TRUBNER'S COLLECTION
OF SIMPLIFIED GRAMMARS
OP THE PRINCIPAL
ASIATIC AND EUROPEAN LANGUAGES.
EDITED BY
REINHOLD ROST, LL.D., PH.D.
IX. OTTOMAN TURKISH. BY J. W. REDHOUSE. TRUBNER'S COLLECTION OF SIMPLIFIED GRAMMARS OF THE PRINCIPAL ASIATIC AND EUROPEAN LANGUAGES.
EDITED BY REINHOLD ROST, UJ.D., PH.D.
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OTTOMAN-TURKISH LANGUAGE.
BY J. W. REDHOUSE, M.R.A.S.,
HON. MBMBER OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF LITERATURE
LONDON: TRUBNER & CO., LUDGATE HILL. 1884. [All rights reserved.] LONDON: GILBERT AND RIVINGTON, LIMITED, BT. JOHN'S SQUARE, CLERKENWELL ROAD. TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PAGE Preface ...... ix Note on Identity of Alphabets ..... xii
CHAPTER I.
LETTERS AND ORTHOGRAPHY.
SECTION I. Number, Order, Forms, and Names of Letters ...... 1 Synopsis of Arabic, Greek, and Latin Letters . 4 „ II. Phonetic Values of Letters, Vowel-Points, Orthographic Signs, Transliteration, Ottoman Euphony . . . . 15
CHAPTER II.
OTTOMAN ACCIDENCE.
SECTION I. Nouns Substantive 51 „ II. Nouns Adjective ..... 68 „ III. Numerals ...... 74 „ IV. Pronouns ...... 82 vi TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PAGE SECTION V. Demonstratives . . . . . 88 „ VI. Interrogatives ...... 89 „ VII. Relative Pronouns 90 „ VIII. Derivation of Verbs 92 „ „ (Table) . . . 94 „ IX. Conjugation of Verbs ; Moods; Tenses ; Participles ; Verbal Nouns ; Gerunds . 99 „ X. Numbers and Persons . . . . 115 „ XI. Complex Categories of Verbs . . . 119 „ XII. First Complex Category . ... 120 „ XIII. Second „ „ . . . . 125 „ XIV. Third „ „ 129 „ XV. Combined (Turkish) Conjugation . . 133 „ XVI. Negative and Impotential Conjugations . 135 „ XVII. Dubitative, Potential, and Facile Verbs . 141 „ XVIII. Verb Substantive 144 „ XIX. Verbs of Presence and Absence, Existence and Non-Existence .... 147 „ XX. Compound Verbs . . . . 148 „ XXI. Interrogative Verbs; Interrogation . 151 „ XXII. Adverbial Expressions . . . . 154 „ XXIII. Prepositions . . . . .156 „ XXIV. Conjunctions ...... 156 „ XXV. Interjections 157 TABLE OF CONTENTS. vii
CHAPTER III.
THE OTTOMAN SYNTAX.
PAGE SECTION I. Conversational brevity. — Precision in writing...... 158 „ II. Syntax of Substantives . . . .161 „ III. „ Adjectives . . . . 168 „ IV. „ Numerals . . . .170 ,, V. „ Pronouns . . ... 173 „ VI. „ Verbs . . . .174 „ VII. „ the Participle .... 178 „ VIII. „ the Verbal Nouns and Infinitive 179 „ IX. „ the Gerunds . . 181 ,, X. „ the Adverb . . . .182 „ XL „ the Preposition . . . . 184 „ XII. „ the Conjunction . . .185 „ XIII. „ the Interjection . . . . 191 Addendum, on suppressed letter j . . . .193 Index . . 195 ERRATA.
PAGE o 10, 1. 22, for X* read J*
16, 1. 18, after k 99 &c. c S O x 24, 1. 15, for vll » OX 28, 1. 4, r> oo 29, i. 2, o o
o wl O u> 1. 99 9, » » • Si + vis J» 1. 9, » Jiae. - Xo » .Uafi - J*
Ml 1. 10, o 5* o fi - 1. J) 16, Jto,>e 30, 1. 1, O f/ 31, 1. 19,
35, 1. 2, 1) JJ bal '•^1 47, last line, » 1 » 1 O x J •
54, 1. 18, » jr 91, 1. 10, „ VIII....Verb „IX. ...Conjugation, p. 100 124, ox , J last line, J> &!/ )> o Ox O O, 127, first line, » » 154, 1. 3, add: (See p. 73, 1. 4.)
168, 1. 7, for (jf^lil^ read L^^f In pp. 10—1 6 >> > >> 5 PREFACE.
THE Ottoman* Language, A>jJLiULc ismanlfja, is the most highly polished branch of the great Turkish tongue, which is spoken, with dialectic variations, across the whole breadth, nearly, of the middle region of the continent of Asia, impinging into Europe, even, in the Ottoman provinces, and also, in Southern Russia, up to the frontiers of the old kingdom of Poland.
The Ottoman language is, in its grammar and vocabulary, fundamentally Turkish. It has, however, adopted, and con tinues more and more to adopt, as required, a vast number of Arabic, Persian, and foreign words (Greek, Armenian, Slavonic, Hungarian, Italian, French, English, &c), together with the use of a few of the grammatical rules of the Arabic and Persian, which are given as Turkish rules in the following pages, their origin being in each case specified.
The great Turkish language, ^J turkje, Ottoman and non- Ottoman, has been classed by European writers as one of the " agglutinative" languages ; not inflecting its words, but X PREFACE.
" glueing on," as it were, particles, " which were once in dependent words," to the root-words, and thus forming all the grammatical and derivative desinences in use.
To my mind, this term "agglutinative" and its definition, are inapplicable to the Turkish language in general, and to the Ottoman Turkish in particular. These are, essentially and most truly, inflexional tongues ; none of their inflexions ever having been " independent words," but modifying par ticles only.
The distinctive character of all the Turkish languages, or dialects, is that the root of a whole family, however numerous, of inflexions and derivations, is always recognizable at sight, seldom suffering any modification whatever, and always stand ing at the head of the inflexions or derivations, however complex in character these may be. When a modification of a root-word does take place, it is always of the simplest kind, always the softening of a hard or sharp consonant into the corresponding more liquid letter, and always of the final consonant only of the root. Thus, a o or t sometimes becomes a a, a j becomes a c, a sharp Arabic d becomes a soft Persian d, or the Ottoman modification of this latter, which is then pronounced like our most useful consonant y, or, in case of a dominant o or u vowel in the root, is pro nounced like our consonant w. PREFACE. XI
The Ottoman Turkish has more vowel-sounds (eleven in number) than any other tongue known to me. As each of these may have a short and a long modification, they make twenty-two possible vowels in all. Every one of these is distinguished by a special mark in the transliterations of the present treatise, though it is impossible to attempt any such differentiation in the Arabic characters to which the Ottoman language is wedded.
The rules of euphony regulate the pronunciation of every word in the Ottoman language; perfectly, in all of Turkish origin; and as far as is practicable, in what is radically foreign.
Although a compound word is a thing totally unknown to the Turkish dialects, and of very rare occurrence in Arabic, the Ottoman language abounds with such, adopted from the Aryan, compounding Persian.
Persian grammarians and writers first learnt how to mould into a harmonious whole the incongruous Aryan Persian and Semitic Arabic elements. Ottoman ingenuity has gone a step further, and blended in one noble speech the three conflicting elements of the Aryan, Semitic and Turanian classes of vocables.
Fault is found by some with this intermixture of idioms; xii PREFACE. but an Englishman, of all the world, will know how to appre ciate a clever mosaic of diction; and a real student of the language will learn to admire many a true beauty, resulting from a masterly handling of the materials at his command, by any first-rate Ottoman literary celebrity, whether prose- writer or poet
NOTE.—The manuscript of the present sketch Grammar was completed before Christmas, 1882, and copies of my table of identic alphabets have been in the hands of a few friends for the last four or five years. I have just had the pleasure and privilege of reading the admirable and exhaustive treatise on " The Alphabet," by the Rev. Isaac Taylor, and am rejoiced to find that he has come to the same conclusion as to the identity of the three; probably at an earlier date than the time, perhaps twenty years ago, when the idea began to force itself on my mind. I still feel inclined, however, to hold by the inference that the Phenicians gave the alphabet to Italy, quite independently of the Greek action which later on doubtlessly influenced the Italian culture.
LONDON, September, 1883. J.W. R. OTTOMAN TURKISH GEAMMAE.
CHAPTER I.
THE LETTERS AND ORTHOGRAPHY.
SECTION I. The Number, Order, Forms, and Names of the Letters.
THERE are thirty-one distinct letters used in the Ottoman language. Some of these have more than one value ; and four of them are sometimes consonants, sometimes vowels. There is also a combination of two letters into one character, 5) or V, la, which Arabian piety has agreed to count as a letter, and which Persian and Turkish conformity has had no option but to adopt. Thirty-two letters have, therefore, to be named and enumerated, as follows:—
t ellf, v^ be, CJ pe, o te, & se, -. jlm, •. chlm, - ha, ~ khf, a d&l, j zel, j rl, j ze, j zhe, ^ sin, ^ shin, ^> sad, ^J> did, \o tl, ]e> zl, c 'ayn, c gayn, ci fe, j qaf, ci) kaf, J lam, ^ mlm, ^ nun, j w6v, 8 he, S lam-ellf, ^ ye.
The foregoing is the ordinary arrangement of the letters of the Ottoman alphabet, as learnt and repeated by children;
B 2 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. excepting that they are not at first taught to mention, or to know, either of the three Persian letters, L-> pe, ~ chlm, and J zhe, which are not contained in the Arabic alphabet, their sounds and values being unknown to, and unpronounceable by, an Arab. It is called the ellf-be, &> uJM, i.e., the alphabet; and it might be conveniently styled the alphabet by forms; letters of the same form being brought together in it, more or less. There is another very different order necessary to be learnt of the twenty-nine Arabic letters. It is called ebjed, j£l, and is arranged in eight conventional words, as follows : jjssl ebjed, jyt hevwaz, Jaa> huttl, {L)J^ keleman, yahx* sa'f&s, oJ^S qarashat, °j£ sakhaz, l&iki dazagila. The letters of the Arabic alphabet, as arranged in this ebjed series, have each a numerical value. The first nine in order represent the nine units, 1 to 9; the second nine stand for the tens, also in order, 10 to 90 ; the third nine count as the hundreds, serially, 100 ,to 900 ; the twenty-eighth in the series, c, stands for 1000; and the last, V, though always enumerated, has no value of its own, but counts as the sum of the values of its two components, J 30, I 1; i. e., as 31. This system appears to have been in use in very early
N times indeed. The order of the letters in it is that of the Hebrew alphabet, as far as this goes; that is, as far as the end of the sixth word qarashat, izJ*/, with which the Hebrew THE LETTERS AND ORTHOGRAPHY. 3 alphabet terminates. The letters of the two last words (omitting now all consideration of the factitious V) are Semitic inventions of a comparatively modern date, and are modifications, by means of dots, of letters, undotted or dotted, represented in the Hebrew alphabet. Thus, £> is modified from o, ± is from -., i from a, ^o from ^>, k from L>, and c from c. This may be called the numeral alphabet A circumstance that invests this ebjed arrangement with a European antiquarian interest of the very highest order, is the fact that it proves, beyond the remotest shadow of a doubt, the unity of origin of the Semitic (usually taken to be Phenician, but I imagine it to be much more ancient than Moses, or even Abraham), the Greek, and the Latin alphabets. Not only can the now divergent forms of each separate letter in the series be traced through successive modifications back to one ancient Phenician character, but the order of the whole series from I to o is absolutely identical in the Arabic (Hebrew, Phenician),. Greek, and Latin alphabets, as the following synopsis shows. An additional proof is furnished by the identity of the numeral values of the letters in the Arabic and Greek alphabets,—a method totally un^ known to the Latins, who must have had a method of their own, probably Etruscan, before they received their alphabet direct from the Phenicians, quite independently of the Greeks, and quite as early. 4 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR.
Arabic. Greek. Num. Latin. Arabic. Greek. Num. Latin. i A 1 A t ° 70 0 UJ B 2 B v_* n 80 P C r 3 C u° - 90 j A 4 D 5 E 5 E
3 T 6 F S ioo
500 Vr< J A 30 L j 700 X 600 X r M 40 M u* 800 ilr 700 - a N 50 N b 900 £2 800 Z V U* A 60 - c 1000 3 900 - The apparent discrepancies and vacancies occurring on comparison of the three alphabets and the series of numerals, are in reality additional proofs of their absolute identity. The two first letters call for no remark, though it is known to scholars that the Greek B has been degraded in Ramaic into a V, and the so-called modern Greek man is unable to pronounce a b, "writing it, when necessary, /JLTT. This com bination in Greek words he reads and pronounces as though it were written yu/3.
i The Hebrew system is identical with the Arabic is far as its alphabet goes. Thus: p 100, T 200, VJ 300, J1 400; beyonc this the words are written in full. This incident is a condemnation of t le Greek system for the higher numbers. THE LETTERS AND ORTHOGRAPHY. O
The —, r, G, must originally have been a hard g. In modern Egyptian, as in Hebrew, and in Greek, it is so pro nounced, though the rest of Arabia has softened it into the sound of our English j or soft g, and though the Latins hardened it, apparently, into a K value. The first serious remark is called for on our coming to the change made by both the Greeks and the Latins of the Semitic soft aspirate consonant s into their vowel E. It would almost seem as though the old Phenicians used that letter as a final vowel, exactly as is done by the Persians and Turks at present. A more remarkable divergency, in explicable to me, but parallel to the foregoing conversion, is the change made by the Greeks of the Semitic hard aspirate consonant — into their long vowel H, rj, whereas the Latins preserved the letter as a consonant and as their sole aspirate, under the same written form as that used by the Greeks, H, h, and which was in reality the Phenician form of the letter. The next remark is as to the Latin F, which the Greekg long ago discarded from their alphabet, after having in the first instance adopted it in its Phenician form T, and used it to represent the numeral 6. After discarding it as a letter, they continued to use it as a numeral, though with a corrupted, cursive form, s-, to which they still, to this day, give the Phenician name of Bav, j\j waw, vav. The Latin modification of its sound, from a w or v to an /, is of no 6 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR.
importance. The Arabs of to-day, having no v letter or sound in their language, write the name of Her Majesty the Queen-Empress, Fiktoriya. As the Greek phonetic value of Z exactly corresponds to the Semitic power of j, their numeral value being identical, and the form of the Latin G being merely a modification, one is tempted to imagine that originally the Latin power of this letter was soft g, our j, perhaps even our z. Certain it is that in some dialects of Italian a z is used in words where a soft g is found in other dialects. The Greeks made the Semitic \> into their ® ; the Latins, having no such sound, discarded the letter. The Semitic ^ being both a consonant, like our y, and also a long vowel, 1, it followed, as a matter of course, that both Greeks and Latins should make it into the vowel L But the Latins preserved its consonantal use also as an initial; though they forgot, or never realized, that it is a consonant in that position. We now use a y to express that value; but the Germans have adopted the Latin modification j to represent it. Three western letters, », j, y, are now used for the one Semitic (j. The next four letters require no comment; but the Semitic U* of the eastern Arabs is not a good parallel for the Greek 3. The Hebrew letter D, that holds its place in the alphabet, is the equivalent of the Arabic ^>, and the western Arabs of Morocco transpose the ^ and ^ in their j£\ THE LETTERS AND ORTHOGRAPHY. 7 alphabet, making the fifth word yah**, the letter ^ being the exact equivalent of the Hebrew % in place and in power. The ^ is a better representative of 3 than the
The conversion of Semitic consonantal c into Greek and Latin vowel o is not unnatural. This letter c is absolutely unpronounceable by any other than a Semitic. It is a kind of convulsion in the throat; and as the two aspirates were converted into vowels, so was this guttural. This was so much the more to be expected, as the Semitic letter I, which became Greek and Latin a, is also a guttural consonant, serving likewise as a long vowel on occasions. It is the soft guttural, of which the c is the hard parallel; and an o may well be looked upon as a hard a. What the Arabians use as f, i j, is read in Hebrew, as in Greek and Latin, p. Even the Arabians, when they have to express a foreign letter, p, which they cannot pronounce, write and pronounce it as a b, or as f. The next letter, ^ or JJ£, is dropped in both Greek and Latin. It appears never to have been used in Greek, even as a numeral; differing in 8 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR.
that respect from the T. When this latter was dropped as a letter, it was retained, modified, as a numeral. But the omitted letter ^ became the numeral o-a/zTrc, J^ representing 900 instead of 90. From this omission of the ^y> from its proper place in the Greek numerals, a slip of the whole subsequent series became necessary, so that each letter, from j, Q, Q, onwards, had a higher numeral value by one degree in the Semitic than its representative had in Greek; j standing for 100, while
to various modifications, according to their being initials, medials, or finals, in a combination of written letters. In the first place, they may, in this respect, be conveniently divided into two classes : those which join on to the following
** ° " J JJ nil 2il 1 letters in writing a combination, JUL>J *~»jj* hnrufa vwasliyye, and those which do not so join, ALSLO ^JJJ^ h4ru.fi. m4nfaslla. The latter, the less numerous class, are: I, a, i, j, J, J, j and O x O S O ' Ox Ox O x Ox O x V; eight in number ; thus, t-,1, C^, ~i, L-^, ^J, Jflj, JJ, *V. X OX O^ Ox O X O'' x O «, O ^ All the others join, as b, ^J , o*, <-*J , C*J, J, l**> s*^> V*"'
Ox x Ox Ox O X O X Ox X Ox Ox OX O ^x" Ox Ox >., U, L-^i, LyA-O, C-fi, <£jfi>, Jo, W, <-*C > V-A9, C^S, <^S, J, ^*,
Ox „. ox J , U , L-*£ , &C. All the letters join on in writing to the character that precedes them (other than to the eight enumerated above) whether they be themselves finals or medials. As finals their - OX Ox Ox OX OX O ^ O^ forms are as follows : b, c-^, e^a., c», c*«*», J*, ^, ^*»»
Ox Ox OX Ox Ox °£xx OX O^ O-' O -" °~ Ox • Cx Ox Jo, J^, ^,^9, Ji, J3, ^jj, ^ji*, Utf,u^,l»,lij.,gjgi
Ox C Ox Ox Ox Ox J x x xx -.. , L-ftJ, jj»., <<*U, J&>, **», ^j^, A-O, Jo, JU?. As medials they
Ox O xx Oxx oxx O" " O xx xx xx ° ** S are figured thus: v^b, v-***., j*, ^, Js&, ^j U°, W**, <_*£",
1 It having been found impracticable to mark in type the varying Ottoman tone-values of the Arabian and Persian long vowels, the student must learn to supply the numbers 1 and 2 over the long-vowel marks. For this purpose, he must apply the rules for the short vowels, according as they follow, or are followed by, a consonant of tbe soft or hard class. By practice, the correct habit will be thus acquired; the case of the short vowels teaching the tone, which will then be instinctively used when the vowel is long. 10 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR.
O O *» OC*» O O / O O *• O O - OO/ O O «• O O *» 0<*#» 0 X X O ^T 0*J? , ^.Ifi , ^J^aS , ^* O^^ OO/ O , * OO- O ^JS, ^j, eui*., J4*., ££*>. Those which do not join are, as Ox OO/ OO/ O xx OC /OJ-/ O O* C medials, thus written: u-A?, ^JA, Jjj, !^9, *)»>, 8^*£, ^>y>, ji. Longer combinations vary, ad infinitum, as follows : KZJ>J> , 0 '. *' o ^<~ o if* j o J * 0 «•#•> o 9 *< -5 'y^ /o/o j •> o O/oo -» uJLc, H^'J k-jlo, ^Xjklilo, J*^> ^**> Ali^jJjl, diJ/^jj o 0^0 * *• ' ' * - (^^au^t, AJUUob , &C. Besides the simple names of the letters hitherto mentioned, most of the characters have other, more complicated appel lations. /O/ The 1 is usually called hemze, *}+&, when a consonant, in an Arabic word ; and ellfl memdude, i±jX+* u-all, prolonged I, when it is a long vowel, initial or medial. It can never be a long final vowel in an Arabic word, being then always followed by another consonant hemze ; as, At* sha'&, l\j>. jeza'A, &c. It is called ellfl m£qsure, call, shortened I, when final. It is then more commonly written ^ in classical Arabic; but by no means always so. In Persian and Turkish, or foreign words, the 1 is always a vowel, but is called indifferently elif and hemze. It is always long in Persian words, when medial or final. When initial in a Persian word, it may be short or long. When a long initial, it is distin guished, as in Arabic, by the sign medd, ^ (") over it, as : A. w=JT afet, P. LJ\ ab. When a short initial, it is, in Arabic, generally a consonant, and may take the sound 'a or 'e, of '1, THE LETTERS AND ORTHOGRAPHY. 11 or of 'u. When a short initial in Persian, it is a vowel, and may have any one of the three values 4 or e> 1, u. The details of the powers of I in Turkish words are given further on. The L-J is distinguished from the other letters of the same isolated form by being called t±>j+ ^ (ba'l muv&hh&de), the o *oJ * single-dotted c-> ; as the o is named OIJU gl> (ta'l musnat), the double-dotted o, and the & is designated A*k* glj (sa'l mi sellese), the triply-dotted e*. The o is further distinguished from the L>, also named tk9 IL, by being called c^S *U (ta'l q&r&shlt), the o of (the word) t=^-9; while k is named ^» sl£> (ta'l hutti), the L o/ (the word^JLL. Again, the o is distinguished, as a medial or initial, from the <_$, then iden tical in form with it, by being called ajy oliL (musnatl fev- qiyye), superiorly double-dotted; whereas the ^ is then termed AJI^ oUi* (musnatl tdhtanlyye), inferiorly double- dotted. The ^ is also called jsJ &t> (ea'l sdkh&z), ^e ti> 0/ js?. The t-j might be called ±g\ s\t (ba'l ebjed), the L-> O/ ±&\; but I do not recollect the expression. It is, however, distin- guished from the Persian LJ by being designated *~-\JZ fb (ba'l carabiyye), *fo Arabian <_>, the t^ being called *u-^U ^ (ba'l farislyye), and a-*sP *G (ba'l 'ajitmiyye), the Persian tj. The simple name of the -j., +*?» jim, sufficiently distinguishes the letter from all other Arabic characters. It has, therefore, no other designation in purely Arabic works. It is, however, 12 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. distinguished from the Persian — by their being styled respec tively i+jjs. ++>> (jIml eareblyye), and 6~»j* ^ (jiml farlslyye), or ju»gp ^ (jiml 'ajdmlyye). The — and ± are distinguished from one another by the terms ,»Qtt 5U. (ha'l mfthmele) neglected (undotted) —, and &+*?* ell (kha'l mu jeme) distinguished (dotted) £, respectively. In Persian they are often called JaLlo &U (ha'l bi-nuqta) dotless _, and^bdu^ii^ll (kha'l nuqtd-dar) dot-possessing (dotted) ±. These two pairs of Arabic and Persian adjectives go all through the alphabet, in the cases where a dot is the sole distinction between two letters of the same form; as, A* ^ Jta (dall nruhmel£) ^ ; &*s?* Jli (zall mujeme) j. So also the distinctions by the words of the " numeral alphabet;" as, **} Jb (dall ebjed), i±? Jli (zall sakhaz), i; e>^3 ^ (ra'l qar&sh&t)^ ; jja> gU (za'i hevvez) ;; &c; AI^O tyc*> (sinl mnh- mele), ^ ; When we come to uJ, the written names of the letters are so distinct of themselves, that no addition is necessary for U (fa), ^; «_jlf (qaf), j; <..& (kyaf, vulgarly kef), <*J; ^V (lam), J; ^* (mim), ^ ; ^y (nun), ^; J\J (vwaw), j. With s a distinction again comes in, to differentiate the letter from —. We, therefore, say ^ &U (ha'l hevvez), *; as the - is then termed Ja* &L. (ha'l hutti); and ^ is termed, as THE LETTERS AND ORTHOGRAPHY. 13 mentioned above, AJUSS obi* sb (ya'l musnatl tahtanlyye); being also called Ja* sb (ya'l huttl). The Persian L-» and — are distinguished as is described above; and in like manner the J is called ju^li $U (za'i farl- elyye), and Ajj^P ^ (za'i'ajamlyye). There remains now to distinguish, among consonants, the different sorts of d used in Ottoman Turkish, and to point out their several names, as follows : The original Arabian d is named t^je. v_io (kyafl fareblyy&, vulg. kefl'arebi), the Arabian d ; its value is that of our h This letter was next used by the Persians for their hard g; it was then, and is still, distinguished by the name of A^U UJO (kyafl farlslyye, vulg. kyafl farlsi, kefl farlsi), and A!*S? u_i\T(kyafl 'aj&miyye, vulg. kefl eajaml). This variety is sometimes distinguished, in writing, in one or the other of two different methods. The Persians themselves mark the difference by doubling the upper dash of the letter in all its written variations—isolated, initial, medial, and final; thus : CsJTj^^K*, (&*•» ; whereas the original Arabian d, when isolated or final, has no dash at all; O J/- O Jo as, dy.l, do? I; and a single dash, when initial or medial; thus: jj£, A^J, also shaped^j^s=>, AI^=U. When these two values of the one letter d passed into use for the Ottoman language, a new mode of distinguishing the Persian from the Arabian variety was introduced. It con- 14 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. sisted of placing three dots over the Arabian form of the d, together with a single dash in non-final positions; thus: d, j£ °^ \* J*J> , di-»; thus marking the Persian hard g value of the letter. But this letter, so differentiated in Persian writing, received in Ottoman Turkish a third value, that of our consonantal y, as a softened variety of its Persian value of hard g. This Ottoman value never occurs elsewhere than at the end, or in the middle of a word ; as : d> (bey), d*£j (beyanmek), ^Kj (ylylrml), di»J/ol (lyranmek). In the middle of a word it may begin or end a syllable : be-yan-mek, ly-ran-mek. When this letter follows a u vowel, and is itself followed by yJ an e vowel, it glides into the value of our w; as A_5^ (suwe), &c. In Turkish, the d, retaining the same form, received another value still, the fourth; being then for distinction's sake, called surd &, ^j> J^> (saghir nun) ; as in dl (en), SECTION II The Phonetic Values of the Letters and Vowel- Points, the Uses of the other Orthographic Signs, our System of Transliteration, and the Doctrine of Ottoman Euphony. We must divide the thirty-one Ottoman letters (omitting V) into vowels and consonants. But it must first be premised that every letter is sometimes a consonant, while only four of 16 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. them are sometimes vowels. These are \, j9*> ij• All the others, twenty-seven in form, are always consonants. It will be more convenient to treat of the four vowel letters first, together with the vowel-points, which are not letters, but simply marks. Usually, the vowel-points, three only in number, are not written ; they are supposed to be known. But, in children's books, in Qur'ans, in books of devotion, &c, they are written; and sometimes in other books and papers also. o J o J The vowel-points are named : 1, ustun, ^JZ**J\ (over), the mark of which is a short diagonal from the right downwards towards the left, placed over any consonant; as: *.->, o, -., &c; 2, esere, t^\ (no meaning), a similar diagonal, marked under J •» J any consonant; as: —, ±9 ±, i, &c; 3, uturu, jjj>j\ (no mean ing), a small j-shaped mark, placed over any consonant; as: j J J J . . j»J' J9 u*> <^c* These vowel-points mark, originally, the three Arabic short vowels, to which the additional Ottoman vowel-sounds, a, a, 4 have been added. The ustun has the value of & or e, accord ing to the consonant, &c, accompanying it; the esere has the value of 1 or i; and the uturu that of 6, u, u, u, also according to its accompaniment. The short vowel-sound indicated by each of these three marks always follows, in pronunciation, the sound of the con sonant to which it is appended; so that we have the following THE LETTERS AND ORTHOGRAPHT. 17 Ottoman syllabary, No. 1: v-> ba, ba, ba, ba, be ; L-J b}, b! ; t-> b6, bu, bu, bu; and so on through the alphabet. When it is required to make the vowel long, one of the o three Arabic letters of prolongation, x* <—*j>- (harfl medd, pi. ±+ ^ijj>- hurufi medd), has to be added to the consonant, still marked with its short vowel-point. The letters of prolonga tion, true long vowels, are 1, j, ^ ; of which \ always accom panies ustun, ,j always accompanies esere; and j always accompanies nturu. We now have Ottoman syllabary No. 2, as follows : \> ba, ba; ^J bl, bi ; j) b5, bu, bu, bu; &c. We thus see that there are eleven Ottoman short vowels, and eight long. Our system of transliterating them is also made apparent. It is the simple method of using a or e to represent ustun, i to represent esere, and o or u to represent uturu. As these vowel-points shade off in phonetic value, we use &, £, &, 4, or e for ustun ; 1 or i for esere; and 6, or u, 4, d, for uturu. After long consideration, we have for some years past adopted this system, as the simplest, and, on the whole, the most rational. The values of these Ottoman vowels are those of the vowels in the following eleven words. They are all familiar English words, excepting the French tu9 the vowel of which is unknown in ordinary English, though it exists in the dialects of some of our counties. These words are: far, war, a-(bove), c 18 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. pan, pen; pin, girl; so; put, tu, cur. We mark the vowels of these eleven guide-words to the Ottoman pronunciation, in the order in which they stand : far, w&r, dbove, pdn, pen, pin, girl, si, put, tu, cur; and for the eight Ottoman long vowels we use: far, war, pin, girl, so, put, tu, cur. That is, nineteen Ottoman vowel-sounds in all, long and short. The student has but to remember the series of ten English words and one French, to become possessed of the key to the Ottoman vowel pronunciation. But he must learn never to swerve from the values of those guide-vowels. To an Englishman, with our slouchy method, this unswervingoess is the most difficult point; but, with a little patience at first, it is to be achieved. He must practice himself in pronouncing pasha, lib (not pdsblw), b&b&, \Ai (not b4yb&), dan, ^ (not den), san, ^ (not sen), ben, ^ (which he will at once pronounce right), O ++ O O / /O O J is-(temek), (*LLJ, fir-(lamaq), j-o^i, q6l, Jj-i (not q&l), o j o J o j qui, JjS (not qui), yuz, j^ (not yuz or yuz), and gyuz,^^ (not gyuz or gyuz, though these are also words or syllables). The English student of Turkish has to exert his utmost care, in respect of the Ottoman vowels, to break himself of the home method of pronouncing a short vowel, and the same vowel when long, in two very different ways. The Ottoman vowels remain alw«iys pure; they never change in phonetic value with a change in phonetic quantity; thus, a is always a THE LETTERS AND ORTHOGRAPHY. 19 made long; I is always 1 long, 6 is always 6 long, u is always u long, &c, in the same word and its derivatives. The student will have noticed above the Arabic sign of quiescence of a consonant. It is named jezm, *j>. and is never placed over a vowel, long or short. The fourth Ottoman vowel letter, *, which, when a con sonant, is the soft aspirate h, is also derived from the Arabic, but has a special history of its own. This letter is never used as a vowel in Arabic in any other position than that of a final to a noun, substantive or adjective, usually of the feminine gender, sometimes singular, and sometimes an irregular (hrolcen, technically) plural. Such are the words— ALU> khalife, &1* snnne, AI-A. hasana, A-J? tayylbe, &c. In Arabic, these pronunciations (as modified in Ottoman Turkish, as to the vowels, and as to the consonants) are those of the words when they close a sentence or clause in classical reading. They are also the pronunciations of the words in modern conversational Arabic. But, originally, and to this day, in classical Arabic, those and all such words end not in a vowel at all. They all end in a consonant, in a letter t ; which, for certain grammatical reasons, is never figured o, but always appears in the shape of a letter s surmounted by the two dots of the o, thus l. Our specimen words are therefore, originally, iiii. kh&lifet, l^t sunnet, AIM-A. hasanet, i^-Jo tayylbet. There are other 20 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. vowels and consonants to be added to the termination of these in classical Arabic, to mark the case-endings or declinations. Thus Si-Is., when definite, may be marked iftii. khallfetu for the nominative, iLli. khalif&tl for the genitive, iiLk. khaiiftt& for the accusative. When indefinite, it becomes iU&. khalif&tun, XX £ " X iflii. khalif&tln, AAJ» khalif&tHn. In all these cases, when final in a sentence or clause, the case-endings are dropped from the pronunciation, though still written in vowel-pointed books, and the word becomes simply khalif& throughout. These indefinite case-ending marks are called in Turkish jjj>j\ ,>ot (Ikl uturu), double uturu, »^J ^Si\ (Ikl &s&&), double bs&b, and ^jL-jl je-^-i^ (Ikl As tun) double ustun. A consideration now arose. In classical Arabic, final con sonants may be either silent, or vocal with any one of the O x x- "^" J O " £x- three short vowels. Thus : oysj k&t&bet, cu~. ; > k&tebtu, KZ+AS ketebta, o»-i3 k&tebtl. When such words are final in a sentence or clause, the final consonant is made silent; so that we have k&t&bet, as before, for the first; but ketebt for J x Ox x Ox all three of the remaining words. So ^*3, j^>, j*>, final, 0O/ O' 2 Ox becomes nasr, as does ^aS ana* ^»5, though ^oi (always dis- tinguished by a servile I being added—]^o5 n&sran) remains fully pronounced, or only loses the sound of the final n, and is read nasra. When the final I of iaJi. khdlifi, and similar words, was dropped from the pronunciation, the letter might have been THE LETTERS AND ORTHOGRAPHY. 21 dropped in writing also; for v_Li&. would read khalife just as well. It could, however, and would, be read LJLU. khalif? as Europe has done in making it into Caliph. It was neces sary, then, to devise a method which should prevent the suppression of the vowel belonging to the last consonant of such words, and yet not be liable to be pronounced as a t with the case-endings. This convenient method was dis covered by the arrangement adopted of suppressing the dots of the I, and leaving the nude A appended to the word, as A.aJL&. khalife, &c. By this method final A in such words became virtually a vowel in Arabic, though it is never men tioned as such in Arabic grammars or lexicons. Persian has a very large number of nouns, substantive and adjective, that end in an ustun vowel. When the Arabic alphabet became the sole mode of writing Persian, the Arab teachers would naturally use their quasi-vowel final 5 to represent that final Persian sound. Thus, *j> ber&, a^L* SU- gurne, «^U1 amade, »ju**», reside, &c, were written. The B was thus made a vowel in Persian also, when final. It was even made to follow one of the other two short vowels in very rare cases, when no other device was available. Thus we have the numeral A-*» (si), three (in Ottoman Turkish usually pronounced A*> se), & (kl), that, A*, (chl), what, that. When, by another historical step, Turkish began to be written in the Arabic characters modified by the special 22 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. Persian letters (Turkish scribes learning the method from Persian teachers in the land of Persia conquered by Turkish invaders, who there embraced Islam), the use of s as a final vowel was found so convenient as to be naturally adopted. So AJI ebe, ALI £d&, &c, were written. Now, a whole class of Turkish gerunds, optatives, and imperatives of the third person, end with this vowel ; we, therefore, have sjjl ld&, *±S glde, %j£ gyure, JlS qala, \j<& qir&, &c. A further step was, therefore, possible to be taken in Ottoman Turkish, from which Persian writers had and have shrunk. The vowel s was used as a medial also, whenever it was found that its introduction served to distinguish two words written alike, but pronounced differently. Thus IEJUJ bllmek, could also be read dJb bllemek. If the vowel-points were always marked, they would suffice for this case ; but they are generally omitted. The gerund and optative AL or ALJ was already in use. By writing djb bllmek and ISLALJ - i • * ~ i bllemek, the distinction was made clear. Hence, s as a medial Ottoman vowel, always indicating a preceding nstnn short vowel-point, became fully established. This medial or final Turkish vowel 5 never joins on to the next letter in writing; as, (sLoi^j! nremek, AJIALJI 6diya\ From this sketch of the history of final and medial vowel a, we see plainly how fundamentally erroneous is the common THE LETTERS AND ORTHOGRAPHY. 23 European (or rather English) method of transliterating such words with a final or medial h. The nearest approach to correctness of which our orthography is capable, since we possess not the French e or German e, is to write all such words with a final a, as khalifa, Fatima, Mehha, Medina, Brusa, &c. These are usual; but **>. Jidda, is usually spelt Jeddah; while J^-ALJ Qdhira (usually Cairo), AS&° Tanja (usually Tangiers), &c, have been made into monstrosities. The phonetic value of an initial I is at first a difficulty to the European student, inasmuch as there appears to be nothing like it in Western languages. This, however, is more apparent than real, when fully explained. We must remember that in Arabic the initial I or I is a consonant, not a vowel. Like any other initial consonant, it takes the three short vowel-points, and is then pronounced: 1 3e, I 4, I >u. When it became a Persian letter, it was generally named hemze, as it is usually called in Arabic when a consonant (but never when a vowel of prolongation, or final and short); although, in Persian words, it is always a vowel, whether initial, medial, or final. With the short vowel-points, this initial \ is always a short vowel in Persian words, and the Arabian hemze sign is never placed over it; thus: j\ er, j\ ez, f^J esb, eu*»\ est, &c; sL*»l ispah, ^Uli^l Isfahan, &c; i$ ulag, &c. 24 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. This initial short vowel Persian system was extended (in practice, not in theory) to all Arabic words used in Persian with I for their initial letter. But the Arabic consonantal I was then taken (in practice) to be a Persian vowel 1. Thus, \J\y) was read ebvab, Ij^l Ibtlda, Jj^l usul; &c. When, in Arabic, the vowel of the initial consonantal I became long, then, as with any other initial consonant, a vowel letter of prolongation,—a long vowel letter,—was appended to the i; thus: II, pronounced >i, jl> pronounced>u, ^1, pro nounced >i. This system passed also into use in Persian words, the Arabic hemze sign being omitted, even in Arabic words adopted into Persian ; and thus the combinations II, jl, <^l, became the initial Persian long vowels ; being pronounced _ o £ o * j ox respectively—a, u, I. Thus : u^ll ab, J^\ ubar, y^\ Tzed ; and wTith words originally Arabic: Ul aba, Vjl ula, UJI Ima ; It may be useful to mention here, that the Arabian writers employ this sign of medd to mark a medial or a quasi-final long vowel \, whenever this is followed in the word by a heinze, i. e.9 a consonantal I. Thus they write ^jlsL** yetesa^ >alina, l]^ hamra5u, &c. These medd signs are omitted in Persian, as well as the final *; so that \j+>> h&mra is written, as well as pronounced, for ^*&.; If a medial consonantal hemze in an Arabic word be fol lowed by a long vowel I, the two are united, as in the initial I, into one I letter with the medd sign over it; as JU ma5al (for J1U). This also is adopted in Persian with such Arabic words as it occurs in; not being found in any original Persian words. The medd sign is also used, in Arabic, sometimes taking another form, that of a small, perpendicular ', to mark the traditional omission, in writing (not in pronunciation), of a ot long vowel I in a few well-known words, such as all >llah (for ^i\\ ^\ nlahi (for j»"i\), {j^J or ^^ rahman (for J^j), &c This perpendicular small ellf-shaped medd is also placed, in Arabic, sometimes over a letter j, to mark that, though radically a j, it is a long vowel I in pronunciation, in the two words only, i^. hay at (usually written »L>., in Persian O -- I O . ' and Turkish oLa.) and S^U salat (usually written »5L©, in Persian and Turkish o5L>). 26 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. The medd sign is sometimes placed, in Arabic, over a long vowel j or (j, when they are followed by a hemze in the same word ; as in ^ su>u, 2 _*. jpa. This peculiarity is not used in Persian or Turkish. It is also sometimes placed over a long vowel medial t, when this letter is followed by a reduplicated consonant in the same word; as: »^U madde; it is not used in Persian or Turkish. Such of the foregoing Arabic usages as have been adopted in Persian for words of Persian or of Arabic origin, are also employed in Ottoman Turkish for the same words j though they are sometimes omitted in ordinary writing. We now come to a purely Ottoman use of the medd sign, utterly unknown in Arabic and Persian. Thus : Whenever an initial vowel 1 of an Ottoman word of Turkish or foreign (European or Indian) origin has the short sound of a or a, the medd sign is placed over it, as a distinction from the initial sounds a, a, e; as : Jj^T amiral (French), ^1 arl, JpTada (Turkish); but tlillf asalet, jy avval (Arabic), J er (Turkish; also Persian; but two different words). Another Ottoman peculiarity connected with the initial 1, when followed in writing by a vowel j or ^, is that these two vowels are not necessarily long vowels in words of Turkish or foreign origin. Thus ojl 6t, JJ\ ur, yj\ utu, c*L>jl utmek, Jlrfjt oflchal, illvj-jl irlanda. They may then be called THE LETTERS AND ORTHOGRAPHY. 27 directing vowels. In many old or provincial books and writings, these directing vowels are often or systematically omitted, the writers, from habit, or system, adhering to the original Arabic method of spelling by short vowel-points, for the most part omitted in current writing. This makes such books and papers immensely difficult to read and understand. The three Arabic long vowels, I, j, fj, having thus acquired a footing as Ottoman short directing-vowels, when following an initial letter I, it was found convenient to extend the system, and to use them as short directing-vowels, following initial or medial consonants, thereby departing entirely from the Arabic and Persian systems. There is no method in use for distinguishing a long vowel letter from a short one in an Ottoman word of Turkish or foreign origin. We may almost venture to say that all such medial vowel-letters in Turkish and foreign Ottoman words are short vowels ; whereas, in Arabic and Persian words they are always long. Thus: yib bash, JJS q!r, ^y qush, jf*}UI aghlamaq, O-OJ J . C + Cf J ,OJ J^- O ^OJ J, fjj)j> bozulmaq, dJ)^ buzulmek, xs^jy gyuruldu, div^ gyurunmek. Hitherto we have considered only the open syllables, that is, those which end with a vowel. We have now to treat of the closed syllables,—those which end with a consonant. In the original Arabic system, when a word or syllable ended with a quiescent consonant,—a consonant not followed 28 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. by a vowel sound or vowel letter in the same syllable,—such consonant was marked, in pointed writings, by the sign ° placed over it, which, as was before remarked, is called jezra, +)>.. Thus: L-*f beb, c->li bab, c-^ bub, L-*-J bib, &c. It is a rule in classical Arabic, that two quiescent con sonants cannot follow one another in the same syllable, whether as initials or as finals. Such a word or syllable as crusty tart, blurt, flirt, &c, is unknown. As far as two such initial consonants go, this rule prevails in the vernacular Arabic also, and has passed into the Persian and Turkish. Foreign words with such combinations of initial consonants to words or syllables are treated in one of two ways. When initial in a word, they may be separated into two syllables, either by a servile vowel I, generally with an esere vowel, being prefixed ; or by a vowel, generally eser£, being inter calated ; and when the combination is initial to a non-initial syllable of a word, the latter method alone is used, or the syllables are so divided as to separate the two consonants. Thus : KXifia has become *Jsl Iqlim, kral has become J^i qlral, oo o ^ o prince has become gj^ pirlnj, and Svizzera has become j*Ly>\ Isvlcher. In classical Arabic, a final word in a phrase or clause could terminate in two quiescent consonants ; as: k>. rabt, As urn, c^» huzn, &c. This liberty is much used in Persiau, Turkish, THE LETTERS AND ORTHOGRAPHY. 29 and foreign, as well as in Arabic Ottoman words; thus : O O J J COf OO 0° o-*,a durust, ^,1 ard, ^^ plrins, 2^ plrlnj {prince); &c. When a letter in an Arabic word ends one syllable, and begins the next in the same word, it is not written twice, but one sole letter is made to serve for the two, in pointed writings, by having a special mark, *, placed over it. This mark is an abbreviation of the Arabic word jJt» shedd, which means a strengthening, corroboration, reduplication. Thus we have, oJ-i» shlddet, olc 'Met, JI& baqqal, jpos. 'attar, j* medd, Mi WJ jj vldd, J umm, &c. It is a sine qua non in Ottoman reading, and in correct speaking, to redouble such letters in the pro nunciation. We can derive a correct idea of this reduplication by studying our expressions, mid-day, ill-luck, run next, &c. But, if such reduplicated Arabic word has passed into ver nacular Ottoman use, then the redoubling is excused in ordinary conversation ; as in the words JlL baqal, .Uac aqtar ; &c. This reduplication is really unknown in Persian; con sequently, reduplicated Arabic words are much used in o Persian without reduplication ; thus ki. is generally used in Persian as k» khat, and has thence, as similar words, passed into Ottoman Turkish. On the other hand, pedantic imitation has commonly given to a few Persian words the Arabic pecu liarity of reduplication, so passing into Ottoman also : thus, 30 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. j^ per (a wing), is sometimes pronounced ^ perr ; and sjj^ perende, »jj^ perrende ; &c. This reduplicating system is not used in correctly writing Turkish Ottoman words, but it is sometimes met with in incorrect writings. The two letters should be written in O JO J O JO J full in such Turkish words; thus, J-Dj^ ehulluq, JJJJJ billuq, etU*l emmek, &c. The Arabic word hemze, »}•&, besides being a name for the letter I, as before explained, is also the name of an ortho graphic sign, mark, or point, very variously used in Arabic and Persian. Most of the rules concerning it, which derive from the two languages, have passed into Ottoman Turkish, with an addition or two used in the Turkish transliteration of foreign words. Turkish words never require the sign. The hemze sign, ', would appear to be a diminutive head of the letter c, thus indicating to the eye the guttural nature of the vocal enunciation it represents; which is, in fact, a softened choke, in an Arab mouth. But in Persian and Turkish pro nunciation it is a slight hiatus, at the beginning of a non- initial syllable, or at the end of any syllable, initial, medial or final. It is placed over a letter when it bears the ustun or utfirii vowel, or is quiescent; under it, generally, with the esere vowel. The hJmze, in a word of Arabic origin, always represents a consonantal letter I, sometimes radical, sometimes servile. THE LETTERS AND ORTHOGRAPHY. 31 In Persian words, the theory of the sign is the same as in Arabic, but the sign itself is always servile, and either final or nearly so. When a hemze, radical or servile, is initial in an Arabic word, it is never written or pronounced in Persian or Turkish. The 1 letter is then taken to be a vowel, and is treated accord- ingly. Thus, JJ >emel, becomes J*l emel; JJ! 'Ibll, becomes o> Oj :S> Jjl Ibll ; J 'km, becomes J Amm. These are all radicals, and short. So again, JQ\ ^efkyar, becomes J6s\ efkyar ; JlJ\ >lqbal, becomes JUI iqbai; .j*l 'umur, becomes jy\ umur; &c. These initials are all servile, and short. The modes and doctrine of making them into long vowels have already been described. In Persian, Turkish, and foreign words, an initial I is always a vowel, and is made long in the same way as if the word were of Arabic origin, as has been said before. When a hemze, radical or servile, in an Arabic word, is medial or final, a rather numerous body of rules come into play. Sometimes the letter I, then always called hemz6, is written, together with the h£mz& sign over it, \ (as in ^K re>s), and sometimes the h6mz& sign above is figured, as a letter OJ f* ** now, without the I, in the body of the word; as in ^jJ^L^e yetesa>elun. In the former of these two cases, the hemze is o X usually a final, quiescent consonant in its syllable; as, eusi* o A. re>-fet, ^U rae>-men, &c. In the latter case, the hemz& is the initial consonant of its medial or final syllable, movent with 32 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. ftstun ; as in l*ja. juz->an, \%y>. jeza'an, &c. But it may also be both; that is, a quiescent hemze may terminate one syllable, while another, a movent h&mze, may begin the next syllable. In this case, as with any other consonant so occurri ig, one 1 alone is written, with a hemze sign over it; and ar ove this, the teshdid sign is superadded, with an ustun sign over it a again ; as in JliJ thfb->h\. This step never occurs ii Turkish phrases ; but the explanation is needed, so as to m ike clear what follows. This reduplicated medial hemze, movent with istun, is sometimes followed by a long vowel 1. In this case, instead of writing, for instance, ^Wj ra>->as, the two letters I are com bined into one, with the signs medd and hemze, anc without the ustun vowel; thus, ^T. ra>->as, as before. This ;ombiua- tion is of very rare occurrence, happening only in d erivative words, of which the root is triliteral, with hemze for second radical. But a movent initial hemze of a syllable, medial ii a word, may be followed by a long vowel \, without being redi plicated. It is then figured by a single written I with the hemze and medd signs ; as, JU ma'al, &c. These combinations, when used in Turkish, drop the hemze and teshdid signs, but preserve the medd sign. The ustun vowel that precedes such medd sign is hardened from e into a, THE LETTERS AND ORTHOGRAPHY. 33 on account of the following a, even with a preceding soft con sonant. But, when such medial or final h£mz& is itself movent with esere, it is no longer written in the form of \; it then takes the form of ^, without dots, and with a h&nize sign over it; as, ^J^JJ rens. If its vowel is uturu, it is written as a j letter, o JJ with hemze sign over it; as, ^JJJ ru>us. In these two examples the vowels are long; hut there are words in Arabic some perchance used in Turkish, in which they are short. Of course, the long vowel letters do not then follow the O ^ O jO^ modified, disguised hemz£. Thus, ^J^ ripls, ^Jjl eb>us. Moreover, when such medial or final hemze, whether movent or quiescent, is preceded by a consonant movent with eser&, the hemze is figured as a letter ^ ; and when movent with uturu, the hemze is written as a letter j ; in either case surmounted by a hemze sign ; thus, ^^ bfcsa, ^>jj bu^a. Such disguised medial hemze may be followed by a long vowel letter; as, *\y fcbad, JjJ~*o mes^ul, LrJJ rens. If the hemze be changed into a ^ figure, and be followed by a long vowel \, it becomes changed in Turkish, and sometimes in Arabic, into a consonant ^; as in o-l^ rlyaset (for o*-tf, rbaset). There is a striking peculiarity in certain Turkish Ottoman derivatives, which causes great embarrassment to students, and has filled continental Turkish dictionaries and grammars D 34 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. with totally misguiding examples and rules of pro aunciation, with regard to the interchangeable vowel-letters j and (j. The peculiarity arose, I imagine, when all Ottoman Turkish was provincial, and was governed by the pronu aciation of Asia Minor, variously modified in its various provinces. Thus the earliest writers made use, in all such derivative words, of the vowel-letter j (when they used a ly at all). O J^ O J 0 O J " They, therefore, wrote \^JS gelnb, L_>JXS gldub, t_>j J& qachub, OJ o J j JO* Jo- c-ij^J qirnb, ^jjy qurub; and jU,b b&shlu, jUI ellu; &c. These derivatives became, in course of time, in Europe, and in Constantinople, modified in pronunciation into gellb, gldlb, qachib, qlrib, qurub, bdshl?, elll, &c. The orthography, how ever, has remained sacred, excepting in the case of provincials, who sometimes write, as they pronounce, v-J&, c-^u^, W-A-SJS, O O J J O A Os U-AJI^J , ^jjf, ^b, ^ , &c. This subject will be further developed in the paragraphs on Euphony. Proceed we now to the phonetic values of the co isonants. The letter ^, equally used in Ottoman words of Arabic, Persian, Turkish, and foreign origin, has the value of our b generally, whether it be initial, medial, or final in a word. o, o o + o oJ Thus : jj bed, j> blr, Jo bar, jo biz, ^ buz, btk, buz, biz ; \>\ij rlbat, \&j rabt, e^-> subut; c-jbS kltab, t-j^. j3iiub, i-*j»l erib, \~>j> harb, uJs qalb ; &c. But when medisl or final, ending a syllable or word, it sometimes, anomalously, takes THE LETTERS AND ORTHOGRAPHY. 35 the value of our p. Thus it is common to hear, L^li-T kltap, i^Jo tip, \±i>\ Iptlda, ^IIJ kltapji. Especially is this the case with the gerunds in L^J ; as, ^>jsS gidip, ^j6 gelip, vjj^. yazip, L-^SJI oquyup, VJUK5 qfrip. The Persian letter <_> is our p in all positions: ,JJ peder, Jj\ apar, «_*>! lp. The Persian word v-**J esp, and the Turkish word LJ>JO t6p, are usually written with i_>. The Arabic o is our t in all positions: —t taj, taj, JJI etel, Iji? fetva, ol et, ol at, OJ! it, Ojl ot. In Turkish grammar it is sometimes changed into movent ^ in derivatives, when it O OJ J OJOJ is originally final and quiescent; as, o^ durt, ^^ durdunju, OJOJ ^ J J J O J J C d^ durdun, **j± durde, ^^ durdu, ^^ dtirdum, &c.; o^l It, j±J\ Ider, L-ijJol Idlp, ^^^J idlji ; il+J git, ^1/ glder, L-JJJJJ* gldlp, ^-^S gldljl; &c. The Arabic o is found in Arabic words only, and in a very few borrowed from the Greek. Its original value is that of O i J .* our th in think; so that &j|yU aya-thulug, for ayios OeoXoyos, was not as bad as our bishop for emfffcoTros. But in Turkish and Persian this value is unknown; the letter is pronounced as our 5 (sharp, never z) ; aya-sulug is therefore the Turkish name of Ephesus, c^(j is pronounced sablt,^! eser, oij^.1 Ihdas, &c. In some Arabic-speaking countries this letter has become a t; as, o56 talata, &c. The Arabic - in Turkish is our soft g, which we represent 36 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. by a j in all positions of all words, whatever the r origin. OO O^O^ O si* Thus, JJM^. jms, (j*»U>.l ejnas, —Ipl aghaj. In some Arabic- o o •» speaking countries it is pronounced like our hard g ; as, ±sr* mesgld, sjs;*' segdd, &c. Sometimes it takes the sharp sound of£, q.v. The Persian _ has the value of our ch in church, o * our tch in crutch. We never use the latter orthography in o ur trans om O X < „ literations,—always the former ; as, j^l dchmdq, flU ch&m, C * J OJJ ^ O J O O ^ cs^ja. churek, taJ^j^ chur&k, l^j*. chirba, -JI Ich, sL> chek, eis"^ chlchek. In Turkish derivation, this letter, in Turkish or foreign (not Persian, and there are no Arabic) words, sometimes becomes Arabic -., but not as a rule. The Arabic — has the harshly aspirated sound of our h in horse, hurl, her; not its soft sound, as heard in head, - lim, half, o * + &c. It is chiefly used in Arabic words; as, ^ > hisin, \tf~*s» huseyn, _b fettah, _^ jurh. We represent it by h ; some adopt h, to distinguish it from 5, q.v. Aspirate it always. The Arabic ± has no equivalent in our language. It is the counterpart of the Scotch and German ch in loch, ich, &c. It is generally transliterated Tch, as in the present treatis ). Until the student has learnt its true pronunciation, he shculd con sider it as a variety of h, and never pronounce it as a k, especially when it is initial. Thus jjj£. kMdiv (pronounce O 'A00' '•* hidiv, not kldiv), .L&jjlji. khudfivendghyar (pron. tiuda...), THE LETTERS AND ORTHOGRAPHY. 37 o ^ o J - o ^L» shakh, jy^\ Ikhlamtir. In Turkish words, this letter is often used, provincially, for JJ , and is itself sometimes pro nounced The Arabic j is our z in every word and every position; jh zad, ^-jj zlr, ^j z6r, ziir, ^j_.i nezd, \\ ez, ^1 az, az, O J Jjl uz ; &c. The Persian J is only found in Persian and Frenei words ; it is of the value of our s in treasure, pleasure, and is trans- literated zh) as, j\j zhazh, »^>*£ pezhmurde, jjj AJ\ &ta- mazh6r, &c. It is of very rare occurrence. The Arabic ^ is a soft s, always followed by a soft vowel in all words. It must never be pronounced as z ; thu3, ill asa, JJ^JS qavs, jj«* suz, suz. The Arabic yi is our sA, always; as, ^U shad, ^1 Ish, ^li neshr. The Arabic ^a, in Turkish, is a hard 5, used in Turkish, o J and foreign words also, to designate a hard vowel; 1 hus, Jfc\ Ass, o ... O J J 00 J « y o , O + initial. Thus, c^lL tulu*, Jb5 qdfcr, ki. khatt; JAJ> titll, clt dagh, j^W tuz, j*UJ? tiqamaq, j^jlL davranmaq. The Arabic k is used in Arabic words only, as a very hard z. Thus, Jib zallm, Ik zAlm, JLb zifr, jJo zafer, )Li hazz, O J O .. k^iis? mahzuz. The Arabic c is, as a general rule, used in Arabic words only. It is a strong guttural convulsion in an Arab throat, softened in Turkish to a hiatus, and often disappearing entirely. "We represent it by a Greek spiritus asper. Thus, ^ac easr, Oo-« o jo* o o ^ o J o, ^b ta*n, ^jxL melun, *WS qat', cjW maqtu\ The Turkish word vjs. 'araba (for AJU) is, however, with its derivatives, always written with this letter, of course corruptly. The Arabic c is, originally, a peculiar Arabian kind of hard g, with a sound vergeiug on that of the French r grasseye, which English dandies sometimes imitate. But in Turkish pronunciation it is either a simple hard g9 when initial; as, vJlfi gallb, KZAAZ g&flet, SJJIS. gay da, &c; and either that when medial or final in Arabic words only, or like our softened gh in Turkish words; often disappearing, or nearly so, and changing, like it, into a w sound after or before an Aturu hard vowel. Thus, Jltel igfal, c,x* sadg, j^k* magfur; J^JUI O , J J OJ O s J ° ? "* 1 2 aghlamaq, clW dagh, ^^j\ ilduwu, J&j* siwan, J&jio do wan, OJJ O J o , J ^f-y> s There is no reason whatever to write the senseless, false Latin-French ph instead of f9 as in caliph, a corruption of khallfe, A&J*. Thus, ^J ikvz, ka) lUz, \^Jy£ SOI. The Arabic j is our g in all words and all positions. It is erroneous and regrettable to represent it by k, as is generally done. The words ^[^s qur>an, jfl aq, e>3> waqt, are thus cor rectly rendered, leaving the k to represent its legitimate ancestor, d. The Arabic d, in all words and all positions, is our k. When initial in a word or syllable before a long 1 or j vowel, and also before a short uttiru vowel, it borrows, in an Ottoman mouth, the sound of a y after itself before the vowel; but not so before the short ustun, the short esere, or the long I vowel. Thus, c-^5 kyaztb, Jj^»l ekyul, i£bj^=> kyttpek ; (^A^=» kedl, A^=a klram, J^-^'j vekil. Its name, in Arabic, requires no addition; but in Persian and Turkish it has to be distin guished from the Persian letter of the same form, but widely different phonetic value. It is then termed A*-^C UJO kyafl 'areblyye. In Arabic and Persian Ottoman words it remains unchangeable by grammatical inflexion; but in Turkish words, when final, it undergoes phonetic degradation on becoming movent, and is pronounced as a Persian d, and even as ay; or sometimes as a w after an iittiru vowel. Thus, i^Lj\ Ipek, dC->l Ipeyln, &ls\ Ipeye, £ljl ipeyl; $jj» THE LETTERS AND ORTHOGRAPHY. 41 O 3 3 3 y 3 3 3 3 3 0*«0 euluk, dL^=sjlj*» sultiyun, A^S^M suluye, ^»^ suluju; &+zA Itmek, \y±£^m>\ Itm&yln. The Persian <*J, called A ;->»^l-i uJo kyafl farlslyy&, and ^^U uj^ kyafl farlsi, or ^jjs? * »\s kyafl 'ajami (vulg. fjS^^ 'aj&m kaTl), is the Persian hard g. It is unknown in Arabic, is unchangeable in Persian words, and is never final in Turkish words or syllables. Thus, eL» seg, d-feu** segln, A^SU* s£g&, .£*• segl; J£ g41. In ordinary writing and print it is undistinguished from its Arabic original; but the Persians mark it with a double dash : j£ gyul, SL*> seg. In some Turkish books it is marked with three dots: JS, dU. The Ottoman d, ignored by all previous writers, eastern and western, consequently nameless, but which we venture a J o J *y to term AJLLJ: »_JO kyafl 'Asmanlyye, the Ottoman <<*), is found in Turkish words only, as a medial or a final, never as an initial to a word, though it is used as an initial letter in a non-initial syllable. Its phonetic value is that of our y in all cases, though it has no mark to distinguish it. It is both radical, as in db bey, J& dlyll, ^^ ylylrml; or it is gram matical, declensional, servile, representing a softened Arabic O* 3 radical or servile d, become movent, as in <£by£» kyupek, G&jjj* s&vdlyin, L£i±j* savdlyl. Most European writers 42 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. represent this value by gh; but the practice is insufficiently considered, and altogether misleading. The Ottoman nasal e), distinguished by the name of surd n, o J o «• ^yjZle sag Mr nun, is a second special Turkish phonetic value of the letter d, or nasal letter, which we transliterate with the Spanish nasal n. It has the phonetic value of our English ng nasal, as in sing, thing, &c. In ordinary writing and print, it has no mark by which a student may recognize it; but some times three dots distinguish it, and one recent writer has marked it with one dot, u*j (as with him the three dots, d, serve to point out the Persian letter or sound). This value is never initial to a word. As a medial, it sometimes ends, sometimes begins a syllable; as, j^X^l anlamdq (vulg. anna- maq), {jj£=6 t&xhi (vulg. tar!) ; J$j^» gyunul, j£=*s deiilz, ^-^=»T aMz, ij£y> s6nra (vulg. s6ra). When final to a word, it is usually sounded as a simple n; as, tsb ben (ben), eL*» s^nln (sanln), eXlS g^llii (galln), dlL dlii (d&n), &j*> sdn (sbri). When medially final it is usually softened in like manner, or is elided in pronunciation. In ^%^=A and its derivates (itself derived from e)l an), the following J is exceptionally incor porated with it in pronunciation, as though by a kind of inversion of the Arabic rule of conversion for the J of the definite article Jl before certain letters called solar (for which see next paragraph on letter J). The Arabic J is our letter I in all words and all positions ; THE LETTERS AND ORTHOGRAPHY. 43 as, ^jjJ lazum, v^OI alln, JU dal. The Turkish word j^ilfei, mentioned above, is, with its derivatives, a modern Ottoman exception of the capital; and the Arabic rule for the con version of the J of the definite article Jl, in pronunciation, when followed by a noun or pronoun beginning with a solar letter, ^^* uJ^. harfl shemsi, into that solar letter redupli cated by a teshdid, is a classical exception, peculiar to Arabic compounds. The solar letters are fourteen in number (exactly the half of the alphabet) ; viz., o, d>, ^, ^>j>J> ijo, L>, k, J, cJ. Thus we have Is.-*3' ed-duhd, ez-zuha, *JlkJl it-tall', JLkJl ez-zulm, ppM el- lazlm, ^Jl en-nur. In the pronoun <^JJl, and its derivatives, the written J of the article disappears also. The sign " placed o o ^ over the J, so omitted in pronunciation, is named vwasl, J-oj junction; and is the letter ^ of that word, specially modified. The Arabic letters * and ,j are our m and n respectively, in all words and positions: JU mal, JJ emel, ~J benlm,^k\i nazlr, O O J ^j>. huzn. The Arabic letter j is sometimes a consonant, sometimes a vowel. When a consonant, it has the phonetic value of our v, of our w, or of these two combined, the v beginning, and the w ending the sound of the letter. Thus, Jj var, ^\j^ jewab, 44 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. o o «. o uJL>j vwasf, «.$!j vwaq!\ The ear alone can decide these differences. But when the consonant j is reduplicated in an Arabic word, it has always the v value; as, Jjl dvval, J\ji q^vvdl. Ottoman corruption even then may sound it, in hard lettered words, as a reduplicated w—q&wwal. The word u-ily qawwaf (or ^J\^ q&w&f) is an Ottoman corruption of Arabic n^jUi. khaffaf. When the letter j is a vowel in an Arabic or Persian word, it always has the value of u; excepting a few Persian words, become Ottoman vernaculars, in which it takes the sound of A. OJJ OJO^ O > OOJ Thus, *jjJ ltizum, ^ji** memnun ; j^ shur; o*^ d6st (dust), o •> (jip. khosh (khush). In Turkish and foreign words it is generally, if not always, short, and may have either the value of 6, or of u, u, u, which there is no means of distinguishing, save that of accompanying hard or soft consonants. With a hard consonant, in a Turkish or foreign word, the vowel-letter j (often omitted) must have the sound of either 6 or A, unless it be considered long, when it becomes o or u; thus, j^i q6m&q, ^jS qunn&q. With a soft consonant, it must be read either u or u, u or u; as, etL^ yuzmek, jljj-* suzlu. If the accompanying consonant or consonants be neutral, all ° J ° J guidance is lost; as, jj> b6z, buz, buz, jj«* suz, suz. In derivatives there is, however, frequently a servile vowel or consonant, hard or soft, that helps. Thus, ^jy> boz&n, (jljljj* o *o J o^oj o y buzluluq, &k*jj> buzmek, <&*\j*t suzmek; but jj**> suz has no THE LETTERS AND ORTHOGRAPHY. 45 such helping derivative. As to the long and short value, each individual ear must decide for itself in words of these two classes—Turkish and foreign. Vowel j is never initial; it must be preceded by I to represent an initial uturu sound ; as, jjjl ilmaq, dljjl uimek, &c. The Arabic letter 5 has already been fully discussed. The Arabic letter unless they may be Germans. Thus we have: jn yer, i<*Jjj» yedek, jV. l^h jjl yuz> OH %n> &fj> %un ; [yi pfy, °J> shey, J\j re an I; as, ^jsA Idl, j^y) irlainaq. When medial, it is always o .# o long in Arabic and Persian words ; as, j^\ emir, <^UJ bin. In Turkish and foreign words, medial vowel (j is generally, if not always short; as, d^j vlrmek, j^J qirmaq. When final in an Arabic word, it is also always short; as, ^jl5 qazi, -i|L razl, _cb da'l, ^U jaii, ^jj^»* sari, &c. But there are hosts of Arabic words ending in reduplicated consonantal The vowels I and s are sometimes interchangeable in Turkish words and derivations, and are sometimes omitted, 0 x "° without any inflexible rule being assignable. Thus, (^LLLJI , dL*A*aJ, eU^aj, Itm^mek, are all admissible. The true rule is : " Never introduce a vowel letter into a Turkish or foreign word without removing a possible doubt as to pronunciation ; never leave out a vowel in such word, if by the omission a doubt is created as to pronunciation." The orthography of Arabic and Persian words is fixed, and admits of no such variation. Persian words admit, however, of abbreviation by the omission of a vowel; as, sU» shah, & sh£h ; sUolj padshah (vulg. padlshah), As the orthography of every Arabic and Persian Ottoman word is fixed and unchangeable, it is only in Turkish and foreign Ottoman words, and in the declensions and conjuga tions of all Ottoman words, that the rules relating to hard and soft letters are carried out. This is the first and chief part of the beautiful system of Ottoman euphony. If any one of the hard or soft consonants is used in a, Turkish Ottoman word, all the other radical and servile letters of the word, of its derivations, and of its declension or conjugation, must be of the same class, or of the neuters. oy o x o ^o '^ r> , Thus we have: j*jl5 qazmaq, di*p gezmek; ^.yft qazdighi, Jo^)j gezdlyl; jj^ls qarliq, \^f gyuzluk; &c. The Ottoman vowels are also of these three classes. The hard vowels are : a, a, I, T, 6, 6, u, u; eight in all. The soft vowels also eight: a, e, 1, I, u, u, u, u. The neutral vowels are a, a, a. These vowels always accompany their own class of consonants, or the neutrals. The neutral vowels can accompany any class of consonant. Thus we have : bb bdbd, bl ana, U»IJ pasha, ^ san, ^ ben, j^J qirmaq, dU^f glrmek, O^ ' 0<*0 J O '(1/ iy O fO J/ j^S qimaq, j^jS qurmaq, dLJj^ gyuzetmek, etl*^ gyurmek. When in a Turkish Ottoman word a vowel is the dominant letter, its consonant or consonants being neutrals, the declen- THE LETTERS AND ORTHOGRAPHY. 49 sion, conjugation, and derivation from that word follow the class to which the dominant vowel belongs ; thus, j^Jl atrnaq, O O ,-• O X X O O'OJ O ' x O J jJ/M aghirliq, j^V/J irlamaq, j+^1 Ammaq, &>\JS-J\ 6ghramaq; O » 4" O /O O xo J OxO J islo jl elemek, csUijil Inmek, i*Lo}j> ytizinek, dl^y tirmek. When an Arabic or Persian word is declined or derived from, in Ottoman Turkish, its last dominant letter or vowel decides whether the declension or derivation shall be made O J Ox with hard or soft letters and vowels ; thus, Lj^* merbut, rJ~> Jc/ Ox o o ^ O 'i* oc x^ ($o£j* merbutluq ; ju! emir, dd^*l emirllk; ^U asan, ^liUI asanliq ; &c. When the sole dominant vowel of a Turkish Ottoman word, or the last dominant letter or vowel of a Turkish, Arabic, Persian, or foreign Ottoman word, is of the o or u class, hard or soft, all possible consonants, and all vowels in the declension, conjugation, or derivation therefrom, not only conform to the class of such dominant, but furthermore, all consecutive servile vowels in the derivatives that would otherwise be esere, become uturu, of the class of the dominant; that is, become u when the dominant is 6 or u, and become u when the O JO J OiO J ot J~> J dominant is u or n; thus, [#J&J\ olgun, OXOJOJ J O so J J OJ J mek, id*j*Z>jj-**> sumshdurmek, dl^jJ^j-- surnshdurulmek ; O 'OJ J-^ O/OJOJ J O^rjJo-f J Cil^j) gyurushmek, d^jJ^^a gyurushdurmek, <*JUJ,jg2^s3 E 50 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. gyurushdurulmek. But if, in such words, an ustun vowel come in by the ordinary course of derivation or conjugation, and be followed by a syllable or syllables with an esere vowel, the influence of the radical dominant uturu is destroyed o,rj j o 0,0J J by such intervention ; as, CHAPTER IL THE OTTOMAN ACCIDENCE OR ETYMOLOGY. SECTION I The Noun Substantive. THERE is no gender. If the female of an animal has not a special name, as, jfjlL (taw&q), a hen, j^~i (qisraq), a mart, O * O O x t*L>l (tnek), a cow, j^te (qanjlq), a bitch, the female is named, as with us, a she..., ^LJ± (dlshi); as, ^^,1 -£JO (dlshl arslan), a lioness ; &c. If the female be a girl or woman, she is never o « named dishl, but is mentioned as^J (qiz), maiden, or ^jjd (q&ri)^ b matron, accordingly; as, (j^j^jj (qiz khizmetjl), orjJ(j^" j*> (khizmetjl qiz), a servant maid, a maidservant; ^sn ^jj& (qaii dshji), or ^li ^fl (ashj! qari), a woman cook, a cook woman. There is, really, no declension of nouns in Turkish; but the prepositions, perhaps eight in number, by some termed postpositions, are subjoined to the noun, singular or plural, the plural being always formed by adding the syllable^ (lar, lex) to the singular; thus : Nom. jjl 6q {arrow), j-^j\ oqlar (arrows). Gen. dijl Aquii (of—), \&j&j\ oqlatln. 52 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. Dat. 63j\ 5qa (to -), j^Juij! oqladi. + o J Loc. i±9j\ 6qda (in —), bjfij\ oqlarda. Ace. ^i 6qn (the —), U?j£jl oqlail. ° " ° j Abl. 0dJj\ 6qdan (/rom —), ^^jl oqlardan. Inst. &±J3\ 6qla (WJIVA —), 2jsj\ oqlarla. O J O J O J 'O J Caus. Cjf\ jj\ oq Ichnn (/or —), &j$)j3j\ 6qlar Ichnn. ev (house), Noni. j' ^ £vler (houses). o • Gen. evln, d# evlerln. Dat. !? eve, ^1 evlere. Loc. Sij! evde, 5^jl evlerde. Ace. Most Turkish singulars (not all) ending in o soften this letter into ^ before a junctional vowel preposition ; thus, o,j5 C JO J „ o J JO J (qiirt), wolft d-^i qurdAn, s^jS qArda, [S^j? q^rdu; not so before a consonant or separate word ; as, sjJ,*i, ^jJ^y, *l3>j«S, \j&y ^>jf \Dut ^ ^^i /c^^ °^u> &c- Most, if not all, Turkish singulars, of more than one syllable, ending in j, soften it into c before junctional vowels; as, J^L^ (chardaq), trellis, dLcl^U cbardaghin, ACCIDENCE OR ETYMOLOGY. 53 A-CI^U chardaghd, ^xl^U. chardaghi. Those in Arabic d soften it into Turkish d (y value); eL-jl (Ipek), silk, dX-*-jt (Ipeyln), A_1JV (Ipeye), Jv-oJ (Ip^yl). Those in Persian d (g value), do not change it; as, du**> seng, stone, dX-i-> (sengln), dX-^*i (senge), -X-^» (sengl). These rules do not apply to Arabic and Persian substan tives ; these retain their final j or d unchanged; unless the borrowed word has passed into the mouth of the vulgar as an o o o o everyday expression; as, jp*i fistiq, d*i~i fistighin, &c. Singulars ending in a vowel, take ^ in the genitive, and consonant Arabic and Persian substantives never change their final • ^- O " consonants for declension; {j^e> (tlb&q), plate, <*1LL t&baqin; O ^ O __ *^ xO _ O x ^ dL^I (Imsak), refraining, A-SL^I (imsake); oil—© (salat)r worship, jjiL* (salati). Their final vowels follow the same /J O , rules with those in Turkish words; lo (dua), 'prayer, <*UICJ d^eanin); WLJ (piyade), foot-man, AJ5^LJ (plyadeye); j_*^L^ charsu), market, ^j**j^ (eharsuyu) ; ^1% (suiasl), triliterai root, /c-i^^J (sulaslyl). They form their plurals as Turkish words; but Persian names of men and their kinds use the Persian plural also, if judged proper. This is formed by adding an ustun vowel, followed by Arabic plurals,.of the regular forms for men and women, and of the various irregular forms for these and other things, and also the Arabic duals, are used in Turkish. The dual is formed by adding ustun followed by ul (an) in the nominative, OO which becomes ^ (eyn) in the oblique case. The latter is frequently used in Turkish as a nominative; as, J pole, J^3* (qutban), UT^s (qutbeyn), the two poles. The regular plural masculine nominative for men is formed by adding uturu followed by ^j (un) to the singular. This becomes esere followed by ^ (in) in the oblique case, also used as a nominative in Turkish; the plural feminine is with O O O J ustun followed by ol (at) in all cases ; thus, JL*> (musllm), O J O J OOJ O / OJ a Muslim, I^JL** (musllmun), C>-JL* (musllmm), oUL* (mus- llmat), Muslims. The irregular Arabic plurals commonly used in Turkish are of rather numerous forms, and there are many more plural forms used occasionally. These irregular plural Arabic forms are not obtained by adding a letter or letters, vowel or con^ sonant, to the end of the singular, but by varying the vowel or vowels of the word, and by adding letters, consonant or vowel, as the case may be, before, between, or after, the letters of the singular. To enable the student to obtain a fair insight into this very intricate but beautiful system, I have to say, first of all, that a paradigm has been adopted by Arabian grammarians, according to which all such modi* 56 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. fications may be effected. They have taken the triliteral Jxs (fa'ala) as the representative of any and every triliteral root- word, and they have modified this root into every shape that can, under any circumstances, be taken by any derivative of any triliteral root in the language. All those modifications, when not made on the vowels alone of the triliteral, are effected by adding servile letters, or a servile letter, here and there, before, after, and in the midst of, the three radical consonants, with appropriate mutations, in each case, of the vowels, long or short, in the new word. Thus, to speak only of Arabic nouns, substantive or adjective, used in Turkish, we have, in the first place, to learn the forms of their singulars (for they all have definite forms), and then the forms of the plurals special to each of these singulars. To facilitate and systematize this knowledge, the Arabian grammarians have divided the whole language into sections of biliteral, triliteral, quadriliteral, quinqueliteral, &c, roots, which they term, respectively, ^JLJ (sunan), Skj (siVasi), j-cl\. (raba'i), ^C-UA. (klmmasi), ^lj**» (stidaVi), &c. These are the Turkish pronunciations of the terms. I do not re- member ever to have seen or heard the expression ^U.! (uhadi), which would be the analogous name for uniliteral root; but it may perhaps be found. Of these, the triliterak form by very far the most important and numerous class, the quadriliterals coming next. These are represented, ACCIDENCE OR ETYMOLOGY. 57 respectively, by the supposititious paradigmatic words J-x-J (fa'ala) and JU (ft'lele). Every triliteral root is theoretically capable of giving rise to fifteen chapters of derivation, called C-JL) (bab, pi. L-^J-JI ebvab). These chapters are respectively termed : 1, ^JU JXS (fa'ald babi), the chapter of the triliteral; 2, ^\> J*xw (tefil babi), the chapter of (the verbal noun) J-x*J ; 3, ,~JIJ AICU* (mftfaVUA b^bi); 4, ^C JU (If al babi); 5, .jlT jltf (t4fi"Al —); 6, ^bJ^liJ (tifa'Ai—); 7, ^C J^] (Inffal—); 8, ^lT juJl (Iftlal —); 9, ^C JIJU(If Hal —); 10, ^C JUiJ (Istlf al —); ll,^CjlJl (Ifllal—); 12,^C JU^KlfVal—); 13,^b j£Jl (Iffvval —); 14, ^C j£*1 (Ifinlal —); 15, ^C JIJl (Iflnla—). The use of words from the last four chapters is next to unknown in Turkish, if not quite so; and the use of chapters 9 and 11, JJLSI , J\*^ , is confined to the expression of colours, the second expressing an intensity of degree. All the other nine chapters of derivation are constantly met with in Turkish, as nouns, substantive and adjective. Occasionally, even a verb is used; but as a kind of invocatory interjection. All but the first of these names (which is the form of three out of the six varieties of its verb) is the form of one of the verbal nouns, or of the sole verbal noun, connected with the verb of the chapter; and each chapter has two adjectives 58 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. deriving from it, the active and passive participles of the verb of the chapter. The first, or triliteral, chapter possesses, furthermore, several other special forms of nouns deriving from its verb other than its verbal nouns (which are a kind of infinitive, or noun of action or being, corresponding with our English substantive form in -ing, as, walking, singing, cutting, suffering, lasting, &c, as acts or states). Of these, I give here merely those frequently met with in Turkish ; and it must be understood, that in this simple triliteral chapter, the various forms of verbal nouns are never all found deriving from one verb ; but certain forms belong to one or more kinds of tri literal verbs, others to other kinds. These hinds of verbs, again, are of two sorts; there are verbs transitive or active, and there are verbs intransitive or neuter; and certain verbal nouns are more used than others with each of these two kinds. Again, there are the six conjugations of this simple triliteral chapter ; and each conjugation has its preferential form or forms of verbal noun. The Turkish Qamiis dictionary dilates on this subject more than other works, and much information can be obtained from it, in addition to what should be "studied in the " Grammar of the Arabic Language," by Dr. Wm. Wright, vol. i., p. 109, par. 196, where 36 forms of " nomina verbi " are given for this triliteral chapter alone, and several others may be found in De Sacy's " Grammaire Arabe," 2nd edition, 1831, vol. i., p. 283, par. 628. Those that are principally ACCIDENCE OR ETYMOLOGY. 59 used in Turkish are the following: 1, J* (fa'l); 2, J^ (faMl); 3, ji (fl'l) ; 4, J^ (fu'1) ; their feminines: 5, A \JJ (fa'le) ; 6, &i (fa'ale); 7, '& (flele); 8, &* (fu'le) ; the same forms, with an insititious or servile long vowel \ : 9, J^ (fa'al) ; 10, JUj (flal); 11, JU (fuTil); and their feminines : 12, J& (fa ale) ; 13, JU (fl ale); 14, J& (fuale); some of the same, with long vowelj or O y xO , O +J in form, either; 11, J*s (ffill; for the form d*9 fi'le), or 12, J** (fu'al; for the form al** f&'le), or 13, JUsI (ef'al; as for mas culines) ; 14, JjUs (fa'a'll; for the forms jJUi fa'ale, AJJXS fa'ule t \ .. - j faeil£); 15, Jsjy (fevall; for the form ai-cli) ; besides 16, J*& (mefall; for the forms mef al, mef il, mlf al, and o y _ o so o Jo* their variants) ; 17, J-sl** (m^fa'il; for the forms JUi*, JJ*A*); and others more rarely used. ACCIDENCE OR ETYMOLOGY. 61 Adjectives masculine derived from this triliteral chapter, much used in Turkish, are of the two forms J-*9 (fall) and Jxs! (ef'al) ; feminines, respectively, ALX* (fa'lle) and %& (fa'la, for Arabic i%a ; of J«s! when not comparative) or %& (f&'la, for Arabic ^xs; of the same Jxsl when comparative). The plurals of these are: %& (fd'ala) or jLal (ef'ile), for J^, as in the substantive; and Jxs (fuel), for Jxsl and its feminines. We now come to the derived chapters. The verbal nouns of the second chapter are: J^' (tef II), JUAJ (tefal; sometimes tlfal), and *kaJ (tefile) ; the plurals of the whole of which are of the form J-claJ (tefa'il) ; though the first makes also a quasi-regular plural, o^Lxw (tefl'at). O W/ J* *v4s J Its active participle is J*A* (mnfa'll, fern. al*io mtifa'lle); and its passive participle is JXA* (mu.faeeal, fern, *£&» mufa"ale), of which the masculine is also used as a noun of time and place. The verbal nouns of the third chapter are: alxla* (mnf a'ale) o .» and JU (fl'al ; this latter only occasionally used) ; the active participle is Jclio (mftfall, fern. AICUO muialle); the passive participle, jiliu (mAfa'al, fern, ak\i* mtifa'ale, exactly like the first verbal noun). . o #»o The verbal noun of the fourth chapter is JUsI (if'al); a. p. J*io (mAf 11, fern. AW); p. p. J*a« (mufil, fern. AW). 62 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. The fifth chapter has: v. n., J*£ (tefa^ul); a. p. J*u* (mute- fall, fern. AU^); p. p. jX (mutefiTal, fern. J^). The sixth : v. a jllli (tefa'ul) ; JcUll (mutefall, *LlSl)5 JcUi* (mutefaal, AICU^*). The seventh: JUsl (Infial), J^ (munfall, i£), JiiH (mflnfaal, Axtu*). The eighth : JU*1 (Iftlal), jiL (mifti'Il, A1^), J*iu (muf- ta'al, ALC^U). c The ninth: JiLi 1^ (Ifllal), a.p. j21 (mufall, j£u mufalle); no p. p. The tenth: JUA^J (istlfal), J*a^** (mustefil, *!»«•;«»,<>), J*AZ-~<> (mustefal, A1*A1~O). o „ The eleventh: J^M (Ifllal), ju£ (mufall, IlllL mufalle) ; no p. p. As to the significations of these chapters, it may be shortly said that when the first is transitive, the second is causative or intensitive; and when the first is intransitive, the second— causative still in the same sense, but not intensitive—is tran sitive. Sometimes the second has the sense, not of making (a thing) do or be (so or so), but of making (it) out to be (so and so), of deeming, judging, pronouncing, or calling (it so and so) ; rarely, it unmakes also. The third chapter denotes reciprocity of the action between ACCIDENCE OR ETYMOLOGY. 63 two, or among several or many agents, or an expected reciprocity when one agent only is shown. Thus, AJ>&> a mutually writing letters (to one another), a writing in expecta tion of a reply; Jli a mutually striving to kill one another, O O J fighting. When the triliteral is expressive of a state, as cr^>. (h&sn), a being beautiful or good, the third form expresses an action corresponding with that state in the agent; thus, 4u-As? (mfthasene), a doing good, and acting well, kindly to (the other). The fourth form is causative, generally, but sometimes ° * ° intransitive; thus, JL^I (Irsal), a sending (some person or o *o thing) ; Jlii (Iqbal), an advancing. The fifth form has the sense of acquiring a state, sometimes by one's own act, sometimes through the act of another; as, ..^^j (tekessur), a becoming broken. This may be transitive at times; as, + ,~Ly., ,.T (ta'alltim), a becoming knowing in (a science, art, &c.) ; i. e., a learning (it). The sixth form has the idea of reciprocity, something like the third, but more decided, more certain in fact; thus, Jjliu (taqatul), a mutually killing one another. Sometimes it has the sense of feigning a state ; as, Jals* (tejahul), a feigning to be ignorant. Sometimes, again, it expresses a repeated act; thus, LilLJ (taqaza), a dunning, repeatedly demanding the fulfilment and discharge (of some incumbent act or debt). 64 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. The seventh and eighth forms, like the fifth, imply the acquisition of a state, either by one's own act, or as the result of the act of another; thus, JUail (Inffal), a being acted upon, o ^ o _ affected, hurt, wounded, vexed (by another's act); J]Q£\ (Intlzar) a (becoming) looking forward (for the occurrence of an event). Sometimes the eighth form is transitive in the sense of acquiring; thus, (j^l^al (Iftlras), an acquiring (game) by hunt- O X O ing; or, a seeking to acquire; as, ^UJI (lltlmas), a seeking to obtain (a favour) by (morally) feeling one's way (by touching, groping, requesting); a requesting. The ninth and eleventh express two degrees of state as to colour, and sometimes as to defects; the eleventh denoting o ^ o intensity of that state ; thus, ,]/•»! (Ihmlrar), a being red; red- O x O _ O - O ness; j\j<+2»\ (Ihmirar), a being very red; 9^j^ (i'vijiij, a being O " O crooked; crookedness; —L:s2j_cl (1'vijaj), a being very crooked; anfractuosity. The tenth usually expresses a trying to get (the act or state O y O O signified by the first form) ; as, ^L.&uJ (Istlfsar), an asking for an explanation of (a matter). Sometimes it has, like the second, the sense of deeming or judging (a thing) to be (what ° "° ° the first form signifies); as, Jl&i*»l (Istlsqal), a deeming (a per son or thing) heavy, disagreeable, tedious. And sometimes it means an acquiring a state, expressed by the first form ; thus, ,. o o laJ^I (Istlshfa), a becoming restored to health. And again, it ACCIDENCE OR ETYMOLOGY. 65 o ^ o o occasionally has the sense of the first form ; as, JjjuiJ (Istl'dad), a being or becoming ready prepared; readiness (external or mental); mental capacity and quickness in acquiring dexterity or knowledge. Quadriliteral roots have but four forms ; of which only two are perceptibly used in Turkish, the first and second. The first has two verbal nouns, figured paradigmatically by AIU* o *o (fa'lele), and ^%9 (fl'lal); the second, but one, figured by JW (tefa'lul); culkL* (saltanat) may serve as an instance of O J Oy ' a verbal noun of the first form, and ^WLJ (tesaltiin) as an example of the second. It would occupy too much space to detail here the modifica tions of these results arising in the case of roots where the second and third radicals are identical, or of those in which one, two, or all three of the radicals belong to the trio \, y <^, out of which the long vowels, the letters of prolongation, spring. These details should be studied in Wright's, or in De Sacy's Arabic Grammar. But it is necessary to remark that these Arabic verbal nouns belong equally to the active and passive voice of their verbs; so that, as in English, the same word, js fet-h for instance, will sometimes mean a con quering, at others a being conquered, just as our word conquest does. This last rule holds good with Persian verbal nouns, not much used in Turkish. It is not so, however, with Turkish verbal nouns, excepting, to a slight extent, with the F 66 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. present, as in A* ma, me ; and this for the simple reason that every passive Turkish verb has its own special verbal nouns complete, present, past, and future. Every Turkish, Persian, and Arabic substantive has its diminutive, the two latter seldom used in Ottoman phrases. The Turkish diminutive substantive is formed usually by o o suffixing the syllable <&U (jlk) or j* (jiq) to the word, of whatever origin, whether it end in a consonant or vowel. o o >- «. o o Thus, db?^l (erlkjlk) a little plum, db&l (Itjlk) a little dog, ^UliT(kltabjlk or J^liTklt&bjlq) a little booh, dbtf^(kyatlb- O x^ O J J J jlk) a little cleric, <&U*j.> (devejlk) a little camel, U&>J>J\ (utujuk), a little flat-iron, dL*sjS^(kAdljlk) a little cat, jfc-ljl (elmajiq) a little apple, jfc.U»b (pasbajiq) a little pasha, (jsPuoli (padl- shahjlq) a little monarch, J^j*? (q&pAJM) a little door or gate, O * J O ' ^A^ljii (khojajiq) a little professor, ^yjgj* (qirljlq) a little woman. o o In words ending with eJ or JJ, after a movent consonant, it would form a cacophony to repeat these letters for the diminutive. The less important is therefore sacrificed to euphony, and omitted in the diminutive, a vowel letter usually taking its place: v&yf (kyurek), <&L^j> (kyurejlk), a little O » J OJ J J shovel or oar; jf»-j> (chojuq), SECTION II. The Noun Adjective. As a general rule, the adjective, in Turkish, is invariable, having no gender, number, case, or degrees of comparison; and this, whether the word be of Turkish, Arabic, or Persian origin. It always precedes the substantive qualified; as, +±\ dj^j (blyuk adam), a great man, J*±\ eJ^j (btyuk adamlar), great men; JCJJ\ ISJ^J (blyuk Inekler), big cows. But the Persian form of phrase is also much used (especially in writing), by which an adjective of Persian or Arabic origin follows the substantive qualified ; such adjective remaining in the singular after a Persian substantive plural, the substantive qualified always taking an esere of subjection to join it to the o o i •* *o * adjective; thus, &jj-> &\<*j-* (merdani buzurg), great men; o ,0 * * d^j o -. lat*ge, larger, largest, too large; ,j\^f (sijaq), hot, hotter, hottest, O J J too hot; ijje-je (sdghuq), cold, colder, coldest, too cold; &c. The Persian compound adjective, much used in Turkish, in the positive degree only, is of many kinds. Some are com pounded of two substantives, one or both of which may be Arabic or Persian, never Turkish ; as, c^L*. +S» (jem-jenab), O O * 0'W majestic as Jemshid; ^JAJ LJLA (asaf-tedbir), Asaph in counsel; uJ,^s*£ (sheker-leb), sugar-lipped; »\CJL»O oJljc ('adalet- destgyah), a very loom of justice (i. e., just) ; others of an O - O J ' adjective followed by a substantive ; as, ^L^s*^ (sebuk-pay), light of foot, light-footed; or a substantive followed by an adjective; as, AL£JJ.> (dll-tlshne), thirsty-hearted (i. e., ardently desirous) ; or a substantive preceded by ^> (hem); as, jiLiT J& (hem-ashyane), of the same nest; UJ*** (hem-jlns), of the same genus; jjj^~** (hem-shehri), of the same town or country, a fellow-countryman; of a substantive followed by J^j (vesh), like; as, J^jijj-i (peri-vesh), fairy-like; of a substantive CO/ o «» O -*^ followed by d^ (rang), *U (fam), or ^ (gyun), all signifying OO, CO, O 'Oti*J colour; as, tsJ^^ (sebz-rang), green-coloured; Js^(zumurrud- fam), emerald-coloured; ^*xS (gendum-gyun), wheat-coloured (i. e., dark-complexioned, brown); of a substantive followed by J(T(kyar, gyar), JT(ger), aU (ban), or j> (dar) ; as, ]C^fi (shirin-kyar), sweet-mannered; jC±ij\ (aferid-gyar), creative ACCIDENCE OR ETYMOLOGY. 71 (i. e., creator) ; ^Tj (zer-ger), goldworker, goldsmith; IJLCIJ O * OOJ (bag-ban), garden-keeper (i.e., gardener) ;J\±J$* (muhr-dar), seal- keeper; or followed by J\± (dan), j\\ (zar), ^L, (sar), or ^L-l (Istan), all names of special places; as, /?».^a;i ^i- (bakht-ber-geshte), w;^0S£ £wc& is reversed; or even 72 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. four words combined; as, »ju£> dJ^*» (ser-be-felek-keshlde), whose head is lifted up to the very spheres ; besides many other varieties ; especially the two privatives in ^J (bi), without, and li (na), not; as, v-ol ^ (bi-edeb), without education or manners, unmannerly, impolite; L*j\j (na-bina), not seeing, sight less, blind. Some Arabic expressions may be regarded as compound o «» o *» epithets in Turkish and Persian; as, MK%»U (sahib-qiran), ford o/* tAe conjunction (i. e., tAe master of the age) ; ou+xJ-Jj (veli-nl'met), associate of benefits (i. e., a benefactor) ; expres- J o * o o ^ o ^ cv sions formed of ji (zu), oU (zat), Jal (ehl), and C-JI^I (erbab), all of which imply possession; as, Afljiji (zu-zu>abe), possessed J of a forelock or topknot, and Afliij"* i (zu-zunabe), possessed of a following (i.e., a comet); u^' oli (zatu-'l-jenb, vwty. satlljan), tfAe possessor of the side (i. e., pleurisy) ; or in Persian con struction; as, jj^Jal (ehli-'lrz), possessed of honour or virtue, O < O x *0>» honorable, honest, virtuous ; x~~.**->\iS (erbabi-mesned), those who possess the chief seat (i. e., high dignitaries); or an adjective qualified with^c (g&yr)> other; as, ^js^-c (gayri-mahdud), other than circumscribed (i. e., unlimited, undefined); or an Arabic verb in the aorist made negative with V (la), not; as, l*o5sV (la-yAhsa), wo^ to be counted, innumerable; JJOV (la-yu'add), untold, innumerable; OJ*JV (la-yemut), wfo cZ^5 no^, immortal; fjjs&V (la-yetejezza), not to 00 subdivided, indivisible; or an ACCIDENCE OR ETYMOLOGY. 73 Arabic adjective followed by a definite article and substantive; as, JJJJI^JJI (ebedlyyu-'d-devam), eternal in duration; ^Lyi) 0 - * (fl'lan), by act; L*o. (hasanan), beautifully. Arabic substan tives are also sometimes used as Turkish adverbs by being put in their own genitive, indefinite or definite, as may be, and preceded by an Arabic preposition; as, iUs ^ ('an gafletln), by inadvertence; ^JljJLlI ^Ic ('ale-'t-tevall), in continued suc- cession, successively; AP « a J' ^j (fl-'l-haqiqa), in reality, really, truly; oU-ijJl; (bl-'d-defa'at), on several occasions, repeatedly; uZL) (ll-sebebln), for a reason; &c. As with substantives, so also every Turkish adjective has its diminutive, formed by the addition of the suffix A> (je, ja), -ish, to the word, whether this end in a consonant or vowel; as, j£j (yeshll), green, A_SP* (yeshllje), greenish, somewhat green; Jj_5 (qizil) red, *srj-i (qlzllja) reddish; < SECTION III, The Numerals. Turkish, Arabic, and Persian numerals, cardinal and ordinal, are used in Ottoman. Arabic fractions are also used as far as one-tenth. In this sketch, however, the five sorts of Turkish numerals alone are explained. These are the cardinal, ordinal, distributive, fractional, and indefinite numbers. ACCIDENCE OR ETYMOLOGY. 75 o The simple Turkish cardinal numbers are : jj (bir) one, JJi (Ikl) two, -j\ (uch) three, o^> (durt) four, ^ (besh) Jive, jJI (alti) six, ^±1 (y&dl) s^w, jX- (seklz) eight, jyb (diquz) nine, ^j\ (6n) ten, ^J^i (ylylrml) twenty, jj~*j\ (6tuz), ^/r/y, J^S (qlrq) forty, JJI (elll) j£/ty, JLdT (altmfsh) strrty, JU* (yet- mlsh) seventy, ^IjC* (seksan) eighty, ^Lit (d6q?an) ninety, \jj (yuz) a hundred, (sL* (bin) a thousand. The two substan- C J O JO tives, (£)# (ynk), a hundred thousand, and ^^U (mllyin), a million, are also used; but they are not true numerals. They are names of aggregates, and require the numerals before o -> o o*°o them; as, ^jij> (bir yuk), one hundred thousand, ijjj*j> (bir mllyon) one million; and so on for higher numbers, dj> Lc^} > O JO O » O JO O J3 ^j^JU ^j\, &c. The French numerals ^jJ* (bllyin), ^j^tj (tlrll- yon), tich) one hundred and thirty-three, ^ gJjjijS-* dL-j (bin 76 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. s&klz yuz qirq besh) one thousand eight hundred and forty-Jive, OOJOJOJ O O ^' O O Ol* O J Of cjjSij\jji ctL-> J-XA (jl^-lijji JJ^J (beshyuz altmishseklz bin yuz 6n durt) 568,114, ^T JLJ1 jjlj\ dU ^ U^ ^J ij*. Uj^A gj' (uch mllydn, yedi yuk, doqsan iki bin, uch yuz, Alii alti) 3,792,356. It will be noticed that'no conjunction enters these • T O J O combinations. When the foreign expression ^j. ,L« , or the treasury word &ji is not used, the native method of expressing O O J multiples of <*LJJJJI is to state the simple or compound number of such multiple, and then to intercalate the word •3 <^ OOJ o o J S 'f " »,_S (kerre) £m£s, before the word du-fj^i ; as, eL-jj^j a^JS ^JJ (yedi kerre yuz bin) sgum iimes o?ie hundred thousand, 700,000; dLoji. Ir^J^ KS^°J£ ^J* (d^rt ^z ^ *k* kerre y^z b*fi) 45,200,000. The Turkish interrogative cardinal numeral is — Is (qach) fow; many ? The cardinal numerals are adjectives ; but, like all adjec tives, may be used as substantives, and declined. Even the interrogative — li is used as a substantive when enquiring " what number ? " or " what is it o'clock ? " or " at what price ? " or " what is the day of the month ? " Thus : JJXJJJA gli (qach dldlnlz) "how many did you say?" ^jdS **l5 c>fcL» (sa'at q&cha o J c ^ ^ ^ gaidl) " to ^010 many (hours) has the clock come ? " ij^jfji) *>^ (qacha verly6rsun) " at how much art thou selling (it, them) ? ' ACCIDENCE OR ETYMOLOGY. 77 o *» o „• ^ ^13 usbl (ayfn qachl d!r) " the how-manyeth of the month is it ? " The Persian compound cardinals place the higher elements first, as in Turkish and English; but the conjunction j is in- O Ox JO' * O •* J + + troduced between each two members; as, oia • o*o£»« e^u*j«.3• ,U» (hezar A duwist u shast u heft), a thousand, two hundred, and sixty-seven. The Arabic compound cardinals take the conjunction j be tween each pair also ; but the lower elements stand first; as, oo^ J o,£ j o„ Jo +, ulljciwLj tjw^j JUJ >&*» (seoe-i tlse A khamsin & ml>eteyn u elf) the year one thousand two hundred and fifty-nine, expressed in Turkish, ^*Ai*,jjSk ^>\ jyltSyJ\ ISSLJ (bin Iklyuz elll diquz senesl). The Turkish ordinal numbers are formed by adding an esere to the last quiescent consonant of the cardinal, simple or com- o o pound, followed by the termination ^4 ; as, c5^ (blrlnjl) JO J J J JO J J first, i&jy^ (ituzunju) thirtieth, ^jy. (yuzunju) hundredth, o-X' 0 „ 0<" Joj J i oo o ;o/ o ^y^H (blSlnjl) thousandth, ^j^s^ {Ji}\, ^j^o jJjjtA* ^ • But, in the numbers that end in vowel ^, this is suppressed before the same termination ; as, |yi£j. (Iklnjl) second, ^J^ (aitlnjl) sixth, ^yf^i (yedlnjl) seventh, ^^^S^i (yiylrmlnjl) O Ox iii o o J twentieth, ^rr i^n$) fiftieth* The cardinal o^ changes JOJQJ O J its final into ^ before the ordinal termination; as, ir&*j* ^ (dn-diirdunja) fourteenth. 78 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. The Arabic and Persian ordinals are frequently used, and may be found in the lexicons, &c. The Turkish distributive numbers are formed from the car dinals by making their last quiescent consonant movent with o o * ustun, and then adding a quiescent . to the word; as, jj (blrer), Jli (besher), jjyj\ (otuzer); j^ (yuzer), ^ (blner). Their sense is expressed in English, which has no such numerals, by the words each and apiece; the foregoing examples will thus be rendered : one each, five apiece, thirty o o J each, a hundred each, a thousand each. The cardinal o>.> becomes j^ (durder) four apiece, ° * When the cardinal ends with a vowel, the syllable^ (sher) is suffixed to form the distributive ; as, jLS^\ (Iklsher) two apiece, ******—* » yalt Isher) six each, ^IJJOI (yedlsher) seven apiece, ^LJ^XJ (ylylrmlsher) twenty each, j£JA\ (elllsher) fifty each In the case of more than one hundred or thousand, it is the cardinal that designates their number that receives the dis- tributive suffix; as, jji ^~r^ (Iklsher yuz) two hundred each, duj JZJ (besher bin) five thousand apiece. And in compound numbers the distributive suffixes are added to the numbers of thousands, of hundreds, and of final units or tens, to indicate one distribution; thus, jjt ^J^i jji j2*i (besher yuz ylylrml O x ^ O O O J o ' * O O >»^ ^ blrer) five hundred and twenty-one ^ch,jl^\^'^J^Si^tj6sMa (seklzer bin, yedlsher yuz, qirq Iklsher), 8,742 apiece; JtJ\\ jj> (yuz elllsher), 150 each. ACCIDENCE OR ETYMOLOGY. 79 The Turkish fractional numbers are very simple. The number of the denominator in the locative, and followed by the number of the numerator is the form; as, j> *±S>\ (Iklde blr) in two (parts), one; i.e. |, the half; ^^A *±1J (beshde Ikl) in five, two; i.e. f, two-fifths.- Sometimes one of the synonyms ^ (pay), oo j o o a *y^ (juz>), *~* (qism), &*>. (hissa) part, is added after each numeral of the fraction; as, ^j> »JJU SA (Ikl payda, blr pay) in two paints, one part. The Arabic fractional numbers are also used up to ten, o o Excepting the word ujLai (nisf) a half, the half, they are all OOJ O 0-* O OJ of the form Jx*; thus, eJij (stils, vulg. sums) a third, jto. (rub*) ooJ ooJ o n J a fourth, ^j*** (khums) a fifth, ^x* (suds) a sixth, *-*» (sub*) OO'' OOJ OOJ a seventh, ^ (sumn) an eighth, su-J (tuse) a ninth, jL& ('ushr, OOJ O^OJ vw?^. ushur) a tenth, a tithe. The dual of eJu is used, ^UJL* (sulsan) two-thirds ; but for all the others a Turkish numerator 03-» O » O OJ ^* is used; as, vjj —jl (uch rube) ^r^^ quarters, y*+>- ^y^ (Ikl o o J o*» khums) two-fifths, *«J ^ (besh tuse) five-ninths, &c. There are two special Turkish adjectives and one Turkish o ~ substantive to express half. One of the adjectives, ^U (yaxlm), and the substantive, ^b (yari), signify the half (of one sole thing; as, Ql *,G (yarlm elma) half an apple, a half apple; ir+ljk eJLSlJl (elmanin yarlsi), the half of an (or of the) apple. O J J The other adjective, +o, o i » o number, never alone ; as, Ul {Jy*-y. j> (blr buchuq elma) an apple and a half, LS*CL» £y*yt if^} (ikl buchuq sa'at) two hours and a half. When a complex fractional number consisting of an integer and a fraction other than one-half has to be expressed, the Turkish or Arabic fractions are used, the conjunction J or the preposition A)) being introduced between the integer and the fraction; as, *_^ y J {SJ\ or **j y AS\ ^P^-A two and one- o fourth. When the Turkish fraction is used, the numeral y in the genitive is also introduced before the fraction; as, ^-^.jl 8^}_>w*i &y A>\ ^j+> Jive, and three-eighths of one. The indefinite numerals are: yt> (her) every; y yt> (her blr) o o o every one, each; -*& (hlch) no, none; y _*a (hlch blr), no ; o* o, o «» o *• o (jiso (ba'zi) some; ji.£=>\ (ekser) the most part; r^j* (blr qach) some, a few; j\ (az) few; J o J J (branches, &c.); jjJ^jl (nchuzlu) with three (lambs, branches, &c); &c. The written digits are: I 1, r 2, r 3, i 4, j*>) \J9 for ^ji\ £fj ', j> for^i-Vl gjj ; W, for J^Vi SECTION IV. The Pronoun. The Turkish personal pronoun has no distinction of gender: ^ (ben) /, ^ (sdn, not sen) thou, j\ (6; in writing, generally, O J O O jy 61) he, she, it; and their plurals : jj (hlz) we, j*> (slz) you, ^Jjl (&nl&r, inldr) they. o o o ^ o ^ In politeness, J«J and j-* are used instead of ^ and ^j-*,. They then have their own plurals: Jj> (blzler), Jy*> (slzler), which cannot be expressed in English. These are even used as singulars, by the over-polite. The third person plural is used, in the same way, out of politeness, for the singular, as is practised in Italian ; but it has not its plural. The word ijXd (kendi) self, is a kind of common pronoun, of all the persons, singular and plural. It is specialized by the posses- sives. The personal pronouns, singular and plural, are declined in the same way as the nouns substantive, excepting that some of them have a special genitive,—all but those of the second person, singular and plural. These genitives are: ^ (b^nlm) of me, my; (SJLMI (s4nln) of thee, thy; dlil (Unin, 6nuii) of him, o o her, it; his, her, its; ^ (blzlin) of us, our; \s£y» (slzln) of you, your ; d^lil (dnldiin, onlarin) of them, their. But, to take either ACCIDENCE OR ETYMOLOGY. 83 o J ^ of the prepositions O ^ O x- on to the possessive in writing. Thus, #»»}---J (tejzem) my (maternal) aunt, i&ijj (teyzen), thy aunt, ^ijZ (teyzesl) his or her aunt; j**)J (teyz&rnlz) our aunt, j-£*}£ (teyzenlz) your aimt, L$Jl/s> (teyzeleri) their aunt. When the final vowel is ^, the possessives of the first and second persons singular do not join on to it in writing. In the third person singular, and in all the possessive plurals, o * o o *" they join on. Thus, {jjjS (terzl) a tailor, *\£JJ-J (terzlm) my tailor, & mansion, ^LjjJ (q6nagh!m) my mansion; dujl (Ipik) silk, dx^jl (Ipeyln) thy silk; jjlk (tawuq) a fowl, ^J]o (tawAghA) his or her fowl; j*clijS (q6nagh!miz) our mansion, j3^-+-A (Ipeylnlz) your silk ; (jjAJj\Jio (tawuqlar!) their fowl. The 86 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. reason of the exception is evident,—the final consonant takes no vowel before ^J. These possessives equally qualify plural substantives, and follow the sign of the plural. Thus, +jj\ (evlerlm), my houses; ts^JLJl (atlailn) thy horses; ijjjj<-jy> (Miugyulerl) his, her, its bayonets; j+sjjjj^ (sfirulerlmlz) our JlocJcs; jS^J^ (tevzelerl- niz) your aunts; ^^JuLjjS (qin&qlari) their mansions. By a consideration of the examples above given with the possessives of the third persons, singular and plural, as attached to singular and plural substantives, two peculiarities become evident, namely: 1, the plural sign is not repeated for the possessive when the substantive is itself plural ; 2, con sequently, the combination of a substantive and a possessive of the third person, when it has the plural syllable J between the two, leaves it altogether doubtful whether this plural sign belongs to the substantive or to the possessive. Even if the *o* o x J combination ^JJjXjjJ (qondqlarleri) had been in use,—which is not the case,—it would • have been impossible to decide whether ^jj&bja (qonaqlari) was intended to betoken the sense of his or her mansions, on the one hand, or their mansion, on the other. Add to this difficulty the third sense of their man sions, and the puzzle becomes still more complicated. In conversation, the doubt of the hearer may be removed, if necessary, by proper enquiries. But, in a written document, ACCIDENCE OR ETYMOLOGY. 87 intended to be understood by an absent reader, possibly after the death of the writer, a method was seen, especially by judges and legists, to be necessary for distinguishing between the three cases. That distinction is effected, in writing, somewhat at the expense of plain grammar, as follows. To distinguish the single possessor of the plural possessions, the singular cor roborative genitive of the personal pronpun is placed before the combination containing the plural sign; thus, ijjjijja dul (anln qonaqlari) his or her mansions. To distinguish the plural joint possessors of a single possession, the genitive of the plural personal pronoun is prefixed, and grammar is violated by omitting the plural sign from the combination of substantive and possessive; as, \f-^ d^Lil (tularin qonaghl) their mansion. In the third case, the sign of the plural is used in the corroborative and in the combination ; thus, ijjskji d,lil (dnldrfn qin&qlM) their mansions. A doubt may still be felt, and these distinctions are not always used. The declension of the combination with the possessive of the third person, singular or plural, takes a special form, a ^ being introduced before the prepositions, and the final vowel- letter of the original combination suppressed before this C), when the latter is joined in writing to the combination sin gular, or does not itself possess a vowel in the combination 88 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. plural. This rule, applied to possessives joined to substan tives ending respectively in consonants or vowels, acts thus: x ^x» O x jS X x jS' SO + s- x ^ O X O x >/" O ..O , ^ ^jl^-S, (sL)UJ5, A^ILS , »A^IL5 , ^e-^^-3, ^yJcS ; CSL^LLJ, x * s *' ' ^x x* y s* * ^"V ^x X ^O 'C/ XOx O XO /O/ x zO< O x /C/ x x <0/ xO X /C 8Jklwsjj, ^M»8)J , ^JJu-^o ; (j?^»^ > ^^SLJ^*}^ 9 *^lj*}s> > 5^i^ ) • ^XX x* x xx x x X ' ' When ^J-iJ is an adjective, it remains unchanged, and ' O * X O "^ means own ; thus, J^L* ^J-L-i (kendt b&b&m) ray own father, \SZjjJtd\j ijXLJ (kendl valldelerlnlz) yowr oww mothers, &c. SECTION V, TAe Demonstratives. These are, y (bu) this, £» (stm) that or jAi's, ^ (6) or J^\ O ./ O O J (61, as in the personal) that, J^>J\ (6-blr) or^Jjl (61-blr) the other. They are used as substantives and as adjectives; being declined or invariable, accordingly, like other substantives and O x ^ J ^ C^O x ^x- J adjectives. Thus, L^ULJ y this book, J*\-zS y these books; O 'I* C * OxOx»*0 J ^\ J)J\ that other man, J*±\J)J\ those other men; &c. As substantives, y and j^» are thus declined, something like * i * oJ J yi x o •» the personal jl or Jjl: jj (bu), diijj (bunun), o^ (buna), sjjg J 3 O xO J C^O J O xO J (bunda), JJJ (bunu), ^Jjj-j (bundan) ; Jjj-> (bunlar), eJjlSjj (bunlarin), lj>y (bilnlara), wjl^ (bunlarda), ^J>y (bunlari), ACCIDENCE OR ETYMOLOGY. 89 OsO s O 3 9 O J ^^JLJ^J (bunlardan) ; jJi, (shu, sometimes written Jj_£, pro- C J J <, J sO J nouneed sh6l), dii^t (shAnM), &^» (shMa), »jj^» (shunda), J > O -O •» O/O J O ^ O J J^i. (shunu), SS O J sOsO J sO J larin), ^lij^i (shunlara); s^lij^ (shunlarda), ^^j^ (shunlar!), ^j^ljj^ (shunlardan). With ^jjsl and AA their singulars are put in the genitive; as, ^jg) a^jji for this, M dt3j£ with that. o J But J)J\ , to be used as a substantive, must have the posses sive suffix of the third person appended to it; <^J>J\ (A-blrt) its other one, the other one (of the two). It is then declined O 3 + 3 sO J J like all similar combinations : dL^j], Ai^ji, ^s^j\9 ^i/jK O sO 3 SO * O sO 3 * so J SO sO 3 SO J O sO 'O 3 Or it may take either of the two possessive suffixes of the first o J and second persons plural; as, j*ij>j\ (6-blrlmlz), the other one n 3 s^ f of us, dj^jl of the other one of us; a/oyjl to the other one of SO SO 3 s* SO 3 you ; ty^iyj>j\ in the other ones of us; ^$y^Jj>^\ the other ones of you; &c. SECTION VI The Interrogates. who ? is always a substantive, and declined as such, singular and plural: ^jfofwhom ? whose ? ±+fto whom ? s O ^ ^ o s O ^s- OSQ sS i±+5 in whom ? ^+5 whom ? &S+.S of or from whom ? J+ZS who, what or which persons ? &c. 90 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. AJ (ne) what ? is generally a substantive, and declined; but it is also used as an adjective, and is then invariable : (*J13AJ (nenln) of what ? *-) (for A)A3, neye) to what ? saw (nede) m what? ^AJ (neyl) wAa* (accus.) ? ^jj (for ^AJ, neddn) from what ? Jj (forJl«u, neler) what (things)? esJ^S (nelerln) of what (things); &c. tfX (S$n$i vulg. h&ngi) which ? is both substantive and adjective,—declined or invariable accordingly. These three words, as substantives, take the possessive suffixes. Thus, ~+S (klmlm) my who ? ^AJ (nem) my what ? V&jf (kimln) thy who? d^S (nen) thy what? ^Jc$ (q&ngM) its which, which (one) of it ? +j\ •.«.,•> (klmlerim) my what per- o - x o c »» sews ? *^ stantives and Jj* A5 (vulg. ne turlu) what sort ? \ adjectives. SECTION VII. The Relative Pronoun. THERE IS NO RELATIVE PRONOUN IN TURKISH, though attempts are made to use the Persian relative and conjunction, A-5|kl), as such, in literary composition. The Turkish con junction A_$IS a very different thing. Its use by Europeans ACCIDENCE OR ETYMOLOGY. 91 peans and others, as a relative pronoun, is greatly to be avoided. This avoidance of all use of the relative pronoun is the prime distinction of Turkish from all Aryan and Semitic tongues. It is the perfection of language. The numerous active and passive participles of the Turkish verb obviate the necessity of a relative. The active par ticiples take the place of our relative when it is nominative to a verb ; and the passive participles do so when our relative is the accusative, or any indirect object of a verb. (See this explained in the paragraphs on the Participles, in Section VIII., on the Verb.) There is a peculiar Turkish relative, however, to which we have no parallel in English,—the suffix S(kl). It is attached to nouns and pronouns substantive in two ways. If the sub stantive be in the genitive, the combination is a substantive, and indicates that which belongs to (the substantive) ; thus, bb, diiljlj, Ss_fol^ (b^bdninkl) the one which belongs to a (or the) father, {j^JX (bab&minkl) the one which belongs to my father, LAJG^GC (b&bMniiiki) the one belonging to his (or her) father, his father's one; &c. If the substantive be in the locative case, the combination is sometimes a substantive, sometimes an adjective. The substantive combination then indicates that which exists in (the simple substantive) ; the adjective combination expresses the (substantive) which exists 92 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. in (the first substantive). Thus, ^jftxS^ (babamdekl) the thing, the one that exists, that is in (the possession or keeping of) my father, which my father has or holds; JA ^S&J^UU (babaslndekl cillm) the science possessed by his father, that is in his father. The substantive combinations form the plural, and are declined; the adjective combination is invariable. With a noun of place or of time the same particle, ^\, forms a relative combination, substantive or adjective, having rela tion to the place or time named. In the case of the noun of place, the locative* preposition may also be employed. Thus, ^iU.1 the foot, or lower 'part, S~&i»\ and ^j^lil that which is at the foot; -L^l the evening, {Ss^zj^\ that which was or will be (present) in the evening. SECTION VIII. The Derivation of the Verb. As a general rule, each primary Turkish verb forms, itself included, a system of twelve affirmative, twelve negative, and twelve impotential verbs, by regular derivation ;—thirty-six in all; one half being verbs active, the other half verbs passive; the active verbs being transitive or intransitive; the passives having for their nominative the direct or the indirect object of the transitive, the indirect object only of the intransitive primitive. In another mode of subdivision, on the other hand, these ACCIDENCE OR ETYMOLOGY. 93 thirty-six verbs divide into two equal classes, in pairs, one of each pair being simple, and the other causative (which is also permissive, as the sense may show). Each simple and causative pair of verbs is either determinate, indeterminate, or reciprocal; so that, by a special division of the same thirty-six, there are twelve determinate, twelve in determinate, and twelve reciprocal verbs ; thus (giving the imperatives of each, for economy of space):— ACTIVE. CLASSES. TRANS. OR IN TRANS. TRANS. OR INTRANS. INTRANSITIVE. Determinate. Indeterminate. Reciprocal. J (tepln) (teplsh) 'A (t*p) > Simple hick (him); kick. kick about, dance kick mutually one another. H (in pain, with joy, &c). < £ jX~J (tepdir) jSJ^J (teplndlr) JO-MJ (teplsh dlr) S Causative [Permissive) * ?na7^ or Ze£ (him) #0 make (him) kick about. make (them) kick mutually] *4 kicked;...kick. one another. *•-*-> (fepmd) (teplnma) L*J (teplshma) Simple Kc& (him) wo£; #zc& wo£. kick not about kick not mutually one > another. O **jjJ» (tepdlrma) ^ ).; ) (teplndirma) 6^jSl^ (teplshdlrma) Causative ; ; {Permissive) * wa&0 or Z CLASSES. INTRAN SITIVE. Determinate. 1 Indeterminate. | Reciprocal. jj .(tipbii) JJii (tiplshll) Simple ) he kicked, he kicked in, &c. he kicked about in, &c. he mutually kicked in, &c. Causative \ J^jj (tApdlrll) ' ]jXJ (t&plndlrll) J^jii (tJplshdlrll) (Permissive) 1 he made to he kicked. he made to he kicked he made to kick mutually about in. one another. AJL> (tipllmll) AJL*3 (t^plnllmd) ^4 (%lshllm4) Simple } he not kicked. he not kicked about in. he not mutually kicked in. i^jSJ (t6pdlr6lm&) AJ;J^J (t£plshdlrllm&) Causative \ t+ijXJ (t&plndlrllm&) (Permissive) 1 he not made to he kicked. he not made to he kicked he not made to mutually about in. kick one another. | A*JLJ (t£pll£m&) A*ALJ (t£plnll&m&) **dltJ (t£plshll£m&) Simple } he unahle to he kicked. he unahle to he kicked he unahle to he mutually about in. kicked in. \ Causative \ (tApdtrflJmA) i*AjX*3 (t£plndliil£m&) &*djXtJ (t£plshdlrll£m6) {Permissive) 1 he unahle to he made to he unahle to he made to he he unable to be made to be kicked. kicked about in. mutually kick one another. i IMPOTENTIA L NEGATIV E AFFIRMATIV 96 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. Remarks on the foregoing Table. The imperative singular is the root, or simplest form in the conjugation, primitive or derivative, of the Turkish verb. This conjugation—unique for all the thirty-six forms, as will be seen further on—consists in adding certain vowels and con sonants to the end of this conjugational root. When the conjugational root of the simple affirmative form ends in J , or in a vowel, it forms its passive by adding ^ O J O J J instead of J. Thus : J^> (bul) fnd, ^ (bulun, the titurft dominating) be found; %\$ (qapla) cover, ^%\3 (qaplan) be J J o J J covered; js>j\ (6qu) read, ^jsj) (6qun) be read. In the fore going case of the vowel-ending, the passive sometimes takes both the £ and the J, the ^ always preceding; thus, JAlS (qaplanil, as &%}*>), be covered, J5^l (oqunul, as &J>j\) be read. When the root of the simple affirmative has more than one syllable, and ends in J , j , or a vowel, its causative is formed 0 . - o o ^ by adding a letter o in lieu of the syllable ,,>. Thus, JUi (qisal) become shorter, eJUi (qlsalt) make or let (it) become O J O J O O J O J shorter; shorten (it); ^-*^=>jl (uksur) cough, i2>jj*„ Many simple affirmative verbs ending in consonants also form their causatives in ?, preceded by a servile esere, some times written Ja, and even Jj, with uturu ; not in .3. No rule appears to exist on this subject, and the dictionary alone, o or experience, can help the student in it. Thus, f\ (Ich) drink (it), j^\ (Ichlr) or jjg) (Ichur) make or let (it) be drunk o - o <» (by him); ob (bat) sink (thou), J\> (batir) make or let (it) sink, sink (it); J& (qach) flee, escape, jJ& (qachir) make or let (him) flee or escape. When the simple verb, affirmative, negative, or impotential, is transitive, its causative governs the same accusative ; and the nominative to the simple then becomes a dative to the o o x + o „ causative. Thus, -^jLi ^ ^ (ben an! yazdlm) I wrote it, o o o * '* * o * ttJ-V^i & (V^ cr* (s^u ^ band yazdirdin) ZAow madest it to be written by me (thou causedst to me the writing it), thou madest or lettest me write it. When the simple verb is neuter, its nominative becomes the accusative of its causative; as, **jij\ (uyudum) / slept, O JO J J * Ox djj^y I** ^ (san benl uyutdun) thou madest or lettest me eleep. An indefinite series of causatives of every verb may be OO o formed by repeating the causative suffixes, o after ^, and ..3 o " after o. They are sometimes useful, but are generally used in irony; each augment adds an agent to the chain ; as, j>*}li, H 98 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. O XO Ox O/OO Ox O^O OO O X (qashinmaq) to scratch one's self (with one's nails) ; dl*ij> o/O ^x- xO (glyinmek) to put on one's clothes, (sUi-S **}-&. (chizma glylnmek) O x ^S x XO to put on boots, ^ The Turkish passive verb always has, inherent in it, the sense of to he —able. Thus, ^JLS (keslllr) it is cut (often), it will be cut (then), it is cuttable (always);y^ (yenmaz) it is not eaten (as a rule), it will not he eaten (then), it is not eatahle (either now, or by nature). SECTION IX. The Turkish Conjugation. All Turkish affirmative verbs, active or passive, transitive or intransitive, are conjugated in one and the same invariable manner, modified, as to their servile vowels and consonants, by the laws of class and euphony alone. The negative and impotential verbs differ from the affirmative, as to conjugation, merely in the form of the aorist active participle, and of the analogous aorist tense indicative. So that only one sole con jugation exists, in reality, in the Turkish language. The conjugation consists of one simple and three complex categories of moods, tenses, numbers, persons, participles, verbal nouns, and gerunds; all four categories, simple and 100 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. complex, being fundamentally alike, but each modified in a certain special manner, to express a modified variation of the action. Each category has six moods : the imperative, indicative, necessitative, optative (also subjunctive), conditional, and infinitive. The imperative mood has one tense, the future. The indicative has eight tenses, in four pairs ; the present and imperfect; the aorist and past; the perfect and plu perfect; the future and past future. The necessitative, optative, and conditional, have one pair each, the aorist and past. The infinitive has but one tense, the present. Each category has five active participles; the present (which is the general active participle, applicable, in one sense, to any time, past, present, or future), the aorist, the past, the perfect, and the future. In Turkish, the present or active, the perfect or passive, are not confused together as in European languages ; each is distinct in form and in sense, and is different from the gerund in form, as it is, in grammar and in sense, different from the verbal noun. The active participles of the passive verbs denote the direct recipients of the action of verbs transitive; the passive par ticiples of the same apply to the indirect objects thereof. The active participles of the passives of intransitives denote the ACCIDENCE OR ETYMOLOGY. 101 indirect objects of the intransitive action ; the passive par ticiples of such passives are not in use. Between the five active and two passive participles of each category, a Turkish conjugation thus furnishes twenty-eight participles for every verb, primitive or derivative. By the use of these numerous participles, it entirely avoids all necessity for a relative pronoun. The present active participle adds an ustun and the letters o o ^1, or only the letter ^ , to the root that ends in a consonant; o o the aorist adds a vowel and the letters J , or only the letter^,, o o o with an ustun, ^ with an uturu, and^ only (or sometimes^) with an esere, for which no rale can be given; the past adds o iJL* (mlsh, mish) to all roots, whatever their ending; as the o o perfect adds ista (dik) or jp (dlq). The future adds an ustun Of < * and the letters dc*» (&j&k) or j&.s (&j&q) to consonantal roots, Off Of f and CSUAJ or J£>AJ , with ustun, to vowel roots, including the negatives and impotentials. Thus, ^ (tepan), J^J (qiran) O* f Off are present active participles; as, ^T (teplnan), ^^J (tepl- shan), ^%S (tepllan), ^%.J (teplnllan), and J%2*J (teplshllan), are those of the simple affirmative derivatives. The causatives o o o o in j^ and in J,^ add the ustun and ^\; while those in o change ' O O f Of O fO 3 J it into ^ before the letters ,jl; thus, &\J±J (tepdlran), 0\^j\ O f Of O Of O Of (oturdan), J%jS^ (tepdlrllan), &c.; yU+i (tepmlsh) ; djj O f f f O * sfOf O f ff ff (tepdlk) ; (*UA-J (tepejek), (SUA-**? (tepmey&jek), eU^au) 102 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. (tepemeyejek), the final s of the negative particle A* being elided as useless. When the root ends with a vowel, as is the case with all the negatives and impotentiais, the syllable ^G (yan, yan) is added in the present participle, the final & or ^ of the root being suppressed, and by some even the I ; but the « is kept intact. Thus, (JIJ^JIS or ^jUbls (qaplayan), ^L^J (tepmeyan), -cjL«duJ (teplnemeyan), &\*jjji (yuruyan), ^Ij^l (6quy&n). The Turkish present active participle, in colloquial lan guage, as a remanet from eastern Turkish, takes after it the preposition t± de, da, to form an adverb of past or future time; as, jjjjui (gldande) when (I, thou, &c.) went, or shall go. The aorist active participle, of the same form as the third person singular of the aorist tense of the indicative, always o o + ends in a letter . in affirmatives, and in the syllable j-o (maz) in negatives and impotentiais. Thus, ^J (teper), j+J (tepmaz), UJJ (tepemez). In the simple affirmative, the vowel added to the last con- o sonant of the root, to which the final j is then appended, cannot be defined by rule. Of course, it must be hard or soft according to the dominant in the root; but different verbs have us tun, others esere, others again tituru, for their vowel; and with the ustun, all hard verbs add I, as do some soft verbs ; while other soft verbs dispense with this letter. Thus ACCIDENCE OR ETYMOLOGY. 103 o *• o * S o J * we have: J\^J (qirar), jxS (glder),^yU (sanur, vulg. sanir), o -»^ . o jfi (gelur, vulg. gellr), j^ (slylrir). The simple reflexive forms its aorist in ftturu and ^ (gene- o rally pronounced as esere and^j). The simple reciprocal does O 3 " the same. We have, therefore, jyjj (teplnur, vulg. t£plnir), 0 3* ' jy2~> (teplshur, vulg. teplshlr). All the simple and causative O J x O J < passives follow this rule; thus, JJ-L-J (tepllur, teplllr), jj-k-*-> (teplnllur, t&plnlllr), jj£J (teplshllur, teplshlllr) ; ^i^jji (tep- dlrlllr), jjijX~> (teplndlrllli^^jl^jii (tepishdlrlllr). It will be observed that a vowel ^ is intercalated before the J in these words. This is a mechanical rule. The preceding j is a letter that does not join on to its follower; this is the sole reason for the addition of that ^, when the following J has a vowel. The same rule is applied by many to the . of the o • causative ,.>, in like cases ; that is, when it has its vowel, as it always has in the aorist. The words above given may O J O' O J O * O J o * therefore be written, jjtj,±+>, jjtj.±~> ? jj*jb>££ ; but this has no effect on the pronunciation. The aorist passive participle has the same form as the active perfect, and the future passive is identical in form with the future active: is)jJ (tepdlk) ; ISUJJ (tepejek). There are three verbal nouns ; the present or general, formed by adding A* (me, ma) to the root, exactly like the negative imperative ; the perfect, identical in form with the 104 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. perfect active and aorist passive participles ; and the future, identical with the two future participles. Thus, &+J (tepme); dJJ (tepdlk); eUAJ (tepejek). The form *•*> (tepme) of the present verbal noun is also that of a verbal adjective passive, signifying done, made, effected as the result of (the action of the verb); thus, A*J , as such adjective, means caused by a kick or kicks. This derivative of the transitive verb active simple and causative can also take the passive sense; thus, A*15 (kesme), which naturally means an act of cutting, often means also an act of being cut; as, fjV^S ^LiS (kesmesl qolay) it is easily cut. It is also much used as a passive adjective when the verb is transitive ; as, ^jy 6+~S 6as?\ (Inje kesme tutan) finely cut tobacco; and as an active adjective when the verb is in transitive ; as, JU AJU ^\Ai (babadan qalma mal) property remaining from (one's) father. Leaving the gerunds for the present, we may now inquire into the mode of formation of the tenses of each mood. But before doing so, we must indicate the differences that serve clearly to distinguish the active participles, the passive par- o o ticiples, and the verbal nouns, of the two forms in ( Proceed we now to discuss the formation of the tenses. The third person singular is the root of each tense, except in the imperative. Leaving the numbers and persons for future consideration, we may say, in the first place, that, as the second tense in each pair, of every mood (excluding the imperative and the infinitive), is formed from the first tense of the pair by the addition of the auxiliary ^jyA (Idl) was, after it, we may leave these second tenses also for future con sideration. By these means we arrive at the conclusion that there are four tenses in the indicative, and one each in the necessitative, optative, conditional, and infinitive, the forms of which have to be defined. The four indicative tenses are—the present, the aorist (present habitual and future promissive), the perfect, and the future; the single tense of the other three moods is their aorist (present or future); and that of the infinitive is its present. o J The present indicative adds an esere and the syllable ,jj ° J" (yor) to the consonantal root; thus, jjj> (teplyor). It indi- ACCIDENCE OR ETYMOLOGY. 107 cates a present action (actual or habitual) ; he is kicking (now); he now habitually kicks. Add the auxiliary ^j±)\ to this, (jjAjjtJ (teplyor Idl), and it forms the imperfect, he was kick- ing (then). A final o more frequently changes to ^ ; as, dL*ii, j£±S (gldlyor); <&Ual, jjiJJ>1 (edlyir); &c. The aorist indicative varies in form of the servile syllable, but always ends in j in the affirmatives, and in \* (mez, maz) in the negatives and impotentials, being identical with the active aorist participle. It indicates a present habit (not a present action), or a future assurance, a future promise, as the context or circumstances may require. Thus, ^J (teper) he O x kicks; he shall or will kick; j\Js (qirar) he breaks; he shall or O t J O 3 * will break; jjj$. (yurur) he walks; he will walk ; jj$j\ (oqur) he reads; he will read; JJto\ (IsMr) he bites; he will bite; \+J (tepmaz) he does not kick ; he will not kick; (tepemez) he cannot kick. The auxiliary ^JJI , added to this, forms the past tense (showing a past habit, or an unfulfilled condition); (jsA^J (teper Idl) he used to kick; he would kick (if he could);. he would have kicked (had he been able); in which two last senses, the expression is a virtual negative : he kicks not, be cause he is not able; he did not kick, because he was not able ; ijSi]j*J> (tepmaz Idl) he used not to kick; he would not kick (if he could); he would not have kicked (had he been able); \£±*\j*±* (tepemez idl) Tie used not to be able to kick; he would 108 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. not be able to kick (if so and so); he would not have been able to kick (had not so and so); &c. The perfect indicative is formed by adding the syllable ^ (dl, di), in all cases, to the root. It is used in a determinate, and also in an indeterminate past sense, referring the action to Ox a given past time, or to all past time. Thus, (jxS (tepdl) he kicked (then) ; he has kicked (without defining when). Add the auxiliary Thus, jLJ he must kick, he ought to kick; JL©A*J he must not kick, he ought not to kick ; JLLAJ" he ought not to be able to kick. With the auxiliary The aorist optative is formed by adding an ustuu and vowel 5 to a consonantal root, or a syllable *J (ye, yi) to a vowel root. Sometimes 1 is used in place of ». The tense is a quasi-imperative, implying optation, or it is a subjunctive. Thus, *J (tepe) let him kick, may he kick; (that) he may kick; A**J (tepmeye, with suppression of the s of the negation) let him not kick, may he not kick; (that) he may not kick; A-*A*> (tepemeye) may he not be able to kick; (that) he may not be able to kick. Add now the auxiliary ^j^A, and we form the past tense, a virtual negative, expressive of regret; thus, ijxA AJ (tepe Idl, more frequently written and pronounced \jxJ tepeydi) had he kicked, if he had kicked; 0 that he had kicked; ^J^A^J (tepmeyeydl) had he not kicked, if he had not kicked; 0 that he had not kicked; ^j-^aJ (tep&meyeydl) had he not been able to kick, if he had not been able to kick; 0 that he had not been able to kick. The aorist conditional is formed by adding the syllable **» (se, sa) to any root, consonantal or vowel. This performs the 110 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. function of our conjunction if in appearance; but, as^j£»l (eyer), if can be placed before it, it really is a subjunctive tense-ending. As a present, it admits the possibility of the action ; as a future, it virtually denies the occurrence. Thus, A~J (tepse) if he Icicle, if he were to kick; a~»J (tepmese, the & of negation elided) if he kick not, were he not to kick; A~+*&J (tepemese) should he not be able to kick. Sometimes it is desiderative, 0 that he kick! &c. With ^A>I added, we have the past conditional, which is always a virtual negative. Thus, (j****** (tepseydl, for ^JJU-J) had he kicked, if he had kicked; ^A,^,,,) (tepmeseydl) had he not kicked; ^A^ d,.,„> (tepemeseydl) had he not been able to kick. The present of the infinitive is formed by adding dU (mek) or j* (maq) to any root. Thus, (&LJ (tepmek) to kick; j*5Us (q&plamaq) to cover. The negative and impotential are fre quently written with \, and sometimes without a vowel-letter to end the root; as, isLLJ, &++J (tepm&mek), for dua^J ; Ox/// Ox/// C x x x/ O./ 'O/ isLUaJ, d***J (tepememek), for dloA*AJ ; # /O/ C ,0'0 X O/O in English by the verbal noun in -ing; as, J^l jjjiJU &K" S (gltmek q&lmllqdlln evla) going is belter than staying. It also o o takes the suffix dJ , jl after it to form an equivalent to our * * O O /O ^ verbal noun in -ing; as, ei&*ij em act of going. There are seven gerunds, one gerund-like verbal locution of ACCIDENCE OR ETYMOLOGY. Ill cause, one of verbal proportion, and six to indicate various times in relation with the action. All of these gerunds and gerund-like locutions presuppose the occurrence of two actions expressed in the sentence, one by the gerund, the other by a subsequent verb. The gerunds are a kind of verbal con junctions, while the gerund-like locutions are verbal adverbs. The first gerund, the most frequently used, ends in an o o * uturu, followed by V-JJ (ub, ub) after a consonant, or by c-^-i (yub, yub) after a vowel. It indicates that two actions are being mentioned, of which the one implied by the gerund is prior as to time or natural sequence. We more usually, in English, express this relation of two actions by the con junction and, though we occasionally use our gerund in -ing, O * O J* as the Turkish does. Thus, J\jJ L->JJ (tepub qirar) he kicks and breaks, will kick and break (it) ; ory kicking (it), he will break (it). Conversationally, this gerund is pronounced with o esere in lieu of dturu ; and with p in place of c-»; as, teplp, qirip, &c. The second gerund is formed by adding ustun, and the letters t^s (erek) or j^s (araq),to a consonantal root, d,«u (yerek) or J5,AJ (yaritq) to a vowel-root. It is sometimes used in lieu of the first gerund, to obviate its too frequent recurrence; but its distinctive use is to indicate that, of two contemporary sustained actions expressed, the one, subsidiary, accompanies the other. Thus, ^JO-S <2)jdJ» kicking, he went off; i. e., he 112 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. Ox Cx x J went off, kicking away (all the time) ; fj& d^^g he came, laughing (all the time). The third gerund, in ASS (tnje, inja), after a consonant, or A5& (ylnje, yinja) after a vowel, and the fourth (used in writing Ox Ox only, and much more rarely), in d^s (Ijek) or j^s (ijaq) after C x OX a consonant, disji (yijek) or j^ji (y^jaq) after a vowel, has the sense that its action is to be a kind of signal for the occur rence of the other expressed in the sentence ; it may, then, be rendered by our on ... (with a gerund), also by our as soon as ... (with a verb). Thus, ^AJ A^^(gyurunje tepdl) on seeing (him), he kicked (him) ; AIJI *jUl Ji^l ^\j (vasll 61ijaq, ma'- lum 61a) on reaching (as soon as it reaches), fo (it) known (that ). The fifth gerund is identical in form with the aorist opta tive, repeated. It expresses repetition of one act as a means to the performance of a second. Thus, (j±j3 AJ AJ (tepe tepe qirdi), kicking, (and) kicking (it), he broke (it). o The sixth gerund is the infinitive with esere and ^ added; the Persian d softened into Turkish eJ (y value), and the j into c. It expresses the verbal reason precedent for the O O x Ox O yS X Ox J second action. Thus, fJ^Li ^ t^X »>> j\ Atf kicking, I fled; i. e., because he kicked, I fled. The seventh gerund expresses the beginning of a time com mencing with the occurrence of an action and lasting until ACCIDENCE OR ETYMOLOGY. 113 now, during which another action has repeatedly or con tinuously occurred ; it is equivalent to our ever since In form it is the fifth gerund (not repeated) with the syllable J (lu) or J (li) added to it. Thus, jjila$\ JlaJ (tepelu aqsayir) ever since he kicked, he has limped. The causal gerund-like locution is equivalent to the sixth gerund in sense. It is the infinitive, with its final consonant softened down, and with the preposition The gerund-like locution of verbal, i. e., of actional pro portion is formed of the perfect active participle, with the adverbial suffix of manner, ^ (je, ja), added to it. It defines a duration of time for two concurrent actions, the first circum scribing that duration for the continued or repeated occurrence o , O J O * *S" O •» O S of the other; as, o^W ^ **»*+> ^ (hen tepdlkje, san tut) while I kick, so long as I kick, do thou hold (him). It sometimes 114 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. expresses the rate (proportion) of rapidity of the two actions \ O J ' "^ 0^~ O O ^ as, jy^kj>\ **?±s* u>5j (waqt gechdlkje, Irlleshlr) as time goes by, it grows large (larger). The six verbal times indicated, in reference to an action, are the following: 1, the time before the action; 2, the time when the action is just about to occur; 3, the time while the action occurs ; 4, the time when it occurred; 5, the time just when it has occurred ; 6, the time after its occurrence. The first is the present verbal noun in the ablative; as, ^x+J (tep- meden), to which, for precision's sake, the adverb Jjl (avval) or *ji* (muqaddam), anteriorly, is subjoined. The expression Jjl ^IA+J (or Jjl ^jJ^Ji), then, means anteriorly to (earlier than) the action of kicking; i.e., before kicking. Sometimes this is vulgarly expressed as Jjl &$•*> before (the agent) kicks not; i. e., while (as yet) he has (or had) not kicked. The second gerund-like locution of time is the future active participle with the auxiliary gerund L^=o1 (Iken), during, O IK* o + +, added to it; thus, ^pol SJUAJ during (the time of being) about to kick; i. e , when just about to kick. The third is the aorist active participle with the same addi tion : Cj-5C^ J2 during (the time of being) kicking; i. e., while kicking. The fourth is the perfect verbal noun or active participle, put in the locative (of time). It may be used impersonally, ACCIDENCE OR ETYMOLOGY. 115 'with no addition in it; and it may be used, for precision, with the possessive pronoun of the agent between the verbal noun and the preposition. In the former case, the verbal derivative is possibly a participle ; in the latter, it is doubtlessly the verbal noun. Thus, *±S±^ ^ when I (became) one who has kicked; or *±£±sJ ^ when I (performed) my (past) act of kicking; i. e., when I kicked. The fifth is the past active participle with the auxiliary ^^XJ! ; as, {^S^A u^UJ during (this time of the condition of) having kicked; i.e., now that kicking has occurred, since (J, &c.) have kicked. The sixth is the perfect verbal noun in the ablative (of time), followed by the adverb *>jC* (s6nra, s6ra), after; thus, if~* yS&Ji (tepdlkdan s6r&) after the act of kicking. The possessive pronouns may be introduced into this locution before the preposition; as, a^X-* y±&i±$ (tepdlylmdan s6ra) after my action of kicking. SECTION X. The Numbers and Persons of the Verb, In all the tenses the first person singular is expressed by o the personal suffix * added to the verb, with esere given to the tense-root, when this is a consonant; and suppressing the final fj of the tense-root where it occurs ; adding one where wanted. 116 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. o •* * It is wanting in the imperative. Thus : * i>*i-J (teplyirim) I am kicking; ^SAJJ+JS (teply6r-ldlm) I was kicking; ^J (tepe- rlm) I kick; I shall or will kick ; A±>)J£ (teper-ldlm) I used to ° z" kick; I would hick; I would have kicked; +x3 (tepdlm) / ° c" ° °" kicked ; I did kick ; I have kicked; +£>_±J (tepdidlm) or ^JJI *JJI (tepdlm-ldl) / had kicked; ,%£-&•**> (tepejeylm) I am going to kick; O °x- *» ^x O J/O/ * *JJ\_&.AJ (tepejekdlm) I was going to kick ; *jji*J (tepmellylm) O J S Ox I must kick; ^jjl jU J (tepmell-ldlm) i" should have kicked, o ,* o o xx ought to have kicked; *AJ (tepem) that I may kick; pS-^-J 0,0* o o * ex (tepeydlm) that I had kicked; +*~J (tepsem) if I kick ; *^~~J (tepseydlm) *// had kicked. The second person singular, in all the tenses in (j*, is formed by changing the vowel O o x O^ O din), dj-~J* (tepseydln). All the other tenses form it in ^^ o (sin), sometimes written and pronounced eL*» (sin), excepting the present of the conditional, which forms it with (s),u» (san, Ox Ox sail); sometimes written dU, but pronounced like d*-*. Thus, [j<»>jjz£ (teplyorsin), \j^J (tepersln), V^JZ^AJ (tepejeksln) ; £^*IJUJ (tepmellsln), C^.AJ (tepesln). The first person plural, likewise, in all the tenses in ^5.3, is ACCIDENCE OR ETYMOLOGY. 117 formed by changing the vowel ^ into Arabic d (k value); excepting that of the perfect, which, in hard words, always O O ° O 1 , forms this person in O J/o/ Arabic d changed into Turkish d, y value), J>jL*> (tepmS- liyiz). In hard words, the future indicative is in c (softened j), with esere before the final j ; as, J«*ASb (baqajaghiz). The second person plural, again, in all the tenses in ^, is formed in \S±± (dlnlz ; which is hard in the perfect of hard words, d!xi!z). Thus, J_XJO^J (teply6rdlnlz), JSJ^^J (teper- dlnlz), J_XJOJ (tepdlniz), yS*-y£>\ (bdqdinfz), J-X-JJJ>JJ (tepdi- dlnlz), jS^jsS^s^iJ (tepejey dlnlz), ^-XJJM JUJ (tepmell-ldlnlz), JSJXJ (tepeydlnlz), JSJXU~J (tepsey dlnlz). The imperative o o ^ has two forms, in d and injJ, both preceded by esere, and a consonant ^ in vowel-roots ; as, dLJ (tepln), jS written ako }S-Jf) ; dsb (baqlii), jSj\> (baqiniz); dbiLU (qaplayln), jS^iyj\ (6quyuMz ; the uturu dominating). All the other tenses form it in j_X_«> (slnlz, sfnfz), except the present conditional, which has ustun for its first vowel, often o ^ + written J-SA-* (sanlz, sanlz, to distinguish it better). Thus, jJs^jyJ (tepiyorslnlz), ^S^J (tepersliilz), J\«*X^AJ (tepejek- slnlz; hard in hard words, j-X~i»A$b baqajaqsiniz), jS^*JuJ (tepmellslnlz), yS^dJ (tepeslnlz; hard in hard words, ^X*»ASC baqasln!z),jjA^' (tepsenlz; hard in hard words, j-Wsb baqsdniz). The third person plural is formed from the same person of ACCIDENCE OR ETYMOLOGY. 119 the singular, with the syllable^ (ler, lar) added. Thus, Jjj~~> (tepstnler); j£^J (teplyArlar), °Jl^ (teperler), JLJ2? (tepdller), J&>.AJ (tepejekler), Jjj+j (tepmeliler), ^JjJ (tepeler), J&~J (tepseler). The tenses in ^JJI may be formed in this way, ijsA becoming J±±A (idller); or, the plural sign may be given to the radical element, and SECTION XL Of the Complex Categories, The Complex Categories of every Turkish verb, active or passive, transitive or intransitive, affirmative, negative, or im- potential, are formed, even as to their roots, with an auxiliary o < o J verb, SECTION XII. The First Complex Category. This is formed with the aorist active participle, of every ACCIDENCE OR ETYMOLOGY. 121 class of verb, active or passive, transitive or intransitive, primary or derivative, affirmative or negative. In form, it is simply the conjugation of the auxiliary verb Infinitive. CO J O*' jjjjl^j (teper 61mdq) To be a willing, natural, deter mined, constant, or habitual kicker; to be kicking; to kick (habitually). Imperative. Jjl^J (teper 41) Be thou kicking; kick thou (habitually). Indicative. Present. fjjh^J? (teper 6Hy6rim) I am continually kicking. Imperfect. *x\ jj^j\j+> (teper illyir Idlm) I was continually kicking. Aorist. o-» J J os* *j$j\jf (teper ilurAm) I am continually kicking; I shall be ever kicking. Past. j»jjl ,Jij\ jJ> (teper 61ur Idlm) I used to be always kicking ; I would be, or Would have been, always kicking. 122 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. Perfect, ^jjjl^ (teper 61dAm) I became a constant kicker. Pluperfect. oiq S o*' (^JJI pjJjl^-> (teper oldftm Idl) I had been or become a con stant kicker. Future. j^>JjljJ (teper olajaghim) I am about to become a con stant kicker. Future Past. +±i>>Jjl^J (teper olajaghdim) I was about to become a con stant kicker. Necessitative. Aorist. ^JUjl^Jf (teper ilmaiijim) I must be, or become, a con stant kicker. Past. AJJI^LJJI^ (teper olmaiiyldlm) I ought to have been a con stant kicker. Optative. Aorist. ^jjjl^j (teper 6laylm) That I may be a constant kicker. Past. IjJjiJj (teper Alaydlm) That I had been a constant kicker. ACCIDENCE OH ETYMOLOGY. 123 Conditional. Aorist. o *o J o++ +*+Jj\jJ (teper 6lsam) Were I, should I become, a constant kicker. Past. O CO J 0+* ^JJ^JJI^J (teper 61saydlm) Had I been a constant kicker. Active Participles. Present. O " J 0«.»» &tyj£ (t£per 6lan) Who or which is, was, will be, a constant kicker. Aorist* O J $ O** jjj\j*> (teper 61ur) (perhaps unused, as a cacophony.) Past. tr*bW (teper ilmush) Who has been a constant kicker. Perfect. OiO JO" JJJJI^J (teper 61d4q) Who was a constant kicker. Future. ja.A!jl jj (teper ilajaq) Who is to be a constant kicker. Passive Participles. Aorist. o jo J-' o++ JJJJI^J (teper ildftq) Who or which (a kicker) has constantly kicked. 124 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. Future. Or * J O,* &?AJ\JJ (teper ilajaq) Who, which (I, &c.) am about constantly to kick. Verbal Nouns. Present. *>0 J 0,+ AJJ\JJ (teper 61ma) The act of being (at any time) a constant kicker. Perfect. O JO J O" jjjjl^ (teper olduq) The act of having been (then) a constant kicker. Future. O + * J O** (ja-JjI^J (teper ilajaq) The act of being about (now) to become (hereafter) a con stant kicker. Gerunds. O J J O" 1st. Si^jW (^P^r ol4p) Being a constant kicker (and ). 2nd. ^AJJI^J (teper olaraq) Continuing to be a con stant kicker (so and so also occurs). "<- i J or* N 3rd. **P)\j£ (teper olunja) /As soon as becomes r (became, will become) a 4th. J^jl^' (teper dlljaq) J constant kicker, ...... ACCIDENCE OR ETYMOLOGY. 125 5th. Jjl AJJ! JZ (teper 61a 61a) By continually being a con stant kicker, 6th. ^^iJjl^Ji (teper 61maghin) By reason of being a con stant kicker, 7th. J4?W 0^P^r 61ali) Ever since became (has been) a constant kicker, SECTION XIII. The Second Complex Category. Infinitive. Present. Imperative. Future. O J O O* Jjl ^•J' (tepmlsh 61) Be thou one who has kicked ; have kicked. Indicative. Present. O J » O O' *ijjj\ (j^' (tepmlsh 6liy6rim) I am, or am becoming, one who has kicked; I have kicked. Imperfect. ^jjjl (jl*J (tepmlsh 6lly6rd!m) I was, or was becoming, one who has kicked. Aorist. o JJ J o o, JLV ^p^J (tepmlsh 61urum) I shall have kicked. 126 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. Past OiO J J O C **jj>j\ JZ-+? (tepmlsh Amrdum) I should have kicked. Perfect. *jjjl IJL+J (tepmlsh oldum) I became one who had kicked, I had kicked. Pluperfect. JO J O O, ^jjl *JJJ! jji**) (tepmlsh 61dAm idl) I had become one who has kicked. Future. o <» x •» o o«» j»i^Jjl ijUJ (tepmlsh Alajaghim) I am about becoming one who has kicked; I am going to have kicked. Future Past. O O * * J O O* «»Jjlj>^^,j£**>(t6piiilsh olajaq Idlm) I was about to have kicked. Necessitative. Aorist. (•ijQjl uW (tipmfah Almaliyim) I must (now) have kicked (then). Past. ^JJIJUJI yj*+* (tepmlsh Almally Idlm) I must (then) have (already) kicked (before). Optative. Aorist. ^JJ iJUJ (tepmlsh olayim, That I may have kicked. AAJJ) 61am) ACCIDENCE OR ETYMOLOGT. 127 Past. O O, J O C *±Jj\ Ju*> (tepmlsh Alaydlm) That I had kicked. Conditional. Aorist. O 'O^ J O c* +&~3j\ IJL+J (tepmlsh Alsam, ~Jj\) Had I kicked (then). Past. o o «»o > o o«» ls^jj\ yjUf (tepmlsh Alsaydlm) Had I (already) kicked (before then). Active Participles. Present. J)lj\ j,*»J (tepmlsh Alan) Who has (already) kicked. Aorist. O J J O O^ jjj\ JU+> (tepnilsh Alur) Who will have (already) kicked. Past and Perfect, perhaps not used. Future* j>>*Jjl JJ^UJ (tApmlsh Alajaq) Who will become one who has kicked. Passive Participles. Aorist. jfjjjl yi^J (tepmlsh AldAq) Which (a kicker) had (already) kicked. 128 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. Future, jj*Jjl {JUJ (tepmlsh olajaq) Which (a kicker) will hare kicked. Verbal Nouns. Present. dJJ\ (jS^J (tepmlsh 6lma) The (present state of) having (already) kicked. Perfect. jjLi Gerunds. ' 1st. t-^Jjl ij!uJ (tepmlsh 61up) Having kicked (and....). 2nd. JJAJ\ ... ( ... olaraq) Having the continued quality of having kicked (and ...)'. 3rd. A!py ... ( ... ilunja) As soon as (—is, was, will be) one who or which had kicked, ... 4th. J^jV ... ( ... olijaq) The instant (—) bad kicked, .... ACCIDENCE OR ETYMOLOGY. 129 > J * J o 6* 5th. Jjl JJ\ JL+*J (tepmtsh 61a 61a) By continuing to have kicked, .*... 6th. u«Jjl ... ( ... 6lm&ghin) By reason of having kicked, .... 7th. je-JJjt ••• ( ••• ol^O Since — became one who had kicked, .... SECTION XIV. The Third Complex Category. Infinitive. Present. Jjjl db.^ (tip^jik 61maq) To be about to kick (ready to kick). Imperative. Future. Jjl dUaJ (tepejek 61) Be thou about to kick. Indicative. Present. O J J O X ,+ j^jJjl CiU*J (tepejek 6Uy6rim) I am (often) on the point of kicking; I become on the point .... Imperfect, ^jjj^jjl diaJ (tepejek 6Hy6r Idlra) I was (often) on the point .... Oiil Os Aorist. +jjLj\ C*UAJ (tepejek 6lurum) I am (habitually), I shall be (then) on the point ... 130 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. Past, o jo J J oa > *.» **jjj\ *&>•*£ (tepejek olurd&m) I used (habitually) ; I should be (then) on the point .... Perfect. fjJji di^ (tepejek ildum) I was (then) on the point .... Pluperfect. OJO J O «» ^jjl ^JJJ! (*U.AJ (tepejek oldAm idl) I had been (before then) on the point.... Future and Future Past. J^Aj\ diiij (tepejek ilajaghlm) ^ »'" * I Not used, as being caco- *Ji>Jjl i2U*o O^P^k 6lajaghdim)J ^ Aorist. *£jLl/ /O J O * *' *jjl jUjl O * J O + J%AJJ1 eU^j (tepejek olam) That I may be on the point .... ACCIDENCE OR ETYMOLOGT. 131 Past. fjjjl C^UAJ (tepejek olaydim) That I had been on the point .... Conditional. Aorist. AA-JJI CfcUaJ (tepejek ilsa'm) Were I to be or become on the point .... Past. *jlJ«l CSJ^AJI (tepejek olsaydlm) Had I been on the point .... Active Participles, Present. Ji)\ db-aJ (tepejek 61dn) Who or which is or becomes on the point .... Aorist. jjj\ db-ai (t£p&jek 6lnr) Who or which is (naturally) or will be (some time) on. the point «... Past and Perfect. J%,\ ££ (tep^k olmish) j Who w which hag been or ^^-(tep^koldAq) ) was (then) on the point.... Future. jvJjl «^>**J (tepejek olaj&q) Not used) as being cacophonous* 132 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. Passive Participles. Aorist. jpJ^I ^UAJ (tepejek ildAq) Which (a kicker) was on the point .... Future. Cacophonous ; not used. Verbal Nouns. Present. AJJI (SUAJ (tepejek Alma) The act of being or becoming (at any time) on the point.... Perfect. o Jo J o * +* JJJJI di>aJ (tepejek 6lduq) The past act or state of being (then) on the point .... Future. Cacophonous ; not used. Gerunds. 1st. I->JJJ\ (SUAJ (tepejek 6lup) Being about to kick (and ....) 2nd. j^Jjl ... ( ... olaraq) Continuing to be about to kick (and ....) 3rd. A-S^JI ... ( ... ilunja) As soon «,s (— is, was, will be) about to kick, O^ I i 4th. .^^1 ... Cacophonous. ACCIDENCE OR ETYMOLOGT. 133 5th. ijj\ Aj\ &?**> (tepejek 6la 61a) By continuing to be about to kick, .... O /O J 6th. tyoeJj! ..* ( ... 6lmaghin) By reason of being about .... 7th. JAJ^ ... ( ••• ilall) Ever since — became on the point .... SECTION XV. The Combined (true Turkish) Conjugation. Infinitive, O /C O/O J O// O/O j O Ox Present Jjjl eU^j Imperative, OX C J O'" O J O O x O J O X „„ Future, Indicative. o J * c Ji "? °'» ° J "* o ox Present. J,J-J O J x o J J Imperf. \S*jjs£ &iaU - O x J o J J o J J Aorist. jJ JO -» J JO J J Jo J J Past. ij$j3 tf^jl ... JO •» JO J Ox* tfjjt... Perfect. ^jj J JO 3 J JO J J JO J ^jjjjjl .... V^JJJJJ! • . tfjfcjjjl ... Piuperf. ^JJJJ Ox X J Ox x J O * x^ (not used) Future. «UAJ Ox x J °x' xx - , - „ Ox x J FutPast^jSo.^ (not used) 134 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. " Necessitative. * O J Ox x> Aorist. j. !•>.) j-LJjl^J JAJJ\ JUS j-LJjl &*&+> x ox +o J >o J xo J Fast. .OJII i,Ui ^JJJJJJ ... (^JJIJUJI ..» (^JJIJUJI 4* + * *X ' + " X" ^ + ' Optative. •J O Ox AJJI^ AJJI 1»J Aj\ <&»&+> Aorist. V U Past. Ij±m+-*J tfiJjl ... Conditional. x O X x o J o x x + o J o o* x O -» O x^ xx Aorist. V *^J' *-*T"v Ox O J O^O J O xO J Fast. (^XMJJI ... Active Participles. 0 <•<» O x«* o x j o xx o *j •* o e> O -. J O x ^x Fresent. o xx O J J O J 3 O J > Aorist ^1 ... O Ox* OJO y OJo J Fast. ^UJjl ... (not used) o o> ' O Jo J * ' OJ O J o jo j Perfect. jjlj! ... JJJJI ... o<» xx O x x J O X x J Future* (wo* used) Passive Participles. OJO J O XX O JO J O Ox OJO J Ox x-» Aorist. Verbal Nouns. xOX xO J 0"X XO J O Ox xO i O * +' Present. A*J **1JW *•!*' \J*+i **1J' dl>dJ> O Ox O JO J O JO 3 CJO J Perfect. O x xX OxxJ O ** x J Future. ctUaJ j^jjl... (J*^* "•' (not used.) - .. .Gerunds. O Jx O J J O^x o J J o C O ^ J O x xx 1st. C X •> OX X J Ox x J 2nd. ^w Jjjjl ... jyljl ... x° - XC, J xO 1 J 3rd. ^1... ^1 ... O ' <• Ox • J Ox 1 J 4th. **x &fy ... &ij ... &p ... x,» x„ 5th. V V ij/i j/> - JJUJ! ... jj/l Jjl ... O ^x- /O* O xO J * O XO J O XO J 6th. • 7th. ^i... jj/l ... xJ4>« - SECTION XYL The Negative and Impotential Conjugations. The Negative and Impotential Conjugations, twenty-four in number to each simple verb, as a general rule, are formed pre cisely on the lines of the simple affirmative conjugation in its four categories, as above given, with the exception of the aorist of the indicative, as to its root-word of the third person 136 OTTOMAN TUEKISH GRAMMAR. singular, and the corresponding aorist active participle, which ox o end in J* (maz), instead of the final . of the aflBrmative. Infinitive. Present. O " x xx Ox xx "*• '^^ U-; LdJl Imperative. Future. xc O J O/O/ O J O XOx O J Ox X«»Ox A40 ^ xx O' xx OX XX XX A*dJ ...^J^UAJ Indicative. Present. O J Ox O J •> Oxox O J J O «"Ox O J J Ox- xx<>" J*2 O J xx Ox •'x O x xx O * •*' xx ... JJIOUAJ ... (£UjuAdU> Imperfect. JO J J OxOx JO J J O xOx JO J J Ox xxC Ox *»^ ... j*&*> ... Aorist. O J J O'O x O J J O xOx O J J O * /'O/ xA'xV Ox 'X O X XX ... fji+U&J ... db.A-xdJ ACCIDENCE OR ETYMOLOGY. 137 Past. oxOx JO i J O/O/ JO 3 J O ,o* JO J J OS xxOx OX ,* o - xx- VfJ>*f ... >AJ ... (StUjUAjJ Perfect. xox JO J OxOx JO J O xOx »:»• JC J O <* xXOX" x xx Ox *, ... dc^j^*jJi Pluperfect. O J O -Ox ) J O , - »OX i£±yy*i (^JjjJjl^O j^^jJj^ ^JIAWJ x x ' * ~V (^JjJuoAJ ... J*AJ . • ^^UAJ ... (^^.A^AJ Future. O «. ./O/ O * x J O -O x Ox x J O -Ox (not used) Ox X- *, ... VoA*> ••• .JIAIAA*) (not used) Future Past. Ox"x ^'O/ Ox x J0,0- Ox x J O /O/ (not used) x * ~» X V X* X V O- x- o x xx- ... ^*AJ ... ^JLOUAJ (not used) Necessitative, Aorist. x -Ox xO J O/O/ xO J O xOx -O J Ox XXOX *X V jUUaJ • • • J**£ • * • ^£*UAJ ... (Sl^A****) 138 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. Past. /o J o ^o-» *o J o x xxev x ,, x v x x" x- v x x x s '* x s x* **v (^JjljLloAJ V*A (J*** LAJ C^>A^»AJ Optative, Aorist. xxO- x J o xOx A~«0 AU dl>3uwCO -* * ~ v ox ^ *l*A ... dli>.A~oAJ Past. ^J> o -o< O- J O , /^O/ Wx~ " v Ox x» xx ..J*d*g ... ,J«*^ ... <£UA-*AJ Conditional, Aorist. x-Ox x O J OxCx xO J O ^O x *o j o - //<•/ A~~CO JjlJ^J A-Jjl Uj)l>A~CO O X *.X O- xx ^x .^A ,j***U ...(^>A^«AJ Active Participles. Present. O xxOx O x J CxOx O x .» O xOx O x .» Ox xxcx O XX XX i O X Xx' ... ,J1AU4U> ,..do-Ax-*Axj' w ^ ACCIDENCE OR ETYMOLOGY, 139 Aorist. O J J 0x0 o O J J O XOo O J J Ox xXOx O X oX C Xo O o Xo lodJ ... ^J^LAJ ... (£1>4U*AJ . .. v Past. Ox""j J *> -Ox o;n J ox *xOx (ftOf WStfd) • o x oo O, xX O o ox XX ... >AJ (no£ used) ... dl>A~eAJ Perfect. o xOx OJJ J O/C/ O JO •* O oOX O J>0 J O o rf«,0x OX* Xx x* ... iptltdtJ ... (S^-AX-OAJ Future. o x" „oO o O x x 3 O xOx C*UA-*J (not used) OX ox ... ^^OUAJ (not used) Passive Participles. Aorist. o ».Oo OjO .» O ,»0 x 0 J O J , O 'O' o Jo J o - x^ox OX ox O o ox ei*.A^iuJ ... >*J • •• .jMX»\x»dU> (no* wsecT) 140 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. Verbal Nouns. Present. Aal*-J Jjlj^J AJJ! jji^Uo AJ.I d^A^^J AoLdU) ... d»A~oAJ Perfect. o Jo J o «»cv o * ^ o «» **• **• ... d>A^*Aj Future. (not used) d>dUedJ ...>oA*) ftMwoloA*) (not used) Gerunds. O J J O /O - O J J O ^O^ O J J O * S'O* ±>Jj\ d>A**J 1st. O J' , . ... |JM*U ^-v ... d>A~«AJ O' - J O ^C * O* -» * O /O' * u V O^ ^ J O - ^°^ jljjjl d»A*^j» 2nd. . O x •»*> -x [djA^AJ >v ... JJ»**L ... (SUA-AAJ ^OjJ 0*» **0 .» A-S^ ,W AST«1 d>A-w*Jl 3rd. ... ^OAJ IU*OIAA*> ... d>A?tAj O ^ , J O *C/ ©O "^ •j J O '+ -"**0O ^ o *~;^ JS^I d^A-^J JJM-ftu ... db»A*«AJ ACCIDENCE OR ETYMOLOGY. 141 ^ J ' J O *>0 ^ x J *• J O » * * J O * **0* A-<0 4UCO 5th. o ••• >V ... Jjlj o *o j o ^o- O ^O J O " ^<»0*» CMAAUO 6th.. ... ^AJ ... ,J1.«UA«J ,- J o *o - .ML> 7th. >V ... JJ^UAJ SECTION XVII. The Dubitative, Potential and Facile Verbs, fyc. o The Dubitative Verb is formed by adding the syllable ^jlo (mlsh, mish), or the word (JUi\ (Imlsh), to any personal verb, indicative or necessitative, active or passive, affirmative, nega tive, or im potential; but, in the perfect indicative, it displaces the syllable ijs (dl) of the root. It casts a doubt on what is said; and is often added, in conversation, by another speaker, to express that he considers what has been affirmed by the former speaker to be questionable, or hearsay, or mere assump tion. When the first speaker uses it himself, he does so to express that what he relates is either doubtful, hearsay, or erroneous assumption, from some other person. It is a gross vulgarism, to which Armenians and European novices are addicted, to use this dubitative syllable, in conversation, where 142 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. the fj± of the perfect indicative, or of any compound tense, is required. In writing, there is no denying that this form iff systematically used, by the best authorities, in place of the tense they would employ in speaking. The form has a more musical sound ; and it is, in my opinion, a fruit of imitating Persian verb-forms in Turkish; initiated, probably, by the Persian scribes of the early reigns. o In dubitative conjugation, this syllable ^Ju follows the simple tense-root and its plural, preceding the compound and personal terminations, singular or plural; unless it be spoken by another person. In this last case, it naturally comes alone, O O J * after all other words. Thus : ~1^_J (teplyormlshlm) it is said, supposed, pretended, suggested, ($*c, that I am kicking; o o o J - djol jjl^^j-J (teplyirmlsh Idlfi) it is said, fyc, that thou wast kicking; ^l^l^J (teper Imlsh) it is said, fyc, that he kicks; &±i\ fjl+rt (t^permlsh Idlk) it is said, 8fc, that we used to kick; j-X*» jjlfio (tepmtsh slnlz) it is said, fyc, that you kicked or have kicked ; JUAJb-s**** (tepejekler Imlsh) it is said, $c, that o o they are going to kick. (This word or syllable, ^J^} , UU, is really the past active participle of the obsolete verb eU>!.) The Potential Verb is formed of the fifth gerund (not re- peated) followed by the verb djb (bllmek) in its entire con jugation, the gerund remaining unchanged throughout. This auxiliary verb then means to be able, and answers to our ACCIDENCE OR ETYMOLOGY, 143 English can. Ex.: dub *J (tepe bllmek) to be able to kick; O J " (V^ ^ (t&pe" billy 6rlm) / am a£te to kick, I can kick ; &c. The Facile Yerb is formed by the root of a verb, to which an eser& is added, followed by a vowel ^j and the auxiliary .verb &*£• (vlrmek, vulg. vermek). With a vowel verb other than one in \j, a consonantal (j, with es£re, is added between the root-vowel and the servile 0,0- servile vowel ^j is then added; as, du^jij_J (tepl-vlrmek), c*3U^j-j-i^LjUl (qaplayi-vlrmek), dL^j-j^l (iquyu-vlrmek), dL*^j-_)j\5 (qaziyl-vlrmek). The sense of these verbs is that of great ease, readiness, off-handedness in the action, which we express in English by saying just to kick, just to give a kick; just to cover over; just to read or recite; just to scratch out; &c. There are several other Turkish verbs in use as special o , o,^, auxiliaries after the gerund of the original verb; as, dLjS (galmek), J*,jO (durmaq), jJlS (qalmaq), j^U (yatmaq), and j^b (yazmaq). The first expresses a frequent or natural happening; the next three signify persistency; and the last the idea of having almost happened, of being within an ace of happening. Thus, csUST A-JJI' (61a galmek) to happen fre quently, of course, as is well known; to be a common occurrence; q&lm&q) to stand (remain) staring in surprise and amazement; O+o , o J J J j^Jli CJ>JL£J.> (dushuiiup y& tm&q) to remain (lie) pondering, in a brown study; j^lj A1A> (bayM yazm&q) to give one1 s self up (write) as about to faint; &c, &c, &c. SECTION XVIII. The Verb Substantive. In Turkish there is no extant verb substantive, answering in all its moods and tenses to our verb to be. In one sense, the Turkish ,jjy performs the office, as an auxiliary and as an independent verb ; but as such, it is a verb adjective, and con tinually lapses into the parallel idea of to become. The Turkish originally had a true verb substantive, dUil (Imek) to be. This exists fragmentarily in Ottoman Turkish; perhaps in certain persons of the present, certainly in the per fect of the indicative, in the aorist conditional, in the past active participle, in the perfect verbal noun, and in the gerund, apparently modified from the present active participle (which in eastern and old Turkish was and is formed in ^ or J6, even o - J$ , traces of which are numerous in Ottoman, as adjectives). Thus : Indicative. o o o Present. ^ (1m, im), ^ (yim, yfm) / am; ^ (sin, sin) thou art; J_J I (Iz, iz), jj (ylz, yiz) we are ; Ld (slnlz, sinlz) you are. ACCIDENCE OR ETYMOLOGY. 145 o o Perfect. *JJ1 (idhn) I was, &±,\ (Idin) thou ivast, ^cjA (idl) he was; eJjjJ (tdlk) we were ; JSJ±>\ (Idlnlz) you were; 0 , j-k±>\ (Idller) they were. Conditional Aorist. *w>\ (Isam) if I am, (*)A^I (ls£k) if we are, \SA~J) (Isdnlz) if you are, Ji~~>\ (Isel&r) 2/ £te/ ar#. Pas* Active Participle* [J^}\ (linlsh) who or which was. Verbal Noun Perfect. o djuil (Idlk) the fact of having been. Gerund. o *y o ' Jx>l (Iken, oZd ^fol Ikan) during the fact of being. These fragments are made negative by prefixing the adverb (J*-i-> dlyll) not. Thus, JCjo (dlylllm) / am not, +xJ\ j£-p (diyll Idlm) / was not; *A-^I JXJA (dlyll Isem) ?/ / am not; o o ^ djjl Jxp (dlyll Idlk) not used as a verbal noun, but replaced o *o J 0-0 by JJUJI (olmadiq) the negative verbal noun perfect of j>jy ; cW J^i-* (<%!! Iken) wMtf wo£ fom#. The present tense indicative of the foregoing fragmentary verb is completed, as to its third persons, singular and plural, L 146 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. by using, when necessary only, the special, unique, and most distinctive Turkish invariable particle of affirmation,^^ (dlr, dir) is, and its conventional (unnecessary) plural, Jj± (dlrler^ dlrlar) are (which is just as well expressed by the singular). O O •» This word ^, written in eastern Turkish }^ (dur), as it is still pronounced in provincial Ottoman, is often found also, in ° * J old and eastern writings, under the uncontracted form of .j.jj (durnr). This circumstance leads to a suspicion that the word O .. O J is, originally, the aorist of the ordinary verb J^JA (durm&q) to remain. However that may be, the peculiarity of the word is that it is not special to the third person singular, or to the two third persons, singular and plural. It is often used, in writing and in conversation, after a verb of the first or second person also, singular or plural, of any simple tense of the indicative, with or without the plural sign J, when the sense admits it. It is, in fact, an exact equivalent to the French inchoative expression dest que, and the Latin constat quod, which can be used to o introduce any indicative proposition, as the Turkish j$ is used to conclude and complete any such. And, as the French and Latin clauses can be omitted without the sense suffering, so o also can the Turkish ..>. In conversation it is much more dispensed with than used. The negative of j± is j* J>o^ (drvll dlr) is not; pi. j±jXi± ACCIDENCE OR ETYMOLOGY. 147 (dlyiller dlr) and Jy jC> (dlyll dlrler) are not (just as well expressed without the J). SECTION XIX. The Verb of Presence and Absence, of Existence and Non-Existence, THERE ARE NO SUCH VERBS IN TURKISH. What there are, and what Europeans have erroneously chosen to designate as o + o J such, are two adjectives, \j (var) present or existent, jfjj (y6q) absent or non-existent Like any other substantive or adjective, o these may be followed by the verbal particle of affirmation j*, which, in this case, as in any other case, may be omitted in conversation. It may be convenient, occasionally, for a novice in Turkish O * O O ^ O •* Oj O •> to suppose that Jj or s*J\j means there is; that jjjj Wj* {jji means there is not. But, unless rightly understood, those ren derings are misleading. The expressions really say and mean he, she, or it, is present (or existent); he, she, or it, is absent (or non-existent) ; as, Jj u%\ (atesh var) fire (is) present (here), or existent (somewhere); J;J> yj*\ (atesh yAq) fire (is) absent (here), or non-existent (anywhere). ° J °" Then, such a phrase as J^l Jj (var ol) be thou present (or existent), J^l jf^-j (y6q 61) be thou absent (or non-existent), becomes clear. The first is a kind of prayer, Mayest thou ever exist, and be at hand, ready to help the afflicted! while the 148 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. second is a condemnation, a sentence • of banishment or annihilation, or a wish in the nature of a curse, Away! Avaunt! &c. By using a locative with these two expressions, they become o - * *• + o o* special instead of general : J\J *jj sJ*-~&. (jeblmdd p&ra var) in my 'pocket money is present (I have some money in my pocket) ; ^±>\ SECTION XX. Of the Compound Verbs. Besides the Turkish verbs already described, the Ottoman language has been indefinitely enriched with whole classes of ACCIDENCE OR ETYMOLOGY. 14£ compound verbs, active and passive, transitive and intransitive, formed by a Turkish auxiliary verb preceded by a substantive or adjective of Arabic or Persian, even of foreign, origin. An active compound verb is formed, generally, by an Arabic, rarely by a Persian verbal noun, or by a foreign substantive, o ^ o followed by one of the auxiliaries dU-iol (Itmek, vulg. etmek), (»UJLJI (eylem&k), O^O J 0 J sending, to have the goodness to send; (jjjl u^j* (mujlb 6lmaq) to cause; dijbl JLji (tevattun eyl&mek) to settle (in a place, as a home) ; j>Jjl ^U^IJ (peshlman dlmaq) to be regretfully or penitently sorry (for some act) ; (sJUql &z-iji) (vlzlte itmek) to visit, to pay a visit. Transitive verbs of this class form their passives with the auxiliary O/; J J O x O translation. Thus, SECTION XXI. Of the Interrogative Verb, and Interrogation in general. All interrogations, in Turkish (when an interrogative pro noun is not present in the phrase, as such), are made by intro ducing the interrogative particle or adverb * (ml, m!) into its proper position in the phrase. The proper position of this particle in the phrase is the end of the word on which the question turns. We have no equi valent for it in English ; in Latin the word an, and the enclitic particle ne, are its equivalents; also' the French est-ce que ? This may be best shown by an example of five elements, each of which may be the word on which the question specially turns, so that the adverb ^ is successively joined to each of them to indicate that speciality. Thus : 1. iyuMX_>A-Jj 4JAJ »c J^JQJ — Lo ^Ju (sdnml sdbah benlmld 'drd- bayd blnejeksln) Is it thou who art to ride with me to-morrow in the carriage! 2. ^^J-MX-*.^ *i*^ 4^*? (5^"* cJ"*** (s sabahml benlmla ara- bayd benejeksln) Is it to-morrow that thou art to ride with me in the carriage ? s n s 3. c^jC*.duj ia^ ($»&? rC* i^-** ( ^ ^>ah benlml&mi 'ara- baya blnejeksln) Is it with me that thou art to ride in the carriage to-morrow ? 152 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. 4. ^frS^i^i ^wAJyC AU> -.L© C^*» (san sabah bemlmla'arabaya- mi blnejeksln) Is it in the carriage that thou art to ride with me to-morrow ? 5. ^^^•x^.jjj Ai*?^ A!-*? ^W cr» (S^n s&baQ benlmla 'arabaya blnejekmlsln) Art thou going to ride with me to-morrow in the carriage ? This does not, however, exhaust the possible points of the question in the case of this sentence, nor the proper places of the adverb ^* in it. The phrase itself may be in question, as to whether these words were used, or some others, by the person to whom the interrogation is addressed. In that case, the adverb ^ would stand after the personal ending of the verb; ^ ^J\^i^> *i&je- AL«O —L* ^ (san sabah benlmla 'ara baya blnejeksln ml), which means, Dost thou say, thou wilt ride with me to-morrow in the carriage ? The last two instances call specially for the explanation that, in compound verbs the proper place of the adverb ^ may be between the two elements of the verb. Thus we may ask, di>.5jjil ^ JW Is it to send (and not himself carry, for instance) that he is going to do ? and (jr%-X-&.8jjl JL^I (Irsal Idejekml) Is he going to send ? In Turkish simple or derivative verbs, supposing that the adverb _* is to follow the verb in the sentence, and not some ACCIDENCE OR ETYMOLOGY. 153 other member thereof, then a further question is seen to arise in No. 5 above given, as to the exact part of the verb itself that takes this word after it. In this respect, the tenses have first to be considered. The simple tenses take the adverb at the end of the tense-root, and their compounds also, before °J . °J their auxiliary ^jjl ; thus, igj$.y*} is he doing ? ij±A ^jjiSA vms he doing? Next, a distinction has to be made between the third persons, singular and plural, as one group, and the first and second persons, singular and plural also, as another group. The first-named group of tenses have no personal endings, the second group have special personal endings, and the interrogative precedes these, following the tense-root still; thus, ~*jj~3 (teplyormlylm) am I kicking ? {ji~~+jji>J (teplyor- mlsln) art thou kicking ? ^JJ»° • * *"* (teplyorml) is he kicking ? o o j * ' o y*r o J , jt*jXr$ (teplyormlylz) are we kicking ? jS~~*jj~-*> (teplyor- ml&lnlz) are you kicking? ^Jjj^J (teplyorlerml) are they kicking ? The perfect tense indicative forms an exception to the fore going rule, as it takes the interrogative after the personal O Of endings. Thus, ^XJ (tepdlmml) have I kicked ? did I kick ? ^J!JJ (tepdlnml) hast thou kicked? didst thou kick? e-^sJ (tepdlml) has he kicked ? did he kick ? %_\y_J (tepdlkml) O y* O* have we kicked? did we kick? ^yS^xZ (tepdlnlzml) have you kicked ? did you kick ? ^JJSJ (tepdllerml) have they kicked? did they kick ? 154 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. SECTION XXII. Of Adverbial Expressions. As explained in Section II., every Turkish adjective is also an adverb. O ^ O ^X Every noun of time is also used as an adverb ; as, J> — L* (sabah gal) come to-morrow; {jtf! {:^=[} (erken galdl) he came early ; jjb A£J»\ (akhsh&m gelir) he will come in the evening. Adjectives of relative place, like all adjectives, are used as O 'J adverbs; thus, j^ tjJSji (yuqari chiq) mount up, walk up, climb up, ascend ; j£ ^^ (ashaghi g&l) come down, descend ; oJf )J*J\ (llerl git) go forward, advance ; JS^--> (gerl gal) come back. But substantives of place, like all substantives, can be used adverbially by the sole means of being joined to prepositions; O J J J » * J 4hus, jjijj>j\ *±>J$ym (yuqarida 6tnrly6r) he is sitting higher up ; £jji$ cP^lil (ashaghidan gellyorim) I am coming from below; iz+3 aiL (sagha git) go to the right; &Q. A possessive pronoun may enter into such an adverbial expression ; as, j^Ji-*. A«^I (ustftma chiqdi) he mounted on to the top of me. An adjective, substantive, and preposition may join to form an adverbial expression; as, 1&J0 eJl (alt tarafda) on the lower" side, lower down; ^ji^? v^Jl (alt tarafdan) from the lower side * from lower down. ACCIDENCE OR ETYMOLOGY. 155 So an adjective, substantive, possessive, and preposition may * + O O J be combined in an adverbial expression ; as, A*\J wz^l (ust yanimd) to the side above me; sjXib e>JI (alt ydnlndd) on the side below thee; ^xjjo cC (sagh t&rafind&n) from his (her, its) right-hand side. With certain special exceptions, any Arabic substantive or adjective becomes an adverb by adding an ustun and vowel ( to it; this being often marked with a double ustun sign, and read an ; or, if the word is a feminine in s, by putting two dots, with or without the double ustun sign to it, without an I; thus, Vj_L> (tulan) in length, longwise, in longitude; f a o* J St , L^«c (*&rzan) in breadth, breadthwise, in latitude; i^*s j L-> (berr&n ue bahr&n) by land and by sea; Lji* (muq&ddema) formerly; \j>>y> mfcakhkharan) latterly, recently; ii>\ij Ulo» (qaV&n ve qatibet&n) decidedly and entirely. The first ten Arabic ordinals are thus much used adver bially; as, Vjl (avvala) firstly; G\S (sanlya) secondly; UJC (sallsa) thirdly; UK (rabfa) fourthly; C*U (khamlsa) fifthly; LoC (sadlsa) sixthly; UJU (sablea) seventhly; L«\J (samlne) eighthly; U-U (tasl'a) ninthly; \Ju\& ("ashlraj tenthly. 156 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. SECTION XXIII. Of Prepositions. They always follow the substantive or pronoun. Besides those given in the chapter on the substantive, there are but four or five others : 5>)jl (uzere) upon, *>. (je, ja) according ton ja» (siz) and ^J- (slzln) without, &A (leyln) at the time of, after the manner of SECTION XXIV. Of Conjunctions. The conjunctions ».> (da) and ^o (dakhi) also, follow the word they unite to a preceding one; as, *jX>£=* *JJJ d^>^=» (gidersan, ben-da glderlm) if thou wilt go, I also will go; ^±j, (bu dakhf) this, too. All other conjunctions head the clauses which they connect. The principal of these are: J (ve, in Persian couplets read u, A) and; L*l (amma), {jSJi (lakln), ^,^-AJJ (ve-lakln) but; j-jsil (anjaq) only; j£=*\ (&y&r, eger) if; ^.L; (yakhod) or; ...li ,.\ (ya...ya...) either... or...; ...A> ...AJ (ni...ne\..)w^A0r... nor...; jf* (h&tta) insomuch that; *£=*+ (m^yer, meger) unless; o o _ i*" o j (jxc) (Imdl) therefore, wherefore; \j>\ (zira) for, because ; AX-3J>> (chunku) since, by reason that; & (kl) that; U (ta) so tfftaf, in order that; as far as. Of these, some are Turkish, some Arabic, others Persian in origin. ACCIDENCE OR ETYMOLOGY. 157 SECTION XXV. Of Interjections. These are mostly Arabic or Persian in origin. They pre cede, as in English. The principal are : ^1 (ey), U (ya) 0; » 1 (ah) ah; aljjl (eywah) alas; ^Ju^ (khayf) woe; sx* (nieded) O *t* help; ^j\ (aferln, vulg. aferlm) bravo. There is, however, a peculiar Turkish interjection I (a) 0, that joins on to the vocative following it ; as, Gil (a-baba) 0 father; lill (a-ana) 0 mother. It also follows nouns, pronouns, and verbs, taking the sense of Yes! Indeed! I told you so! You see now ! as, lol (adam-a) a man; you see ! Yjji (gyuzel-a) nice ; indeed I l^j (benlm-a) mine; in sooth ! \>Xt*jjS (gyilrema- din-a) thou couldst not see ; after all ! ( 158 ) CHAPTER III. THE OTTOMAN SYNTAX. SECTION I. Conversational brevity. Precision in writing. COLLOQUIAL and written Ottoman Turkish, as far as Syntax is concerned, are the very antipodes of each other. As in the orthography the rule is given : " Never introduce a vowel-letter into a Turkish or foreign word without removing a possible doubt as to pronunciation ; never leave out a vowel in such a word, if by the omission a doubt is created as to pronunciation,"—that is, be always as concise as is possible without falling into ambiguity; so also, in col loquial syntax the chief rule is : Never repeat a word, or intro duce its equivalent, and never use a subsidiary word, unless for the sake of emphasis; whereas the golden rule for written lan guage is, Never omit any word that tends to make a sentence clear and explicit. On the contrary^ introduce freely as many new words as may, in the requisite degree, elucidate the sense sought to be conveyed. In other words, Spoken Ottoman Turkish should be as concise as possible, even to the verge of ambiguity; SYNTAX. 159 written Ottoman Turkish must be as full, verbally, as to leave no doubt on the mind of the reader at any distance of space or time. The reasons are obvious and eminently practical, philosophical; namely: If, by reason of a speaker's conciseness, a doubt as to his meaning should arise in the mind of the person addressed, a question can be put, and the doubt at once removed ; if, on the contrary, a written document be left obscure in any part, the doubt thence arising must remain unsolved, and the mean ing guessed at, because the writer is either dead or away at a distance. Hence, if one be asked, j± O ^O *yr seen (him), or +x*jjS (gyurmadlm) / have not seen (him). O CxOxO ' + J J Should one say to you, ui~~vi f^Jj *" J# (oun^ sana versam, yer-ml-sln) If I give this to thee (you), wilt thou (will you) eat (it)? the answer will be either +& (yerlm) / will eat (it), or °C!> (yemam) / will not eat (it). In this last question, the omission of "it," even by the asker, is to be remarked. As instances of the omission of all possible subsidiary words from phrases in conversation, may be mentioned that of the 160 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. affirmative j$ (dlr) is, it is, he or she is, on all occasions of ordinary assertion or negation. The personal and corrobora tive possessive pronouns are never employed in conversation ° J ' unless for emphasis or distinction ; as, *s£y> (fdviyArlm) I O J , * love (thee, you, him, her, it), *jjiy*> ,A— (sanl savlyorim) i" love thee (you), *jjif~> ,$•**» ^ (ben sanl ...) I, personally, love thee; ijjK A>\> (b&b&ui galdl) my father came, or has come. As a consequence of the desire to leave no doubt as to the meaning of a writing, nouns and verbs in apposition, in pairs, are much used ; such are, o*s^ j ^ (vldd I!L mahabbet) friend- JoJ J o o < •> o jj _ ship, ^jJ^^-k-J j JJ£ (tahrir u tastlr olundu) has been written, A result of the avoidance of unnecessary repetition is that the third person singular of a verb is often employed instead of its plural when the nominative plural is expressed; as, {jd^ h±\ (adamlar g&ldi) some men, or the men have come, or came. Another such result is the use of a singular substantive with a plural cardinal number; as, oi _;! (uch &t) three horses, *-+>-£• U*L-J (bin 'araba) a thousand vehicles (carriages, carts, waggons, &c). To make written composition still more precise, it is very usual, after introducing a common substantive or a proper name into a paragraph or article, letter, dispatch, &c, never to use a personal pronoun to designate the thing or person SYNTAX. 161 so named, but to repeat the substantive or proper name as often as may be required, either preceded or followed by one O Jo , O J O *> of the indicative adjectives, j^y* (m&zbur), jj£s*.x* (mezkyur), O i O - for things or persons, jjJ ~* (mesfur), for a contemned or OO/ /J criminal person, A-J1 ~*J-* (muma lley-h), for a reputable o o * * -» J person, and a-Jl^ll* (mnsharun lley-h), for a person of rank and consideration. These words all mean, in reality, the afore^ said, the afore-mentioned, the said, &c. In the case of a person first mentioned by name, or by a common substantive, these words may be used as substantives,—we might say,—as a kind of personal or demonstrative pronoun, in all the cases of the declension; but, in the case of a thing, they must be used as; adjectives to its name, repeated each time. SECTION II. Syntax of the Substantive, A common noun substantive singular may be either definite or indefinite, and may represent, according to circumstances or the context, either an individual or the individual, several individuals, a portion of the species, or the whole species; as, °1 Mf6jf\> (bdghcha gyuzel shey) a garden (is) a pretty thing; ij±J£ »L£oC (padlshah galdl) the monarch came, or has come; jj> ^%MJ&>\ (Ingllterada geml ch6q) in England (there are) 162 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. O • O *» ? <• O ^ many ships; y JOJ dU^b dL£^ (chlchek baghchanlfi zinetl dlr) flowers are the ornaments of the gardens, of the garden ; O O J *sg\ ye (sA Ichdim) I drank (some) water, I drank water (not O •«* J wm£, &c), ^Isi j^ (su aqar) water flows. In the accusative case indefinite, the substantive is as in the O * O J nominative; as, dL*-sslj*© (su Ichmek) to drink water (some water). If the declensional accusative is used, it is always O O J J definite; as, ^Assl ^y* (suyu Ichdim) / drank, or have drunk, the water. There are four different Turkish methods of constructing two substantives in a sentence. First, by simple juxtaposition; second, by adding the possessive suffix of the third person to the second substantive; third, by putting the first in the genitive, and still adding the possessive suffix to the second ; and fourth, by putting the first in some other prepositional case, and leaving the second unchanged. In simple juxtaposition of two substantives, the first in dicates a material, the second a form; or, the first indicates a J 1 O 0»* quantity, the second a material; as, \fp &yA\ (altfn qutu) a gold box; A-J \ L^SjJt (blr klle arpa) a bushel (of) barley; Jji diksU^jl (Ikl sa'&tlikyil) a distance of two hours journey; s J O 0«» O •> A5J>. dJ^-* -.jl (uch s£trlllk choha) broadcloth enough for three eoats. SYNTAX. 163 With the possessive suffix alone added, a relation of genus and species is indicated, the genus standing last, and the com bination remaining indefinite; as, ^li ^\SS (kltab qaui) a book-cover; iS^,y j\ (&• kyupeyi) a house (domestic) dog; ^4==**)^ uW (y^han urdeyl) a duck of the wilderness {wild duck). If the first is a proper name, the second is the species, the first the name of the individual, and the combination is definite ; as, ^j,^ jljl (azaq denlzi) the Sea of Azof. With the first in the genitive, real possession is indicated, the name of the possessor being the first, and the combination is definite; as, ^Jl^e. tsU^i (qiralln 'askerl) the king's army; * o * + (jj\ (sLbb (babamin &vl) my father's house, When the first is put into a prepositional case, the second remains without a suffix, and the combination may be definite or indefinite, an active participle being always understood; as, Jji ij^j (shehre yil) a (or the) road to the town; ^j^a &W** (demlrdan kyupru) a bridge of iron; i^S j-> *&>\ (ayda bir kerre) once in a month ; &c. When two substantives are in apposition, no change is made in either 5 as, \z\ ^U (chawushagha) Mr. Sergeant; ^j^i) J£\\J (yazljl efendi) Mr. Clerk; UA* ^JLo (mushir pasha) the Pasha (who is) a Mushir. Here, the generic word stands last, and the combination is definite. Sometimes, the specific word or 164: OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. term is complex and obeys its own rules; as, \t\ ^At cj\ (in- O * O '#* O bashl agha) Mr. Corporal; dL> ^Vl^* (mir-alay bey) Squire Colonel; L^LJ I^J y-.* (mirl-llva pasha) the Major-General Pasha. There are two exceptions to the rule that the generic word stands last, when the other word is a proper name. In all other cases with proper names, this rule holds good; as, ^IkL U»*»l (esma saltan) Princess Esma, Vj* o)-c (izzet molla) O ^x ox Judge Izzet; (jX-iJl v-i^lc (earlf efendl) ilfr. *Arif; &c. The o «- o> exceptions are: 1, the word ^UaL*, when applied to the sove- II JO/ O /OJ reign before his name ; as, J«yg' j^c ^UaL* (sultan 'abdu-'l- hamid); 2, the word Vj*, when applied to a student or school- boy, also before his name ; as, ±JL\j )ly (mdlla rashld) school- boy Rashid. Any number of substantives may be in apposition, and one of them may be the proper name of the individual; as, O J^J •* O J O J jJLljJi + \ c.j\ (ighlum qAlAnuz) your servant, my son; O *^» J O x O - OJO 3 J-£Jji ^ J^J JLCJI (6ghlAm r£fiq b&y quluiiuz) your servant, my son, Refiq Bey ; jJOji db jJ, <^H J-* JL£jl (oghlum mir- al&y ^refiq bey quhiiiuz) #owr servant, my son, Colonel Refiq Bey; &c. When a string of substantives in construction would in strictness require several of them consecutively to be put in SYNTAX. 165 the genitive case, the monotonous cacophony of the repetition of the preposition is avoided by omitting it once or twice ,_/ OJJO JO + O ,» O *» O * * where most appropriate; thus, J>1 dUl^jl dL^-jib (SJU-JJU^I d^l^U (pashanin enlshteslntn daylsinin ighlnnun at!) the horse of the son of the uncle of the brother-in-law of the pasha, may be expi-essed in either of the following ways: .***Hlb ,,-A^JI dLili»\j Jjl dLlcjl, or ^3\ dLlcjl t^Hl^ (»L-»JU^)\ U»b, or *»AI£J\ UA> Jii (sJLl^j! dL~-jb, or J[l ddc^l du-».ob ^A^JI ISISUAJ; the last genitive preposition being, perhaps, the most frequently re* tained and necessary. Two or more Arabic or Persian substantives may be put in Persian construction with each other. Their order is then the reverse of what it would be in Turkish construction, just as in English the king's horse is in reverse order with the horse of the king. In Persian construction each preceding substantive of a series must be vocally connected with its consequent. This vocal connexion is effected by making the final quiescent consonant of the preceding substantive movent with &sere; thus, »Li2» ^L^J (fermanl shah) the command of the king; ° ** ' *°* JO, ^\jA »U. ^1^9 tfj+^L* (muzmunu fermanl shahl Iran) the tenour of the command of the king of Persia, But, if the last con sonant of a preceding substantive is movent, and followed by a vowel-letter, a servile consonant must be introduced to sup port the 6s£r& vowel of connexion ; and this consonant varies 166 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. with the final vowel of the word. When the final vowel-letter is \ or j , the servile consonant is ,j; as, u-^-^1 ^U ^L* (ja-yi o , 9 > pa-yl esb) ^6 j>Zac£ of the foot of the horse; edu ^j ^y> (mu- yu ru-yu seg) /^£ hair of the face of the dog. If the final vowel-letter be a^, this letter is converted itself into the servile consonant required ; so that no written addition is needed; thus, -^ *U <^ (peri-yl chah-1 burj) the fairy of the well of the tower. Ignorance often writes a hemze over such final O «» O «» O /» O^ _ name, is commonly employed; as, ob Jj j^l (ahmed nam zat) «> «> O * O ' ^0 personage named Ahmed; yfe* *li ^li (qirim nam jezire) the island (peninsula) named Crimea* The two words «-^ ^ ^ (hazret), c_>L-». (jenab), which originally mean presence and szefe, are used before or after the names or titles of individuals held in honour, with a meaning varying from that of His Divine Majesty down to that of plain Mr, or Mrs,, &c. When they precede, they remain unchanged to the eye, but are in Persian construction; as, I o ** o (hazr&t-l khAda) His Divine Majesty, God; j*+. ( —~ peygamb&r) His Sanctity, the Prophet; »LioLj oLi^. (jenab-i padlshah) His Majesty, the Sovereign; c^L^lju* ^U*. ( — sadaret-ma>ab) His Highness, the Repair of the Vezirate (the Grand Vezir). When they follow, they are in Turkish construction, and generally take the possessive pronominal 168 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. suffix of the third person plural, but sometimes that of the •Ox O , O* O ' O* O CtO i O' third person singular; as, ^jjo^ d^&lL -JL-VI &£» (sheyktm- '1-lslam tahlr b&y h&zretlerl) His Eminence the Lord High Chancellor', Tahir Bey; .e-jt^ (jXJ\ I^WM> £*A»:ZJI* &UJ*J ^Durusa muftlsi hasan efendl jenabl) His Honour the State Counsel of Brusa, Hasan Efendi; ^JJSJM* l£l> ^a*» (s&fIr pasha — ) His Excellency the Pasha Ambassador; ^UU&» csb d^rj (terjuman hey — ) His Worship the Interpreter Bey; &c, &c, &c. ° - © ^ Generally, the word c^a^ before a single name indicates one of the prophets, saints, or patriarchs of old; as, -j3 o^ (hazretl nuh) the patriarch Noah ; ^j-* — ( — miisa) the prophet Moses; ^LJL — (— suleyman) the prophet (king) o • o „ Solomon; *-^-* — (— meryem) Saint Mary (the Virgin Mother) ; -** c — (— fIsa) the Prophet Jesus; ^-** — (— mesih) the holy Anointed One (Christ); &c, &c, &c. SECTION III. Syntax of the Adjective. Nearly everything requisite in a sketch has been said on -this subject in the former Chapter (II.), Section II. If several adjectives qualify one substantive, they follow one another simply in Turkish construction, and are all connected vocally in the Persian construction ; as, J^J*- L-^s^jtal Jj»/(gyuzel, SYNTAX. 169 edebll, mabjiib chdjuq) a pretty, well-behaved, modest child; \y-3 —js (jUJ OW^-J (jU (ja-yl blhlsht-n&ma-yl fer&h-feza) a paradise-like, joy-giving place. One adjective may qualify several substantives in a sentence; as, HJLJ JL^lj f%-ot (amem u ejyall satire) the other peoples and nations. An Arabic or Persian adjective is never placed after a Turkish or foreign substantive; and whenever either is placed before one of these, it remains, like a Turkish adjective, un ci .. o - changed as to gender or number; as, clL> Jac ('azim dagh) a great mountain; *l£oU ^Jac ('azim padlshah) a great monarchy o 'C o »» " olj^ *Jafi (^zim devlet) a great state. Some adjectives take a substantive as a complement to restrict their application. In Turkish construction, this com- plement precedes, with or without a preposition; as, J^oy» (su d61u) full (of) water, JJJL *y yo (su lid ddlu) filled with water. In Persian construction it follows ; as, jij> JJy (laylq- i beyan) worthy of exposition ; xJo {JJ\J* (muwaffq-f tdb') con formable with nature. The Turkish adjective ^i (glbl) like, follows substantives, the personal pronoun of the 3rd pers. plur., the demonstratives plural, the interrogatives singular and plural, and the compound relatives, when its complements, without any change occurring > in them ; as, ^-.^»y> (su glbi) like water; ic*^= jl^\ (anler 170 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. glbl) like them; ^Jjljj> (bunlar glbl) like these; (klm glbl) like whom ? ^$ Jlj (neler glbl) like what things ? ^^3 (jCjClb (b&bUmlnkl glbl) like the one belonging to my father; ^S^StX^ (bendekl glbl) like the one I have. All other pronouns are put in the genitive, when complements to this word; as, ^S ^ (benlm glbl) like me; ^-S c*Jil (anln glbl) like him, her, it; ^^S ^r* (slzln glbl) like you ; ^_--S dij> (b&nun glbl) like this; &c. SECTION IV. Syntax of the Numerals. . The Turkish and Persian cardinals always precede their substantive, and this is usually left in the singular, whatever the number ; as, ioi». jjol (Ikl chlft) two pairs; ^l^ .j (du jihan) the two worlds (present and future). But the Arabic cardinal follows, the construction is made Persian, and the * O * "i substantive is made plural; as, ***•»• *• o* «o of the habitable earth; »,alU g^+i. ^y (quvayi khamse-1 za* hire) the five external senses. But if, instead of an adjective, a descriptive phrase should qualify the substantive, the Turkish numeral comes between O O ,OJ J O * •> the two; as, <^\j\ »JJ^ dodkjl (idanin biyunda blr Ip) a string of the length of the room; ^Ull (6dan!ii Iklsl) two rooms, fj»S^} &)iA>j\ (odalarin Iklsl) two of the rooms. Very often, between the Turkish cardinal number and its substantive, another substantive is introduced, with the sense of individual or individuals, as in our phrases " ten head of cattle," "six sail of ships," &c. This substantive varies in Turkish according to the nature of the things defined by the numeral. For men it is^aj (nefer) individual; for beasts it is o c*> o • ^L (re^s) head; for bulbs it is ^ZXJ (bash) head; for ships it is ixki (qit'a) piece; for cannons, ships, and villages, it is IJJ (pare, 172 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. vulg. p&rd) piece; for things usually counted it is s±c ('dded) number; for things not usually counted it is aJta (dane, vulg, tan&) berry; for swords it is ^ A .a (qabza) /h7£; for elephants, o ^sij (zenjir) ckm. Thus : **\ Ju Ji> five men; ^j^ ^\j ^\ ten sheep; ^Uj*? ^b {S^\ two onions; AUI* axks Lc-t^i twenty ships; Aifeu s^lj ^C,_X_J> twenty vessels; L^JO *JO ^J\ ten cannon (pieces of artillery) ; ^jj> i^lj The Turkish ordinals precede their substantives ; as, *£^Jt O ,»•» J O J J •* O O C"» (blrlnjl geyje) ^ first night; ^\ ^SJjjUh ^ ,•».:; J1 (Ultmish d6qu.zu.nju. alay) the sixty-ninth regiment. The Arabic ordinals follow; as, .^ti. <_>L> (babl khamls) chapter the fifth. The Persian ordinals generally precede, but sometimes follow. The Turkish distributive numerals are used to express the rates of collection as well as of distribution; as, Ji±ji) ifo j2*> OS* *,0* (besher pdrd verdll^r) they contributed five paras each ; ^t> s/jl O ^ x ^ ^JJ^-JJ tjj (&nl&r& basher p&ri verlldl) to them five paras each were distributed. For emphasis sake, the simpler distributives are often SYNTAX. 173 repeated; but they are then generally used as substantives ; as, **%Ji0 jj{ jj> (blrer blrer t6pladim) I collected (them) one by one; y>^\jl^\ JtJ&\ (Iklsher Iklsher aliniz) take ye (them) two apiece each (of you), or, take you (or thou, them) two together each time* SECTION V. Syntax of Pronouns. The demonstrative pronoun, when an adjective, precedes all other qualifications of its substantive; as, M^S tsJj-H JT^ j> O O o manner desiderated in mind by us (i. e.5 by me); ^Clc^- *Jj2*J&i\ ^St-ttjj-sJe (dqtar4 sharqiyy£ ser-'&sker-l zHfer-rehberl) the O *" O -J victorious commander-in-chief of the eastern districts; jA el£l? y .^Lsil K^J^J (jl^-iJU Turkish construction precedes the whole combination to which the possessive is suffixed ; and this corroborative is always in the genitive, whether it be a substantive or a pronoun ; as, *,j-j (^-=^-0 (%-^-J (benlm m&rhum pederlm) my late father; ^tjJ («^j C^AWJI (6danin blyuk qapusu) the great door of the room. One possessive suffix may qualify several substantives ; as, {cj\~>-\ j cjjte j LA-SH j Ji (al A ds-hab A 'Itr^t u. ahbabl) his family, companions, posterity, and friends. SECTION VI Syntax of the Verb. Verbs of the first and second person agree with their nomi- natives in number and person; as, +±jy ^ (ben gyurdum) / saw, have seen (him, her, it, &c.) ; yX->j>jj) y*» (slz gyiirdunftz) you saw, have seen (me, us, them, &c.\ A verb of the third person must also agree with its subject, -» O Jy if understood; as, \£±j£ (gyurdu) he, she, it saw, has seen (it,&c); Jl±jjf (gyurduler) they saw, have seen (it, &c). When the subject is expressed of a verb of the third person, the verb does not always agree with it in number, A singular subject soraetimes has its verb in the plural, out of respect or politeness; a plural subject often has its verb in the singular, so as to avoid the cacophony of repetition. Thus : JJUxiJf JJIJ SYNTAX. 175 (bab&m gltdller) my father went, has gone, is gone ; ^S& {jJ&\Z>j\ (ushdqlerl gdldl) his or their servants came, or have come, are come. So a verb with several subjects expressed, when all of the third person, singular or plural, may be in the singular; as, .3 £)\>\2> J\ji& \-jy»oj c>W; <—SJ)I (uluf-i rlzvan u sunuf-i gufran shayan dlr) thousands of prayers for God's acceptance, and all hinds of wishes for God's mercy (on him, &c.) 2*5 (are) fitting. If one of them be of the second person, singular or plural, and the other or others of the third person, the verb must be of the second person plural; as, Jj^jIi^l^Jxl^J j lj±ij ^ (sdn v& pMerlm ve q6nshAfiuz beraber gltdlnlz) thou and my father, with your neighbour, went together. And if one be of the first person, even singular, whether the others be of the second or third, singular or plural, the verb J J o J^ o ,o~*o*,o, must be in the first person plural; as, eb^jf dliljj,3 j ^ j ^ (ben, ve s&n, ve qarndashln, gyurdtik) 7, and thou, and thy brother, saw (him, &c). In conversation, ,^ and its plural J.$ are generally omitted at the end of a phrase, affirmative, negative, or interrogative; as, i* j>\ jSZL^ {khyilniz lyl ml) is your health good ? y\ (lyl) it is good; Jyi j>\ (lyl dlyll) it is not good. But, in repeating the affirmative or negative words of another, ,.> must be introduced ; as, (^JJLJI jjiXa? jjo ^ AL-JJ-* 176 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. (buyl& dlr, d6yu, tdsdiq eyledl) he confirmed, saying, Ci It is so." In relating the words of another, no alteration is permitted in number, person, or tense of the verb; as, ^JJJ +J$ (gellrlm, didl) he said, " / will come " (not as in English, " he said he would come"). "When the object of a transitive verb is definite, it is put in o r»* *» the accusative ; as, ^jJl Jfl (at! dldfm) / bought, have bought (or taken) the horse. But, if the object be indefinite, it remains in o c«* ^* the nominative; as, *jJI ol (it aldun) / bought a horse or horses. Intransitive, like transitive, verbs, govern their indirect objects by means of different prepositions, i.e., the substantives or pronouns are put into different cases according to the verb. 0/.CO J O ' O J i Thus : (J*S,jS &X*Jj\ (Alumdan qirqmaq) to be afraid of death ; ,3*>lJ ^J^Jjl (ulumdun qachmaq) to run away from death; j^jiU UJJJ (pdrdyabdqmdq) to look at money (i.e., to take money into account or consideration); isL)ji isj* (sudd yuzmek) to swim in the water; &*#£=> *j£=a± (denlzfe girmek) to go into o^ o i * o /Ac sea (i.e., to bathe in the sea); j*jj\ AA -Li (qillj lid wur- mdq) to strike with a (or the) sword; {J*-J\) &y?\ Jo\*. (khatlr ichln ydpmdq) to do (a thing) out of regard (for some one) ; i*U> A-JljX (haywdnd blnmek) to mount on a beast (horsf); SYNTAX. 177 eU^ ^(C*-J (gemlye blnmek) to mount (go) on board ship; j£jL)Li AftU (ayagha qalqmaq) to me to one's /e^ (i. e., to rise, get up, stand up). Nouns of time and place are often used adverbially (as also is the case in English) without prepositions after verbs; as, $ tfji (yarln gal) come to-morrow; ^1 ,PU»T (ashaghiln, vulg. en) descend, come or go down; j^ ijj&ji (yiiqari chiq) ascend, mount; i. e., come or go up. Still, on occasions, prepositions are used with them; as, c->U N 178 OTTOMAN TUEKISH GRAMMAR. SECTION VII. Syntax of the Participle. In conversation, the substantive qualified by a particle, active or passive, is sometimes understood, and the participle is used as a substantive; as, JSJ AJS (gelane ver) give (thou it) to him (or her) who comes; A*S\J *S^X>S (gldlylmd baqmll) look not at that which I wear; i*jyo ^i^b (yapajaghim! sorma) ask not what I shall do. The active participle present of 3* O Of SO* }£ ^i^>\ 4J1 JI (ellm He dchdfghfm q&pii) the door that I opened with my hand; <_*-»*» JJO-A^JJ! JJ-S j,^ ^ The Persian and Arabic participles are constructed, gene rally, with their objects, in the same manner as if the participles were substantives ; as, ^l^ jiyt, j>ll> (khaliq-l h&r dnjlhan), ^JU. dbl^j^^ (her du jlhanin khallqi) the Creator of both worlds; Jj.S-s S-i Jj-Li0 (makhluq-u yed-1 qudretl), J JO * O /O/OJ *. jjjls.* db^t',S9 J_J (yM-1 qudretlerlnin makhluqu) the creature Opt J ,0* *i* of the hand of Ris almighty power; ^\j ^\ &x^j>\ (aferinende- 1 in u an) the Creator of this and that (all things); g»jx-L) &<**»*> j^\ ±j>. (reside3! kyungyure-3! charkh-i esir) which has reached the battlement of the ethereal sphere. But sometimes Arabic active participles of transitive verbs 2 o / govern their direct objects as do their verbs ; thus, 0^9 c£-~* ^s^^sj^ (keyf lyyet-1 mezkyure-1 mubin) which explains the said circumstance. SECTION VIIL Syntax of the Verbal Nouns and Infinitive. Turkish verbal nouns are constructed with their subjects, when substantives, as any two substantives ; thus, ^JS nz)x*o*\ (ahmedln galmesl) the coming of Ahmed, Ahmed's coming; \hl&dj^^l (ahmedln g&ldiyl) Ahmed's (past action of) having come; jJ^AJsTd.u&.l (ahmedln gelejeyl) Ahmed's (future action of) coming. When the subject is a pronoun, it is put in the genitive still, 180 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. and the Turkish verbal noun takes the possessive suffix of the O xO , O «« subject's number and person ; as, *AJ6 +*> (benlm galmein) my coming ; duSo±b du:«* (sanln galdlyln) thy having come ; c^JLii ijJ&o>6& (anlerln galejeklerl) their future coming. Turkish verbal nouns and infinitives are constructed with their objects, direct or indirect, exactly as their verbs; thus, ?*>*jy ,jl (anl gyurmem) my seeing him (her, it) ; cslX-^db *^*)t (izmire galejeyin) thy future coining to Smyrna ; &±+*\ A^,JJ ifi^i L-JJJLA-© ,JJ^ (pedeiina ahmedlii dun mektub yazdigh!) Ahmed}s having written a letter to his father yesterday. Arabic verbal nouns are constructed with their agents some times in the Turkish, sometimes in the Arabic, and sometimes oJ JJ in the Persian manner; as, +*jjj (vurud^im) my arrival; o o'„ oC ouifC Jo j r>L*s? (tahsilm) thy study; \£jij£ (tahrirl) his writing; 4iJl xi*> siinM 'llah), AJI SC^> (sune-l llah) the act of God ; J^J\J^J ztjd (Idare-i pergyar-1 &fkyar) a revolving of the compasses of the thoughts. Arabic verbal nouns are constructed with their objects in the same manner as the compound verbs formed of them ; as, c_^_*> fjjjsJLo (maqdurl sarf ) an employing one's utmost; ^^J jU* ALOSS ^US]^ (fann-1 jagraflyay! tahslla medar) a help to un acquiring the science of geography. But they may also be- constructed with them as two simple substantives, either in SYNTAX. 181 O " O J J O* the Turkish or Persian manner; as, J^> t^ji* or^ji* u-i^; and again, AJLOSJ diUKi>. ^ or «wUI»*>. ^ J~o^; &c. In all cases excepting their construction with their subjects or objects, the Turkish verbal nouns and infinitives are con structed in sentences exactly like any other substantives; as, J* LJJ^ O^J? tsUlj' (dlmek bunddn evli dlr) to die is better than O , * + O JO J this; (j±£]\>. a,y, » LJ^i (q^rtalrndghd ch&lishdi) he laboured at escaping; +±u\ ±-+i>J yjg} j^Sl* (y&qmaq ichln tertlb etdlm) / arranged, have arranged (it) for burning; J^S ^jV .^-la (g&l- mesl lazim dlyll) his coming (is) not necessary; t+JL^dLjtxf o / o ^ cJ . \) +* & .;>> (glde-bllejeylme sh&b-hem var) wy doubt exists, i. e., / have a doubt as to my being able to go. SECTION IX. Syntax of the Gerunds. The gerunds are not much used in conversation; there the discourse is broken up into as many sentences as may be needed, each with its personal verb; as, *±j>jjj» +±& ?*jf p& (gltdlm, gyurdAm, gdldlm, kh&ber verdlm) I went; I saw; I came; I gave information. But, in the literary style, one long phrase, ending with one personal verb, will contain a number of clauses, each ending with a gerund (which thus acts to the ear, as well as to the eye, like our commas and semicolons); as, *sSjJ& csl^jj C^JSS 1?2 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. o o o*, tif-y^j^ (g^P> gyurerek, galdikde, khaber verdlm), /, going and seeing, on coming back, reported. When compound verbs are used, the auxiliary gerunds may O JJ > O^ o be omitted once or twice in a long sentence ; as, £cjj ijuot* j> ^^sA ^-sti S±**y *JJI j (blr mevzi a vurud, ve anda blr mtqdar qu'ud Mup,....) ... arriving at a certain place, and sitting down there awhile, .... In this case, however, a conjunction requires to be introduced in lieu of the gerund omitted; as is seen in the example given. The subjects, and direct or indirect objects, of the gerunds are constructed as with their verbs. But, as the gerunds cannot indicate the person and number of their subjects, the appropriate personal pronoun must be expressed before them, when the subject is not a substantive ; as, u^j-jj-ijl c->Ls-5 +$\ (adam kitab oquyub) man, reading a booh (or boohs), ; j£^l J^l^ *y»> A*J (ftrmanlm size vwasil olijaq) at what time my command shall attain unto you, ; tsK»»y #$\ jZ> ^ (ben, shu adam! gy&rerek) /, seeing that man, ; &c. SECTION X. Syntax of the Adverb. The adverb precedes the verb or adjective qualified by it; as, ^jsh c^W (sabahleyln galdi) he came in the morning; Jj/(Jj^ (cll^l gyuza) ^ry pretty. SYNTAX. 183 The negative J$J (dlyll) not, precedes the verb substantive, expressed or understood, but follows the substantive or adjec- tive which it negatives; as, +Jb * ^S (genj dlylllm) / am not young; ^uJS^jJ&i (Hqlsiz dlyllsln) thou art not unintelligent; ji JS^ +±\ (ad&m diyil dir) he or it is not a man; &c. The adverbial suffixes e*h (dek), ^-^»>> (deyin), follow a noun of time, place, or condition, in the dative; as, [^*^=»^ A»L<» (sabahd deyln) until morning; ^MjjS)J (lindurayadek) as far O ^ - J J as London; &±&*Jj\ (tUnmed&k) until death. They follow the third gerund also, put in this same dative case, and thus form a verbal limit of time; as, d-iA^jJs^ (gellnjeyedek) until (I, thou, &c.) come, came. The agent must be named or under- stood; as, &*&n& sS tf (b£n gldlnjeyed&k) until I go (or went); ts)±v.*fj\j ±>\jj\ v>^$L* (mektubum 6raya varinjayadek) until my letter reach (or reached) there. The tense of this gerund is decided by the context, in like manner as its agent and object. The adverb »;>-> (gyAre) according, also follows a dative; as, »,^A*ia£ (e&qlima gyure) according to my judgment; *jS& (bUna gyure) according to me; &c. The adverbs ISJ (yaiia), ^V> (d6layi), JJ)J\ (utdru) rela tively, follow substantives or infinitives in the ablative ; as, SECTION XL Syntax of the Preposition. The Turkish preposition always follows the word it governs, noun, pronoun, or verbal derivative, as is seen in Chap. IL, sections 1 (p. 51), 4 (p. 82), 5 (p. 88), 6 (p. 89), 7 (p. 90), and in Chap. III., section 8 (p. 179) ; but the Arabic and Persian prepositions always precede; as, jJ-c^ U, (eale 't-tahqlq) in truth; j\j*j> (ber qarar) in permanence (with- out change); *AS^ ('ala hide) singly; *i1jjl <3 (fi '1-waqf) in /act; JU> ^l> (bl-eyyl halin) in any case; t^jJ&II io ^ (*&la SYNTAX. 185 kela 't-t&qdireyn) upon either supposition; j>j*»j\ (ez ser-1 nev) from a new beginning (over again, again). A preposition may govern two or more substantives in a sentence; as, A^L>.IJ O^C • c^U^lj Jl to his family, companions, posterity, and friends. But, as the Arabic and Persian preposition precedes the adjectives that qualify, as well as the substantives qualified, so the Turkish preposition is placed after all these; conse quently, in Persian construction, and when the substantive is followed by the possessive suffixes, the Turkish preposition is separated from the substantive it governs, sometimes by a con siderable distance; as, dLl *GC (baba-m lie) with my father; *0 • Mi J J »ji^L> c-*s? J) (b& muhlbb-i sadiq-da) in this faithful friend; ^£lj (£b#Ud (j^j *J> ^te (qallyun-l kyuh-ntlnmn-i httmayunun bash!) the head of the mountain-like imperial galley. SECTION XIL Syntax of the Conjunction. All conjunctions, except the enclitic »^ (de, da), or ^s (dakhi), too, also, head the phrase they belong to. The enclitic conversational »a, or literary ^o, is placed after the word of a phrase to which special attention is directed; thus : (jjJS CJJL^O ^JJJJUJ (Istanboldan dakhl, or Istanbodarida - OlOx-OJOxO top galdl) cannon came from Constantinople also ; i_>jL^jJjJUJ 186 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. o^ * <^j& Lr&o (Istanbildan t6p dakhi galdl) cannon, too, came front Constantinople. This enclitic is repeated after each member of a phrase linked together by its use; as, »JJ«*> *j±f »JJJ (ben-dd gederlm, san-da) /, too, will go, as also thou ; j ,j^» j*>-j\ »jJjl »J^*» »J^ (b&n-da, san-da, 6-da, uchumuz glderlz) I, thou, and he too, will all three go. It is often placed after a verb in the conditional, its sense being then, in English, rendered by even; as, »^ A 13> (galse-de) even should he come; *.3A~J>1 ^^^(galmlsh Ise-de) even though he be come; S^JIIJS (galseydt-da) had he even come; m+Jj\ dts*dJ (galejek 6lsa-da) even should he be about to come (even should he think of coming, or resolve to come). After other verbs than conditionals, it is enclitic with each that enters a phrase, and answers to our both, followed by and or also; as, sj^jjS »jwo,j!& (gelliim-da, gyururum-da) / will both come, and see also; sj^jll * The conjunctions jwl, K&J, U, in the sense of whether ... , or whether, jhs»\ (eyer) if, with *>J> (ger-chl, vulg. gerche) or A^^al (eyer-chl, vulg. eg&rche) although, put the verb or verbs of their phrase in the conditional; as, A-1J$U A-JTU (ha gals£, SYNTAX. 187 ha galmasa) whether he come, or (whether he come) not; i.Jbj£s>\ (eyer galslt) if he come ; m^A J!n& ^j^=»\ (egerchl galmlsh Isa- da) although he be even come (even though he be come). When the copulative j joins one verb or phrase to another, it is pronounced ve, in conformity (to a certain degree) with its original Arabic pronunciation ; but when, in Persian con struction, it unites two nouns, substantive or adjective, it takes the vowel-sound of u or u, and joins on, in pronunciation, as though in a syllable, with the consonant preceding it; as, JO V/ OS, o *"-> J 'O' ij*J> j (jjJs (g&ldl ve gyurdu) he came, and he saw; JUIj t^Jj^ (devlet u Iqbal) fortune and prosperity; <^>~»,JJJj ^^ (qavl-yu ten-durust) strong and healthy. The Persian conjunction aT(ki) that, always connects two members of a phrase, and should never be supposed to be a relative pronoun in Turkish (as it really is in Persian, as well as a conjunction); as, *S Jjl ^jls* (ma'lum 61a ki) be it known that .... Sometimes the clause that follows shows the cause or reason of that which precedes ; the conjunction may then O yr O '\S~' ' 'OS* 0°'C " be rendered by for or because; as, ^^ After a verb signifying to say (which also may mean, to say to one's self, to think), or to ask, the conjunction *Sintroduces, what is,was, or will be said or thought; but the question must be in the mood, tense, number, and person, in the very words, used by the speaker or thinker ; as, ^1$ ^Jo £jfj (diyor ki, yarin gellrlm) he says, I will come to-morrow ; >* £ j A-S ijSjye (s6rdd kl, bii ne dlr) he ashed, What is this ? We see, then, that A, so used, is the equivalent of our sign of quotation, the inverted commas. We cannot alter the phrase as is our custom, and say, he says he will come, or he ashed what that was. Occasionally, in a certain style, this is omitted ; as, hj& ij\ O O p y - *} Jlj*, (keyfinlz lyl-ml, dlyA, stibal etdlm) / asked (of him or her), saying, Is your health yood ? i. e., i" ashed how he was; Jfjjl^) J& jP jj3*k (belmeyiiiz, dlyu, Inkyar Idlyorler) they deny, saying, We know not; i. e., they deny, and say they know O O 'O ' J O ^^ O O/ not; * JJJ! Up. JJ^ j-X*j J£ (galmazslhiz, dlyu, khulya etdlm) / formed an idea, saying (to myself), You will not come ; i. e., / imagined that you would not come; jS^s^^ AJ (ne dlyu, gai- dlniz) saying what (to thyself), ar£ £/iow come? i.e., w;/ia£ are yow come for ? The conjunction sometimes, as in Persian, serves to connect an incidental qualifying phrase to an antecedent noun, as though it were a relative pronoun; but in such case it never undergoes declension or takes a preposition, the following O J O + J O' phrase being complete in all its parts ; as, J^l Q-L- J ±+S» ^a (j£^LfcLi«li Ojja g^ka5^J Ass jy&j J^>\ *j>y *> j^ ]/*» ASIC ^J Jj^lj^. (hamd n. slpas 61 khudav&nd-l bi-'lUete seza dlr, ki, vujud-1 enhar u qA'ur-i blhar yek-qatre-1 qudret-1 na-mutenahllerl dlr) glory and lauds are worthy of that uncaused Lord God, of whose infinite power the existence of rivers and the depths of oceans are but a single drop. The foregoing example shows that it is often difficult or impossible to distinguish whether the phrase that follows JLJ is a qualificative, or the exposition of a reason. We might 190 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. take it in this latter sense, and translate: for, the existence of rivers, fyc, are but one drop, fyc. But, in ethical works and the like, generally composed by members of the 'ulema class (Doctors of Canon Law) on a Persian or Arabic model, the clause that follows A) is generally qualificative, and the style is anti-Turkish. Thus : *J>{j£'Jt> dj\ e^^-o 4^ oi^ Jt^ AW vs*** c^i (her kes kl dest-1 hlmmet lid hHbl-1 metin-1 edqld mtiteshebbis 6\k, ) ; every one who shall take hold of the firm cable of reason with the hand of endeavour, ; j±jja^> J^S.JA) A> J^jf^>- j> (ML janverler kl n&zar-i 'Ibret-la5 m&nztir dnr, ) these animals which are looked upon with a regard for instruction, The conjunctions (ta kl) in order that, A-5^>)li (shayed kl) perhaps, lest, A-£_*tab (md-dam-kl) as long as, since, A> tallo (me-bada kl) lest, & j£* (meyer kl) unless, require their verbs to be in the optative; as, A-JIS \*£ A-> U ( tdhdmmnin q&lmayd) in order that no power of endurance be left in him; Jdj\ *j&* A) jjli. ( mnnhezlm ilaler) lest they be routed; Jllljl »JO\1L A-£-cbL ( h&yatdd ilaler) since they are alive ; AJJ! 4-ij^ & \&>* ( uyle ola) tes£ it be so; A!JI J^S AS ^-X-* ( gy uzel 6U) wwZfSS Atf (sfo, it) be beautiful SYNTAX. 191 SECTION XIII. Syntax of the Interjection, Some interjections are accompanied by nouns and pronouns, some by nouns only, others have no accompaniment, and some precede verbs. When accompanied by a noun, the noun is always in the nominative, excepting with the interjection jjLi (yazlq) ; as, J»IJLJ A) (vwakh babam) alas, my father ! jLcjl tf.j-sh (aferin, vulg. aferim oghlum) well done, my boy ! y^±\ \j±S (gldl edeb- O SO + Oi* slz) 0, impudent fellow ! *il^i (j\ (ey qardashfm) well, brother! O J J J O x#* O Oxx *•• Ox (•^W eA^ (aman chojughum) 0, ^ child! +xJ>\ Ls^o (merhaba efeudlm) 6Ws blessing on you, sir ! They always precede the o * nouo. The word jjij is used in this way also, but it further Ox «»x O x permits its substantive to be put in the dative; as, ^-\_*l J;IJ> (yazlq emeylm), «ux_*l jfjl> (yazlq emeylme) alas my trouble ! alas for my trouble ! When accompanied by a pronoun, except the interjection i£X-S (gldl), the pronoun must be in the dative ; as, &J JJ\J (yazlq bana) poor me ! &-** ±\J (vwakh sana) aZas /or thee ! s^lil ^.^-il (aferim anlara) 2^^ZZ done, they ! The exceptional is constructed with the accusative of the second person singular, which it may precede or follow; as, ^ ^s$ (gldl sanl) or {jxf ^ (sanl gldl) faugh, thou (good-for-nothing)! 192 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. Interjections indicative of a desire for the future or regret for the past, are constructed with the conditional, aorist or past accordingly; as, With an imperative, 4* (hele) expresses an invitation or a challenge ; as, J^AJ-^ (hele g41) come along ! ^JS &-*> (Q^^ gilsln) just let him only come ! Arabic phrases are often used as interjections, generally after proper names; as, ^UJ <*Ul \$*fi ±j& j jjfrZA\ JJSJ U +\>y\ (jj** f^e &\j JJU? 4Jll jwo ^t> ^JL ^U (jJJjsi > j*!^^ 1 -SVS Majesty, the champion of the faith, Sultan Selim Khan, the shadows of whose clemency may God spread over the crowns of. the heads of mankind, so long as the months repeat themselves and the years renew themselves I FINIS. ( 193 ) ADDENDUM. IN p. 45, after line 5, as a further remark on the uses of letter^, the following rule is not without its use; viz.,— In a few words of Persian origin only, the letter j, follow ing a letter +, and itself followed by a long vowel-letter 1, is suppressed and lost in the pronunciation. Thus ^1^*. kh'an, *\j> kh'ah, jj^alji. kh'ahlsh. The word A&.IJ£. kh'aja1, of this class, and its derivatives, JC^\^, J^JAJJ^., &C, have been corrupted in Turkish into khojd, khoj&gyan, khojaliq, &c. In Persian proper, a very few words beginning with ji., without a following \, elide the j in like manner in pronouncing ; but this is never observed in Turkish, unless it may be in the rhyme-words of ancient poetry. Thus the word J^. (usually read khush in Persian, khosh in Turkish) is made to rhyme with ijy vesh, for instance; and in consequence must then be read kh'&sh. ^ (usually khud, Turkish khid) is made to rhyme with jj bed ; something after the manner of our poets, who make wind rhyme with find, mind, &c. This is what is styled Aj±x*j\j (vwawl ma'dule), deflected j9 in Persian, ( 195 ) INDEX. A. Alphabet,Semitic,Greek,and Latin, Accidence, p. 51. Synopsis of, 4. Active participles, 100, 105. Aorist active participle, 100—102. „ „ aorist,100—102. Aorist passive participle, 103. „ „ future, 100, 101. Aorist tense, 100. „ „ past, 100, 101. „ „ conditional, 109. „ „ perfect, 100,101. „ „ indicative, 107. „ „ present,100,101. „ „ necessitative, 108. Active verb, 92. „ ,, optative, 109. Addendum on 2j J*« J)J , 193. Apposition, 160. Adjectival expressions, 72. Arabic active participles (nomen Adjectives, 61, 68—74. agentis), 59, 61, 62. „ Arabic, 61, 69. Arabic adjectival expressions, 72. „ Persian, 68, 70—72. „ adjectives, 61,69. „ „ Compound, 70-2. „ adverbs, 73. „ Syntax of, 168. „ broken plurals, 55—60. „ Turkish, 68, 69,73-4. „ chapters of derivation, 57, Adverbial expressions, 154. 62—64. Adverbs, Arabic, 73. Arabic diminutives, 60, 67. „ Syntax of, 182. „ irregular plurals, 55—60. „ Turkish, 73. „ noun of instrument and Affirmative verb, 92. receptacle, 60. Alphabet by forms, 2. Arabic noun of kind or manner, „ Numeral, 3. 60. „ Semitic, Greek, and La „ „ place of abundance, tin, 3. 60. 196 INDEX. Arabic nonn of time and place, 60. Complex fractional numbers, 80. „ „ unity, 60. Compound Persian Adjectives, 70. Arabic ordinals, 78. Yerbs, 148. „ passive participle (nomen „ Active, 149. patientis), 59, 61, 62. „ Intransitive, 149. Arabic plurals, 55. „ Passive, 149. „ „ irregular, 55—60. „ Transitive, 149. „ „ regular, 55. Conditional mood, 100. Arabic quadriliteral roots, 65. Conjugation, 99. „ regular plurals, 55. „ Combined (true Turk „ substantives, 53, 54. ish), 133. „ triliteral roots, 56. Conjugational root, 96. „ verbal nouns (nomen verbi), Conjunctions, 156. 58, 61-2. „ Syntax of, 185. Consonants, 15. ,, Hard, 47. Brevity, Conversational, 158. „ Movent, 31, 32 ter, Broken(irregular) plural, 19,55—60. 33 ter. Consonants, Neutral, 48. C. „ Quiescent, 27. Soft, 47. Cardinal numbers, 74-7. Conversational brevity, 158. Categories of verbs, 99. „ Complex, 99,^119. Category, First Complex, 119,120. D. „ Second „ 119, 125. „ Simple, of verbs, 99,119. Dates of documents, &c, 81. Third Complex, 119,129. Declination of Demoustratives, 88. Causal gerund-like locution, 113. „ Interrogatives, 89. Causative verb, 93. „ Nouns, 51. „ „ Compound, 150. „ Personal Pronouns, Closed syllable, 27. 82. Combined (true Turkish) Conjuga Defective Yerbs, 98. tion, 133. Demonstrative Pronouns, 88. Complex Categories of Yerb, 99, Derivation of Yerbs, 92. 119. Determinate Yerb, 93. INDEX. 197 Digits, 81. G. Diminutive, Arabic, 67. Gender, 51. „ Persian, 67. General Verbal Noun, 103. „ Turkish, 66, 73. Gerund, Fifth, 112. Directing vowels, 27. „ First, 111. « Distributive numbers, 78. „ Fourth, 112. Documents, Dates of, 81. „ Second, 111. Dominant (letter or vowel), 48, 49. Seventh, 112. Dubitative Verb, 141. , Sixth, 112. „ „ Compound, 150. r Third, 112. Gerund-like locutions, 110, 111. E. „ „ Causal, 110, Esere, 16 bis. 113. Etymology, 51. Gerund-like locutions of propor Euphony, 15, 48—50. tion, 113. Expressions, Adjectival, 72. Gerund-like locutions of time, 111, „ Adverbial, 154. 114,115. Gerund-like locution of time, Fifth, F. 115. Facile Verbs, 141* „ First, 114, „ „ Compound, 150. „ „ „ Fourth, 114. First Complex Category of Verbs, „ „ „ Second,114. 119, 120. „ >, », Sixth, 115. First Person Plural of Verbs, 116. „ Third, 114. „ „ „ Pronoun, 82. Gerunds, 99, 110. „ „ Singular of Verbs, 115. „ Syntax of, 181* „ „ fi Pronoun, 82. Formation of the Tenses, 106. H. Fractional numbers, 79. Half, 79. Future Active Participle, 100, 101. Hard consonants, 47. Passive „ , 103. „ vowels, 48. Tense, Imperative, 100. Hemze, 10, 30—33. „ Indicative, 108. „ omitted, 24. „ Past, 100. „ Radical, 30, 31. Verbal Noun, 104. „ Servile, 30, 31. 198 INDEX. I. M. Identity of Semitic, Greek, and Medd, 24—26. Latin Alphabets, 3. Months, Signs for, in dates, 81. Imperative Mood, 100. Moods, 100. Imperfect Tense, 100. Mood, Conditional, 100. „' „ indicative, 107. „ Imperative, „ Impotential Verbs, 92. „ Indicative, „ „ „ Compound, 150 ,, Infinitive, „ Indefinite numerals (pronouns), 80. „ Necessitative, „ Indeterminate Verbs, 93. „ Optative, „ Indicative Mood, 100. Infinitive Mood, 100. N. „ „ Syntax of, 179. Iuterjections, 157. Names of Letters, 1,10—14. Syntax of, 191. Necessitative Mood, 100. Interrogation, 151. Negative Verbs, 92. Interrogative Pronouns, 89. „ „ Compound, 150. Verbs, 151. Neuter Verbs, 97. Intransitive Verbs, 92. Neutral consonants, 48. „ „ Compound, 149. „ vowels, 48. Noun Adjective, 68. J. „ „ Arabic, 68, 69. Junctional Letters, 9. „ „ Persian, 68. „ „ „ Compound,70. L. „ „ Syntax of, 168. Letters, 1 „ „ Turkish, 68. „ Junctional, 9. „ Substantive, 51. „ Names of the, 1, 10—14. „ „ Syntax of, 161. „ Non-Junctional, 9. „ Verbal, 99, 103-5. „ of prolongation, 17, „ „ Syntax of, 179. „ of the Alphabet, 1, Numbers and persons of verbs, 115. „ Eadical, 30, 31. Numeral Alphabet, 3. „ Eeduplicated, 29, 30, 32. Numeral s, 74 — 82. Servile, 28, 30, 31. „ Cardinal, Arabic, 74-7. Locutions, Gerund-like, 110—115. „ ,, Persian, 74-7. INDEX. 199 Numerals, Cardinal, Turkish, 74-6. Past future tense, 100. Distributive, 78. Past future indicative, 100, 108. Fractional, 79. Past tense, 100. Indefinite, 80. „ „ indicative, 107. Interrogative, 76. Peculiar Turkish numerals, 80. Ordinal, Arabic, 78. „ „ relatives, 91. „ Persian, 78. Perfect active participle, 100, 101. „ Turkish, 77. Perfect tense, 100. Turkish Peculiar, 8Q. ,, indicative, 107. Syntax of, 170. ,, verbal noun, 103. Permissive verbs, 93. 0. Persian adjectives, 68, 70-2. „ ,, Compound, 70-2. Open syllables, 27. Persian diminutive, 67. Optative Mood, 100. „ letters, 2, 13. Orthographic signs, 15, 28—33. „ plurals of nouns, 54. „ substantives, 53, 54. P. Personal pronouns, 82. Participles, 100. Phonetic values of letters, 15,34—50. Active, 100—105. Phonetic values of vowels,17,48-50 „ Aorist, 100,102. Pluperfect tense, 100. „ Future, 100,i01. „ „ indicative, 108. „ „ General, 100. Plural of nouns, Arabic irregular, Past, 100, 101. 55—60. Perfect,100,101. Plural of nouns, Arabic regular, 55. „ „ Present, 100-2. „ „ Persian, 54. Passive, 101, 103,105. „ „ Turkish, 51. „ „ Aorist, 103. Possessive pronouns, 83-8. „ „ Future, 103. Potential verbs, 141-2. ,„ Syntax of, 178. „ „ Compound, 150. „ Twenty-eight, 101. Precision in writing, 158. Passive participles, 101, 103, 1Q5. Prepositions, 156. „ verb, 92. „ Syntax of, 184. „ „ Compound, 149. Present active participle, 100-2. „ verbal adjective, 104. „ tense, 100. Past active participle, 100,101. „ „ indicative, 106. 200 INI Present tense infinitive, 110. Signs for the months in dates, 81. „ verbal noun, 103. Simple Category of Verbs, 99—119. Prolongation, Letters of, 17. „ verbs, 93. Pronoun, 82. Soft consonants and vowels, 48. „ Demonstrative, 88. Substantives, 51. „ Indefinite (numeral), 80. „ Syntax of, 161. „ Interrogative, 89. Syllabary, No. 1 and No. 2, 17. „ Personal, 82. Syllables, closed and open, 27. „ Possessive, 83—88. Synopsis of Semitic, Greek and „ Relative, 90. Latin Alphabets, 4. „ „ Peculiar Turkish, 91. Syntax, 158. » of adjectives, 168. >) of adverbs, 182. Q. 99 of conjunctions, 185. Q derived from ti of interjections, 191. of numerals, 170. R. » 99 of participles, 178. Radical letters, 30, 31. ti of prepositions, 184. Reciprocal verbs, 93. » of pronouns, 173. „ „ Compound, 150. V of substantives, 161. Reduplicated letters, 29, 30, 32. >J of verbal nouns, 179. Reflexive verb, 98. ti of verbs, 174. Root of conjugation, 96. „ tense, 106, 115. T. Table of verbal derivation, 94-5. S. Tenses, 100,104,106—110. Second Complex Category of Verbs, „ Aorist conditional, 109. 119,125. „ „ indicative, 107. Second person plural, 118. „ „ necessitative, 108. „ „ singular, 116* „ „ optative, 109. Servile letters, 28, 30, 31. „ Formation of the, 106. Sign of quiescence, 19, 28. „ Future imperative, 100. „ reduplication, 24—26. j, „ indicative, 108. INDEX. 201 Tense, Imperfect, 100. „ indicative, 107. Past, 100. Values of letters, 15—50. „ indicative, 107- Verb, 92—153. Future, 100. Active, 92. „ indicative, 108. Affirmative, 92. Perfect, 100. Auxiliary, 149. „ indicative, 108. Causative, 93. Pluperfect, 100. „ Compound, 150. „ indicative, 108. Combined conjugation of, Present, 100. 133. „ indicative, 106, „ Complex Categories of, 99— „ infinitive, 110. 133. Teshdid, 32. Verb, Complex Category of, First, Third Complex Category of Verbs, 119, 120. 119,129. Verb, Complex Category of, Second, Third person plural, 118. 119, 125. „ „ singular, 106. Verb, Complex Category of, Third, Transitive verb, 92. 119, 129. Transliteration, 15,17, 34—47. Verb, Compound, 148. Turkish adjectives, 68, 69, 73-4. Conjugation of, 99. „ adverbs, 73. Defective, 98. „ cardinal numbers, 74-6. Determinate, 93. „ „ interrogative, 76. Dubitative, 141. „ conjugation (combined), „ Compound, 150. 133. Facile, 141. Turkish ordinal numbers, 77. „ Compound, 150. „ plural of substantives, 51. Impotential, 92. „ substantives, 51. „ Compound, 150. ,, true combined conjugation, Indeterminate, 93. 133. Interrogative, 151. Intransitive, 92. „ Compound, 149. U. Negative, 92. Ustun, 16. „ Compound, 150. Uturu, 16. Neuter, 97. 202 INDEX. Verb of Existence, Non-Existence, Verbal Nouns, Future, 104. Presence, or Absence, 147. „ „ General, 103. Verb, Passive, 92. Perfect, 103. „ „ Compound, 149. „ „ Present, 103. „ Permissive, 93. „ „ Syntax of, 179. „ Potential, 141-2. Vowels, 15. „ „ Compound, 150. „ Directing, 27. „ Reciprocal, 93. „ Hard, 48. „ „ Compound, 150. „ Letters, 15,16. „ Reflexive, 98. „ Long, 17, his. „ Simple, 93. Neutral, 48. „ Simple Category of, 99-119. „, Points, 15, 16. „ Substantive, 144. „ Short, 16, 17. „ Syntax of, 174. „ Soft, 48. „ Transitive, 92. „ „ Compound, 149. W. Verbal adjective passive, 104. „ derivation, 92. Written digits, 81. Table of, 94. „ signs for months in dates, „ Nouns, 99,103—105. 81. 1 as a vowel, 17, 23, 26, 27. ^C jQ 57. „ numeral, <1. ^ * r * 0 so \ „ consonant, 23. (3V J1"*1 57. T24. 1 25. ^b ]%A\ 57. i£i 2. + 0 *c 0 ^C j£Ji 57 ^\) JVxfo*>\ 57. v • • ^G JL^i 57. S^M! 16. INDEX. 203 x o St o ^ J^ 57. ill* (pi. J,£l) 57. jC JlLJl 57. Jf 82. A x- • O/O ^C j!L5l 57. 4 82. ^1 164. O x * Jail 2. y. 82. X J Ox x ^ 88. |^j*a£« 1—ftJl 10. ^C Jclif 57. x- 6^j-Uo uill 10. ^ JU! 57. ^C jS? 57. x O OX JOT 82. (3b j^y 57. ji 82, 88. J5K 56. Jjjl 88. J\2 56. -i j J ^/jl 16. J> 19, 28. O JO J l&L 167. Wx . '' . *' Jjl 82, 88. .x© i—9jj>> (sing, x* 0 0 J " /OJ Jjjl 88. 4«oA^«... 9. x* a ox t5JjJ 106. aJL»j ... 9. £j Cl 20. O „ o x • • 167. X J jj^l J^ 20. ^>L&> 56. o J o J ^x J* 146, 160, 175. 204 INDEX. J^ 56. AJI^IIO, AJ! ^J* 161. . >*>1 Ju*» OO. Vj* 164. o c^o c ^ ^ 151—153. y», jj^«i, ^ 82- jjJLJ , ^,9, original of our letter J^i 147. y q, 4, 8, 40. 1. 10. .1 16. -IS (whence L5-^^) 76, L 20. A> as a conj unction, -190. 187- 7 16- J^ 90. 7 20. * JL 16. ^89. 1 20. L 28. 1. 24—26. Jl 29. o Jx,.° " ° J ° * C J O ^ jjo~+* (also L 30—33. 161. e 166. London: 'Gilbert & Rivington, Limited, St, John's Sq., Clerkenwell Road. A LIST OF KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & CO.'S' (LIMITED) PUBLICATIONS. 7.90. 57 and $9, Ludgate Hill; and i, Paternoster Square, London. A LIST OF KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & CO.'S (LIMITED) PUBLICATIONS. CONTENTS. PAGE PAGE GENERAL LITERATURE. . 2 TRUBNER'S ORIENTAL SERIES 68 THEOLOGY AND PHILOSOPHY. 31 MILITARY WORKS. 72 ENGLISH AND FOREIGN PHILO EDUCATIONAL 73 SOPHICAL LIBRARY . 42 POETRY .... 80 SCIENCE 44 NOVELS AND TALES 84 INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC BOOKS FOR THE YOUNG 87 SERIES . . .48 PERIODICALS . ORIENTAL, EGYPTIAN, ETC. . 52 GENERAL LITERATURE. Actors, Eminent. Edited by WILLIAM ARCHER. 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KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & GO.'S (LIMITED) EDITIONS OF SHAKSPERE'S WORKS. THE PARCHMENT LIBRARY EDITION. THE AVON EDITION The Text of these Editions is mainly that of Delius. Wher ever a variant reading is adopted, some good and recognized Shaksperian Critic has been followed. In no case is a new rendering of the text proposed; nor has it been thought ne cessary to distract the readers attention by notes or comments [?. T. % SHAKSPERE'S WORKS. THE AVON EDITION. Printed on thin opaque paper, and forming 12 handy volumes, cloth, iSs.9 or bound in 6 volumes, 15X. The set of 12 volumes may also be had in a cloth box, price 2 ix., or bound in Roan, Persian, Crushed Persian Levant, Calf, or Morocco, and enclosed in an attractive leather box at prices from 315. 6d. upwards. SOME PRESS NOTICES. u This edition will be useful to those who want a good text, well and clearly printed, in convenient little volumes that will slip easily into an overcoat pocket or a travelling-bag."—St. /ames's Gazette. " We know no prettier edition of Shakspere for the price."—Academy. " It is refreshing to meet with an edition of Shakspere of convenient $ize and low price, without either notes or introductions of any sort to distract the attention of the reader."—Saturday Review. "It is exquisite. Each volume is handy, is beautifully printed, and in every way lends itself to the taste of the cultivated student of Shak- ipcre."—Scotsman. LONDON : KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TKUBNER & Co., LT? SHAKSPERE'S WORKS. THE PARCHMENT LIBRARY EDITION. In 12 volumes Elzevir 8vo., choicely printed on hand-made paper, and bound in parchment or cloth, price £$ 12^., or in vellum, price £4 IOJ. The set of 12 volumes may also be had in a strong cloth box, price £z 17^., or with an oak hanging shelf, j£$ iSs. SOME PRESS NOTICES. ". . . There is, perhaps, no edition in which the works of Shakspere can be read in such luxury of type and quiet distinction of form as this, and we warmly recommend it."—Pall Mall Gazette. "For elegance of form and beauty of typography, no edition of Shakspere hitherto published has excelled the 'Parchment LH?rary Edition.' . . . They are in the strictest sense pocket volumes, yet the type is bold, and, being on fine white hand-made paper, can hardly tax the weakest of sight. The print is judiciously confined to the text, notes being more appropriate to library editions. The whole will be comprised in the cream-coloured parchment which gives the name to the series." —Daily News. "The Parchment Library Edition of Shakspere needs no further praise."—Saturday Review. Just published. Price $s. AN INDEX TO THE WORKS OF SHAKSPERE. Applicable to all editions of SKakspere, and giving reference, by topics, to notable passages and significant expressions; brief histories of the plays; geographical names and historic incidents; mention of all characters and sketches of important ones ; together with explanations of allusions and obscure and obsolete words and phrases. By EVANGELINE M. O'CONNOR. LQNDON: IfEg^N J^CL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & Co., LT?. SHAKSPERE'S WORKS. SPECIMEN OF TYPE. 4 THE MERCHANT OF VENICE ' ACT I Salar, My wind, cooling my broth, Would blow me to an ague, when I thought What harm a wind too great might do at sea* I should not see the sandy hour-glass run But I should think of shallows and of flats, And see my wealthy Andrew, dock'd in sand, Vailing her high-top lower than her ribs To kiss her burial. Should I go to church And see the holy edifice of stone, And not bethink me straight of dangerous rocks, Which touching but my gentle vessel's side, Would scatter all her spices on the stream, Enrobe the roaring waters with my silks, And, in a word, but even now worth this, And now worth nothing ? Shall I have the thought To think on this, and shall I lack the thought That such a thing bechanc'd would make me sad ? But tell not me : I know Antonio Is sad to think upon his merchandise. Ant. Believe me, no : I thank my fortune for it, My ventures are not in one bottom trusted, Nor to one place; nor is my whole estate Upon the fortune of this present year : Therefore my merchandise makes me not sad. Salar, Why, then you are in love. Ant. Fie, fie! Salar. Not in love neither ? Then let us say you. are sad, Because you are not merry; and 'twere as easy For you to laugh, and leap, and say you are merry, Because you are not sad. Now, by two-headed Janus, Nature hath fram'd strange fellowi in her time : Some that will evermore peep through their eyef And laugh like parrots at a bag-piper ; And other of such vinegar aspect LPNPON ; KEGA?< FAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNM & Co.3 LT?, P