Title: Education as an Ethnic Defence Strategy: The Case of the Iraqi Disputed Territories Declaration Submitted by Kelsey Jayne Shanks to the University of Exeter as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Politics, October 2013. This thesis is available for Library use on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. I certify that all material in this thesis which is not my own work has been identified and that no material has previously been submitted and approved for the award of a degree by this or any other University. Kelsey Shanks ................................................................................. 1 Abstract The oil-rich northern districts of Iraq were long considered a reflection of the country with a diversity of ethnic and religious groups; Arabs, Turkmen, Kurds, Assyrians, and Yezidi, living together and portraying Iraq’s demographic makeup. However, the Ba’ath party’s brutal policy of Arabisation in the twentieth century created a false demographic and instigated the escalation of identity politics. Consequently, the region is currently highly contested with the disputed territories consisting of 15 districts stretching across four northern governorates and curving from the Syrian to Iranian borders. The official contest over the regions administration has resulted in a tug-of-war between Baghdad and Erbil that has frequently stalled the Iraqi political system. Subsequently, across the region, minority groups have been pulled into a clash over demographic composition as each disputed districts faces ethnically defined claims. The ethnic basis to territorial claims has amplified the discourse over linguistic presence, cultural representation and minority rights; and the insecure environment, in which sectarian based attacks are frequent, has elevated debates over territorial representation to the height of ethnic survival issues. The existing literature and research on the region focuses heavily on the governance outcomes and little has been written about the impact of heightened identity politics on the everyday lives of citizens. It is in this respect that the thesis examines the evolution of the education system post 2003. Drawing on over 50 interviews with regional education officials and community representatives, the thesis presents the impact of amplified ethno- politics on the reconstruction of education in Iraq. The research provides the first academic exploration into education in the region, exploring the significance of cultural reproduction and the link between demands for ethnically specific education, societal security and the wider political contestation over the territory. 2 Acknowledgements This project seeks to explore the role of education within the ethnically contested territories in Iraq. The project would not have been possible without the cooperative nature of the education actors throughout the disputed territories who gave their time so freely, and those individual NGO workers, journalists and civil society activists who went out of their way to aid the project with translation, introductions and general support. I must also thank my supervisor, Mick Dumper, for his guidance and support throughout the past four years. His valuable feedback on my written work has encouraged me to have confidence in my own ability. The research project would not have been possible without the support of the ESRC funded Conflict in Cities team. A special thank you to all colleagues throughout the Conflict in Cities project, the research environment has allowed me to contextualise my research in a manner otherwise impossible. The project has provided me with an understanding of the workings of other divided societies and introduced me to the wide variety of lenses through which ethnic conflict can be examined: architecture, sociology and education. Craig Larkin, Anita Bakshi, Giulia Carabelli, Lynda Rootamm, Monika Halkort and Konstantin Kastrissianakis have managed to broaden my horizons and interests and for that I am most grateful. Wendy Pullan, Liam O’Dowd, James Anderson, Lefkos Kyriacou and Max Gwiazda have also provided valuable comments at various stages of the research. But particularly my thanks must go to Karl O’Connor, whose guidance, encouragement and friendship has been invaluable to me over the last five years. My gratitude also must be extended to the United Nations Assistance Mission in Iraq, in particular Danielle Bell, whose encouragement, support and interest in my findings has served to make this research not only possible but also have a real world influence in the field of education practice in the disputed territories. Finally, this thesis is dedicated to my family and friends for their unbelievable patience and support. Carys Evans, for her kindness and my mother and sister 3 stepping in when I have needed to travel. But most of all, this thesis would not have been possible without the love and encouragement of my beautiful children, Mia and Kai, and my incredible husband, Steve. Thank you! 4 Table of Contents 1. Introduction 1.1 Overview........................................................................................................15 1.2 Conceptual Framework..................................................................................17 1.2.1 Ethnic Identity...................................................................................19 1.2.2 Education, Conflict and Societal Security........................................28 1.2.3 Securitisation....................................................................................38 1.3 Rational..........................................................................................................42 1.3.1 Research Question One...................................................................42 1.3.2 Research Question Two...................................................................43 1.3.3 Research Question Three................................................................43 1.3.4 Research Question Four..................................................................44 1.4 Contributions to the literature.........................................................................44 1.5 Thesis Structure.............................................................................................45 2. Methodology 2.1 Overview.......................................................................................................50 2.2 Pilot study......................................................................................................51 2.3 Interview methodology..................................................................................54 2.4 Participant selection......................................................................................59 2.5 Restrictions to data collection.......................................................................61 2.6 Ethical Issues................................................................................................63 2.7 Data analysis................................................................................................64 2.8 Data verification............................................................................................65 3. Iraqi Context and Identity 3.1Introduction....................................................................................................67 3.2 Ethnopolitics, the Ba’ath era and the Disputed Territories..........................68 5 3.2.1. Kirkuk...............................................................................................69 3.2.2. Kurdish Jerusalem...........................................................................71 3.2.3 Turkmen Homeland.........................................................................73 3.2.4 Indigenous Arab and Christian populations.....................................76 3.2.5 Article 140........................................................................................76 3.2.6 Ninewa.............................................................................................78 3.2.7 Minority Groups................................................................................80 3.3 Operation Freedom, Security and Identity in the disputed territories...........81 3.3.1 Operation Iraqi Freedom’s fortification of ethnic identity.................81 3.3.2 Current Context: Identity and security in the disputed territories....82 3.4 Concluding Remarks......................................................................................93 4. Iraqi Education through a Societal Security Lens 4.1 Introduction....................................................................................................94 4.2 The role of Education in Iraqi Arab nationalism............................................96 4.3 Societal security through the new constitution?...........................................108 4.4 Constitutional Promises and the Legacy of Arabisation: The Reconstruction of Education..............................................................................118 4.4.1 Turkmen schools and the role of Identity......................................120 4.4.2 Assyrian schools and the role of Identity......................................125 4.5 Societal Security or Pedagogy?..................................................................133 4.6 Inferences from the findings and concluding remarks...............................138