BYRNE CRIMINAL JUSTICE INNOVATION PROGRAM

Understanding Crime and Place: A Primer for Local Leaders Implementing Place-Based Crime Initiatives

There are many reasons to focus on specific places when fighting against crime in a community. www.lisc.org/BCJI A location won’t move and often has a steady set of characteristics, so researchers have an opportunity to study how and why crime occurs regularly at that place and targeted place-based anti-crime and quality-of-life strategies can have an impact over a relatively short period of time. It can be possible to identify “who owns crime” at a place—that is, who is in charge of a location (owner, manager, or other) and can be compelled to come into compliance with the law with persuasion or penalties, including to the loss of property. In contrast to focusing on criminality in offenders, focusing on the criminality of places can be more efficient, and potentially more cost-effective, because there are fewer targets.

For community-based organizations, local social service agencies, residents, The BCJI Approach and other leaders in Byrne Criminal Justice Innovation Program (BCJI) These powerful themes run communities, the concept of focusing on high crime areas might make intuitive through all BCJI projects. sense. It is also useful, however, to understand how the study of crime and place, sometimes called environmental criminology, is supported by research DATA-DRIVEN and experience. BCJI targets crime hot spots – often streets, properties or public spaces in communities Environmental criminology includes a focus on examining how the geographic that have struggled with crime for or physical characteristics of a place can make that place more susceptible to years. Researchers are engaged criminal activity, and then how those opportunities can be altered or removed in the day-to-day work, helping partners examine problems, assess to reduce crime. “Routine activities theory,” for example, suggests that crime evidence-based solutions, and only happens when a victim and a motivated offender meet at the same place monitor progress. and time, in the absence of capable guardianship. If we remove one of these COMMUNITY-ORIENTED: elements, the crime cannot occur. Traditional policing focuses on the offender. BCJI champions active roles for Place-based crime prevention efforts aim to change and/or remove the residents in identifying problems, opportunity for crime in locations where crimes are known to occur relatively selecting strategies and creating safe and healthy environments. frequently. SPURS REVITALIZATION: Typical of academic research, environmental criminology defines its terms BCJI tackles problem very specifically and carefully measures the impact of programs and initiatives. properties, unsafe streets and parks, unemployment, transit Partners from universities and law enforcement may use the terms and barriers and service gaps related concepts from this research when suggesting strategies and ideas, or present to crime. case studies or datasets that reference these ideas. This paper provides the BUILDS PARTNERSHIPS: basics on the state of the art of what is known about place-based crime and BCJI taps the resources of initiatives to reduce it, giving an overview of the terminology of the field and public, nonprofit and community leaders to bring more resources how a researcher understands the basic building blocks of crime and place. and different approaches to bear on longstanding crime challenges

for lasting change. FUNDAMENTALS Understanding CrimeandPlace, These individuals are responsible forsettingthetonein in thecaseof parksorpublichousing,city departments. landlord orhome-owner, themanagerofaproperty, or managers, whichcaninclude anapartmentbuilding interventions thatfocusinstead onthecapacitiesofplace responses tocrime atthe“hotdot”levelcouldinclude or durationofpolicepatrols inthoseareas, while street blocklevelmightfocusonincreasing thenumber problem-solving efforts. Responsestocrimeatthe Smaller unitsofanalysisallowformore targeted Those differences canhavereal-world implications. problems attheaddress orparcel level. typically atthestreet blocklevel,whileEckstudiescrime theories aboutcrimeandplace.Weisburd’s research is Weisburd andJohnEckare bothleadingproponents of on oneparticularunitofanalysis.Forexample,David planning toexamine.Mostresearchers tendtofocus useful tounderstandwhichunitsofanalysistheyare When workingwitharesearcher inaproject site,itis manipulated tohighlightorhideproblems. crime counts/rates.Knowthathotspotmapscanbe as wellaseriesofmapswithdifferent classificationsof provide informationaboutbandwidthandgridcells, When mappinghotspots,analystsshouldbeableto streets/ street segments,blocks,orneighborhoods. appear tobelinkedclusteringofcrime,suchas generically todescribeothergeographicunitsthat on amapwhere crimeisclustered—or maybeused The termmayindicateamicro place—anactualspot or clusteringofcrimesintheseplacesashotspots. map. Researchers typicallyrefer totheconcentration to specificaddresses and/orparcel datatocreate a can linkinformationaboutcrimesandcallsforservice Using geographicinformationsystems(GIS),researchers up andexaminedindividually. multiple hotspotswithinthatlarger area thatare broken are targeted attheneighborhoodlevelofteninclude crime prevention isonmicro places,andinitiativesthat one building.Mostfrequently, thefocusofplace-based block face,anintersection,aparcel ofaddresses, oreven blocks, to“micro places” suchasastreet segment,a “a place,”from aneighborhoodoronemore census examining crime,there are manypotentialdefinitionsof important tobeclearabouttheunitofanalysis.When When studyingtheplaceswhere crimesoccur, itis very What isaPlace?

continued availability andincreasing simplicityofGIStools. become muchmore commonplace,dueprimarilytothe Since the1980s,studyofcrimeandplacehas neighborhood oncrime,particularlyjuveniledelinquency. published severalwell-knownworksontheimpactof From the1920sthrough the1950s,“ChicagoSchool” socio-economic statusindifferent regions ofthecountry. to showvariationinproperty andviolentcrimeratesby evidence ofstudiesinFrancebacktothe1800smaps Research oncrimeandplaceisnotnew;wehave Place-based Responses? What IstheEvidencefor situational crimeprevention techniques. them toremove thecriminalopportunities,oftenthrough that occursthere, andstrategiescanincludeencouraging a placeandare ultimatelyresponsible forthebehavior including increasing police legitimacyandreducing is primarilyto improve police-community relations, crime. Forexample,thegoal ofcommunitypolicing techniques thatseektoaddress different aspects of different place-basedtheories andcrimeprevention environmental criminology havecreated a numberof Over thelastfortyyears,leadingresearchers in How toTackle CrimeandPlace that havehistoricallybeenthemostcrime-prone. or more crimesduringayear),orfocusontheplace(s) (e.g., three ormore crimesduringa30-dayperiod or ten threshold levelofcrimeduringaparticular periodoftime a communitymaywishtoidentifyallplacesthatexceed a street segments,orslightlylarger hotspots.Alternatively, developing atoptenlistofcurrent highcrimeaddresses, an efficientuseofpolice resources. Thiscanbedoneby efforts ontheplaceswithhighestlevelsofcrimeis For allofthesereasons, focusingcrimeprevention and evenbesideeachother. and lowcrimelocationscanbefoundwithinthatarea the entire neighborhoodisnotcrime-ridden—bothhigh that are considered highcrime,research hasshownthat of locationsinanycommunity. Eveninneighborhoods specific placesandtimes,mostlyinaverysmallnumber we knowthatcrimeisnotubiquitous—itclustersat reducing thelevelofcrimeinacommunity. Ingeneral, of crimethatcanserveasthebedrock ofstrategiesfor The fieldhassomeimportantfindingsaboutthenature

2 TIP SHEETFUNDAMENTALS www.lisc.org/BCJIwww.lisc.org/BCJI Understanding CrimeandPlace, significant outcome.” study measuringcollective efficacy, there isalsonota have asignificantimpact on fearofcrime….Intheone of broken windowsfoundthatthe “strategies donot six studiesselectedforconsideringthemechanisms enforced, notallnuisanceactivities.Ameta-analysisof were concerns,thosewouldbethecrimes that were intolerable (notthepolice):Iflitteringorloitering for thecommunitytodefineoffenses thatwere Furthermore, intheoriginalframeworkitwasimportant neighborhoods onthecuspofbecomingdangerous. on thepoliceintroducing broken windowsonlyin with today. Originally, andKellingfocused Wilson as thezero-tolerance policingthatitisoftenlinked The originalbroken windowsconceptwasnotthesame itself, invitinggreater crimestooccur. does notcare ordoesnothavetheabilitytoprotect fester, itpresents animagethat thecommunityeither (such asbroken windows)are allowedtobothoccurand theory statesthatwhensmallnuisancesanddisorder andKellingina1982article Wilson terms, thebroken windowstheorywasintroduced by One ofthemostcommonlymisusedcrimeandplace Broken Windows for theircircumstances. will allowacommunitytobestdetermineifitisgoodfit goals, history, andterminologyofaproposed initiative behind them.Havingamore thorough graspofthe these initiativeswithoutfullyunderstandingthetheory sort ofkeyword, peoplemayusetheterminologyaround in achievingtheirspecificgoals.Asiscommonwithany what researchers havefoundabouttheireffectiveness crime initiatives,includinganideainsomecasesof This listgivesanoverviewoftheprimaryplace-based effort forthespecificcircumstances. to determinethecorrect place-basedcrimeprevention It isimportanttodeterminethegoalsofcommunity easy tocount,reduced fearinthecommunityisharder. “success” ofaprogram: reduction incrimeisrelatively Note thattheabilitytomeasure goalscanimpactthe well-established crimeproblems. problem-oriented policingistoreduce oreliminate fear ofcrime.Incontrast,themaingoal

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continued offenders andvictimsoverlap.Activityspacesare the but becomepossiblewhentheactivityspacesof describes howtheoccurrences ofcrimeare notrandom, Introduced severaldecadesago,crimepatterntheory Crime PatternTheory be confusedwithproblem-oriented policing. fear ofcrime.”Community-orientedpolicingshouldnot and policelegitimacy, butlimitedeffects oncrimeand effects oncitizensatisfaction,perceptions ofdisorder, “community-oriented policingstrategieshavepositive pre/post examinationsofCOPprojects foundthat residents andlocalinstitutions.Ameta-analysisof37 aim toincrease interactionsbetweenthepoliceand typically involvesanyformofpolicingactivitiesthat Often verybroadly defined,communitypolicing Community Policing found online. surveys, recommending safetyimprovements, canbe community “design-out crime.”Awide variety of to businessesand/orresidences to helpthelocal CPTED surveysare oftenprovided bypolice agencies by providing hidingandambushspaces foroffenders. elements thatthetheorysays encouragecriminalactivity CPTED recommends againstcertain layoutsanddesign design ofbuildings,communities,andpublicspaces, To reduce theopportunityforcrimebyfocusingon Environmental Design(CPTED) Crime Prevention Through even gainfulemployment. of offender’s homes,theirfriends’school,or non-violent crimesare committedwithinashortdistance daily travel.Thiswouldexplainwhymanyproperty or do sowhenpresented withtheopportunityduringtheir offenders maynotsetouttocommitcrimes,but is theconceptof“journeystocrime,”whichsaysthat discouraged there). Relatedtocrimepatterntheory they knowthatsuchactivitiesare notspecifically with theintentionofcommittingcriminalactsbecause “crime attractors”(placeswhere offenders gospecifically with potentiallylarge numbersofopportunities)and where large numbersofpeoplego,providing offenders Terms from thetheoryinclude “crimegenerator”(aplace as unlockedcarsandunattendedpurses. offenders mayidentifyeasyopportunitiesforcrime,such may bothliketovisitshoppingmalls—whileatthemall, our dailyroutines. Forexample,offenders andvictims places thatwegoandthepathsfollowduring

3 TIP SHEETFUNDAMENTALS www.lisc.org/BCJIwww.lisc.org/BCJI actions incrimehot spots. adding problem-oriented policingtothestrategy wasevenmore effective thatsimply usingtraditionalpolice benefits diffuse into areas immediately surrounding targeted crimehot spots.”Thepaperalsofound that researchers foundthatpractice “generatessmallbutnoteworthycrimereductions, and thesecrimecontrol In thepaper“Theeffects ofhotspots policingoncrime:Anupdatedsystematicreview andmeta-analysis,” efficacy maybeafocusof hotarea responses. For example,placemanagers wouldbeinvolvedinhotdotresponses, butnothotareas, while collective response forthecrimesthatare mostcommonthere, basedonpotentialcauses andefficienciesin responses. involving afewblocks).Onceoneormore hotspotshavebeenidentified,thepolicedevelopa targeted hot dots(address-level hotspots),lines(individualormultiple street segments),andhotareas (potentially Hot spotspolicingisatechniquethatfocusespolice attention onproblematic micro areas, whichcaninclude Hot SpotsPolicing spatial displacement(committingthesamecrime displacement ofcrime.Manypeopleonlythink in response toacrimeprevention effort, thisis When offenders changetheircriminalbehaviors Diffusion ofCrimeControl Benefits Displacement ofCrime, (e.g., sittingonfront porches orparkbenches). on theirlightsatnight,orphysicallyownspaces speak upwhentheyseesomethingoutofplace,turn CPTED, addsinelementsthatworktohelpneighbors Territoriality, whichcanbeharder toattainthan neighborhood anddefinestheownershipofspaces. neighbors andotherswhoare regularly inthe Defensible spaceincreases recognition among is apotentialmultiplierforthepowerofCPTED. of ownershipintheenvironment/community, which incorporates asocialelement:territoriality, asense A conceptsimilartoCPTED,defensiblespacealso Defensible Space Understanding CrimeandPlace,

continued later meta-analysisofprojects undertakeninmedium suggesting anoverallbenefitfrom interventions.A occur, ittendedtobelessthanthetreatment effect,” examining onlyspatialdisplacement:“when[it]did instances, there wasadiffusion ofbenefits.When did notoccurandinaboutonequarterofthe that inthree quartersofobservations,displacement In anexaminationof102projects, researchers found different forms. a diffusion ofbenefitscanalsooccurinavariety be knownasamultipliereffect. Likedisplacement, crime evenbeyondtheirtargeted area. Thismayalso control benefits,whencrimeprevention efforts reduce side todisplacementofcrimeisthediffusion ofcrime tactical (MO),target, andcrimetype/offense. Theflip potential displacementofcrime,including:temporal, at anewlocation),butthere are alsoothertypesof of displacementoradiffusion ofbenefits.” and large cities,found“nosignificantoverallevidence 4 TIP SHEETFUNDAMENTALS www.lisc.org/BCJIwww.lisc.org/BCJI Understanding Crime and Place, continued

Place-based Policing More than simply policing that occurs at a specific location, place-based policing theoretically aims to alter the emphasis of an entire police organization from offenders to the places and contexts where crime occurs. Place-based policing is often linked only with hot spots policing, but it can also include responses informed by problem-oriented policing, community policing, broken windows policing, place management, CPTED/ defensible space, crime pattern theory, routine activities theory, and situational crime prevention, among others. www.lisc.org/BCJI Problem-oriented Policing www.lisc.org/BCJI POP is a theory that attempts to refocus police from When first introduced, few agencies were willing to the means of policing (how activities are carried out) try POP because there wasn’t a specific step-by-step to the ends of policing (reducing crime). POP broadly explanation of the process. Eck and Spelman, working aims to identify long-term problems that are of concern with the Police Executive Research Forum, came up to the police and the community, thoroughly examine with the acronym SARA, which stands for Scanning, the problems and their potential causes, develop Analysis, Response, and Assessment. After any one step, multi-pronged responses aimed at eliminating the participants may need to repeat an earlier step (e.g., if problem (beyond the traditional response), and then a response isn’t working, to go back to scanning and assessing the impact to see if further work is needed. analysis to revise problem definition). Note, though, that SARA is not a simple step-by-step guide for conducting POP. Both programs are much more complex than they might initially appear to be.

POP was popular among police agencies in the 1990s and early 2000s, and thousands of POP-inspired projects have been conducted throughout the world. In recent years, many departments have taken on fewer true POP projects but do use some POP techniques to supplement their CompStat, hot spot, or community policing efforts. Unfortunately, due to weak assessment capabilities of most police departments, there are only a handful of true evaluations of POP. A meta-analysis of ten rigorously evaluated POP projects found “an overall modest but statistically significant impact of POP on crime and disorder,” and a wider examination of less rigorously evaluated projects found an overwhelmingly positive impact from POP.”

Risk Terrain Modeling A GIS process introduced by Caplan and Kennedy in 2011, risk terrain modeling aims to incorporate past crime events and community features (such as density of bars, parks, bus stops, and liquor stores) to identify where the risk of future crimes is highest. Risk terrain modeling may be viewed as an advanced form of hot spot mapping. However, there are debates as to whether it actually provides an added benefit for planning police deployments beyond what can be gleaned from hot spot maps, as well as whether the process actually predicts future risk or is FUNDAMENTALS only a reflection of past risk. TIP SHEET 5 Understanding CrimeandPlace, crime: thevictim,offender, andtheplace. be present tointervenewitheach of theelementsa been addedthatshowshow capableguardians may guardianship hasdeveloped,asecondtriangle has occur. Asroutine activitiestheoryandtheconceptof the three elementswasabsent,acrimewouldnot time/space, wasusedtodemonstratethatifoneof a singleimagethatidentifiedoffender, victim,and routine activitiestheory. Theinitialcrimetriangle, serve asavisualtohelpexplainthemicro-level The crimetriangle/problem-analysis trianglecan without capableguardians whomightintervene. come togetherataspecificlocationandpointintime crime occurswhenamotivatedoffender andavictim criminal incidents,suggestingthattheopportunityfor routine activitiescanalsobeusedtoexplainindividual opportunities forcrime.Asamicro leveltheory, in smaller, inexpensiveelectronic devices)increased participation ofwomanintheworkforce andtherise activities ofAmericans(particularlytheincreased theory, itsuggestedthatthechangeinroutine prosperous timeforthecountry. Asamacro level to increase) duringwhatwasconsidered tobea crime begantoincrease inthe1950s(andcontinued This theorywasoriginallydevelopedtoexplainwhy Routine ActivitiesTheory TARGET PLACE C RIME

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continued To delvemore deeplyinto theresearch andtheories References/ RecommendedReadings http://www.popcenter.org/25techniques/ alter opportunitiesforcrimeisavailableat: the matrix, with in-depth recommendations about how to related tocommittingcrime.Amore detailedversionof rewards, reduce provocations, andremove excuses about howtoincrease effort, increase risk,reduce ways toalteropportunitiesforcrime,recommendations matrix of25techniques,dividedintofivemaingroups of Situational crimeprevention isoftenrecognized byits that aimstoreduce opportunitiesforcrimetooccur. Situational CrimePrevention isaprocess andtheory Situational CrimePrevention Criminology places inBoston,1980-2008. The concentrationandstability ofgunviolenceatmicro Braga, A.A.,Papachristos, A.V., &Hureau, D.M.(2010). J of crimepatterns:Implicationsfortheoryandpolicy. Andresen, M.&Malleson,N.(2011).Testing thestability Advanced Foundation. in AmericanPolicing,9. Weisburd, D.(2008).Place-basedpolicing. Policing Services. Department ofJustice,OfficeCommunityOriented problem solversin60smallsteps Clarke, R.V. &Eck,J.E.(2005). Introductory http://www.popcenter.org/library/ the CenterforProblem-Oriented Policing’s Libraryat: Crime Prevention Studies Additional readings, includingearlyeditionsofthe Bibliography at: view theCrimeandPlaceWorking Group Bibliography For anextensivelistofcrimeandplacereadings, leading studiesandwhitepapers. behind Place-BasedCrimeInitiatives,considerthese ournal ofResearchournal inCrimeandDelinquency, http://cebcp.org/wp-content/cpwg/Place-Based- , 26,33-53.

Washington, DC:Police series,mayalsobefoundin Journal ofQuantitative Journal Crime analysisfor . Washington, DC:U.S.

Ideas 48,58-82.

6 TIP SHEETFUNDAMENTALS www.lisc.org/BCJIwww.lisc.org/BCJI Understanding CrimeandPlace, Office ofJusticePrograms. spots. R.E. (2005). Wilson, Eck, J.E.,Chainey, S.,Cameron, J.G.,Leitner, M.,& 41-96). Monsey, NY: CriminalJusticePress. crime prevention, CrimePrevention Studies,Vol. 16 & D.B.Cornish(Eds.), critique ofsituationalcrimeprevention. InM.J.Smith, precipitators andcriminaldecisions:Areply toWortley’s Cornish, D.B.&Clarke,R.V. (2003).Opportunities, Sociological Review, rate trends: Aroutine activityapproach. Cohen, L.,&Felson,M.(1979).Socialchangeandcrime Office Research Unit. Home OfficeResearch StudyNo.65. Clarke, R.,&Mayhew, P. (1980).Designingoutcrime. case studies. Clarke, R.(1997). Rutgers CenteronPublicSecurity. modeling compendiumforcrimeanalysis. Caplan, J.M.,&Kennedy, L.W. (Eds)(2011). Criminology of crimeanddelinquency:Problems andprospects. Bursik, R.(1988).Socialdisorganization and theories Department ofJustice,OfficeJusticePrograms. on BJA-fundedprograms. Washington, & research literature: Thestateofknowledge Bureau ofJusticeAssistance.(2016). Environmental criminology. Brantingham, P., &Brantingham,P. (Eds.).(1981). crime. NewYork, NY: Macmillan. Brantingham, P., &Brantingham,P. (1984).Patternsin onCriminalPolicyandResearch,Journal place: Crimegeneratorsandcrimeattractors. Brantingham, P., &Brantingham,P. (1995).Criminalityof 31(4), 633-663. systematic review andmeta-analysis. The effects ofhotspotspolicingoncrime:Anupdated Braga, A.A.,Papachristos,V., &Hureau, D.M.(2014). Washington, DC:U.S.Department ofJustice, , 26,519-551. Guilderland, NY: Harrow andHeston. Situational crimeprevention: Successful Mapping crime:Understanding hot 44,588-605. Theory forpracticeinsituational BeverlyHills,CA:Sage. Evaluation London,UK:Home Justice Quarterly DC:U.S. American 3,1-26. Newark,NJ: Risk terrain European (pp. ,

continued problem-oriented approach. Goldstein, H.(1979).Improving policing:A of ExperimentalCriminology, legitimacy amongcitizens:Asystematicreview. crime, disorder, andfearincrease satisfaction and T. (2014).Community-oriented policingtoreduce Gill, C.,Weisburd, D.,Telep, C.W., Vitter, Z.,&Bennett, Justice Press. Crime Prevention Studies,Vol. 4. Eck, J.E.&Weisburd, D.(Eds)(1995) National InstituteofJustice. Executive Research Forum;U.S.DepartmentofJustice, policing inNewportNews. & Murphy, G.(1987). Eck, J.E.,Spelman,W., Hill,D.,Stephens,Stedman,J. of situationalcrimeprevention evaluations. of crimedisplacementanddiffusion ofbenefits:A review Guerette, R.T. &Bowers, K.J.(2009).Assessingtheextent 26(1), 7-32. crime trajectories. A longitudinalanalysisofstreet tostreet variabilityin important toexaminecrimetrends atalocalmicro level? Groff, E.R.,Weisburd, D.M.,&Yang, S.(2010).Isit York, NY: McGrawHill. Goldstein, H.(1990). 236-258. Society ofCriminology, Atlanta,GA. Paper presented attheannualmeeting oftheAmerican Payne, T.C. andEck,J.E.(2007),“Whoownscrime?” through urbandesign. Newman, O.(1972). 19(2), 225-226. crime analysis. Madensen, T. (2009).Environmental criminologyand environmental design. Jeffrey, C.(1971). cities. Jacobs, J.(1961). 47(4), 1331-1368. New York, NY: Books. Vintage International CriminalJusticeReview,International Crime prevention through The deathandlifeofgreat American Journal ofQuantitativeCriminology,Journal Defensible space:Crimeprevention Problem-oriented policing. Problem-solving: Problem-oriented Beverly Hills,CA:Sage. New York, NY: Macmillan. Washington, DC:Police Crime &Delinquency, 10(4), 399-428. Monsey, NY: Criminal Crime andplace, Criminology Journal Journal New 25(2),

, 7 TIP SHEETFUNDAMENTALS www.lisc.org/BCJIwww.lisc.org/BCJI Understanding CrimeandPlace, represent theofficialposition orpoliciesoftheU.S.Department ofJustice. Monitoring, Apprehending, Registering,andTracking. Pointsofview or opinionsinthisdocumentare thoseoftheauthor anddonotnecessarily of Justice,theOffice ofJuvenileJusticeandDelinquency Prevention, Victimsof Crime, andtheOfficeofSex theOfficefor OffenderSentencing, of JusticeAssistance isacomponentoftheOffice ofJusticePrograms, whichalsoincludes theBureau ofJusticeStatistics, theNationalInstitute Justice Assistance.Thispaperwas supportedbyGrantNo.2012-AJ-BX-K046awarded bytheBureau ofJusticeAssistancetoLISC.TheBureau The LocalInitiativesSupportCorporation (LISC)isthenationaltechnicalassistanceprovider forBCJI, workingincooperationwiththeBureau of geographic criminology. (2009). Weisburd, D.,Bernasco,W., &Bruinsma,G.J.N.(Eds) Experimental Criminology, geographic areas: Asystematicreview. diffusion ofcrimecontrol benefitsinlarge-scale Teichmann, D.(2014).Displacementofcrimeand Telep, C.W., Weisburd, D.,Gill,C.E.,Vitter, Z.,& Press. Prevention Studies,Vol. 4. J.E. Eck&D.L.Weisburd (Eds.), Spelman, W. (1995).Criminalcareers ofpublicplaces.In place. predatory crime:Routineactivitiesandthecriminologyof Sherman, L.,Gartin,P., &Buerger, M.(1989).Hotspotsof American cities.Chicago,IL:UniversityofChicagoPress. to differential characteristicsoflocalcommunitiesin urban areas: Astudyofratesdelinquentsinrelation Shaw, C.,&McKay, H.(1942).Juveniledelinquencyand of Research inCrimeandDelinquency, structural determinantsofpersonalvictimization. Sampson, R.(1985).Neighborhoodsandcrime:The Security Journal, explanation ofcrimeprevention successandfailure. controllers andcrimeprevention: Aroutine activity Sampson, R.,Eck,J.,&Dunham,J.(2010).Super Criminal Justice,Law&Society, addresses inCincinnati,Ohio,1998-2012. of smallunitsaggregation: Trajectories ofcrime at Payne, T. C.&Gallagher, K.(2016).Theimportance Criminology Putting crimeinitsplace:Unitsofanalysis 23(1), 37-51. , 27(1),27-56. New York, NY: Springer. Monsey, NY: CriminalJustice 10 (4),515-548. 17,20-36. Crime andPlace. Journal of Journal 22(1), 7-40. Criminology, Journal Journal

continued broken windowspolicing:Theneedforevaluation A. (2015).Understandingthemechanismsunderlying Weisburd, D.,Hinkle,J.C.,Braga,A.A.,&Wooditch, Press. twenty-first century. et al.(Eds)(2016). Weisburd, D.,Eck,J.E.,Braga,A.A.,Telep, C.,Cave,B. 42-65. American AcademyofPoliticalandSocialScience, reduce crime,disorder andfear? Weisburd, D.,&Eck,J.(2004).Whatcanpolicedoto 283-422. street segmentsintheCityofSeattle. Trajectories ofcrimeatplaces:Alongitudinalstudy Weisburd, D.Bushway, S.E.,Lum,C.,& Yang, S.M.(2004). police andneighborhoodsafety. J.Q.&Kelling,G.L.(1982).Broken windows:The Wilson, review. and disorder?: Findingsfrom aCampbellsystematic Is problem-oriented policingeffective atreducing crime Weisburd, D.,Telep, C.W., Hinkle,J.C.&Eck,J.E.(2010). 52 (4),589-608. evidence. Routledge. criminology andcrimeanalysis. Wortley, R.&Mazerolle L.(Eds)(2011). University ofChicagoPress. city, theunderclass, andpublic policy. W.Wilson, (1987). 29-38. Criminology andPublicPolicy Journal ofResearchJournal inCrimeandDelinquency, Place matters:Criminologyforthe The trulydisadvantaged:inner NewYork, NY: CambridgeUniversity New York, NY: Atlantic Monthly, The Annalsofthe , 9,139-172. Criminology Chicago, IL: Environmental 249, , 42, 593,

8 TIP SHEETFUNDAMENTALS www.lisc.org/BCJIwww.lisc.org/BCJI