Olmec and Maya

CAN’T DENY THE MAYA STYLE

GET A KICK OUT OF AN ANCIENT BALL GAME

HEADS UP! OLMEC STATUES IN PARTNERSHIP WITH ROCK

Olmec_and_Maya_FC.indd 1 3/8/17 11:50 AM 2 Early Cultures in the Americas Thousands of years The Americas ago, not a single human being lived in all of the 150˚ W Americas. The first peo- ARCTIC GREENLAND ple are thought to have OCEAN arrived about 15,000 years ago. They may have come from Asia via Arctic a land bridge over the Circle Bering Strait. That land 60˚ N

bridge no longer exists. R O It appeared during the C Ice Age, when much of K Y

the land was frozen. This M G . S R T E M T A N made the level of the T A S I H ATLANTIC P C L . A L oceans so low that land A A OCEAN I

N P P now covered with water 30˚ N S A 30˚ N was exposed. Tropic of Cancer These early hunter- MEXICO

gatherers slowly roamed CENTRAL south, and as the gen- AMERICA

erations passed, some 0˚ Equator 0˚ groups settled in parts PACIFIC A of Mexico, Central N OCEAN D

America, and South E

America. Their descen- ATACAMA S Tropic of Capricorn DESERT dants included the people M

30˚ S T 30˚ S

known as the Olmec S

. N and, later still, the Maya. 150˚ W 120˚ W 90˚ W The Maya created one of W E

the most splendid civi- North America 60˚ W S Scale at equator lizations of all time. But South America 0 1,000 mi. around 800 CE, some- Temperate Zone 0 1,000 km. thing terrible must have 60˚ S Tropical Zone occurred. During the Antarctic Circle Present-day Border next century, many Maya ANTARCTICA cities became deserted,

and in time, the jungle u BECAUSE THE 1,600 miles north is often rainy. once again claimed the Americas stretch and south of the North and south of over such a huge equator is the this zone are two Maya lands. area, they contain tropical zone. The temperate zones. many different temperature is There, the climate climates and land- usually hot there, changes with the forms. Within and the weather seasons.

Olmec_and_Maya_2-3.indd 16 3/8/17 11:51 AM 3 l AN IMPORTANT early group in South America was the Chavín people, who appeared in the Andes around 900 BCE. The Chavín are famous for their religious sculptures. Their artifacts include objects depicting jaguars, which were common in the l THE MAYA ERECTED area. Throughout magnificent palac- the Americas, es, developed an the animals that elaborate system prehistoric peo- of writing and an ples encountered accurate calendar, became important and were able to in their religious predict eclipses. beliefs.

u ALONG THE WEST- include the Rocky both continents, ern areas of North Mountains (above), are areas well suit- and South America the Sierra Madre, ed for agriculture u CENTRAL AMERICA there could be and Mexico that are several and the Cascades. – grassy plains and contains many difficult because was settled in mountain ranges, South America’s river valleys. active volcanoes, of this terrain. We ancient times called cordilleras. include the Andes. rain forests, and call the region of . Those in the north East of these, on swamps. Farming Central America

l A MAJOR GROUP and farmed corn, in prehistoric North beans, and other America was the crops. They were Mississippians. known for building These people large earthworks, settled mainly in or mounds. The what is now the biggest (left) is southeastern and 1,000 feet long, midwestern United 700 feet wide, States, starting and 100 feet high! in the 700s CE. Religious temples They lived in large were built on top of towns or villages these mounds.

Olmec_and_Maya_2-3.indd 17 3/8/17 11:51 AM 4 The Olmec In the fertile lowlands of southern Mexico, scientific pursuits, and writing systems, they the first sophisticated urban civilization in set the tone for all the major Mesoamerican the Americas came into being. It lasted from cultures that followed, including the Maya about 1200 BCE to 400 BCE. The people who and the Aztec. The Olmec have been called built it were called the Olmec. In their reli- the “mother civilization” of the Americas. gious beliefs, artworks, architecture,

u THE OLMEC USED rivers for trans- porting goods and l THE WORD OLMEC other goods. But natural resources. means “rubber rubber and the Scholars believe people.” The Olmec rubber trade were they built rafts created rubber not the Olmec’s so they could from the sap of only inventions. float huge stones the rubber trees They were also the and other things growing on their first people in the from one place to lands. They used Americas to have another. The stones the rubber to make a writing system. were used for their balls for games They used pic- sculptures. and religious cere- ture-like symbols, monies. They also carving them on traded rubber with stone, sculptures, their neighbors for and pottery.

Olmec_and_Maya_4-5.indd 16 3/8/17 11:54 AM 5 l THE OLMEC WERE They grew corn, Olmec Lands in an excellent beans, squash, geographic location avocados, and for farming, and peppers. They also CUBA their success at fished, in rivers MEXICO it provided them and the sea. They with many advan- built their houses tages. Water was with reeds from Tlapacoya Gulf of Mexico plentiful, and they the local rivers and Tlatilco El Viejón depended on the grasses from the Chalcatzinco Tre Zapotes flooding of rivers plains. The Olmec Las Bocas to nourish the soil farmlands were Laguna de Balancán and irrigate their very productive, Oxtotitán los Cerros San Lorenzo crops. They even growing more JAMAICA M developed a cal- than enough BELIZEfood Juxtlahuaca E S O A M endar system and for everyone. This E R Xoc numbering to help meant the Olmec I GUATEMALA Padre Piedra C them keep track of could spend time the flood season. on other activities,HONDURAS Pijijiapan A PACIFIC such as engaging OCEAN Izapa in trade and creat- ing artworks. La Blanca NICARAGUA Olmec Homeland N Olmec Ceremonial Center 0 100 mi. W E Other Olmec City 0 100 km. S EL SALVADOR

l OLMEC RULERS ordered the building of large templesCOSTA and pla- RICA zas. At these sites were found many PANAMA sculptures show- ing what seem to be half-human, half-jaguar figures that research- ers have called were-jaguars. Some are depicted as infants, being held in the lap of another figure. These creatures have downturned mouths and half-closed, 0almond-shaped 500 Miles eyes. In the , the jaguar was associated u THE OLMEC MADE heads out of huge they are wearing with the all-import- truly amazing boulders of basalt helmets and may 0ant rains, which 500 KM sculptures. Many rock. These heads be players in a ball caused the flooding of them were may be portraits game that had reli- that guaranteed a religious in nature. of their rulers. But gious meaning. good harvest. They carved giant some people think Parallel scale at 20˚N 0˚ E

Olmec_and_Maya_4-5.indd 17 3/8/17 11:54 AM 6

Pre- Classic Period 2000 BCE to ARCHAEOLOGISTS 250 CE (experts who Many Maya lived study the remains in settled com- of past cultures) munities. often divide time into periods to make it easier to discuss history. Maya history is divided into three periods. Archaic Period 8000 BCE to 2000 BCE Most Maya lived as hunters and gatherers. Some Maya began to settle in one place and farm.

l STATUES AND r THE MAYA LIVED carvings in many in an area of about Classic Maya 120,000 square cities show what miles. This map the people looked shows the sites of like – or the looks their ancient cities. they admired: The heart of Maya straight black hair, civilization was the high cheekbones, tropical rain forests almond-shaped in the lowlands of eyes, curved nos- what is now north- es, and elongated ern Guatemala. skulls.

Present-day border Ancient Maya city The Rise of the Maya The saying “Rome was not built in a nuts, and seeds for food. By around day” means that it takes a long time 8000 BCE, these roving bands of to create something significant and Maya began making homes for them- lasting. This saying also applies to selves – in caves, rock shelters, and the Maya. open camps. Slowly, over the next The earliest Maya hunted animals, several thousand years, they began fished, and gathered wild berries, living a more settled village life. They

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Classic Period 250 ce to 900 ce The Maya reached great heights in intel- lectual, artistic, and cultural mat- ters. They built more than 100 cities and towns. One of the larg- est, Tikal, had as many as 100,000 residents.

r Twelve-year- r Stelae (stone old Pacal came slabs) were erect- to the throne in ed to honor the the Maya town of important events Palenque in 615 in leaders’ lives. ce. He reigned for The tallest stela 68 years. During in the Maya area this time, the city – almost 25 feet became large and high – is Stela powerful. When F at Quiriguá, Lord Pacal died, he Guatemala (right). had a royal burial On it is a portrait in the Temple of of Cauac Sky, an the Inscriptions. important ruler Present-day border The sarcophagus whose reign began Ancient Maya city (coffin) lid shows in 724 ce. Lord Pacal resting on a throne.

wore animal-skin clothing and used Their economy flourished, and they flint-tipped spears. erected huge palaces, plazas, court- As time went on, cities appeared, yards, and ball courts. Towering some populated by more than temple-pyramids dotted the area. 50,000 people. The Maya reached great heights in the arts, scientific learning, architecture, and writing.

Olmec_and_Maya_6-7.indd 17 3/8/17 11:57 AM 8 The Maya Way of Life The Maya lived in the lowlands, where the manioc (a starchy root also known as cassa- temperature didn’t change much during the va), along with other crops. The Maya also year. In the Pre-Classic period, they settled had plenty of nuts, seeds, and wild fruits for in densely inhabited villages of sloping, the taking. Wild animals, such as deer, pec- thatched-roof houses. Most peasants were caries, tapirs, and monkeys, were hunted for farmers. Outside the villages, they cultivated food. maize (corn), beans, squash, avocados, and

USING STONE TOOLS, FARMERS cut down dry brush and burned it before the sum- mer rains. This cleared the fields and helped fertilize the ground. When it came time to plant, farmers poked shallow holes into the ground using sticks, and then dropped in the seeds. They also created raised fields in swamps by digging canals and piling the soil between them. This made fertile plots for planting and helped pro- tect against flooding. The Maya used crop rotation to get more than one har- vest each year.

Olmec_and_Maya_8-9.indd 16 3/8/17 12:31 PM 9 l THE MAYA HAD r A FAVORITE MAYA four social classes. activity was a ball The rulers were the game sometimes upper class. They called pok-ol-pok. controlled cities and It was both a com- their surrounding petitive sport and a areas. (There was sacred ceremony. no central govern- Players tried to ment.) Craftspeople, knock a solid rub- merchants, and ber ball through stonemasons were a high stone ring. the middle class. The ball had to be Commoners came bounced off their next; they were hips, shoulders, or mostly farmers. forearms, never Enslaved people, touching their criminals, and pris- hands. The losing oners of the many captain (or even Maya wars made the whole team) up the lowest class. often risked being Important people sacrificed to the were buried in spe- gods. cial positions (top left), with posses- sions such as this jade mask (bottom left).

Olmec_and_Maya_8-9.indd 17 3/8/17 12:32 PM 10

Sacred Maya Waters

Swimmers can take a dip beneath stalactites in the pure waters of a cenote, or natural well, in Dzitnup, Mexico. Cenotes were an essential water source for the ancient Maya on the river-starved northern Yucatán peninsula. Other sacred cenotes were used in religious ceremonies.

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Olmec_and_Maya_10-11.indd 17 3/8/17 12:33 PM 12 His May 9, Captive 755 Bird He Jaguar Captured At the Place of Jeweled Yaxchilan Skull

Second Captive Ancient Astronomy r THE MAYA’S the sun, as seen knowledge of from Earth, to be astronomy was 584 days. After very advanced. many centuries They plotted the of study, we now movements of the know that it is sun, the moon, and actually 583.92! Second Captive Jeweled Skull Venus, and calcu- This observatory lated the revolution is at the city of The Inventive MayaThe Inventive u THE MAYA LEFT of Venus around Chichén Itzá. permanent records about their lives r IN THE 18TH in hieroglyphs, century, a Maya or glyphs – pic- folded manuscript tures or symbols was purchased used to represent for the Royal words, syllables, Library of Dresden, or sounds. Glyphs Germany. It came in books, on pots, to be known as the carved in stone, Dresden Codex. and painted in It’s the earliest and murals (wall paint- best preserved of ings) show many the four remain- aspects of Maya ing Maya folding life, although most books. This beau- focus on important tiful codex deals events in rulers’ with the cycles of lives. The drawing the planet Venus above is a record and includes tables with the date 755 for predicting lunar CE on it, showing eclipses. It shows Bird Jaguar and a the 260-day Maya companion cap- calendar and the turing Jeweled gods associated Skull and another with the days. enemy. Of all the u THE MAYA PAINTED a building taller. peoples in the and adorned their Colorful murals Americas before buildings with decorated many Columbus, only the carved friezes, interior walls. This Maya developed a facades, and roof structure is in Tikal, complex system of combs, or exten- the largest of all writing in their own sions that make Classic Maya sites. language.

l THE MOST REMARKABLE ASPECT OF Maya carvings is that they were done with stone tools – no metal was used in Classic times.

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Dad, I’ll never It’s not that tough, son. Just listen closely. We Maya were understand how among the first to invent a way to count into really big to count! numbers. We can count as high as we want because we know how important nothing is.

Nothing!?! Zero, son. Only three peoples in all of history discovered it. Zero allows us to count until the iguanas come home. Ancient Astronomy the sun, as seen How, Dad? from Earth, to be The first thing you need to 584 days. After understand is that we use many centuries just three symbols for our 0 1 5 of study, we now numbers — a shell for zero, a dot for one, and a bar for know that it is five. actually 583.92! This observatory We can count all the is at the city of way to 19 with those Chichén Itzá. same symbols. 0 1 2 3 4

That makes 5 6 7 8 9 d THE LONG COUNT sense. is the Maya system 10 11 12 13 14 of recording time. It is considered 15 16 17 18 19 the most accurate calendar of the Now, we Maya count in steps, as if ancient world. walking down a stairway. On the Long Count cal- lowest step are the number 1 through 19. To show numbers from 20 to 399, culations appear = 120 we go to the next step. A number on on most stelae that step is 20 times what you think from the Classic it is. = 14 u MAYA BOOKS, period, helping 134 called codices, archaeologists We add the two steps to get the number, and were long strips of know when they we read the number from top to bottom, right? paper made from were erected. The the bark of the wild Maya astronomers’ fig tree. The strips calculation of the You’re a chip off the old block! Now, we of bark were fold- true length of the stay on this step until we get as high as = 800 the number 399. Then we have to step up ed back to back, year – 365.2420 again. The same process works for this forming pages, days – is a sign of = 120 step, except that you must figure 20 times which may have their genius. The u THE CITY OF 20 times the number, or 400 times the number you see. been enclosed in figure used today, Bonampak was = 14 covers of jaguar 1,000 years later, discovered in 1946 934 skin or wood. is 365.2422 days! in Chiapas, Mexico. I get it! Just keep stepping! Colorful murals Step on! This step is good until you found in a building get to 7,999. there depict scenes from the late 8th So why is the zero Sometimes, son, it’s important century CE. One so important, Dad? that there be nothing on a step. room celebrates an How could we write the number heir to the throne. 403 without a zero? Inscriptions explain the event and = 400 identify the people. Dancers in feath- = 0 ered robes move to musicians’ music. = 3 403

Olmec_and_Maya_12-13.indd 17 3/15/17 11:51 AM 14 r Long before the Spanish arrived, Maya civiliza- tion had begun to weaken. Civil unrest and warfare were common. Few people worked in the creative arts. In time, the Mexican influence u The Spanish became stronger. explorer Hernán Chichén Itzá is the Cortés brought place that best about the destruc- shows this. El tion of the Aztec Castillo, the Temple realm in southern of the Jaguars and Mexico in 1521. He its Ball Court, and and then others, the Temple of the later, went on to Warriors (right) conquer the nearby have features that Maya. The Maya are totally differ- fought bravely for ent from Maya many years, but architecture: inte- the last Maya city rior courts, square finally fell in 1697. platforms, and The Spanish many columns that conquistadors supported roofs (conquerors), and divided rooms. marching beneath It may be that the the banner of “God, Toltec peoples of Glory, and Gold,” Mexico conquered nearly wiped out the city. Maya culture and other cultures. The conquered peoples u The Spanish the Maya, who had cent of the Maya were forced to take enslaved many of no natural defens- died in the century instruction in the the native peoples. es against them. immediately fol- Catholic faith. If They introduced Entire towns were lowing the Spanish anyone rebelled, such European dis- wiped out. Some conquest. the punishment eases as smallpox, historians estimate was terrible. measles, and flu to that up to 90 per- The Spanish Conquest and the Decline of the Maya flourished for many masses. It could have been a com- centuries. But then, from about bination of all these factors. A good 800 ce to 900 ce, nearly all Maya guess is that many pressures from cities in the southern lowlands were outside and inside the society led to abandoned. Many theories have the Maya’s collapse. been proposed to explain why this Although the southern lowlands happened. These include conquering were nearly deserted, Maya splendor armies of Mexicans, climate changes, continued on the Yucatán peninsula. earthquakes, widespread diseases, When Spanish explorers set foot economic failure, overpopulation, there in the early 16th century, they starvation, and uprisings among the found cities crowded with people.

Olmec_and_Maya_14-15.indd 16 3/8/17 12:36 PM 15 l DIEGO DE LANDA their traditional was a priest from beliefs. Angered, he Spain. In the 16th had all their writ- century, he arrived ings burned. This in the Yucatán, robbed future gen- where the Maya erations of valuable lived after they information about had abandoned the Maya. In one the lowland cities. terrible instant, de De Landa tried to Landa wiped out change the ways of the literature of an the Maya, but they entire culture! refused to give up

d THE TOLTEC Temple of the Warriors at Chichén Scribes Were Itzá is copied from a Mexican pyramid. It clearly shows Big Deals Toltec influence and supremacy in SCRIBES WERE WRITERS WHO RECORDED the Yucatán. details about Maya life on books folded like an accordion. The pages of bark were strengthened by a natural gum substance and coated with white plaster. On these pages, scribes drew figures and made hieroglyphic symbols. They colored the images with mineral and vegetable paints. They also made carvings in limestone, shells, and jade. Scribes were highly valued.

RABBIT GOD WRITING A CODEX

They saw heavily decorated palaces, where great riches were supposed temples raised on terraced pyra- to be found. The cities of the Maya mids, paved stone roads, and busy could have been the place. But marketplaces. They met leaders who the desire of the Spanish to force wore jade and gold jewelry, intricate others to believe in their religion headdresses, jaguar-skin skirts, and finally led to the destruction of what brightly colored feathered capes. had been the most brilliant civili- They also found warriors with bows, zation in pre-Columbian America. arrows, and clubs. (Pre-Columbian means “before For years, the Spanish searched Columbus.”) for the legendary El Dorado, a place

Olmec_and_Maya_14-15.indd 17 3/8/17 12:36 PM 16 The Maya Today Most of the more than 6 million modern Maya live in rural areas of Mexico, Guatemala, and Belize – areas where their ancestors lived. Their culture is a mixture of pre- Columbian native, European, and modern elements, not purely one or another. Today, the Maya are not very well off economically. During a civil war in Guatemala from 1960 to 1996, thousands of highland people were killed. Tens of thousands were forced to flee into Mexico. The Maya of Mexico, like many Mexicans, suffer from overpopulation, unemploy- ment, and periods of political unrest. In many places, the Maya have been forced to abandon their native lan- guage and dress, and only in rural areas can they continue their tradi- tions. In Guatemala, Maya farmers have been crowded onto mountain- ous areas with poor land. Laborers

must work for extremely low wages. r Maya life today Will the Maya survive the latest reflects the long threats? That remains to be seen. history of outside influences. Nearly every Maya town has a Catholic church, a public school, and munic- ipal buildings. Some towns have a movie theater and a gas station. Many Maya houses u In some places, have radios and traditional dress is electric lights. common. But Maya Trucks, cars, and also wear colorful buses travel the clothing from other roads. Yet despite cultures. the advances of u In remote and stone or earthen modern culture, the isolated villages, walls that were u The Maya’s Maya have clung houses are the used in earlier ancient ballgame to some original same thatched- times. is still taught to traditions. roof dwellings with youngsters in lime-plastered Central America.

Olmec_and_Maya_16-17.indd 16 3/8/17 1:07 PM 17 l Many Maya today resist attempts to make them part of the mainstream of Mexican and Guatemalan life. They don’t want to be an oppressed minority. They cherish their own culture and values.

l Pottery is still u As in pre- made by ancient Columbian methods. Traditional times, houses looms that can be are grouped in strapped around compounds, and the weaver’s back nearby structures are used to make serve as cooking splendid, brightly or storage units. patterned textiles (fabrics). u Many festivals and religious cel- l Colorful tex- ebrations feature tiles and ancient pre-Columbian techniques of tex- activities. These tile making survive include burning in Guatemala and fragrant copal in Chiapas, Mexico. incense (made In Guatemala, the from tree resin), u Rigoberta Menchú, ancient calendar is fasting, and mak- a Maya activist who still used to mark ing offerings to the works for native peo- the annual cere- traditional gods. ples’ rights, won the monial cycle. Nobel Peace Prize in 1992.

Olmec_and_Maya_16-17.indd 17 3/8/17 1:07 PM 18 Activities CREATE GLYPHS Glyphs are pictures or sym- bols that represent words, syllables, or sounds. Study the glyphs shown in this maga- zine. Then, work with a part- ner to create some glyphs that stand for ideas and sounds in the English language. You’ll use the glyphs to write mes- sages to each other. So think about what you might want to talk about and be sure to create the glyphs you’ll need. Then have some fun. Use the glyphs to communicate with your partner.

MAKE A TIMELINE Maya history is divided into three periods. Use the magazine to learn about them. What were those periods? What were the most important events during each one? Make a timeline of the different periods in the history of the Maya. Locate one or two key events during each time period on your timeline. Write a short caption for each one to summarize what happened. When your timeline is complete, share it with others. Compare events on the different timelines.

Olmec_and_Maya_18-19.indd 18 3/8/17 1:08 PM 19 MAKE CONNECTIONS WITH THESE RELATED TITLES

Archaeology Christianity and Language Understanding the daily lives of ancient Rome’s Legacies Language is more than just the words people is the driving force behind As an empire, Rome’s expansive and sounds we use to communicate. archaeology. The pottery, art, tools, reach stretched far and wide across The study of language helps us under- and ruins early civilizations left behind the ancient world. Today, we see its stand our past. From ancient hiero- provide a window into their habits and impact and influence across the globe. glyphs and the first papyrus scrolls to cultures. Learn all about the essential Paramount to Rome’s empire lies the sign language and computer program- tasks of archaeologists, from mapping religion of Christianity, a centerpiece in ming, language has long been at the a site to sifting dirt to using brushes to the empire’s growth and legacy. center of human society. unearth delicate artifacts.

CALIFORNIA STANDARDS

HSS 7.7 Students compare and contrast the geographic, political, economic, reli- gious, and social structures of the Meso- American and Andean civilizations. 7.7.1 Study the locations, landforms, and cli- mates of Mexico, Central America, and South America and their effects on Mayan, Aztec, and Incan economies, trade, and development of urban societies. 7.7.2 Study the roles of people in each society, including class struc- tures, family life, warfare, religious beliefs and practices, and slavery. 7.7.3 Explain how and where each empire arose and how the Aztec and Incan empires were defeated by the Spanish. 7.7.4 Describe the artistic and oral traditions and architecture in the three civili- zations. 7.7.5 Describe the Meso-American achievements in astronomy and mathematics, including the development of the calendar and LEARN MORE ONLINE! the Meso-American knowledge of seasonal changes to the civilizations’ agricultural sys- tems. • Beautiful Chichén Itzá was likely • Maya glyphs are not easy to deci- the most important Maya city from pher. It has taken more than 100 Historical and Social Sciences Analysis the 6th to the 10th centuries CE. years to begin to decode them. In Skills: But when the Spanish arrived in 1958 and 1960, Heinrich Berlin and Research, Evidence, and Point of View the 16th century, it was already Tatiana Proskouriakoff found that 3. Students distinguish relevant from irrelevant abandoned. A 79-foot-tall pyramid some glyphs recorded the histories information, essential from incidental informa- called El Castillo (Spanish for “the of ruling families. tion, and verifiable from unverifiable informa- castle”) towers over Chichén Itzá. tion in historical narratives and stories.

Olmec_and_Maya_18-19.indd 19 3/8/17 1:12 PM hmhco.com

Editor: Jennifer Dixon Fact-Checker: Nayda Rondon, Art Direction: Brobel Design Amy McIlwaine Designers: Ian Brown, Ed Gabel, David Ricculli, Jeremy Rech Author: Stella Sands, Camille Cauti Photo Research: Ted Levine, Author Team Lead: Amy K. Hughes Elisabeth Morgan Activities Writer: Marjorie Frank President and CEO: Ted Levine Proofreader: Amy Handy Chairman and Founder: Mark Levine

GRADE 6 TITLES Warriors); De Agostini/Archivio, J. Lange: p.6 middle left (plaster head); De Agostini: p.9 top left (burial pit); Dmitri Kessel: p.17 top center (making tortillas at a Maya home); World’s Early People Ancient India Francois LE DIASCORN: p.16 center middle (men with cowboy hats); Hans Georg Roth: pp.14–15 top center (figure); Independent Picture Service: p.17 middle left (Guatemalan Mesopotamia Indian Empires women in traditional dress); John Scofield: p.16 top right (Maya mask maker); Marlon Ancient Egypt Ancient China Gomez: p.16 bottom right (Maya ballgame); Master of Saldana: p.14 top left (Hernán Cortés); PHAS: p.14 top center (conquest of Mexico); Prisma: p.3 top right (Chavín art); Archaeology Early Romans Tony Barson: p.17 middle right (Rigoberta Menchú); Werner Forman: p.9 middle left Language Roman Empire (jade mask). Granger Collection, NYC: p.15 top center (Diego de Landa Calderon). Shutterstock: Anton_Ivanov: p.19 bottom (El Castillo); Galyna Andrushko: p.3 Ancient Hebrews Christianity and Rome’s Legacies middle left (Rocky Mountains, Colorado); LuFeeTheBear: p.19 top left (archaeologist); Early Greeks Olmec and Maya MarcelOdlt: p.17 top left (loom); Natalia Godzenko: p.18 top (Maya glyphs); Nensu79: p.18 bottom (timeline); Prill: p.16 bottom left (Maya hut); Simon Dannhauer: p.12 Greece’s Golden Age Civil Rights middle right (Tikal); Skyfish: p.17 top right (burning incense); Stefano Ember: p.17 Ancient Persia bottom (church); TTstudio: p.19 top center (Vatican); Ventdusud: pp.12–13 top center (Chichén Itzá); Vladimir Zhoga: p.19 top right (Japanese hieroglyphs); Wollertz: p.3 middle right (tropical rain forest, Costa Rica). The University Museum, UPENN: p.13 bottom left (Long Count). On the Cover: Traditional dressing ceremony of high priest from reconstruction of the Bonampak frescoes. Getty Images: DEA/G. Dagli Orti. Original Illustrations: Acme Design Company: Map of the Yucatán Peninsula, p.6. Picture Credits: Alamy: Chronicle: p.7 bottom left (Pacal); Danita Delimont: p.13 center middle (Bonampak); Mason Vranish: pp.10–11 (Cenote Dzitnup, Mexico); National Brobel Design: Map of the Americas, p.2; Map of Olmec Lands, p.5; Maya Hieroglyphs, Geographic Creative: p.3 bottom left (Monks Mound), p.4 center middle ( on the p.12; Rabbit God, p.15. river); Peter Horree: p.13 middle left (Maya codices); Sabena Jane Blackbird: p.12 bottom center (Maya stone tool); SOTK2011: p.7 bottom right (stela at Quiriguá); World History Michael Kline Illustration: Rubber People, p.4; Maya Math Mastery, p.13. Archive: p.9 top right (Maya ceramic figure).Art Resource, NY: Michel Zabé: p.5 bottom right (were-jaguar); p.12 center middle (Dresden Codex). Getty Images: Arturogi: Wood Ronsaville Harlin, Inc.: Will Williams: Sitting Maya, p.3, The Maya Way of Life, p.5 bottom left (Olmec head); Carl & Ann Purcell: pp.14–15 center middle (Temple of pp.8–9; Rob Wood: Three Maya Periods, pp.6–7.

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