and dry season. In addition, a crop budgeting  The effect of various cropping pasture and tree crops. routine was added to assess the influence systems on irrigation water require- of various cropping systems on irrigation ment and on gross income, It is possible to simulate wide-bed water requirements and on gross income, expenses and gross margin. planting, inter-cropping and different expenses and gross margin.

The Water Wheel May/June 2008 26 EDCs

The ABC of EDCs: Building an armoury of The production and uncontrolled disposal of high volumes of industrial chemicals, metals and pesticides is knowledge placing the country’s communities and the environment at risk. Lani van Vuuren van Lani In part two of the series on endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) Lani van Vuuren looks at the South African EDC Research Programme and the need for building an armoury of knowledge to contain and manage these potentially harmful substances.

DCs can enter the water environ- rence, magnitude and affect of EDCs in Around this time the WRC became ment by direct discharge into water systems and to determine to what involved in the Organisation for Eco- Ewater, the use of pharmaceuticals extent the population and the environ- nomic Cooperation and Development and chemicals in household and in agri- ment are at risk by being exposed to (OECD). At that time most developed culture and industry, accidental spills and these chemicals. countries were starting to initiate exten- releases of compounds and indirectly sive EDC research and monitoring pro- through diffuse sources, such as storm- Prior to the start of the programme few grammes, and passing laws to mandate water runoff. In turn, natural hormones, of the exposure routes of potential EDCs, environmental protection agencies to including estrogens, can be released into and hardly any of the suspected health start evaluating and developing screen- the environment via sewage effluent and effects had been investigated. Also, the ing programmes for these chemicals. from sources such as animal feedlots. capacity to study these chemicals was virtually non-existent. The first Global Water Research Coalition Concerns over the potentially harmful (GWRC) workshop on EDCs was hosted effects of EDCs on humans and wild- The first WRC-funded study on EDCs was by the WRC in 2002. Workshop par- life have been rising worldwide over published in 2000 and was an evalua- ticipants included representatives from the last two decades. In an attempt to tion of these substances found in South research organisations in the US, Aus- answer some of these concerns the Africa. The next two projects, undertaken tralia, France, Germany, The Netherlands, South African EDC Research Programme by Prof JH van Wyk from the Department and the UK. The resultant workshop was initiated under the leadership of of Zoology at the University of Stellen­ report, State of the Science Report on the Water Research Commission (WRC) bosch, were on the development of Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals in Water in 1999. The main objective of this bioassays using egg-lying species such Systems, included knowledge gaps and programme is to investigate the occur- as freshwater fish, frogs and turtles. research needs for the GWRC, a priority

The Water Wheel May/June 2008 EDCs 27

list of EDCs, occurrence of EDCs in water a sample contains compounds that can test sites in Gauteng, KwaZulu-Natal, systems and an overview of sources and bind with a hormone receptor. In turn, in and North West. The sites were selected biological testing methods for EDCs. vivo tests expose a population of animals, based on the suspicion of the presence such as fish, to water so that technicians of EDCs. EDC activity was detected at all “The study of EDCs requires a multidisci- can observe the biological response. the sites and the presence of EDCs was plinary approach,” explains WRC Research confirmed by chemical analysis. Manager Annatjie Moolman. “As a result, After compiling a list of priority com- a strategy research plan has been devel- pounds in collaboration with stakeholders Pilot study oped. The early years of the programme such as the Department of Water Affairs & focused much on capacity building, both Forestry and the GWRC, specific methods The initial study was followed up by of selected laboratories to undertake the for activity testing and chemical analyses a pilot study conducted in an urban research as well as honing the skills of a were evaluated. Methods for activity nature reserve in Gauteng. This study, network of researchers and scientists in testing were validated and verified and led by Prof Riana Bornman of UP’s the field. The latter has been done under selected on grounds of sensitivity, selec- Department of Urology, represented the guidance and leadership of EDC Pro- tivity, repeatability and robustness. “These a first attempt at using local endemic gramme Manager Ansie Burger.” tests were mainly biochemical and not vertebrate species in and around a study easy to conduct and would only repre- site as bio-indicators in investigations Building capacity sent one receptor mode of action, for into environmental estrogenic activ- example, estrogenic activity. This means ity. At that stage, this was one of the Assistance was provided to the following that assay would not given any indica- most comprehensive EDC studies to be universities and research organisations: tion of the effect on the thyroid, immune undertaken in the world. Both bio-assays University of Pretoria (UP), University of or nervous systems, for example,” notes and chemical residue analyses were Stellenbosch, University of Fort Hare, Moolman. used to determine whether sufficiently University of Venda, Medunsa, Tshwane high levels of EDCs exist in the general University of Technology, the Agriculture The WRC took the initiative to use and environment to exert adverse health Research Council, CSIR, South African evaluate different methods during a affects on aquatic and/or animals and Bureau of Standards and Ampath, a limited surveillance survey involving four humans. pathology laboratory.

Various research institutions were encouraged to build human resource capacity by training students of espe- cially previously disadvantaged back- grounds. “The aim was to create centres of excellence where EDC research was The findings of a already being undertaken,” says study into the effect Moolman. of endocrine dis- rupting chemicals Scientists generally use two types of (EDCs) on eland in tests to evaluate whether water con- an urban nature tain EDCs. First, researchers can directly reserve were the measure the concentrations of individual first indication of compounds in a sample using analyti- mammalian wild- cal methods (the results of these tests, life being affected however, will not directly show whether by environmental exposure to that material will disrupt the pollution of EDCs in endocrine system). South Africa. Second, scientists test a sample to deter- mine whether exposure to that sample could affect a subject’s endocrine system. Laboratory technicians perform this type of test, called a bio-assay, either in vitro or in vivo. In vitro test methods use cell cul- tures to determine, for example, whether SA Tourism SA

The Water Wheel May/June 2008 28 EDCs

The small reserve receives effluent from it makes more sense to integrate occur- to enable us to prove beyond a doubt sewage treatment plants, industries and rence, fate and transport, the analytical the potential risk and effects of exposure informal settlements in the catchment methods (including chemical target to EDCs,” notes Moolman. area, making it an ideal site to study the analyses and bio-assays), and health presence of EDCs and the possible effects effects (environmental and human) in More research is also required to uncover on the environment and species living water-related projects. They maintained the different exposure routes to EDCs. there. Previous and ongoing studies in that this approach would give a better Moolman reports that South African this area also provided valuable back- understanding of the impact of different researchers are also involved in projects ground information on the study site. chemical groups and would stimulate funded by the National Research Foun- information development for communi- dation and the Medical Research Council Water and sediment samples were col- cation, but also the development of new looking beyond water sources to other lected from the two dams in the reserve, technologies for water treatment. potential exposure routes, such as food. a channel and wetland every two months over a period of two years. Analytical The WRC has further funded a pilot inves- In lieu of this uncertainty, policy-makers chemistry and bio-assays were then tigation to assess the present of estrogenic are advised to take a precautionary performed to test for estrogenisity. Roots activity during the various processing steps approach when dealing with the issue from aquatic plants in the area were also of drinking water treatment. The study, of potential EDCs. Scientific research examined. Sharptooth catfish, African which was recently published, investigated into the potential affects of EDCs will clawed frogs, freshwater snails, eland and three drinking water plants in Gauteng. continue for many years into the future, striped mice were evaluated as possible Source water and water from selected notes Moolman. “Meanwhile the growing biomarker species for EDC exposure. treatment processes were tested. A battery body of evidence suggests that there are of in vivo and in vitro biological and bio- chemicals present in the environment The study concluded that wildlife in the chemical techniques were applied, while that are potentially harmful to not only area is already affected. Wildlife exposure chemical analyses were used to established present generations of humans and wild- seems to manifest in feminisation of fish EDC residues in water. life, but also perhaps future generations. and amphibian species, and on condi- We need stricter legislative control over tions such as intersex (forming of eggs in The bio-assays showed estrogenic activ- these substances and we need to start the testes). Other findings include high ity in source and treated drinking water, looking for safer alternatives to avert risks chemical residue levels in water, sedi- while chemical analysis also indicated of serious or irreversible harm to humans ment and tissue of the animals studied, the occasional presence of EDCs in water and the environment.” skewed sex ratios, reduced biodiversity, samples. Water treatment processes and gonadal malformations of fish, removed some of the EDCs, with final Further reading snails, mice and eland, among others. water (after chlorination) showing most • The Use of Sentinel Species to Deter­ reduction in EDCs. mine the EDC Activity in an Urban “It is highly unlikely if at all possible that Natural Reserve (WRC Report No: such a diversity of effects in a range of These results are similar to findings of 1505/1/07) animals could be coincidental,” noted studies globally. An important factor in • An Investigation of the Estrogenic Prof Bornman at a workshop to present the efficiency of water treatment plants Activity in Water from Selected Water the findings to stakeholders in 2007. to reduce or remove estrogenicity is the Treatment Processes (WRC Report These findings were also the first indi- source water quality. No: 1532/1/08) cation of mammalian wildlife being • The Development and Validation affected by environmental pollution of The way forward of Bioassays to Detect Estrogenic EDCs in South Africa. Another world first and Anti-androgenic Activity Using was the health risk assessment under- Despite the progress made through the Selected Wildlife Species (WRC taken at the reserve to determine the EDCs Research Programme to date, many Report No: 926 & 1253/1/05) potential risk to the human population. uncertainties remain, especially regard- • Health Risk Assessment Protocol ing the potential health risk of EDCs to for Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals Global recognition the human population. Scientists work- (WRC Report No: KV 206/08). ing on the programme say they have To order these reports, contact Publica- The WRC-led pilot study has been recog- hardly discovered the tip of the iceberg, tions at Tel: (012) 330-0340; Fax: (012) nised abroad for its innovative approach and much more work needs to be 331-2565 or E-mail: [email protected]. to researching EDCs. At a workshop of undertaken. “Most of the EDC research za. Selected reports can also be down- the Water Environment Research Foun- we are funding at present is still aimed at loaded electronically from the WRC dation (WERF) held in San Francisco, in refining scientific measures to improve website: www.wrc.org.za. the US, last year, participants agreed that the quality and accuracy of the research,

The Water Wheel May/June 2008 Ecological sanitation 29 Recycling human waste still taboo in SA

Despite the increased supply of urine diversion (UD) toilets as basic sanitation facilities in peri-urban and rural areas in South Africa, the use of human excreta especially for food production is not gaining ground. This is one of the main findings A household food garden in Madombidza, Limpopo, with a of a new report published by the ventilated improved pit toilet in the background. Communities which had little or no exposure to ecological sanitation were found Water Research Commission (WRC). to have less knowledge of the fertiliser value of human excreta.

Courtesy of CSIR Courtesy Lani van Vuuren reports.

he report, Social/Cultural Accept- of human excreta. The ecosan approach (i.e. composting). Urine is separated from ability of Using Human Excreta to sanitation promotes a cycle or ‘closed the faeces through a specially adapted T(Faeces and Urine) for Food loop’ system. Human excreta is treated as pedestal. While the urine may be col- Production in Rural Settlements in South a resource and processed (usually dried lected and used as fertiliser, in South Africa, follows years of research by the and/or composted) until it is completely Africa it is usually diverted to a soakaway. CSIR’s Built Environment Unit (BEU). The free of disease organisms. The nutri- About 4% of households in the country study was aimed at determining the ents contained in the excreta are then make use of dry toilets. acceptability of using human excreta recycled by using them as fertiliser in as fertiliser for food production in rural agriculture. The desiccated faeces make a good settlements. soil conditioner, while urine is an excel- The UD toilet basically operates as fol- lent source of fertiliser, being rich in The UD toilet, also known as a dry lows: waste is deposited in the chamber nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. toilet, is a form of ecological sanitation and dry absorbent material, such as Despite these benefits, and the need to (ecosan). Ecosan is not so much a tech- wood, ash, straw or vegetable matter is improve food production, especially in nology than a sanitation philosophy. It added after each use to control mois- the rural areas, the handling of human can be viewed as a three-step process: ture, control odours and flies, and excreta is still a very foreign idea in containment, sanitation and recycling facilitate biological breakdown South Africa.

The Water Wheel May/June 2008 30 Ecological sanitation

Misconceptions Human excreta reuse – an old practice The WRC study, which took the form of a qualitative survey, was undertaken in he recovery and use of human settlements in four provinces, namely excreta for food production is T the Northern Cape, Eastern Cape, not a new practice. The best known Limpopo and KwaZulu-Natal. Both example of the collection and use households who had UD toilets and of human excreta is that of China. those who had other forms of sanitation, It is reported that the Chinese such as ventilated improved pit toilets, were aware of the benefits of using were included in the study. excreta in crop production before Courtesy of CSIR Courtesy 500 BC enabling them to sustain The research showed that most of the Interviewees in Augrabies, in the more people at a higher density users accepted the UD toilet as a toilet Northern Cape than any other system of agricul- only (mainly because they did not have ture. The value of night soil as a a choice or the money to buy a flush handling human faeces and even by fertiliser was clearly recognised with toilet), and their expectations were still inhaling the smell of it. A number of chest well developed systems in place to to eventually have flush toilets. infections, such as influenza and colds, enable the collection of excreta from were said to have been caused by the cities and its transportation to fields. While people were generally aware of smell of human faeces. Other respondents Farmers even owned outhouses the fertiliser value of human excreta and believed they were at risk of contracting where they invited visitors to leave did not ascribe any cultural beliefs, val- HIV/AIDS if they handled human faeces. behind their ‘valuable’ excreta. ues or taboos to human faeces or urine, Early Europe, Greek and Roman it was generally considered totally unac- “Food and human faeces societies collected human excreta ceptable for people to handle human and used it as fertiliser. The Romans are not supposed to be faeces, especially concerning food also realised the cleaning power of production. “Food and human faeces are even mentioned in urine and used it to wash clothing. not supposed to be even mentioned in Collecting it actually became a good the same breath.” the same breath,” Louiza Duncker of the business. So-called ‘fullers’, who BEU told delegates at the Second Dry “In South Africa the perceptions and worked in laundries, would install Toilet Conference in Finland in 2006. beliefs of the users represent a major amphorae in streets and alleyways stumbling block to the use of the as public urinals passing regularly to She said that, in many cases, users were products from dry toilets,” said Duncker. collect the urine, and transporting it not aware of the correct transmission “The general norm of not touching back to the laundry for washing. routes of excreta-related diseases, for human excreta is also strengthened by The Japanese too practiced a example, many households focused programmes and interventions such as disciplined use of excreta in agri- on keeping the floors clean in the UD the WASH campaign and other hygiene culture, applying at rate of up to toilet as a prevention method for disease awareness programmes.” The messages 4 t/ha on fields. Statistics from the instead of keeping the pedestal clean from these campaigns are in direct Japanese Bureau of Agriculture for and washing their hands. Some believed opposition to the purpose and objective 1908 state that almost 24 million that a person could be infected by of the closed loop strategy of ecosan. tons of excreta had been used on around 13,5 million hectares of arable land. Like the Romans, the Japanese provided public toilets with the express aim of collecting A hand-washing excreta for use. facility outside a In Mexico and Peru, both the urine diversion great Aztec and Inca cultures col- toilet in Mthatha, lected human excreta for agricultural in the Eastern use. In Peru, the Incas had a high Cape. regard for excreta as a fertiliser, and would store it, dried and pulverised, to be used when planting maize. Courtesy of CSIR Courtesy

The Water Wheel May/June 2008 Ecological sanitation 31

The importance of Mthatha, in the Eastern Cape, training was the only area where a sig- nificant number of respondents The only area where significant numbers could be found who use human of households could be found who excreta in their gardens. reuse human excreta was Mthatha, in the Eastern Cape. Here, 88% of respond- ents said they used human faeces in their vegetable gardens and maize fields. These households have been using UD toilets for eight years and have accepted the technology completely.

In Mthatha area the communities were of CSIR Courtesy involved in the implementation of the projects and received extensive training 50% of women interviewed were aware and change their attitudes towards using on the operation and maintenance of of the fertiliser value of human excreta human excreta for food production. the UD toilets. Follow-up and support compared to 25% of men. The traditional after implementation of the projects gender role in the communities were “The use of products from dry toilets and retraining were conducted to still observed, with sanitation regarded will not happen automatically in South ensure the sustainability of the toilets. mostly as a ‘women’s issue’. Africa,” noted Duncker. “Constant inter- This is said to have had a major impact vention and awareness raising will be on the view and perception of the “Respondents believed they needed to address the general norm of respondents. not handling faeces. A strategy needs were at risk of contracting to be developed to facilitate attitude In other areas which had UD toilets, the HIV/AIDS if they handled change and a mind shift with the users.” contents of the vaults were mostly burnt human faeces.” or buried. No cases were found where To order the WRC report (Report No: the urine was collected, and all of the TT 310/07) contact Publications at UD toilets had soakaway pits. Those that Many users felt it was unhealthy to Tel: (012) 330-0340 or E-mail: did not have UD toilets were generally eat vegetables grown in dry human [email protected] unwilling to use excreta in their gardens, faeces, especially leafy vegetables that are in contact with the soil. Vegetables citing it as being ‘unhygienic’, ‘smelly’, Historic use of human ‘unacceptable’ and ‘repulsive’. such as tomatoes and anything that could be picked off of the plant itself excreta in South Africa The quality of construction of the and does not touch the soil are per- UD toilets also had a major impact ceived relatively clean and edible, but hile human excreta is gener- on perceptions. In Augrabies, in the not lettuce, spinach, cabbage or any ally perceived in South Africa Northern Cape, many of the UD toilets vegetable that grows underground W as ‘dirty’ and unusable, studies by had been constructed by ‘fly-by-night’ (such as potatoes, beetroot, onions CSIR revealed a number of ways in contractors using inferior materials, and carrots). which human waste was used in which had a major impact on the earlier times. Wet faeces was used to sustainability of the systems. Because Leading by example heal wounds. It was also applied to the UD toilets had been constructed snakebites to remove the poison. badly the contents of the vaults were The respondents were asked what they Women who used cow dung to wet and smelly making the task of thought might work to change the plaster the floors of their huts used emptying the vaults unpleasant and minds of people towards using human to apply babies’ first urine of the day unhygienic. excreta as fertiliser and soil conditioner to wash their hands prior to work- in their gardens. Those respondents who ing with the cow dung. This practice A women’s issue were already using UD toilets thought was believed to ‘cast a spell’ on one’s that demonstration gardens, leading hands to avoid it being handicapped. In general the female respondents had a by example (i.e. councillors and people Urine was also used for medicinal higher level of knowledge regarding the with high standing seen using human purposes, for example, to treat eye fertiliser value of human excreta and the excreta) and educational workshops infections. medicinal value of human urine. Nearly would be the best way to inform people

The Water Wheel May/June 2008 32 Basic sanitation

The Water Research Commission (WRC) has put its weight behind government’s commitment towards providing access to safe sanitation for all through its support for research into improved and sustainable on-site sanitation superstructures. Lani van Vuuren reports. Lani van Vuuren van Lani

The prototypes Should desludging prove difficult, new are constructed to be VIPs can be constructed. However, this strong, yet light-weight, is expensive and contributes to the and appealing to the eye. sanitation backlog. The alternative is to he latest statistics reveal that at least Waste Management Jay Bhagwan. “Then, construct a new pit and move the super- 6,5% of South Africa’s population of there is conflicting advice on what structure. The implications of these devel- T48 million people make use of on- should be put into pits to keep them opments are profound, and will have a site sanitation systems such as ventilated operating well. Unfortunately, a variety huge impact on the sustainability of the improved pit (VIP) toilets. Municipalities, of undesirable non-degradable objects technology and sanitation in general. In who are now responsible for providing are usually found in full pits which may many cases, moving the superstructure basic services, are increasingly rolling out complicate pit emptying exercises.” is not possible, due to the nature of the these on-site sanitation systems, espe- materials being used to construct the cially in rural areas. It is expected that in “Pit emptying is not only VIP (i.e. a conventional brick and mortar superstructure can weigh meeting the national sanitation target of extremely hazardous because 2010, it is expected that more than three 1,5 tons). Critical skills shortages also million VIPs will be built. of the harmful contents, it is make it difficult for communities to con- struct their own toilets, with sustainability also expensive.” It is reported that on-site dry sanita- often hampered by the use of sub-stand- tion technologies are able to provide ard products and shoddy workmanship. long-term, safe and dignified sanitation Bhagwan explains that there is a tendency to users. While VIPs are considered an to use pits for the disposal of household Variety of systems appropriate basic sanitation technology waste, much of which is non-biodegrad- choice, their lifespan is decidedly short able. In addition, despite education and In response to these challenges, the term, with pits filling up after only a few awareness programmes which strongly WRC is supporting research by the years of use. This means that either the advise against this, many users are in the University of Pretoria (UP) in the devel- pit needs to be emptied or a new pit habit of dosing their pits with disinfect- opment of alternative materials for has to be dug. Compounding this situ- ants to reduce odours and poisons such the construction of superstructures for ation is the fact that VIP superstructure as sheep dip to reduce fly breeding. on-site sanitation systems. The aim is construction as proposed by guidelines to create a light-weight superstructure offer no easy access to the pit other than “At the rate of current supply, this means which can either be moved by the through the pedestal. that millions of pits will either be full or fill- household or disassembled easily and ing up in the next few years. Pit emptying the material reused to build another “Many VIP latrines have been built with is not cheap and easy. Research under- structure, explains Elsabe Kearsley, permanent superstructures. Pits are taken by municipalities such as eThekwini Associate Professor at UP’s School of filling up much faster than their design reveals that emptying one VIP could cost Civil and Biosystems Engineering, who is life,” explains WRC Director: Water Use & as much as R1 150,” notes Bhagwan. leading the research. The superstructure

The Water Wheel May/June 2008 Basic sanitation 33

will be applicable to either VIPs or urine- community. Unfortunately, these sys- Two types of systems are being investi- diversion (UD) systems. tems are also prone to failure as a result gated at present: a system that can be of traditional lack of quality control. The dismantled, and another system which Community buy-in and acceptance is a systems that seem to work best are the uses foam concrete blocks that can crucial aspect of the project. “The tech- pre-manufactured systems that are just be reused if the structured is moved. nology of a latrine is just one aspect of assembled on site. The volume of material used is being design. If it is intended that the latrine reduced by using very high-strength be widely accepted and desired by Alternative materials concrete in the panels and entrapping people, then it must be liked,” explains large volumes of air (more than 50% of Kearsley. The UP project team has set out to the volumes) into the blocks. create an alternative superstructure Therefore the choice of material meeting the following criteria: Tests are being conducted on all the becomes very important. The project  The superstructure should be usable full-scale structures to ensure that they team found that there are various sys- for different types of sanitation sys- can withstand the forces that they will tems available in South Africa for the tems (including VIP and UD toilets); be subjected to during a typical lifespan construction of the superstructure of  The slab should be manufactured without undue distortion or distress. toilets. These systems can be divided to allow access to the pit other than These forces include wind loads, impact into two main groups, mainly the light- through the pedestal; loads, loads from people or sharp-edged weight systems that can be moved  The superstructure has to be move- objects colliding with walls, door slam- (for example, pre-cast plastic and/or able; ming and localised loads caused by fibreglass) and systems that cannot be  The superstructure must be adjust- various fittings. moved, but the material may be reusable able to allow changes in layout (i.e. in the construction of a new superstruc- to accommodate a disabled person First prototypes ture (for example, Archloo, compressed or a patient that requires assistance); stabilised earth blocks). It has been  The local community must benefit While the project team is only one year found that the only way of improving the financially from the construction into the three-year project, the first systems already in existence would be to process; prototypes have already been manu- reduce the volume of material used by  The superstructure has to be durable factured. The first toilet was completed the toilet superstructure. and aesthetically acceptable; and using high-strength concrete panels  The risk of failure of critical compo- The systems with the largest community nents has to be limited. involvement are those where the bricks and slabs are manufactured by the Lani van Vuuren van Lani Lani van Vuuren van Lani

UP concrete technologist Derek Mostert demonstrates the ease of casting foam bricks.

The Water Wheel May/June 2008 34 Basic sanitation

be adjusted to suit the application. This version weighs only 300 kg, still much lighter than its brick-and-mortar cousin.

To ensure that the walls are not blown over in storms, the blocks are manufac- tured with holes in the core, through One year into a which a steel bar is placed to tie the three-year project roof to the floor slab. After the blocks the UP project team have been placed, a polypropylene net has come up with a or carpet backing can be placed over number of VIP the surface to strengthen it further. prototypes using “If this system is used for a move- alternative materials, able superstructure, the net can be such as light-weigh pulled off the surface, the bricks can foam bricks. be re-used and a new layer of net and sprayed concrete can be applied within a day,” says Kearsley.

A modular floor slab has also been designed to allow for easier access to the pit. The floor panels can be adjusted to suit individual requirements for emptying of the pit as well as variations Lani van Vuuren van Lani in superstructure layout. varying in thickness between 16 mm A second superstructure prototype has and 20 mm. The superstructure weighs been constructed using lightweight More prototypes are being constructed only 450 kg. foam concrete blocks. The blocks are to further improve the design and 140 mm high, 90 mm thick and 300 mm materials. In all of the cases the price of “The technology of a long. They are stacked dry thus requir- material is equivalent to the price of a ing no skills normally associated with latrine is just one aspect conventional superstructure. It is hoped constructing masonry walls. Because to eventually launch a pilot scheme in of design. If it is intended of the reduced weight the blocks are which one of various new superstruc- easily handled by, for example, female that the latrine be widely tures can be evaluated and community builders, and the size of the blocks can input received. accepted and desired by people, then it must be liked.”

The panels can be manufactured in a factory and transported to site where local labour can be used to construct the units. Alternatively rural commu- nities can be provided with bags of blended material that can be mixed with a small mixer and cast into moulds with- out vibration. “By training rural builders and setting them up with basic equip- ment and moulds, it should be possible for rural communities to make their own pre-cast panels. These builders could

operate in a type of franchise system Eales Kathy where they do not have to pay for the Government is increasingly rolling out VIP toilets in an effort to reach its sanitation materials and equipment upfront.” targets.

The Water Wheel May/June 2008 Policy & legislation 35 Water law publication a first for SA

The new water law compendium, published by the Water Research Commission (WRC) is proving a valuable legal resource in the implementation of the National Water Act (NWA). Lani van Vuuren reports.

he publication, Water Law of South processes of implementation of the Act, support practitioners will rely heavily on Africa 1912 – 1998, captures nearly and that a more complete source was established rights, and will need legal T400 water court cases handled by necessary, containing all water cases.” sources to prove the existence thereof. the legal system from 1912 to 1998. The work is authored by water law expert She explains that the reason is that After verification, the even more onerous Adv Maritza Uys and took almost four the justification for codification has task of compulsory licensing will follow, years to complete. changed: before the Act, judgements which will once again rely heavily on his- were used firstly by the affected parties torical water rights. “A well-recorded case ‘Water law’ is concerned with persons’ to the cases to vest rights and, secondly, register and publication of judgements rights to water and concomitant duties to report cases of special importance for will form one of the most important of others. Water courts were established purposes of use by the judiciary in the sources of both these processes to make by colonial legislation, consolidated in interpretation of the water law. “Under the era of equitable distribution of water the Irrigation Act of 1912, and abolished the 1998 Act, however, a complete entitlements in the quest for redress not by the NWA in 1998. All cases dealing record of all water cases is required, to only in the water but also in the land with the then current general Water determine existing lawful water uses for allocations in South Africa,” notes Karar. Acts (Irrigation Act of 1912 and Water purposes of the establishment of water Act of 1956) and common water law are use entitlements under the new Act, and Minister of Water Affairs & Forestry included in the publication. also to understand the water law of the Lindiwe Hendricks has welcomed the previous dispensation, to facilitate con- compendium. “This is a valuable con- Interestingly, the first case captured in tinuity of water use and water resource tribution from the WRC as being an the compendium is dated 21 February development and management.” outstanding knowledge dissemination 1912. It involved the case of Koffyfontein initiative for the benefit of all users. Estates Ltd (a diamond-mining company) The majority of water court cases were Equity and redress are cornerstones in vs Havenga (a farmer) over rights to water decided before 1956, when water users the NWA which signals an end to any in the Riet River. Also included is the text relied heavily on the courts to establish discrimination in allocations of water. To of the 1912 and 1956 Water Acts and and declare their water rights, mainly be able to rectify misgivings of the past, regulatory publications until 31 Septem- because the water law was a statutory we need to be fully aware of the history ber 1998 when the NWA came into effect. system and not an administrative one. and learn from it. This publication seeks After the Act of 1956, the Minister of to create a historical perspective of water According to WRC Director: Water Water Affairs increased the assumption laws in South Africa, and will be a vital Resource Management Eiman Karar, the of control over water sources by the resource for future planning scenarios.” compendium is meant to fill the need for declaration of government water control a legal source for use during the imple- areas. In these areas, water rights were Karar comments: “It is expected that mentation of the NWA, and especially for administratively allocated, which had water allocation practitioners as well as purposes of determining existing lawful a huge affect on the role of the water the water tribunal especially will find water uses, as defined in the Act. “During court to determine water rights. this addition a valuable one which fully the investigation of this research, it was justifies the investment made.” realised that, although certain import The Department of Water Affairs & Forestry water court judgements had been pub- is in the process of finalising the registra- * To order the report and accompanying lished before 1970, these publications did tion process under section 34 of the NWA CD (Report No: KV 203/08), contact not provide adequate data for purposes as well as the verification process. To verify Publications at Tel: (012) 330-0340 or of utilisation for the various phases and existing lawful water uses, DWAF and its E-mail: [email protected]

The Water Wheel May/June 2008 Stop killing our rivers and streams

ur rivers and streams discharge pipe attached are the lifeblood of to a factory, it is known as Oour country. Without point-source pollution. them we have no water to Unfortunately, a great deal of drink, no water for our fac- water pollution happens not tories and power plants, no from one single source but water to grow our food, and from many different scattered no water for our environment. sources. This is called non- point-source pollution. Yet we are slowly killing our rivers by polluting them. What When point-source pollution is water pollution? Water enters the environment, the pollution is any substance place most affected is usually introduced into a river, stream, the area immediately around lake or ocean that harms the the source. This is less likely natural resources found in to happen with nonpoint- those environments (such as source pollution which, by plants and animals). definition, enters the environ- ment from many different Lakes and rivers can naturally places at once. clean up a certain amount of pollution by dispersing it harm- Where does lessly. For example, if you were pollution come to pour a cup of black ink into from? a river, the ink would quickly disappear into the river’s much It must be remembered that larger volume of clean water. water is part of a deeply The ink would still be there interconnected system. This in the river, but in such a low means what we pour on the concentration that you would ground ends up in our water, Abandoned and closed mines produce a large quantity of not be able to see it. and what we spew into the polluting chemicals. Many dangerous metals, including iron, sky ends up in our water. aluminium, lead, mercury, chromium and cadium come out of At such low levels, the chemi- By depleting and polluting old mine workings and pollute water resources. cals in the ink does probably rivers, lakes and wetlands, we not present any real problem. are destroying ecosystems However, if you poured many litres of ink a volume of water it is released into. A that play an essential role in filtering and into a river every few seconds through a small quantity of a toxic chemical may assuring freshwater resources. pipe, the river would quickly turn black. have little impact if it is spilled into the The chemicals in the ink could very ocean from a ship. But the same amount Water pollution has many different quickly have an effect on the quality of the same chemical can have a much causes and this is one of the reasons of the water. This, in turn, could affect bigger impact pumped into a lake or why it is such a difficult problem to the health of all the plants, animals and river, where there is less clean water to solve. Disposing of sewage is a major humans whose lives depend on the river. disperse it. problem. Human waste landing up in river systems due to communities This means that water pollution is all There are two different ways in which lacking toilet facilities, leaking faulty about quantities: how much of a pollut- pollution can occur. If pollution comes sewerage pipelines and overflowing ing substance is released and how big from a single location, such as a sewage treatment works can lead to

The Water Wheel May/June 2008 A lot of toxic pollution also enters waste- Did you know? water from highway runoff and city sidewalks. Highways and typically cov-  According to Guinness World ered with a cocktail of toxic chemicals Records, the worst river pol- – everything from spilled fuel and brake lution in the world occurred fluids to bits of worn tyres and exhaust in November 1986 when fire- emissions. When it rains, these chemicals fighters tackling a blaze at the wash into drains and rivers. Sandoz chemical works in Basel, Switzerland, flushed 30 tons of Why does pollution agricultural chemicals into the matter? Rhine River, western Europe’s most important waterway, killing about Some people believe pollution is an 500 000 fish. inescapable result of human activity:  Every year, 200 to 500 million they argue that if we want to have tons of heavy metals, solvents, cities, mines, factories and cars some

toxic sludge and other wastes degree of pollution is almost certain to Eales Kathy accumulate in water resources result. Fortunately, not everyone agrees Solid and human wastes polluting our from industry. with this view. One reason people have river systems can cause serious health  More than 80% of the world’s haz- woken up to the problem of pollution is hazards and outbreaks of diseases such ardous waste is produced in the that it brings costs of its own that under- as cholera and diarrhoea. US and other industrial countries. mine any economic benefits that come  About two million tons of waste about by polluting. It affects our health, is dumped every day into rivers, destroys our environments, and makes lakes and streams. One litre of the water so much more expensive to wastewater pollutes eight litres treat for drinking purposes. of freshwater. We need to make a choice: either we water-related illnesses such as cholera live with smelly rivers, and poisoned fish and diarrhoea. that we cannot eat, or we do our part to keep the environment clean so the Wastewater for industries and mines is plants, animals and people who depend another source of pollution. Factories on it remain healthy. and mines are point sources of water When it rains, chemicals and other pol- pollution, but quite a lot of water is pol- luting substances from city roads and luted by ordinary people from nonpoint sidewalks wash into drains and rivers. sources. Virtually everyone pours chemi- cals of one sort or another down their drains and toilets. Even detergents used in washing machines and dishwashers Stop river pollution eventually end up in our rivers. So do – how you can help the pesticides we use in our gardens.  Do not litter.  Reduce your use of pesticides and fertilisers and look for safer alternatives to control weeds and bugs.  Take part in local river clean-up campaigns.  Always throw unwanted fishing line in a trash can, not in the water.  Do not use toilets and stormwater drains to dispose of trash of any kind. Lani van Vuuren van Lani South Africa is a water-scarce country,  Notify your parents or the authorities if you Harmful substances spilled into rivers thus it is exteremely important that we see someone dumping trash in a river can build up in the environment and safeguard all the water resources we or stream. aquatic life, for example, fish. have against pollution.

The Water Wheel May/June 2008 38 Last word WRC team leads visit to peatland n April the Water Research Commission ronmental research. The mire is one of the Mfabeni contributes to Lake St Lucia’s fresh I(WRC) led a visit of international experts oldest active peatlands in the world, reach- water input. The team of international to the Mfabeni Mire, situated next to St ing depths of 10,8 m. The area is known for experts converged on the site to learn Lucia, where it is funding valuable envi- its erratic rainfall and, during drier periods more about the wetland’s workings.

Wetlands ecologist Prof Fred Ellery from Rhodes University, conservation ecologist Prof Ab Grootjans from the University of Groningen, the Netherlands, and hydrologist Prof Bruce Kelbe of the University of Zululand take measure­- ments at the Mfabeni Mire. Yuven Gounden Yuven Yuven Gounden Yuven Yuven Gounden Yuven

Piet-Louis Grundling, whose research in the area is being Television media interviewed international wetland funded by the WRC, takes measurements at the site. experts at the Mfabeni site.

The Water Wheel May/June 2008 ISSN 0258-2244

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