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Chinese names are indexed uninverted. Page numbers referring to figures, tables and maps are italicised. Page numbers referring to notes appear in the index with ‘n’ followed by the note number. a miglio contracts 69, 73 and Barbary pirates/corsairs 55–6, a parte (ad partes) contracts 46–7, 58, 137, 139, 152, 153 69–70, 75 and French coral fishing 196, 197, a salario/salaried contracts 69, 71–2 202, 205, 206–7 Abridgement of All Sea-Lawes (Welwood) safe passage agreements 56 103, 108 Allen, Edward 189 Act for the Better Regulation and Allen, William 299 Government of Seamen in the Amiral de France 83, 84, 85, 86, 87 Merchants service (1729) 36, 101, Amsterdam 103, 117–20, 179 burgher numeracy levels 173–4 Act for the Encouragement of Trade to as a distribution centre 9, 10 America (1708) 188 and Dutch maritime labour market admiralties 126, 127, 129–30 English courts see High Court of and Hamburg 141n2, 152, 153, 155 Admiralty legal reform 37 French courts 82–5, 86, 87, 91–5, 96, and Mediterranean 97, 98 intermediaries 137 African concessions see Royal Company shipping departures from Malta 63 of Africa unloading processes 11, 14 agency (of seamen) Angel Raphael 137 coral fishermen 197, 199, 206, Anglo-Chinese tea trade 287, 289 207–9, 210, 211 Anglo-Dutch wars 144–5, 150–1, 155 desertion 51–2, 73, 240, 261, 263, 281 Anthony, John 292, 294–5, 301 imperial expansion 100, 143, 216, appeals 39, 40, 44, 54–5, 60, 230–5, 305 66n29, 280 Indian VOC workers 274, 275, 277, apprentices 53–4, 97, 166, 218, 280–5, 286 219, 239 as investors 33, 41, 223–30 Aragon 251 legal redress 274, 275, 280–3, 283–5, Arce, Pedro de 252 286, 305 Arce, Sancho Guitar/Guitári 244 see also wage disputes/litigation Armada of the Ocean Sea (Armada del Portuguese maritime logistics 215–23 Mar Océano) 249, 250, 251, 252 significance of 1, 17, 41, 308–9 Aróztegui, Martín de 252 transnationality 42 Arsenale (Venice) 25–6 agriculture 6–7 Asian sailors see Chinese seamen; Indian Aguirre, Tomás de 250–1 seamen alcohol consumption 52, 136, 200, Atlantic trade see transatlantic trade 201, 257, 258–60, 279 avaria 71n58, 77 Algiers Azevedo, Francisco de 247–8

340 Index 341

B/Valgomera, Carlos de 244 and British economic success 2, 16–17 Baeza, Gaspar de 244 drunk and disorderly behaviour Baltic trade 12, 13, 14, 16, 155 257–61 Banks, Joseph 294 fugitives 263–4 Barbary Coast, French African mutineers 256, 268–71 concessions on coral fishing privateering 167, 174 see Royal Company of Africa see also Duke and Dutchess Barbary pirates/corsairs 4, 46, 55–6, unemployment 261–3, 264–5 131–2, 137, 139, 147, 151–4, 156 see also English sailors Barentsz, Hendrick 128 Brookes, John 49 Barker, Thomas 293 Brown, Robert 262 Barlow, Edward 116 Browne, George 107 Barrasa, Marcos 244 buenas boyas 240, 241 Bartolus of Sassoferato 36 Burnaby, Vice-consul 263 Base, Mary 292 Bustos, Placido 68 Bath, William 185 Bazán, Álvaro de 241 Cadamosto, Luís de 231 Becker, Thomas 56, 57 canterate 73 Benton, Lauren 100, 305 capital biography as a research method internationality of ships and crews 159–60, 161, 163–4 26, 40 Bizerte 196, 197, 203 Northern European success 3, 7, 310 Black Book (of the Admiralty) 106 Portuguese crown 217, 220 Black Death 81, 98 sailors as investors 33, 69, 70, 75, Black Lion 135 218, 223–30 Black Rider/The Rainbow 123, 138 state regulated companies 15 Blackwell, Lambert 51, 53, 54, 58, 59 carpenters 132–3, 134, 148, 239, Blakemore, Richard 35, 61, 143, 179n7 242, 254 Bondoch, John 31–2, 35 Carrera de Indias 29, 232, 248 Boompjes, De/‘The Trees’ 130 Cash, Giles 186 Boon, Piet 126 Casha, Benedetto 76 Bosman, Andrew Robertson 52 Catelani, Alessandro Luigi 51, 52, 53, Braudel, Fernand 23, 40, 124n7, 55, 57, 59 139n79, 146–7, 237n5 Catherine 269–70 brawls 258–9 Catholicism/Catholics 4, 6, 43, 64n13, Bremen 143, 151n51 84, 204, 239, 273 British consuls Centellas, Pedro 244 in Genoa 259–60, 264–5, 267, Charles II (of England) 150 269–70 Charles V (Holy Roman Emperor) 35 in Livorno 257–8, 259, 261, 264–5 Chatham Chest 189 and the Royal navy 271 Chayde, Martin de 244 see also English consuls Chefalo, Alexandro Mauro 248 British East India Company see East Chinese seamen India Company in London see Chinese seamen in British sailors London and Act for the Better Regulation and orientalisation of Portuguese crews Government of Seamen in the 234–5 Merchants service (1729) 36, 101, Chinese seamen in London 117–19 EIC provision of care 288, 292–7, assisting Corsican rebels 265–8, 269 299–302, 303 342 Index

Chinese seamen in London – continued Concordia 135 EIC regulation of behaviour 288, Conservatori del Mare (Genoa) 31, 260, 291–2, 297, 298, 302 265, 270 land employment 298, 303 Consolato del Mare numbers of 287, 289–90, 302 and English law compilations 106 origins of 291 Mediterranean tradition 62, 65–6, Chitty, Joseph 118 68, 79–80, 306 Christianity/Christians tradition in France 79, 94 aboard Spanish galleys 240 Tuscan courts 45, 46, 48, 57, 58, 60 Catholicism/Catholics 4, 6, 43, Consolato di Mare di Malta 64n13, 84, 204, 239, 273 1697 establishment 65, 67–8, 78 joint Muslim ventures 207 litigation 61, 62, 69–77, 78 and the naming of ships 123 Mediterranean traditions 62, 65–7, piracy/corsairs 123, 137, 139 68, 69, 77, 78 religious antagonism as a factor in the consuetude 103, 106–8, 109, 117, 120 ‘Northern invasion’ 3–4 consular authority chusma 240, 242 anti-piracy diplomacy 4 Cianfi, Giovanni 57 in Italy 38–40, 50–5, 59, 257–61, Cinque Portes 182, 190 264–5, 267 Cinque Savi alla Mercanzia 36–7, 39 Maltese 67 citizenship, letters of 164 as nation state authority 38–9, 50, civil courts 32, 44, 52, 65, 83–4, 260, 271, 309 94–5, 286 contracts civil law 36, 54, 81, 82, 91, 95, 99, EIC system for care of Asiatic sea- 109, 309 men 292–5, 297, 302 Cleirac, Étienne 33 employment see employment con- cloth industry 8 tracts and agreements clothing Contreras, Pedro de 244 accounting for 189 convoy ships Asian seamen 292, 293, 296, Duke and Dutchess 181 297, 299 Dutch ships 132, 153, 154 cleanliness 240, 297, 299 French defence of 87 for galley slaves 242 German Mediterranean shipping officers 278 142, 146, 148–9, 151, 153, as plunder 187 154, 156 coal 5 Northern Europe/Mediterranean Coates, Mr (of Hackney Road, fleets 4 London) 292 Cooke, Edward 179, 189 Coates, William 107 ‘coolie’ perspectives of Indian VOC Code Michau 86, 87n33 workers 275, 278, 286 Colbert, Jean Baptiste 15, 87, 88 Cooling, Edward 49 see also Ordonnance de la Marine Copenhagen Columbus, Christopher 231, 245 migration and human capital 169–76 commercial/military convergence Ponsaing’s migration to 158, 160, 161, and competition see military/ 164–5, 166, 167, 168, 169, 175 commercial convergence and coral fishing/fishermen competition contestation of Royal Company Commere, Jan Baptist 272, 280 norms 197, 199, 206–10, 211 commodities 8–9, 104, 245 in history of African concessions ‘Commutation Act’ (1784) 287 195–7 Index 343

nationality 197, 202–6 and English sailors 35–6, 102–8, 109, Royal Company employment 113, 117, 120 contracts 199–202, 203, 204, privateer crew agreements 180, 181 206, 208–10 wage disputes 31, 32, 34–8, 40, 60, significance of 197–9 101, 107, 117–19 corsairs see also Roles d’Oléron, Lex Rhodia and attacks on Dutch shipping 131–2, Llibre del Consulat de Mar 139 Cyprus 25, 76, 135 detention of Western Star 55–7 employment agreements 45–6, Da Leze, Andrea 34 90, 137 DAC see Danish Asiatic Company and French maritime law 83n12, 84 dal Borro, Alessandro 53, 54 and German shipping 147, 151–4, damages 45, 46, 48, 51, 58, 71n58, 77, 156 108, 116, 190 and Malta 61, 62, 64, 70n53, 75 Dampier, William 177, 178, 181, Mediterranean religious fragmenta- 182, 188 tion 123, 137 Danish Asiatic Company (DAC) 158, Mediterranean states 4–5 161, 163, 165–7 Nostra Signora della Guardia e Dauningh, Patrick 258–9 Libertà 263 Davenant, Henry 262 Corsican coral fishermen 197, 199, Davidge, Richard 55, 56, 57, 58, 59 201, 202, 203–6, 208–9, 209, Davis, Ralph 49, 133n50, 141n46 210, 211 De Bono, Paolo 65–6 Cosimo I (de’Medici) 44 De Quaadsteniet, Leendert Courtney, Stephen 182–3, 187, 188 Willemsz 272, 273–4, 280, 281 Coyle, Richard 268 De Vries, David Pietersz 128 Creagh, Stephen 179, 191 De Vries, Jan 126–7 criminal courts death Captain Bondoch 31–2 and British consular authority in desertion and captains’ rights 52 Genoa 260 eighteenth-century Livorno 257–8, Chinese sailors living in 263 London 296, 298 evidence 309 Eastern seamen’s recruitment 234, and French legal reform 82, 83, 287 95–6, 99 Edward Allen 189 galley service 240, 253 EIC accounting of 293 and historical visibility 256 and freightage contracts 227 and Indian VOC workers’ petitions of Jantje 272–4, 278, 280–1, 282 of maltreatment 272–4, 278, of Joseph Anton Ponsaing 168 280–2, 286 murder and mutiny on the Maltese castellani 65 Dove 268–9 port jurisdiction 260, 263, 265–9, payments 45, 181, 290 271 of Timoteo Rauen 52–3 violation of Tuscan neutrality 261–2 VOC voyages to Asia 126 Crump, William 108 del Nero, Alessandro 265 Crusoe, Robinson 190 Denmark Cuans, William 54, 55 East India Company 16 customary law maritime subsidies 150 Consolato del Mare di Malta 61, 65, see also Copenhagen 68, 69, 78 Deptford Trinity House 112–13, 119 344 Index desertion plunder money 179, 181, 182, and the Act for the Better Regulation 185–8, 189, 191, 192, 193 and Government of Seamen in the sources 177, 178–9 Merchants service (1729) 118, 119 Dutch Republic/Netherlands Captain’s rights 46, 52 Dutch East India Company see VOC for higher wages 51–2, 73, 240, 261, and German shipping to Southern 263 Europe (1630–1700) 143, 144, port jurisdiction 53–4, 257–8, 263–4, 145, 147, 150–5 265 ship names 123 prize entitlement 184 and Spanish military encounters as response to mistreatment 281 246, 247, 250 Desfontaines, Louiche René 205, 208 state regulated companies 15 Dick, John 257–8 voorbijlandvaart 10 Diego, Domingo 246–7, 250 see also Dutch seamen Directie van de Lavantse Handel 129 Dutch seamen discipline cultural stereotypes 22, 40 challenge for expanding European Dutch labour market 125–31, 140, states 305 150, 154–5 constitution of the Duke and Mediterranean experience 25, Dutchess 181 131–40 EIC regulation of Asian seamen 288, and Mediterranean merchant 291–2, 297, 298, 302 contacts 137 English custom and law 107 Mediterranean success 2, 3, 5, 24, French legal codes 95 25, 123–4, 140, 141, 150–1 HCA and Trinity House migration to Copenhagen 169, 170 by-laws 112–13 ‘seamen’s boxes’ 29 of Indian VOC workers 272–4, 275, wage disputes/litigation 35, 39, 137, 278–9, 280–2, 285 139–40, 306 Maltese provision for penalising wages/remuneration 127, 132–5, disobedient sailors 74, 75 154–5 Portuguese recruitment 220, 221–2 Dutchess see Duke and Dutchess Royal Company coral fishermen 201–2 East India Company (EIC) dismissal 45, 51, 75, 130, 184 and Anglo-Chinese tea trade 287, disputes see litigation 289 Docker, Hilton 293, 295, 296, 297, 299 care for Asian seamen 288, 292–7, Docker, William 289, 293 299–302, 303 Dolphin 267, 268, 269 Chinese seamen’s wages 290 Dotterel 135 discipline 288, 291–2, 297, 298, 302 Dove 268–9 finance basis 15 Dover, Thomas 187, 188 land employment of Chinese seamen Duca di Savoia 263–4 298–9, 303 Duke and Dutchess recruitment of Asian seamen 287, chancery master’s report 177, 183–5, 288, 290–1 187–8 East Indies trade crew agreement 177, 179–82 regulated companies 15 events of the voyage 182–3 ship size 12 fairness in the prize division 178, trend to internationalised commerce 193–4 161 pay books 177, 188–92 see also East India Company; VOC Index 345

Eenrum 158, 166, 167, 174 payment modalities 28 Egmont 130 privateering 147, 218, 222, 227, 234 Eguino, Andrés de 249 social welfare institutions 29, 113 EIC see East India Company wage litigation in Italian courts Ell, William 47, 48 31–3, 35–6, 43, 47–9, 50, 51–9 employment contracts and agreements see also British sailors coral fishermen 199–202, 203, 204, English-Dutch relations 144–5, 150–1, 206, 208–10 152, 155 Duke and Dutchess crew enslavement/slaves see slaves/ agreements 179–82 enslavement Dutch collective agreements 130–1 entretenimiento and ventaja 242–4, English law 112–13 248, 251 France 80 Esquadra de las Quatro Villas/Squadron of and ’Northern invasion’ 304 the Four Towns 247–8, 250 payment types 46–7, 69–73, 90 Estates General (1614) 86 private trade 73 ethnic/racial stereotypes 21–3, 40, terms under Maltese law 73–6 297, 310 under the Act for the Better Regulation European maritime culture 275 and Government of Seamen in the European Union 305 Merchants service (1729) 119 Everhard, Cornelis 280 violations of 45–6, 51, 112, 112–13 exchange banks 7 see also wages/remuneration employment/working conditions, Faber, Joop 155 framework for Fabritius, Michael 166–7 goods traded 8–9, 17 Fabritius and Wever 166, 167 long-distance voyages 10–11 fairs 80, 81 mercantilism 14–16 familial skills transmission 218, 219, port characteristics 11–12, 17 226–7 and productivity 7–8 Fayos, Juan de 244 routes/navigation framework 9–11 Fenton, Edward 249 and ship design 12–14, 17 Filippini, Jean-Pierre 50 energy 5–6 finance see capital English consuls Florence 6, 265 in Algiers 56–7 Folckertsz, Simon 131 in Genoa 105 food in Livorno 50–5, 58, 59, 105 agricultural advances 6–7 in Venice 39 Chinese EIC workers in London 292, see also British consuls 293, 295–6, 297 English Levant Company 15 coral fishermen 200 English sailors Spanish galley crews 241 battles with Spanish ships 247, 249 fossil fuel 5 cultural stereotypes 21, 22, 40 France and customary law 35–6, 100–8, 109, African concessions see Royal 113, 117, 120 Company of Africa in English courts 100, 101–2, anti-Dutch alliance with 110–11, 112–17, 120 English 150–1 framework labouring life 8, 9, 15, 16 consular authority in Livorno and fugitives 52, 53–4 Genoa 39–40, 50, 51 Mediterranean success 3–7, 23–4, eighteenth-century shipping 124, 140, 145, 147 growth 2 346 Index

France – continued Mediterranean and North European and German shipping to Southern usage 13–14 Europe (1630–1700) 144–5, 146, Spanish wages and conditions of 150–1 service 240–4, 253–4, 255 international cooperation against Venetian system 24–5 Barbary corsairs 152 Garcês, Henrique 231 mercantilism 15–16 Gauteaume, Luigi 75 see also French maritime law General Registers of Galleys/Registros Francis I (of France) 84, 98 Generales de Galeras 253 Free Trade 116 Genoa free/unfree labour British inns 262 Asian VOC workers 278 British sailors and port jurisdiction cost of mediterranean galleys 14 259–60, 263, 264–8, 269–70 Dutch labour market 125, 150 capital movement 229 Genoese galley service 264 and English maritime custom 105 Portuguese crews 235 European balance of power 124 Spanish galleys 240, 241, 242, and French consular authority 39–40 253, 254 legal reform 37 Venetian maritime economy 25 manpower 30 freight Margheritan coral fishermen 197, Dutch contracts 129, 131, 132, 200–1, 203 135–6, 138 shipbuilding 26–7 Portuguese seamen 218, 227–30 wage disputes 31, 34, 137 rates/charges 70, 71, 151, George 53 153–4, 157 German sailors, cultural stereotypes 22, French maritime law 40 admiralties 82–5, 86, 87, 91–5, 96, German shipping 97, 98 and disguised ships 139 the early middle ages 79–81 historical interest 141, 142 harbour master and port international defence jurisdictions 81–2 negotiations 151–5 and the military/commercial payment/wages 147–51, 154–5 connection 85–8 rise of Hamburg 143, 144, 146, 147, wage disputes in Mediterranean 155–7 courts 34, 37, 39 to South Europe (1630–1700) 143–7 see also Ordonnance de la Marine; Rôles Germany, migration to d’Oléron Copenhagen 169, 170, 171 Frisia 126, 127, 128, 129 Gigli, Domenico 261, 262 Fronde (1648–1653) 87, 98, 99 Giudici del Forestier 31 Fugasse, Pietro 76–7 globalisation see internationality fugitive sailors 51–2, 53–4, 112–13, Gole, Abraham 292, 295, 297, 301 263–4 Gole, Esther 294 Gole, Jr, Abraham 292, 301 Galdeano, Sebastián de 244 Goliath 135, 138 galera capitana 241, 242 Gomes, Estevão 231 galera patrona 242 goods/commodities 8–9, 104, 245 galleys/galley fleets Goodwyn, William 102, 103 British objection to 264, 270 Gotten, William 267 labour status/freedom 14, 25, 240, grain trade 3, 8 241, 253, 254, 264 Grech, Giuseppe 73, 74 Index 347

Greek sailors, cultural stereotypes 22, Hespanha, Antonio Manuel 305 40 Hesse, Elias 279 Green, Charles Dicson 257 High Court of Admiralty (HCA) Grendi, Edoardo 159 and common law courts 36, 109–10 Greves, John 269 and custom 35, 102, 106, 107, 109 Griego, Juan 244 jurisdiction 109–12, 192 Griggy, Andrew 52–3 Mediterranean equivalents 30–1 Grimble Inn 262 Prize Court Papers 160–1, 162, 164, Guayaquil 182–3, 185 169, 170, 171, 173, 175 guilds sailors use/success 44, 101, 102, Hamburg’s trade success 154–5, 113–15, 116, 120, 192 156, 157 as a source on privateering Pontaing and Copenhagen’s Guild of activity 178–9, 194 Captains 160, 163, 165–6, 173 ‘history from below’ 308 Hobson, John 36 Haafner, Jacob 279, 282 Hodden, Thomas 52 Haas 284 Hodges, William 116 Habela, Giuseppe 76 Houmes, Pieter Jacobsz 131 Hamburg Hughes, Charles 23 Dutch relations 150–4 Hull Trinity House 112, 113–14 payments/wages 147–51, 154–5 hulls 12–13 and the success of German shipping human capital 160, 163, 168, 172–5, 308 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 155–7 Hundred Years War 81, 82, 83, 98 as synonym for Hanseatic Hunter, William 293–4 League 142n3 Hyslop, Thomas 293 Hangö Head, Battle of (1714) 13 Hanseatic League Iberian Union 216, 220, 222–3, 236, Hamburg/Dutch Republic 237, 246, 251 relationship/negotiations 150–4 Ibn Madjid, Ahmad 234 interest to German historians 141, illness/injury benefits 45, 74, 97, 113, 142 136, 181, 200, 283, 296–7, 300 payment on German ships 147–50, Indian seamen 154–5 EIC workers/lascars 288, 289, 297, 300 shipping success to Southern Europe see also Indian VOC workers (1630–1700) 143–7, 155–7 Indian VOC workers harbour masters 81–2, 83, 98, 130 assertion of rights 274, 275, 276, Harcourt, Simon 179 277, 281–6 Harris, Henry 53–4 company discipline 272–4, 275, Haves, Benjamin 268 278–9, 280–2, 285 Hayes, John 267 comparison with European VOC HCA see High Court of Admiralty workers 274–5, 277–8, 286 health injury/sickness benefits 45, 74, 97, 113, EIC medical superintendent 293, 136, 181, 200, 283, 296–7, 300 295, 296–7, 302 innovation see technical advances/ see also death; sickness/injury benefits knowledge Heckscher, Eli 14–15 insurance 24, 75, 77, 90, 94 Heers, Jacques 229 international crews Hendrickse, Jacob 132 Duke and Dutchess 180 Henry II (of France) 84 Dutch maritime labour market 125, Henry IV (of France) 85 129, 150 348 Index international crews – continued Jansz, Andries 129–30 English navy restrictions on service Jansz, Jan 128 abroad 104 Jantje 272–4, 278, 280–1, 282 Mediterranean and North European Jefferson, Robert 269 diversity 29–30, 40 Jenkins, Lionel 116 on Spanish ships 239, 252 Jochemsz, Aelbrecht 130 Venetian restrictions on 37–8 Johnson, Edward 268 VOC ships 159, 276, 277, 285 Jones, Richard 189 internationality Jones, William 294 and consular authority 23, 38–40, Jorquera, Francisco 244 49–51, 59–60, 260, 261, 271, 309 Judde de Larivière, Claire 24 crews see international crews judicial evidence, as a historical source foreign wage disputes in Italian courts 309–10 31–3, 35–6, 39, 42, 43, 47–9, 50, jurisdiction 51–60, 306 brawling British sailors 259–60 freight charge debate 151, 154 British mutineers 256, 268–71 global venues for Spanish seamen British sailors assisting Corsican 247–8, 250, 251, 255 rebels 265–8, 269 Hamburg-Dutch anti-piracy deserters 53–4, 257–8, 263–4, 265 negotiations 151–4 French state and regional authorities Italian port jurisdiction and British 81–2, 83–5, 88, 91, 94, 98 sailors 256, 257–71 High Court of the Admiralty 109–12, Joseph Anton Ponsaing 159–60, 161, 192 163, 168–72, 173, 175, 176 modern globalisation challenge 305 Mediterranean shipping 41–2 and national sovereignty abroad modern jurisdiction questions 304–5 38–9, 50, 60, 260, 271, 309 Portuguese global dynamics 215–17, opportunities for sailors’ 30, 39, 230–5 59–60, 305 Royal Company coral fishermen 195, over unemployed British sailors 197, 202–6 261–3, 264–5 use of foreign ships 26, 27, 40, Venetian legal reform 32 252, 307 wage litigation in Livorno 50–5, VOC spheres of operation/ 59, 261 organisation 274, 282–3 Justice, Alexander 105, 106 see also international crews; war Ios, Simon 267 Kadens, Emily 36, 40, 102, 103 Islam/Muslims 3–4, 123, 131, 137, 139, Kendall, Michael 190 207, 234, 240, 273 Ker, William 155 Israel, Jonathan 124, 137–8, 139n79 Keuyt, Jan Jansz 130 Italian language 204 kinship, familial skills transmission Italian sailors 218, 219, 226–7 cultural stereotypes 21, 22, 40 Knights Hospitallers/Order of St John of on foreign ships 40, 252 Malta 61, 62, 65, 66–7, 77 Italy Koelbier, Captain 282, 286 cereal prices 8 Kresse, Walter 147–8 Coral fishermen from 202, 206 Kromsteven, Willem Dircx 128 energy consumption 5, 6 Kussmaul, Anne 168 food production/agriculture 7 Hanseatic trade with 144 La Calle 195, 196, 197, 199, 200, 202, microhistorians 159 204, 206, 208 see also Genoa; Livorno; Venice La Galite 196, 203 Index 349

La Rochelle 84 Mediterranean trade 8 labour markets Lewis, David 110 Dutch 125–31, 140, 150, 154–5 lex mercatoria, and local legislative German migration 149–50, 155, 156 variation 33, 106, 306 impact of war 148–9, 236, 252 Lex Rhodia 65, 106, 306 military/commercial permeability Liscon, Richard 267 27–9, 87, 244–5, 254, 307 literacy 166, 173–4 mobility and migration see migration/ litigation migrants HCA and Trinity Houses 36, Spanish military/commercial 44, 101, 102, 106, 109–17, permeability 236, 244–5, 254, 307 120, 192 Venetian internationality 30 impact of Ordonnance de la Marine in see also recruitment the Marseille admiralty court Laid, Anthony 269 92–4, 95 Lamb, Jonathan 178 see also wage disputes/litigation Lane, Frederic C. 25 Little Lewis 47–9 lascars 275, 278, 286, 288, 289, 297, 300 living standards 16–17 Lashley, Alexander 47–8 Livorno lastgelden 126n14, 129 British sailors and port jurisdiction lateen sails 13, 14, 70n53 256–9, 261–5, 268–70, 271 Laugier, Captain 207 documentary traces 44, 47, 256 law English sailors’ wage disputes 43, Act for the Better Regulation and 47–9, 50–9 Government of Seamen in the foreign consuls 39, 50–1, 59–60, 131, Merchants service (1729) 36, 101, 257–8 103, 117–20, 179 legal system 44–5, 46, 59–60, 105 Act for the Encouragement of Trade to Maltese shipping to 63 America (1708) 188 strategic importance 43–4, 51–2 English HCA application see High support networks 137, 261–2 Court of Admiralty Venetian sailors 261–2 and pan-European lex mercatoria Llanes, Juan de 244 33–5, 306 Llanos, Diego López de 244 and study of the state 309 Llibre del Consolat de Mar 34, 306 Trinity Houses 29, 105, 112, 113–15, loans 7, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75–6, 116, 120 228–9 see also customary law; French London, Chinese seamen in see Chinese maritime law; jurisdiction; wage seamen in London disputes/litigation London Prize Court 178, 192 Lawrence, Richard 267 Louis XIII (of France) 86–7, 98, 99 Lazari, Luigi 77 Louis XIV (of France) 87–8, 98, 150 Lee, Ralph 107 Lübeck 143, 145, 146, 147, 150, Lenche, Thomas (Tomasino) 202 151n52, 154 Lepanto, Battle of (1571) 25, 240n17, Lucassen, Jan 28, 125n12, 126n19, 241 129, 132n43, 156 Levant Luxoro, Emanuelle 198–9, 203, 206, Dutch and English trade 15, 129, 207–8, 209 132, 138–9 European consular authority 39, 59 Madjid, Ahmad Ibn 234 and hanseatic trade 147 Magellan, Fernand 231 and Livorno 44 Malamocco 31 and Maltese shipping 63, 64 Mallea, Francisco 249 350 Index

Malta migration/migrants legal framework 61, 62, 65–7, 68, 69, Chinese seamen in London 77, 78 see Chinese seamen in London litigation 61, 62, 69–77, 78 context for Joseph Anton maritime expansion 62–4, 77 Ponsaing 159–60, 161, 163, Mann, Horace 265 168–72, 173, 175, 176 manning ratio 2, 132, 237–8, 277 Dutch labour market 125–9, 150 Manuel I (of Portugal) 217 and the German maritime labour Maraffi, Pietro 261, 262 market 149–50, 155, 156 Margaret Constance/Constant 31–2, 35 Portuguese agency/self- Margheritan coral fishermen 197, organisation 218, 232, 233, 234 200–1, 203 tacit knowledge 174–5 Marianne 166 military/commercial convergence and Marquiss 182, 184 competition Marseille 84 Dutch and English sailors 27–9 admiralty court of 79, 92–4, 95 France 86–8 coral concessions 195, 196, 197–9, labour market permeability 307 203, 205, 209, 210 Portuguese multifunctionality Cornelis Roelofsz 139 217–18, 222 Maltese shipping to 63 Spanish maritime careers 236–9, Martin, Arthur 54 244–6, 251–2, 254, 307 Martin, Barthelemy 203, 205 war’s impact on German wages 148–9 Martin, J.J. 205 Modelski, George 217 Masson, Paul 203, 205, 209n84, Møller, Bodil 165 210–11 Monarey, John 269 masters of the beach 199, 202, 209 ‘Moor sailors’ 273 masts 12, 13, 14 see also Indian VOC workers Mauro Chefalo, Alexandro 248 Moryson, Fynes 21–3, 27, 40 medical care see sickness/injury benefits Mould, Francis 115 Medici 43–4 Muslims/Islam 3–4, 123, 131, 137, 139, Mediterranean states 207, 234, 240, 273 and multinational fleets and mutinies 256, 268–71, 186, 192 crews 27, 30, 37–8, 40, 150, 307 and the ‘Northern invasion’ see Naples ‘Northern invasion’ energy costs 6 see also Italy; Malta Neapolitan coral fishermen 206–7 Mediterranean trade passports 138 Dutch and English grain exports 3 Spanish maritime recruitment 252 Dutch shipping to see Straatvaart Spanish squadron of 241 German/Hanseatic shipping see Nash, John 115 German shipping nation-states litmus test for European balance of cultural identity/stereotyping 21–3, 40 power 25 methodological nationalism 310 see also Barbary pirates/corsairs see also internationality Meller, John 179, 183–5, 187–8, 193 navies see military/commercial mercantilism 14–16, 49–50, 59, 60, convergence and competition; 86, 156 Royal Navy (British) methodological nationalism 310 navigation micro-macro history relationship coral fishing 205 158–60, 163–4, 177–8, 216, 224 Danish education in 166, 174n53 Index 351

Dutch labour market segments 125, Ochandiano, Nicolás 251–2 128 Ogborn, Miles 159, 163–4 English Navigation Laws (from Order of St John of Malta/Knights 1651) 37, 38n83, 104, 105 Hospitallers 61, 62, 65, 66–7, 77 Mediterranean/Atlantic Ordonnance de la Marine differences 9–11 content of 88, 90–1 Neapolitan coral fishermen 206–7 and English lack of lex 106 neighbourhood effect 174–5 and the evolution of French maritime Nelson 194 law 79, 84, 86, 87, 88, 89, 97, 99 Netherlands see Dutch Republic/ impact 91–4, 95 Netherlands in Italian courts 34, 39, 50, 57 neutrality 139, 144, 145, 150, 151, legal origins of 95–7 155, 156, 182, 261 and Maltese law 66 Noli, Antonio da 231 Ortega, Dick 266, 267 Noorderkwartier 126–7, 128, 129 Osbi, Jacob 259 North Africa Ottoman Empire 8, 25–6, 48, 146, 147, African concessions see Royal 195, 247 Company of Africa Barbary pirates/corsairs 4, 46, 55–6, Pace, Gio Maria 75 131–2, 137, 138–9, 147, 151–4, Palmer, George 47 156, 263 Park, Adam 293, 294 ‘Northern invasion’ passports/safe passage 58–9, 138–40, goods traded 8–9, 17 143 government policy 14–16 Pearson, Michael 275, 286 legal development 33–5, 41, 80, Perez 263 105, 306 Pertreguer, Juan 244 and the national characteristics 21–3 Peter the Great (of Russia) 13 national economic growth and Philip II/I (of Spain/Portugal) 35, prosperity 1, 2, 16–17 219n14, 221, 237, 241 navigation conditions 9–10 Philip III (of Spain) 248 payment levels/modalities 8, 21, 28, Philip IV/III (of Spain/Portugal) 220, 304, 310 246, 251 pitfalls in analysing performance ‘pieces of eight’ 240 3–7, 24, 25–7, 123–4, 140 pilots port facilities/development 11–12, 17 appointment under English law 112 role of Hanseatic shipping 141, internationality on Portuguese 143–7, 150–1 ships 234 ships 12–14, 17 Portuguese self-organisation 215, voyage length 10–11 218, 219, 222–3, 224, 225, 229– Norway, migration to 30, 232, 233 Copenhagen 169, 170, 171 social privileges in Portugal 220–1 Nostra Signora della Guardia e wages/remuneration 48, 49, 70n54, Libertà 263 201, 242, 243, 244 Nuestra Señora de Begoña 183, 189 Pinzón, Martín Alonso 245 Nuestra Señora de la Encarnacion Pinzón, Vincente Yáñez 245 Disengano 183 piracy numeracy 168, 173–4 and crew contracts/agreements 45–6, 131–2, 136, 137 obedience 74, 75, 91, 107, 131, 136, and the Dove mutineers 269 137, 278 English legislation 37, 104, 105 352 Index piracy – continued Dutch voering 135–6 and Hanseatic shipping 147 Maltese canterate 73 imperial power 100, 117–18 personal trade allowances for Spanish in maritime employment sailors 245 framework 8 Portuguese ships/quintalada 228 and national identity 55–6, 138–9 Spanish galley squadrons 242 ‘Northern invasion’ factor 4–5, 24 privateering privateering as 194 commercial/military labour markets Spanish crown/commercial 27, 307 relationship 254 and crew contracts/agreements 136, Spanish labour market flexibility 245 137 Piri Reis Map 245 and the defence of Portuguese ships Pisa, Sea Consuls of 44, 51, 55, 57 218, 222 Pitt, William (the Younger, 1759–1806) Duca di Savoia 263–4 287, 289n10 and imperial power 100 plague 81, 98 Nostra Signora della Guardia e Libertà Pliego, Martin Ruiz de 244 263 ploezerscasie 272–4, 276, 280–1 as piracy 194 plunder money 179, 181, 182, 185–8, profit sharing contracts 90 189, 191, 192, 193 see also Duke and Dutchess Ponsaing, Joseph Anton privileged credit 45, 57–8 eventful life of 158, 164–8 Prize Court Papers (of the English High human capital/occupational status Court of Admiralty) 160–1, 162, context 161, 163, 168, 164, 169, 170, 171, 173, 175 172–5, 176 productivity 1–2, 7–8, 25, 132, 173, migration/mobility 159–60, 161, 275, 277 163, 168–72, 173, 175, 176 promotion, and impact on division of sources for 160–1 spoils 184, 191 value of 161–4 Prost, William 269 Pope, John 58, 59 prostitution 296 Porteghil, Robert 269 Protestant-Catholic antagonism 4, 84 Porto 215n1, 225, 229, 231 prouiers 201, 203 ports 2, 3, 8, 11–12, 14, 17, 64–5, 137, Provençal coral fishermen 197, 200–1, 261–2 202–3, 204, 205, 206, 208, 209, see also jurisdiction 210–11 Portuguese sailors Prussia 150, 157 EIC workers 297 Puerto, Gasper Sanchez del 244 global dynamics 215–17, 230–5 as investors 223–30 racial/ethnic stereotypes 21–3, 40, 297, and the logistics of overseas 310 expansion 215–23 Rada, Pedro de 248 shipping growth 2 Rainbow/Black Rider 123, 138 see also Iberian Union ransoms 75, 137, 183 Portuguese War of Restoration rations/food provision 200, 241, 292, (1640–1668) 233 293, 295–6, 297 Postillion 132 Rauen, Timoteo 52–3 Pozzo di Borgo, Laurent 204 Reade, David 257–8 Priaroggia, Lelio 262, 263 recruitment private trade allowance Duke and Dutchess 180–1, 182 Corsican coral fishermen 209–10 Dutch labour market 125–31 Index 353

Eastern/Asian sailors on European centrality to French maritime law 79 ships 234, 276, 287, 288, 290–1 and Dutch law 35, 136 English/British navy 28, 104–5, 117, and English custom and law 35, 106, 118, 265, 268 107, 108, 113, 120 French classes 87 growth into jugements d’Oléron Little Lewis 47–8 80–1 port support/credit networks 261–3 legal origins of Ordonnance de la Portuguese state policy 218, 219–22, Marine 95, 96, 98 234–5 and Llibre del Consolat de Mar 34 rules in the French Ordonnance de la and local legislative variation 306 Marine 90 Roman Catholicism see Catholicism/ Spanish 238–9, 240–1, 244–5, 246, Catholics 252, 254 rootlessness 10–11 Venetian 28n34, 30 Rotterdam 127, 129, 130 Rediker, Marcus 42, 49, 101, 113, Royal Company of Africa 116, 117 contestation of company norms 197, Registros Generales de Galeras/General 199, 206–10, 211 Registers of Galleys 253 employment contracts 199–202, 203, religion 204, 206, 208–10 Catholicism and technical employment policy (on nationality) advances 6 197, 202–6 and coral fishing 207 history of African concessions 195–7 French Wars of (1562–1598) 84, significance of coral fishing 197–9 85, 99 Royal Navy (British) Mediterranean fragmentation 3–4, effectiveness against piracy/ 123, 137 privateers 4 multireligious participation in Maltese enforcement of justice 55, 259n10, shipping 62 263–4, 265, 268–71 prayer on Dutch ships 131 recruitment 28, 104–5, 117, 118, Protestant-Catholic antagonism 4, 265, 268 84 Rubio de Vergara, Lorenzo 250 ships’ names 123 Russel Galera 52–3 Rémuzat, Gabriel 208, 209 Russia 13 rendue/reckonings 199–200, 208–9 Rutherford, Robert 259 repairing vessels 262 Retallick, James 116 sails 13 Rhodes 62n4, 65, 80, 106 St Andrew’s Cross (coral fishing Ribeira das Naus shipyard 217 technique) 205 Ribera, Diego de la 248–9 St Helena, Chinese seamen 288, 289, Richard Galley 265–8, 269 298–9, 302, 303 Richelieu, Cardinal 86, 87, 88, 99 St Jan (wage levels) 131, 133, 134 Riemsdijk, Jeremias van 277 St Paul 136 Rigal, Giovanni 75 Salamander 129 rigging 13 Salinas, Antonio de 246, 250 Robertson Bosman, Andrew 52 Sammut, Antonio 75 Roelofsz, Cornelis 139–40 Sanchez del Puerto, Gasper 244 Rogers, Woodes 178, 179, 180–1, 182–3, sanitary rules in French ports 81, 82, 185, 186, 187, 190, 191, 192 83, 94, 98 Roleeu, Evert Claesz 130 Sant, Margarita 73 Rôles d’Oléron Santa Croce e la Madonna del Soccorso 70 354 Index

Santa Maria 264 and wages 28–9, 49, 132–4, 148, 173, Santos 249 239, 242–3, 251 Saxony 157 and workforce 23, 26, 28, 103, 173–5, scale economies 2, 7, 8 303, 308 Scotland 169, 170 slaves/enslavement Scott, John 280–1 British abolition of slavery ‘seamen’s boxes’ 29 (1807) 299 self-organisation galley crews 14, 25, 240, 241, 253, Portuguese global dynamics 215–17, 254, 264 230–5 Portuguese trade 228, 232–3 Portuguese maritime logistics 215–23 of prize ships 8, 56, 75, 137 Portuguese shipping investment slave ships - Western Star 55–9 223–30 smart money 178, 181 and post-globalisation collaboration Smetza, Susannah 292 310 smuggling theory of 217 Asian and Chinese sailors 290 Selkirk, Alexander 182, 190–1, 192 coral fishing 199, 206–8, 209, Sella, Domenico 26 210, 211 Senbrocche, John 267 Portuguese ships 231–2, 233 serfdom 149, 150 Richard Galley 265–8, 269 Shadwell 292, 294, 295, 297, 301, 302 social protection/welfare 28, 29, 113 Shelvocke, George 178, 192–3 social reform movement in Britain ship design 2, 12–14, 17 299–301, 303 ship identity 58–9, 138–9, 138–40, 143 Sólis, João Dias de 231 shipbuilding Spain Italian crisis 26–7 energy prices 6 participation of Portuguese sailors fifteenth-century trade growth 2 217, 218, 220, 224, 225–6, see also Spanish mariners 227, 232 Spanish mariners Russian galley fleet 13 global context for individual careers Sicily 9, 62, 66, 138, 206 236, 246–51, 255 see also Trapani/Trapanois military/commercial convergence sickness/injury benefits 45, 74, 97, and competition 236–9, 244–6, 113, 136, 181, 200, 283, 251–2, 254, 307 296–7, 300 wages and service conditions 236, Sinnot, Lawrence 269 239–44, 253–4, 255 skills and occupational status welfare institutions 29 Chinese seamen in London 303 Spanish Netherlands 138 coral fishermen 201–2 Spanish-Dutch war familial skills transmission 218, 219, and Dutch trade 138, 139 226–7 and German trade 143 free status see free/unfree labour Sphera Mundi 138 and human capital 160, 163, 168, spices 8–9, 228 172–5, 176, 308 Spinnata, Bartholomeo 70, 71 military/mercantile differences 28–9 Squadron of the Four Towns/Esquadra de Northern seamen in the las Quatro Villas 247–8, 250 Mediterranean 23 Stamboleene 108 promotion and prize shares 184, 191 standard of living 16–17 seafaring law 103 Starkey, David J. 178, 180, 186, 193 and Venetian Arsenale 26 Steckley, George 101–2, 113–14 Index 355

Steele, Richard 190, 191 tonnage Stella Tramontana see Western Star manning ratio 2, 132, 222, 237–8, 277 Sten, Viggo 165 optimal 12 storm money 178, 179, 183, 185, 191 trade goods 8–9, 104, 245 Straatvaart tramping 10 Dutch labour market for 125–31 transatlantic trade experiences of Dutch seamen 131–40 armament requirements 222 and German shipping to Southern and European ports 2–3, 81 Europe (1630–1700) 143, 144, historical perspectives 124, 140 145, 147, 150–5 navigation 9–10 ‘Northern invasion’ 2, 3, 24, 25, and the ‘Northern invasion’ 9 123–4, 140, 141, 150–1 Spanish 237, 238, 240, 245–6, 247, Stradling, Thomas 190 248, 249, 252, 253, 254, 307 sugar 9, 228, 296 sugar 9 Sunne 111 vessels 12, 13 support networks 137, 261–3, 310 Trapani/Trapanois 54, 63, 206, 207 Susanna 284 ‘Trees, The’/Boompjes, De 130 Sweden 16, 145, 150, 169, 170 Tribunale degli Armamenti 62, 78 Sybrants, Anneken 137 Trinity Houses 29, 105, 112, 113–15, 116, 120 tacit knowledge 174–5, 227n34 Trivellato, Francesca 33 tartana 70 Tunis taverns/inns 48, 52, 136, 193, and Barbary pirates 139, 152, 153 257–60, 262 and French coral fishing 196, 197, taxes 4–5, 15, 76, 81, 85, 189, 201, 198, 202, 203–4, 205, 206–7 207, 220 Turkish empire see Ottoman Empire tea duty 287 Tuscany see Livorno tea trade 287, 289 technical advances/knowledge Uceda y Salzedo, Rodrigo de 250 agriculture 6–7 Ugaldo, Pedro 244 enabling long-distance voyages 10 unemployed sailors 148–9, 261–3 English and Dutch 24 unfree/free labour see free/unfree labour international information Unger, Richard 120, 132n43, 156 exchange 30 Unicorn 123, 135 and the maritime labour Union of Arms 251–2 market 308–9 United Provinces see Dutch Republic/ Portuguese agency 216, 218, 219, Netherlands 226–7, 231 Unity 136, 138 St Andrew’s Cross (coral fishing Universidad de Mareantes 29 technique) 205 urban fairs 80, 81 textile industry 8 usage The Hope 133 codification 37–8, 40 The Rooster 132 consuetude 103, 106–8, 109, 117, 120 The Sower 135 defining 36, 102–3 Theodor I (von Neuhoff, of Corsica) Italian courts 32, 35–6, 306 266, 267 national variation 33–5 Thirty Years’ War (1618–1649) 86n32, Usher, Abbott Payson 237 87, 245, 246, 251, 252 Thompson, E.P. 101, 102, 119, 120 V/Balgomera, Carlos de 244 Toledo, Fadrique de 251 Vado 264 356 Index vagrant sailors 264–5, 301 Wadden Islands 126, 127, 129 Van Aitzema, Lieuwe 151–2, 153, 154 wage disputes/litigation Van Daelhem, Johan 132 British rights under 1729 Act 119 Van den Broecke, Bernard 136–7 and consular authority 23, 38–40, Van der Haghen, Steven 123, 138 49–51, 59–60, 261 Van der Linden, Marcel 309 and contract/payment types 46–7, Van der Woude, Ad 126–7 49, 69–71 Van Gelder, Roelof 159 customary law 31, 32, 34–8, 40, 60, Van Riemsdijk, Jeremias 277 101, 107, 117–19 Van Royen, P.C. 124, 126, 127n21, 129 Duke and Dutchess prize money Van Zanden, Jan Luiten 40 division 177, 178, 179, 181, 184, Vanbrugh, Carleton 185, 187 185–8, 191–4 Velasco, Luis de 251 Dutch ships/sailors 35, 39, 137, Vella, Andrew 66–7 139–40, 306 Veltensz, Sander 128 English sailors in Italian courts 31–3, Venice 43, 47–9, 50, 51–9 Cinque Savi alla Mercanzia 36–7, 39 French law 34, 37, 39, 93–4 commercial decline and the ‘northern HCA and Trinity Houses 35, 36, invasion’ 2, 25–6, 124 110–16 crew composition and wage Indian VOC workers 285 regulations 37–8 Livorno’s legal system 44–5, 46, and foreign consuls 39 59–60 galley system 13, 24–5 Malta 61, 62, 69, 70–1, 73, 74–5, labour market 28n34, 30 76–7, 78 Maltese destination 63 Rebecca 54–5 Northern operational support types of 30–3 2, 307 as useful study 42 port access via a camel 12 wages/remuneration use of naturalised foreign ships 26, 27 Chinese EIC workers 290 Venetian sailors in Livorno 261–2 coral fishermen 199–200, 201, 208–10 wage litigation 31–2, 34, 35–6 death benefits 181, 290 ventaja and entretenimiento 242–4, 248, and desertion 51–2, 73, 261, 263 251 Dutch levels 127, 132–5, 154–5 Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie see evolution from shareholders to VOC wage-earners 41, 47, 49, 307 Vespini, Niccolò 57–8 Hanseatic ships 147–50, 154–5 Vespucci, Amerigo 231 and increased standards of living Vila do Conde 224–9 16–17 Villarobledo, Alonso Jiménez 244 Indian VOC workers 277, 285 Vinta, Paolo 45 Portuguese seamen’s wage scheme VOC (Vereenigde Oostindische 227–8 Compagnie/Dutch East India private trade allowance see private Company) trade allowance finance basis 15 privileged credit 45, 57–8 international crews 159, 276, 277, sickness/injury benefits 45, 74, 285 97, 113, 136, 181, 200, 283, recruitment 126, 128 296–7, 300 see also Indian VOC workers skills and occupational status voering 135–6 28–9, 49, 132–4, 148, 173, 239, von Neuhoff, Theodor 266, 267 242–3, 251 Index 357

Spanish levels 239–44, 248, 251, water sheriffs (waterschout) 130, 140 253–4, 255 welfare and the success of the ‘Northern sailors’ role in economic prosperity invasion’ 21, 28, 310 16–17 types of payment 46–7, 69–73, 90 social protection 28, 29, 113 Venetian payment terms 38 Welwood, William 103, 106, 108 Walker, Richard 268 West Frisia 126, 127, 128, 129 Walmer Castle 288, 290 Western Star 55–9 Wang-Y-Tang 294–5 White Rooster 136 war Wilberforce, William 299 and Dutch trade 138, 139, 154 Williams, Glyndwr 193 and French port authority and trade Williams, Nicholas 268 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 98 Wilson, Charles 15 funding via trade 15 wine trade 8, 80, 81, 245 galley use 13, 14 women, as shipowners 224–5 and Hanseatic competitiveness 143, wood 144–5, 146, 148–9, 150–1, 155, 156 as energy source 5, 6 labour market impact 148–9, as trade goods 8 236, 252 Woone, Hugh 107–8 and Portuguese trade routes 233 Wright, Fortunatus 261 and Venetian shipbuiding 25–6 War of Palatine Succession (Nine Years Xeberras, Gusmano 74–5 War, 1688–1697) 146 Warnaertsz, Jan 136 Zaccariaci, Francesco 262 Wars of Religion (France, Zeeland 127, 129, 130, 152 1562–1598) 84, 85, 99 Zorita, Baltasar de 244