VYTAUTO DIDŽIOJO UNIVERSITETAS Inga

VYTAUTO DIDŽIOJO UNIVERSITETAS ŠVIETIMO AKADEMIJA KALBINIO IR MENINIO UGDYMO PROGRAMŲ GRUPĖ Inga Griauslytė ŽODINĖS IRONIJOS VERTIMAS ANGLIŠKAME „DIEVŲ MIŠKO“ VERTIME

(lietuvių kalba)

Bakalauro baigiamasis darbas

Anglų filologijos studijų programa, valstybinis kodas 612X13008

Pedagogikos studijų kryptis

Vadovas (-ė) Lekt. Dr. Gerda Mazlaveckienė______

(Moksl. laipsnis, vardas, pavardė) (Parašas) (Data)

Apginta Doc. Dr. Žydronė Kolevinskienė ______(Programų grupės vadovas) (Parašas) (Data)

Vilnius, 2021

VYTAUTAS MAGNUS UNIVERSITY EDUCATION ACADEMY LANGUAGE AND ART EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAMME GROUP

Inga Griauslytė

TRANSLATION OF VERBAL IRONY IN ENGLISH TRANSLATION OF FOREST OF THE GODS BA THESIS

Academic advisor: Lect. Dr. Gerda Mazlaveckienė

Vilnius, 2021

VYTAUTO DIDŽIOJO UNIVERSITETAS

ŠVIETIMO AKADEMIJA

Anglų filolgijos studijų programa

STUDENTĖS Ingos Griauslytės (vardas, pavardė)

PARENGUSIO BAIGIAMĄJĮ BAKALAURO DARBĄ

Žodinės ironijos vertimas angliškame „Dievų miško“ vertime

(darbo tema)

DEKLARACIJA

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Studentas...... (Parašas) (vardas, pavardė)

CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ...... 6

INTRODUCTION ...... 7

1. THEORETICAL UNDERPINNINGS OF THE CONCEPT OF IRONY ...... 9

1.1. Definition and types of irony ...... 9

1.2. Verbal and situational irony ...... 10

2. TRANSLATION...... 12

2.1. Translation strategies ...... 12

2.2. Irony in translation ...... 17 2.2.1. Strategies for translating irony ...... 18 2.2.2. Issues in translating irony ...... 21

3. ANALYSIS OF VERBAL IRONY IN “FOREST OF THE GODS” BY BALYS SRUOGA ...... 24

3.1. Research methodology ...... 24

3.2. Application of translation strategies of irony...... 25 3.2.1. ST irony becomes TT irony with literal translation ...... 25 3.2.2. ST irony is enhanced in TT with some word/expression ...... 30 3.2.3. ST ironic innuendo becomes more restricted and explicit in TT ...... 31 3.2.4. ST irony becomes TT sarcasm ...... 31 3.2.5. ST ironic ambiguity has only one of the two meanings translated in TT ...... 32 3.2.6. ST irony replaced by a “synonym” in TT with no two possible interpretations ...... 34 3.2.7. Ironic ST completely deleted in TT ...... 34 3.2.8. Statistical summary of the research ...... 36

CONCLUSIONS...... 38

SUMMARY IN LITHUANIAN ...... 39

REFERENCES ...... 41

SOURCES...... 42

APPENDICIES ...... 43

ABSTRACT

The aim of this research paper is to analyze cases of the verbal irony which were collected from the novel Forest of the Gods by Balys Sruoga which was translated from Lithuanian to English according to translation strategies for verbal irony. To reach this goal, the objectives of this research paper were: analyze the cases of verbal irony collected from the novel Forest of the Gods by Balys Sruoga and their equivalents in the English translation of the same novel; to determine which translation strategies were used for translating the verbal irony during the process of the translation; analyzing what impact have used translation strategies on the verbal irony and its translation to English. During this research, 56 cases of verbal irony were collected from the novel. The results of this research have shown: 1. The cases of verbal irony has been collected from the Lithuanian version of the novel Forest of the Gods and their equivalents in English. They have been analyzed and assigned to specific translation strategies presented and suggested by M. Mateo; 2. Translation is a linguistic activity the purpose of which is to replace a written message or statement of the source language by the same message or statement in the target language by its closest equivalent. The process of translation developed since there was an interaction of two cultures and languages. In the purpose of translation, equivalence is the main issue. In order to preserve the meaning and the context less altered, different translation strategies are applied; 3. Effect on the verbal irony has been measured and presented in the analysis. The results suggest that the verbal irony in English mostly is preserved, but there are some cases in which the verbal irony disappears in Target Language during the process of translation;

INTRODUCTION

Irony is a powerful weapon in literature and life. Sometimes the use of irony in our ordinary lives can give us strength to look at horrible or unfortunate events from the different angle and provide us with hope. During World War II one of the most intellectual Lithuanians Balys Sruoga was incarcerated in Stutthof’s concentration camp. We cannot imagine what horrible experience he must have suffered there. After the end of the war he was released from the prison and wrote memoirs which he named after the place - Forest of the Gods which was called by this name by people who lived nearby. In his memoirs he told the world what terrible events he had to witness. This novel is mostly known for its subtle irony when the author is telling stories about horrors of the prison. In 2005 the novel was translated by the author’s relative Aušrinė Byla. This research paper analyzes translation of verbal irony and it is relevant to the studies of languages to do that because translation as such is important to society as it is the only way to get familiar with other cultures and be able to understand and communicate with people from all around the world. The other aspect of this research paper which is important is the ability to translate stylistic devices, such as irony from one language to another during translation of fiction and non-fiction literature. Many scholars, such as Kamyanets (2017) or Sukmaningrum (2018), etc. have studied this linguistic branch and offered their insights into what is translation as a phenomenon and what strategies could be used in the process of the translation. This paper analyses how verbal irony is transferred from one language to another and what translation strategies were used in order to do that. This novel is analyzed in most Lithuanian schools on the basis of the historical events, their perception from the author’s point of view and to get familiar with stylistic devices in Lithuanian. Similar researches have been done by other scholars, but it was concentrated on the source language, in this case Lithuanian or only target language, English. The significance of this research paper is that the same text is analyzed and compared with each other even though they are written in different languages. The importance of carrying out studies of translation because it is of vital importance to spread nation’s literature worldwide and people cannot do that if it is unknown for them how to properly translate country’s literature. The main reason for choosing translation of verbal irony was the fact that irony is a difficult stylistic device to recognize and use because of its power towards people’s perception of the text. Results of this study could be used in further translations of literature of Lithuania’s writers. So, the research question which is to be answered in the present study is: how is verbal irony transferred from the Lithuanian language into English in the novel Forest of the Gods by Balys Sruoga (translated into English by Aušrinė Byla in 2005).

The aim of this research paper is to investigate the translation strategies used to translate the verbal irony in Balys Sruoga’s memoirs Forest of the Gods. To reach this aim the following objectives have been raised: 1. To analyze the cases of verbal irony in the novel Forest of the Gods in Lithuanian and identify their equivalents in English; 2. To determine the type and frequency of the translation strategies used translating the selected cases of verbal irony into English; 3. To analyze the effect of used translation strategies on the verbal irony and its translation to English; The Scope of the Research: Data for the analysis has been collected from the memoirs Forest of the Gods written by Balys Sruoga after World War II in 1957 and translated by Aušrinė Byla in 2005. 56 cases of the verbal irony were collected from the novel. Despite a careful search, this list of verbal irony analyzed in the paper should make no claim to being exhaustive due to the possibility of human error. The Methods of the Research: The research methods that were used in this Research: • Qualitative method – used to analyze how the verbal irony was translated in the novel Forest of the Gods according to gathered theoretical information; • Content analysis – used to make replicable and valid inferences by interpreting and coding textual material from the novel Forest of the Gods; • Quantitative method - used for statistical presentation of the cases of verbal irony in the novel Forest of the Gods. The Structure of the Research: The BA thesis consists of an abstract, introduction, theoretical and practical parts, conclusions, summary, and list of references. The introduction presents the research questions, the aim, the scope, the objectives, the significance and relevance of the research and research methods. The theoretical part deals with explanation what is irony, verbal irony and presents translation strategies. The practical part deals with the analysis of translation strategies that were used while translating verbal irony from Lithuanian to English.

1. THEORETICAL UNDERPINNINGS OF THE CONCEPT OF

IRONY

1.1. Definition and types of irony Irony is a literary device that can be described in a few unique manners and its idea has been dealt with from alternate points of view by various researchers. Subsequently, giving a precise and careful meaning of irony isn't indisputable. Here are a few instances of the meaning of irony introduced by researchers. Muecke characterizes irony as “ambiguous, unstable and multiform” (1969, p.7) and Cutler (1974, p.117), drawing upon the conventional meaning of irony, in her article On Saying What You Mean without Meaning What You Say expresses that an unexpected articulation passes on a signifying “opposite,” “converse” or “reverse” of its exacting partner and that the speaker communicates this “by superimposing a certain intonation contour which signals to his hearers that the utterance is intended to be ironic.” And as Linda Hutcheon depicts irony as “the mode of the unsaid, the unheard, [and] the unseen” (1994, p.9), Corbett and Connors (1999, p. 379) classify irony as a trope, meaning that it is a figurative language variety that incorporates “a deviation from the ordinary and principal signification” of an expression. Abrams in his A Glossary of Literary Terms (1985, pp. 97-100) classifies nine types and subtypes of irony: verbal, structural, stable, unstable, Socratic, dramatic, tragic, cosmic, and Romantic. Also, he presented some comments on a few similar notions (sarcasm, etc.). While Abrams presented nine types and subtypes of irony, Cutler (1974, p. 119) distinguished only two classes of irony: “spontaneous” and “provoked”. In spontaneous irony “the speaker is expressing what he/she means with no reference to previous context or conversation”. The expressions of this category must meet the “Approbation Condition” in the literal understanding. Whereas when using provoked irony, the speaker recaps back to his listeners something which the audience has previously alleged or held, with ironical intonation and represents that the previous claim has been misleading (Cutler1974, p. 119). According to Cutler, the “Approbation Condition” can also be applied to provoked irony. What must be understood when talking about irony is that there is no particular separation. Lars Elleström (2002) tries to explain this phenomenon in his book Divine Madness: On Interpreting Literature, Music, and The Visual Arts by claiming that irony has been classified using critical means and that numerous definitions overlap and interfere with each other, so it is ineffective to try and gather all the subtypes of irony in one general system. Despite this, Elleström has reached successful final results and not only found, but also defined various classes. Irony is a term holding many different

interpretations and varied types as well as subtypes, all defined by linguists from the Socrates era up to the modern times.

1.2. Verbal and situational irony If a chef shouts “Oh great!” after burning the prepared food, he or she is using verbal irony. According to Elleström (2002), verbal irony, synonymous to rhetorical irony, is a strong opposition between the literal meaning and the expressed meaning. Likewise, Abrams states in his Glossary that “the meaning and evaluations may be subtly qualified rather than simply reversed, and the clues to the ironic counter-meanings under the literal statement may be oblique and unobtrusive” (1985, p. 135). This may clarify the misguided judgment among different researchers and scientists, their works, which sometimes incited debates. They were less compelled to communicate their fierce thoughts, which incited more reader to analyze their work. Verbal irony can be found in certain meanings of mockery, and on account of that their definitions can even be covering sooner or later. Kelley Griffith gives an unequivocal clarification of this in her book Writing Essays about Literature “Verbal irony in its most bitter and destructive form becomes sarcasm, in which the speaker condemns people by pretending to praise them” (Griffith, 2010, pp. 61-62). She differentiates two types of verbal irony as well: understatement and overstatement. Understatement restrains the nature of something, whereas overstatement portrays it in an embroidered manner (Griffith, 2010). The notion of verbal irony is also defined in Deirdre Wilson’s research paper The Pragmatics of Verbal Irony: Echo or Pretense? in which she examines the treatment of verbal irony in two different ways: “The first treats irony as an echoic use of language in which the speaker tacitly dissociates herself from an attributed utterance or thought. The second treats irony as a type of pretense in which the speaker “makes as if” to perform a certain speech act, expecting her audience to see through the pretense and recognize the mocking or critical attitude behind it” (Wilson 2006, p. 1). Wilson additionally demonstrates that the two different ways believe unexpected articulations to be a goal to feature the differentiation between a portrayal of the world that the speaker is passing on and the manner in which everything really is. Abrams (1985, p. 97) brought up that verbal irony, which was traditionally ordered as one of the figures of speech, is an articulation whose suggested significance stands out extraordinarily from the implying that is communicated remotely. The unexpected articulation commonly contains the away from of an individual's disposition or assessment, however with suggestion in the general way of discourse and circumstance that the speaker passes on an altogether different, and more often than not totally differentiating mentality or assessment. Situational irony is a distinction between what is expected and what actually happens, dealing with unforeseen and irrational situations. This type of irony is found in situations when one feels that

everything stands against them, or to put in another way, when the unexpected happens. (Izaias, 2011). Elleström, while characterizing the sorts of irony, specifies another: situational theory. Infrequently called irony of events or practical irony, Elleström outlinesit as “a situation where the outcome is incongruous with what was expected, but it is also more generally understood as a situation that includes contradictions or sharp contrast” (Elleström, 2002, p. 78).. To give better comprehension, Elleström gives an example of someone who steps aside to dodge the water splashed around by a wet dog, and accidentally stumbles into a swimming pool. Besides, while examining the meaning of situational hypothesis, Elleström gave a couple subtypes of it:

• Dramatic/Tragic Irony

Elleström accepts that while the idea of dramatic irony is considered by numerous researchers as an equivalent word to tragic irony, there still have been a rare sorts of people who looked to make a differentiation between the two. To prove his assertion, he composes that “it is sometimes suggested that tragic irony is dramatic irony in tragedies” (Elleström, 2002, p. 79). Accordingly, Abrams (1985, p. 99) considers dramatic irony to be as though it contains a circumstance in a play or some other type of story in which information on conditions, present, past or future, are shared by the writer and the crowd or readers – however which a character or characters are unconscious of.

• Cosmic irony

Cosmic irony is brought about by a heavenly impact, for example, God or Fate. In his Glossary, Abrams characterizes it as though cosmic irony is ascribed to artistic works in which a heavenly nature, or destiny, is spoken to as controlling occasions to lead the hero to bogus expectations, just to disappoint and deride them (Abrams, 1997). Along these lines, inestimable incongruity might be classified "irony of God" or even "irony of Fate", as destiny may likewise be a reason for dramatization throughout everyday life or a part of a character.

• Romantic irony Romantic irony is another sort of irony that was first presented by Friedrich Schlegel just as other German journalists in the late eighteenth – mid-nineteenth century. Abrams characterizes it as a sort utilized “to designate a mode of dramatic or narrative writing in which the author builds up the allusion of representing reality, only to shatter it by revealing that the author, as artist, is the creator and arbitrary manipulator of the characters and their actions” (1997, p. 137). Elleström reasons that

“One might say that Romantic irony is the Socratic mode of thinking carried to extremes and transformed into literary praxis, and one might even find the seeds of Romantic irony in Quintilian’s description of Socrates” (Elleström, 2002, p. 18).

• Socratic irony

Socratic irony is as a type of irony as well, previously mentioned as a piece of the beginnings of irony, first found in Plato's dialogues. Elleström portrays it as “pretended ignorance or naiveté on the part of an interlocutor in a text, a pretense that results in a sharp contrast between the ignorance of the person who at first seems to be wise and the gradually revealed wisdom of the person who pretends to be ignorant” (Elleström, 2002, p. 52). Glenn Stanfield Hollands likewise examines this thought in one of the parts of his book Divine Irony, in which he uncovers another element of Socratic irony - divine irony. He takes note of Socrates' apathy as a part of his "self-mastery", just as a worth not the same as widespread qualities. Socrates' aloofness gives him a certifiable and aware nature, placing it in connection with God. So Socratic incongruity is likened with divine irony by crediting divine viewpoint (Hollands, 2000). Analyzing the idea of heavenly irony further, Hollands composes that “this divine revelation is both ironic and true: ironic, because it confounds human expectations by identifying the highest wisdom as knowledge of one’s ignorance; true, because it represents the divine perspective of the all-knowing god” (2000, p. 52).

2. TRANSLATION

2.1. Translation strategies Translation is the demonstration of changing a given etymological talk starting with one language then onto the next. It is the action in which linguistic bodies from one language are moved to their equal and comparable components in another language. Translation moves the substance of a book from the source language into the target language. The language requiring translation is known as the source language (SL), while the language that the substance needs to be converted into is known as the target language (TL). It is expected of the translator to have extraordinary information on both the up to referenced languages, just as to have a high etymological affectability so to accurately pass on the writer’s unique intention. The author's perspectives and considerations should be introduced as precisely and steadfastly as conceivable in the deciphered form. Due to the many distinct types, categorizations and classifications for translation strategies suggested by different linguists according to their own particular perspective, Chesterman (1997),

claims that in the field of the strategies of translation there is "considerable terminological confusion". According to Chesterman (1997), the general aspects of the strategies of translation are these: 1. Text manipulation; 2. Application to the process; 3. Goal-orientation; 4. Problem-centeredness; 5. Conscious application; 6. Inter-subjectivity (meaning that the strategies used should be empirical and comprehensible for the readers, not just the scholar who used them); As mentioned above, various scholars have different approaches to the features of the activity of translation, so they point out distinct types of translation strategies. Bergen's (1997) categorization of these strategies involves three classifications: 1. Comprehension strategies; 2. Transfer strategies; 3. Production strategies; By using these categories, he meant: first, a translator reads and comprehends a text. Second, one must distinguish the characteristics of the source text and the target text, and then determine the type of strategy which is best to use. And finally, the translator then produces a corresponding text in the target language. Chesterman (1997) classifies the nearby translation procedures into syntactic, semantic, and practical changes; each group having its own subcategories. It should be noticed that a noticeable differentiation isn't evident between them, so it may not be anything but difficult to recognize the indicate methodology utilized. In the subsections that follow, Chesterman's (1997) order of translation strategies is portrayed, as characterized by Bergen: • Syntactic strategies Syntactic strategies have to do with the changing of the target text’s grammatical structure in regard to the source text. Even though many of the strategies are applied due to a literal translation not being appropriate, Chesterman (1997) offers literal translation as the first syntactic strategy. He claims that quite a few translation theorists present this as a "default" strategy. 1. Literal translation: Meaning that the translator matches the source text form as strictly as possible without adhering to the structure of the source language. 2. Loan translation: The second syntactic strategy presented in the author’s categorization which deals with the adoption of single terms and adhering to the source text’s structure which may be unfamiliar to the target audience.

3. Transposition: This is a term that Chesterman (1997) borrowed from Vinay and Darbelnet (1958). It concerns changes in word class, such as noun to adjective. 4. Unit shift: Another borrowed term, this time from Catford (1995). It deals with the levels of morpheme, word, phrase, clause, sentence and paragraph. 5. Paraphrase structure change: This strategy deals with the changes that happen in the internal structure of the verb phrase or noun phrase, even though the source phrase itself may have been translated using an equivalent phrase in the target language. 6. Clause structure change: In this type of syntactic strategy the organization of constituent clauses or phrases is affected by changes. This includes changes from passive to active and vice versa, as well as infinite to finite, or reorganization of the constituents of the clause. 7. Sentence structure change: Concerns the changes happening in the structure of the sentence unit. Essentially meaning that in relationship between main and subordinate clauses changes. 8. Cohesion change: When the different parts of a sentence unite to make an eloquent, understandable sentence, that is called textual cohesion. Cohesion change describes a strategy affecting intra-textual cohesion. This type of strategy usually occurs in the form of reference by pronouns, ellipsis, substitution or repetition. 9. Level shift: Using this term, Chesterman (1997) refers to the phonological, morphological, syntactical and lexical levels, all of which are conveyed differently in various languages. 10. Scheme change: Chesterman (1997) classifies this strategy as referring to rhetorical schemata like rhythm, rhyming, parallelism and alliteration in poetry. Parallelism deals with analogous structure of phrases, sentences or collocations. • Semantic strategies Chesterman's (1997) second group of categorizations is semantic strategy which comes with several subcategories. 1. Synonymy: Using this way the translator chooses the most accurate synonym, which may not be the obvious literal translation of the source text word or phrase; 2. Antonymy: This subcategory refers to the translator using the opposite meaning of a word. The word usually couples with a negation; 3. Hyponymy: This refers to using a word of a bigger category (for example wheel is a hyponym in regard to car). A similar superordinate term is hypernym, which defines the whole category using a wider term (for example car is a hypernym to wheel); 4. Converses: This subcategory deals with opposite pairs indicating related semantic relationships from an opposite perspective (for example love-hate; reveal-conceal);

5. Trope change: A trope is a term dealing with using a phrase or term when comparing two unrelated things to display their correlation. A similar subcategory is known as trope change strategy; 6. Abstraction change: This subcategory refers to switching from more abstract notions to more concrete notions and vice versa; 7. Distribution change: This is a strategy in which there is a distribution of a semantic element over more items (known as expansion) or fewer items (known as compression); 8. Emphasis change: In this method the emphasis of the translated text’s thematic focus is increased, decreased or changed comparing to the original; 9. Paraphrase strategy: The final defined strategy. An approximate liberal translation is created in relation to the general meaning of the source text. In this type of strategy some lexical items can be ignored; • Pragmatic strategies 1. Cultural filtering: Chesterman (1997) defines this strategy as the specific realization of the prevalent domestication strategy or culture-oriented translation target. This method is typically used to translate items which are culture-bound; 2. Explicitness change: In this method some information of the source text can be added or deleted to change the explicitness of the text; 3. Information change: The following kind of strategy is known as information change, and is much like explicitness change; but the changed information here is NOT implicit in the source language text; 4. Interpersonal change: This method affects the entire text’s style to make it seem more or less informed, technical, etc; 5. Speech act: This is a strategy that refers to changing the nature of the speech act of the source text, be it obligatory or non-obligatory (for example from a command to reporting, or from indirect to direct speech); 6. Visibility change: This method refers to increasing the "presence" of either the translator of the source text or its author (e.g. comments provided by the translator); 7. Coherence change: Coherence change is a method akin to the afore-mentioned strategy cohesion change (syntactic strategies). The main difference being that cohesion change deals with the micro-structure level (for example a paragraph or a sentence), while coherence change deals a textual level that is higher (for example the combination of different paragraphs in a different way than the source text); 8. Partial translation: This method concerns translating not the whole text, but rather a part of it (examples can be found in poetry or song lyrics);

9. Trans-editing: As Bergen stated, Stetting (1989) identifies another strategy that should be mentioned here: trans-editing. This method deals with expansive editing of the source text if deemed necessary (for example reorganizing the information in the source text, changing wording, etc); 10. The aforementioned strategies illustrate Chesterman’s (1997) provided classification, according to Bergen. Chesterman (1997) believes that all of them offer specific ways of "changing something", which can be described as the essential strategy of translation. The mentioned translation strategies all work on different levels; as Bergen claimed, this can be the source of terminological confusion between scholars who deal with the study of translation. Venuti (2001) claims that from the view of Vinay and Darbelnet (1958), translators may choose two essential strategies of translation which are known as direct/literal translation and oblique translation. Oblique translation can be used if there is no possible literal translation due to possible syntactic and lexical differences between two languages. Oblique translation can be divided into the following seven subcategories: 1. Borrowing: This is used to work on a meta-linguistic difference. This strategy of translation is the simplest, using the terms of the source language in the target text; 2. Calque: This is a kind of the borrowing strategy, using the literal translation of the borrowed expression into the target language; 3. Literal translation: This method renders a text of the source language into a grammatical equivalent or the appropriate idiomatic in the target language; 4. Transposition: This method substitutes one-word class with another, while the meaning of the message remains unchanged; 5. Modulation: This method changes the point of view (for example the part of speech is changed); 6. Equivalence: This method renders two situations using distinct structural and stylistic ways; the two texts consist of the source text and its corresponding equivalent in the target text; 7. Adaptation: Sometimes cultural differences may occur between two languages – that’s when adaptation is used. This method of translation may be perceived as a specific type of equivalence - situational equivalence; Pažūsis’ interpretation system clarifies as aggregate interpretation bearing which is placed in real life while looking for proper answer for pass on specific interpretation unit (Pažūsis, 2014). This definition is clarified comparative by Leppihalme: interpretation methodologies incorporates strategies that are dynamic while translating text starting with one language then onto the next and which are placed in real life while tackling translation issues, for example intertextual interpretation. Proficient translators picks translation strategy either deliberately and assesses distinctive relevant,

etymological and social elements, or instinctively for instance, making or altering their format as per solid circumstance (Leppihalme, 1997).

2.2. Irony in translation As discussed above, the notion of irony has evidently evolved and has become an extensive topic of discussion. As a result, different types and subtypes of it have been formed. But one must ask about the strategies used to translate irony, and if irony even can be translated properly. July De Wilde in her book The Analysis of Translated Literary Irony: Some Methodological Issues (2010) analyzes the reasons for the rare discussion of the translation of literary irony. At the same time, she tries to define the noteworthy role of a translator. De Wilde guarantees that the translation of irony, as a study, should not be characterized expressly. The investigation is firmly related with another examination on “translation of humor, parody, or intertextuality” (De Wilde, 2010, p. 25). De Wilde gives two reasons demonstrating that the idea of translation of irony isn't unmistakable among researchers: “(a) the lack of consensus regarding the definition and conceptual scope of literary irony and (b) the fact that investigating irony within a product-oriented methodology entails a number of thorny questions regarding the procedures of comparative microtextural analysis” (2010, p. 25). As to absence of agreement with respect to the definition and reasonable extent of literary irony, De Wilde (2010) claims that specialists could effectively take care of the issue by expressing that the meaning of irony isn't a piece of translation studies, adding: “They could then adopt an existing definition from literary analysis and remodel it for purposeful use in TS research” (De Wilde, 2010, p. 26). Be that as it may, this isn't exactly a straightforward and commonsense arrangement due to an "contrary philosophical foundation basic various meanings of literary irony, so De Wilde proposes examining “the status given to both the ironist’s intention and the interpreter” (2010, p. 26). De Wilde presents the issue by examining the studies completed by Wayne C. Stall in his book A Rhetoric of Irony just as Linda Hutcheon in her book Irony's Edge: The Theory and Politics of Irony. As for Booth, he presents old style expository definition rather than a direct one, while likewise introducing the initial phase in recreating irony: “the reader is invited to reject the literal or surface meaning” (De Wilde, 2010, p. 26). De Wilde substantiates this claim by adding: “Irony is not necessarily something deposited in the message by an intentional author but happens by the ironic attributions made by an active interpreter” (2010, p. 27). What is more, as De Wilde claims, the theory presented by Hutcheon is more similar to the general idea of irony and is “epistemologically superior for TS applications” (2010, p. 26), as such recognizing three research directions: 1) target-side functional investigations, 2) historical –

descriptive oriented analyses and 3) translational interpretative oriented analysis (De Wilde, 2010). The third direction has opposing consequences if examined firstly using Booth’s theory and then using Hutcheon’s. If, as Booth claims, the meaning is found in the text, then “meaning is stable and unchanging, encoded in the text and awaiting decoding from the reader” (De Wilde, 2010, p. 28). Though a lot of interest is focused on this kind of research, the translational interpretive oriented analysis, is in the focus of interest, the other methods should not be disregarded. As De Wilde continues to explain, target-side functional investigations “investigate how the scopes of the text affects the translation product” (2010, p. 29), whereas descriptive-historical oriented investigations “focus on geographical and historical TT features in the manipulation of ironic texts within new political and ideological environments” (2010, p. 29). There is no question that these kinds of research methods are fascinating; nevertheless, they suffer from a shortage of insight into the translator himself: “Translators interpret texts according to previous readings, the target reader’s horizon of expectations, their own ideological constructs and their own explicit and/or implicit views on translation” (De Wilde, 2010, p. 29). De Wilde likewise considers another explanation behind irony not generally being an exceptionally famous examination point. She asserts that one of the causes is the way that examining irony contains various precarious inquiries according to the ST-TT relative systems. De Wilde accepts that the lack of legitimate correlations is brought about by “uneasy consequences of the unilateral focus on the cultural and social function of translation that has dominated TS research over the last three decades” (2010, p. 30).Three focal issues which all near methods are to decide were introduced while exploring such systems: “1) the terms between which the comparison will be realized, i.e. the unit of comparison, 2) the nature and the degree of the differences and similarities that will be identified and 3) the criteria according to which the comparison will be carried out” (De Wilde, 2010, p. 30). In any case, such examination highlights have a few issues. Above all else, the issue that the principal includes, the unit of correlation, has is that it isn't in every case clear if the unit concerns the entire content or simply some more modest units, for instance morphemes, words, or expressions. Another inquiry that may emerge concerns the methodology's directionality; regardless of whether the ST examination or TT investigation should be done first. The last likely issue concerns relative systematicity; to utilize “repertory or distinctive feature method” (De Wilde, 2010, p. 31).

2.2.1. Strategies for translating irony While investigating the relationship between irony and translation, one can notice numerous available insights and studies. However, there are two names that should be pointed out as the most important for studying the strategies of translating irony; Marta Mateo and her article The Translation

of Irony as well as Raymond Chakhachiro with his article Translating Irony in Political Commentary Texts from English into Arabic. Chakhachiro’s research is grounded on comparing the Arabic and English languages. Though he presents some translation strategies for irony, he claims that “these strategies are not prescriptive by any means, given the fact that irony, once correctly interpreted, is strictly not amenable to one translation” (Chakhachiro, 2007, p. 17). He describes great relevance to cultural and linguistic gaps for an accurate translation of irony; linguistic gaps involve “lexical, grammatical and graphological devices” (2007, p. 17), while cultural gaps include “rhetorical devices and texts development strategies” (Chakhachiro, 2007, p. 17). He proposes these translation strategies: 1. Translating by using different form with similar function; 2. Translating by substitution, addition and/or omission; Chakhachiro says that while interpreting unexpected articulations, the translator should be imaginative, not prohibitive. He likewise expresses that while translating, one should be “a native speaker who possesses a solid literary background in the target language” (2007, p. 21). He sees irony as an instrument for the forming of talk, not simply a rich composing device: “Both the way the message is written and conveyed are interdependent and must be accounted for in translation” (Chakhachiro, 2007, p. 21). Chakhachiro finishes up by taking note of danger taking, innovativeness, social and phonetic capability as being basic parts with regards to making a precise interpretation of irony (2007). Subsequent to giving a short review of the investigation of irony, Mateo starts her own examination by interfacing humor and irony: “Humor based on irony or on reversal of situation or tone will be more widely translatable” (1995, p. 174). The etymological angle is first conceivable issue which could be found in the translation of one or the other irony or humor. Mateo claims that a book is less translatable when etymological viewpoint is generally being depended on. She shows this by expressing that the closer the social and the phonetic part of a joke are associated, the more troublesome it is to make an interpretation of that joke into another lanuage. Another conceivable issue that introduces itself in the translation of irony is brought about by setting. As Mateo states, irony’s acknowledgment is for the most part affected by “background knowledge of a socio-cultural type” (1995, p. 174) featuring suggestion and parody. Mateo next notices the idea of "sense" as a more perplexing piece of translation comparable to irony and humor. This is because of the presence of “speaker’s intentions, the background knowledge of speaker and listener, the assumptions and presuppositions implicit in the text, the connotations of each word, etc” (Mateo, 1995, p. 174). However, it isn't just sense - the structure additionally is a fundamental piece of an unexpected or amusing articulation: “Irony and humor may simply spring from an alteration in the usual syntactic

order of a sentence, from the choice of an unusual collocation or, indeed, from the very use of a certain word” (Mateo, 1995, p. 174). Mateo additionally focuses on translation of irony as seen by the pundits, asserting that if a book is completely translatable there need not be any adjustments in translation. The translator should adapt to TL culture when there is an equivalent; one should not explain the irony (or the joke) since explanation destroys humor; one should concentrate on the essence of the joke and then keep that essence adapting it to TL conventions even if one changes the specific meaning or facts. (Mateo, 1995) However, Mateo (1995) noticed that the critics hope to focus on the fundamental thought of the source text, while not generally zeroing in on interpretation of humor, which drives her to infer that to clarify the translation of irony these techniques are not generally adequate. Thusly, she proposes another strategy that would extend other technique. Her way includes procedures that translator use corresponding to irony, “whether they have been trying to be faithful to the source text at the expense of humor or they have managed to keep the irony introducing some significant changes” (Mateo, 1995, p. 175). Her examination depended on different models drawn from various comedies, without giving any more profound clarifications to the strategies. She recorded 13 such techniques altogether, introduced in this particular order: 1. ST irony becomes TT irony with literal translation; 2. ST irony becomes TT irony with “equivalent effect” translation; 3. ST irony becomes TT irony through means different from those used in ST (e.g. verbal irony becomes kinetic irony, the use of intonation is replaced by lexical or grammatical units, etc.); 4. ST irony is enhanced in TT with some word/expression; 5. ST ironic innuendo becomes more restricted and explicit in TT; 6. ST irony becomes TT sarcasm (criticism is overt now, no feeling of contradiction at all); 7. The hidden meaning of ST irony comes to the surface in TT. No irony in TT therefore; 8. ST ironic ambiguity has only one of the two meanings translated in TT. No double-entendre or ambiguity in TT therefore; 9. ST irony replaced by a “synonym” in TT with no two possible interpretations; 10. ST irony explained in footnote in TT; 11. ST irony has literal translation with no irony in TT; 12. Ironic ST completely deleted in TT; 13. No irony in ST becomes irony in TT (Mateo, 1995 p. 175-177);

Mateo finishes her research by assigning the concept of irony to pragmatics; some translators would focus on “semantic content of ironic statement or situation, rather than its overall meaning, namely its irony” (1995 p. 178), some would focus on the pragmatic aspect, rather than the semantic one, or some may even concentrate on both (Mateo, 1995).

2.2.2. Issues in translating irony One more work discussed in Lievois and Schoenthjes’ book is Daniel Linder’s Translating Irony in Popular Fiction: Dashiell Hammett’s The Maltese Falcon. In his research Linder analyzes the different functions of irony through the view of the characters in The Maltese Falcon, and subsequently investigates the possible issues regarding translation of irony and comprehension the reader. Linder starts his translation research by deriving Sperber and Wilson, in this way noteworthy the tricky idea of understanding irony for the audience, be they local or non-local (Linder, 2010). He represents this utilizing the case of Allison Beeby Lonsdale who set out to gauge the number of non- local readers would distinguish the irony in an editorial source text. A gathering of Spanish-talking students were given a Spanish content, at that point a similar content was given to a group of English- talking students. Subsequent to leading a series of inquiries, he reasoned that the English-talking students neglected to take note of the irony, though 50% of the Spanish-talking students figured out how to do as such (Linder, 2010). While investigating this examination, Linder called attention to that “even among the native speakers there were readers who proved to be incapable of decoding the ironic meaning” (Linder, 2010, p. 196). Additionally, Linder, while examining the translation of irony, likewise calls attention to that irony may infrequently be hard to speak to in an objective content. Referring to Hatim and Mason, Linder claims “They show how important it is for translators to reproduce the propositional content of the source text but also the clues meant to trigger an ironic interpretation on the part of the target text reader. However, in the recoding phase translators may be faced with linguistic and cultural constraints.” (Linder, 2010, p. 127). Furthermore, Linder believes that some sort of help should be provided to the readers by the translator using additional parts: “Prioritizing the crucial need for target text readers to be given overt cues triggering irony, the authors hint that translators may maintain equivalence while adding small portions of text as long as they serve the purpose of helping the target text readers to identify irony” (2010, p. 127). The problem with the inclusion of additional parts for comprehension and translation of irony is also investigated by Seija Haapakoski in her article Translating Children’s Literature: Additions as an Aid to Understanding Irony. Her goal is approaching the issue of comprehending irony from children’s perspective and as such help translators with the conveying of irony in a target

text using strategic additions. But Haapakoski does not recognize irony as something that can only be comprehended. She also discerns it as a way for children to learn, and thereby perceives translators as crucial mediators in the learning process: “Translators as experts in both cultures can, with the right textual choices, strengthen the irony recognition process of the target readers and familiarize them with this literary device” (Haapakoski, 2010, p. 135). Metalinguistic mindfulness should be utilized to get irony: “the ability to think about and reflect upon the nature and functions of language” (Haapakoski, 2010, p. 137). In any case, it is asserted that however a kid can display metalinguistic mindfulness before the age of five, irony can even now present etymological difficulties for a youngster: “that happens in the first place because a child has to realize that a person can sometimes say the opposite of what he or she thinks and that the meaning which that same person is trying to convey does not have to be the same as the literal one“ (Haapakoski, 2010, p. 137). Nonetheless, more established children and even grown-ups may likewise have issues comprehending irony, regardless of whether metalinguistic awareness is now applied. This is because of a difference in discursive community: “young people often lack contextual information needed to interpret irony” (Haapakoski, 2010, p. 137). As Haapakoski claims, audience always influences translators and their strategies, adding that “if we think that irony is a matter of learning we are more eager to make it easier for the young reader to understand it” (Haapakoski, 2010, p. 138). While discussing literary irony, one must note that it is meant for a source-culture audience. But when that irony is attempted to translate, a change in audience comes. Therefore, additional information is required to reduce the disparity in the extent of knowledge between the source and target audiences, or in the author’s own words: “the understanding of irony requires shared background knowledge” (Haapakoski, 2010, p. 138). Haapakoski presents some down to earth augmentations for the translation of irony: “Additions are included in pragmatic adaptations as translation strategies that are target-reader oriented” (Haapakoski, 2010, p. 138). She gives three procedures to dissect increments. The principal technique gives the suggestion that increments can demonstrate irony or can help the intended interest group to perceive irony. Such indicators of irony can be of the “traditional” type, such as “understatements, alliterations, typographic markers” (Haapakoski, 2010, p. 138). For instance, utilizing words like "rather" or "a spot" helps with framing a misrepresentation of reality which shows an unexpected demeanor of the creator and it might likewise “increase the ironic intensity of the given episode in the target text” (Haapakoski, 2010, p. 139). Besides, the subsequent system manages augmentations which incorporate a tone of information exchanged and the “speaker’s attitude to the message, situation or persons involved in it” (Haapakoski, 2010, p. 138). These augmentations can be passed on utilizing explicit epistemic intensifiers, talk markers or different expressions like “heaven knows”

or “I must say” (Haapakoski, 2010, p. 139). A regular utilization of talk markers shows a particular disposition to a different communicator or their message. They can likewise be critical for the translation of irony since they can “negotiate background assumptions” (Haapakoski, 2010, p. 141). Irony translation can likewise be improved by utilizing similar sounding word usage or typographic markers, similar to italics, which help perceiving irony more clear. To close, while translating irony, utilizing increases can be valuable as they help give the crowd the necessary epistemic information or just to extend the unexpected setting by not zeroing in just on “textual elements that create irony but also on larger textual units” (Haapakoski, 2010, p. 139). A translator must have knowledge of associations known to the source audience when making textual choices, and the way these associations are communicated to the target audience (Haapakoski, 2010, p 141).

3. ANALYSIS OF VERBAL IRONY IN “FOREST OF THE GODS”

BY BALYS SRUOGA

3.1. Research methodology Verbal irony was selected manually from the memoirs by Balys Sruoga Forest of the Gods (2019) and its translation into English by Aušrinė Byla (2005). The main problem of finding verbal irony in these memoirs was to separate verbal irony from situational irony. The research required different methods to be applied depending on the features analyzed. • Qualitative method – used to analyze how the verbal irony was translated in the novel Forest of the Gods according to gathered theoretical information. It was used to systemize the application of the translation strategies for verbal irony and to assign specific case of the verbal irony to specific translation strategy. • Content analysis – used to make replicable and valid inferences by interpreting and coding textual material from the novel Forest of the Gods. This research method was chosen of its possible application on the textual material and is used to analyze the transformation of verbal irony during the translation of the text from one language to another. Also, it was applied while distinguishing verbal irony in the novel and separating it from situational irony or sarcasm. For the research to be successful, it is significant to separate verbal irony cases and to examine how meaning of specific words was transformed or remained the same in the process of the translation. • Quantitative method - used for statistics and enumeration of the cases of verbal irony in the novel Forest of the Gods. It was put in action while presenting statistical part of usage of translation strategies of the irony. The performance of the research required several procedural steps: 1. To distinguish the cases of verbal irony in the memoirs under analysis; 2. To find equivalents of verbal irony in the English translation of the memoirs; 3. To compare the selected extracts and analyze what translation strategy was used in order to successfully translate sentence from Lithuanian to English; 4. To identify the prevailing translation strategy used to translate verbal irony from Lithuanian to English on the basis of the memoirs; 5. To analyze the effect of used translation strategies on the verbal irony and its translation to English;

This research and analysis are based on the strategies of translation which were presented by Marta Mateo in The Translation of Irony (1995). The extracts are classified according to M. Mateo’s suggested strategies for translating irony from SL to TL and then analyzed in order to present what determines which strategy for translating irony is applied and how it is distinguished which strategy was the most suitable for translator (strategies are presented in page 23).

3.2. Application of translation strategies of irony 3.2.1. ST irony becomes TT irony with literal translation The researcher M. Mateo (1995) offers a strategy in which one way of preserving irony in Target Text is during the process of translation, every word has to remain the same and keep its intended meaning, which means that the words cannot be changed by synonyms or interchanged in any way. The strategy in which irony remains the same in both languages is used the most frequently and is applied in 39 cases analyzed in the paper. Since Mateo (1995) present not only abstract strategies of translation of irony, but also sub-categories and different aspects on which this strategy can be identified, the following examples are presented according to them. 1. Praising in order to blame. In order to successfully identify this translation sub-category it is important to recognize the tone of the speaker or the author and the context of the discussion, surroundings. Example No. 1 a) “Oh,” I say, “not too badly, middling. Some of them have already been hung, and branches for the others are now being selected... As far as you’re concerned, the limb of a birch would be too precious. You’ll be hung on a fence.” (Byla, 2005, p. 221) b) ,,– O, sakau, - neblogai sekas, maždaug vidutiniškai. Kai kurie iš jų jau pakarti, kitiems karti šakos jau parinktos... Kas liečia tave, tai beržo šakos tau bus gaila. Pakars tave ant tvoros“. (Sruoga, 2019, p. 214) In this case the speaker ironically replies about well-being of other inmates in the concentration camp. The irony can be noticed when the speaker chooses to say that they are doing and feeling not bad (“not too badly“), but then continues to explain that some of them are already dead or waiting in line for their inevitable death by hanging. According to the qualifications of this translation strategy, the text was translated directly from Lithuanian to English with words having identical meanings. Example No. 2 a) “He was the camp’s chief censor, too. His previous employment made him highly suitable for this task: before the war, he’d wielded an iron rod with which he scraped horse droppings from the tramway tracks in Gdansk.“ (Byla, 2005, p. 287)

b) „Jis buvo vyriausias lagerio cenzorius. Pagal savo praeitį jis geriausiai ir tiko tokiam darbui: prieš karą jisai Gdansko mieste iš tramvajaus bėgių geležine lazdele arklių mėšlą krapštė. (Sruoga, 2019, p. 277) The speaker ironically defines camp’s censor and jokes about his suitability to perform this job according to his previous employment. In the past the censor was a simple worker and did not perform any big or important task. This extract successfully illustrates praising in order to blame concept by speaker’s description of the censor by saying that he is perfect for this job (“made him highly suitable”) and then the speaker contradicts his previous sentence by explaining the nature of censors previous workplace (“before the war, he’d wielded an iron rod with which he scraped horse droppings from the tramway tracks“). The text is translated literally, all words preserved their meaning and place in sentence. According to the main idea of this translation strategy, the extracts are identical to each other, since there are no variations in meaning of the words. Example No. 3 a) “After howling for a few weeks, he hung himself. He hung himself rather strangely. He had neither a decent rope, nor a hook, but nevertheless, he found a way. In spite of everything, because of his extremely bad luck, his last aid came from his good friends, with Selonke in the forefront.“ (Byla, 2005, p. 270) b) „Porą savaičių pastaugęs, ėmė jisai ir pasikorė. Kažkaip keistokai pasikorė. Nei virvės padorios jisai neturėjo, nei gembės, bet vis dėlto rado būdą. Kas be ko, tokioje nelaimėje jam paskutinę pagalbą suteikė geri bičiuliai su Selonke priešakyje.“ (Sruoga, 2019, p. 260) In this extract, irony lays in the fact that person has committed suicide by hanging himself even though he did not really had the proper equipment to do that. As the author expressed “He hung himself rather strangely. He had neither a decent rope, nor a hook, but nevertheless, he found a way“. But then the author mentions that there is a “possbility“ that he was killed by other people, in this case, guards of the concentration camp. Relationship between this prisoner and guards are defined by positive description (“good friends“), but then it becomes clear that they may have had something to do with passing of this person. This sub-category of translation strategy for irony can be seen clearly when the author describes the oxymoron of the suicide of the prisoner. He did not have any tools to commit this horrible crime against himself, but he was provided with help from the guard who hated this prisoner. Also, while translating this case of verbal irony, literal translation was put into action. As it can be seen, every word has remained in its original meaning, no additional stylistic or literary devices were used by the translator and it determined the preservation of verbal irony in English as it was meant to be used and understood in Lithuanian. For more examples, see Appendix No. 1

2. Internal contradiction. This translation strategy can be recognized by the tone of the speaker. If the speaker says something and knows that, for the matter of the fact, it cannot be true and does not believe it himself/herself, the tone of the speaker indicates internal contradiction. Example No. 4 a) “Of course,” I say, “I understand. Mrs. Baroness is the guilty party for deciding to get sick at the wrong time.” (Byla, 2005, p. 221) b) „– Žinoma, žinoma, - sakau, - ponia baronienė pati kalta, kad užsimanė sirgti ne laiku...“ (Sruoga, 2019, p. 214) In this case the speaker ironically blames the sick woman for getting ill at the time which is inconvinient for her husband. The ironic tone of the first line (‘Of course,“) indicates subtle irony from the speaker’s side and pretends that he actually believes what is so obviously illogical. This line proves character’s disbelief in the accusation that he made. The irony in this case remains in the same position in English as it is in Lithuanian by translating everything by using literal translation and preserving all meanings of the words as they were intended by the original author Balys Sruoga. Example No. 5 a) “Eh, these juveniles!” he’d say. “They only ruin the good names of us decent thieves! Beating people, whoever heard of such thing! Our work should be neat, done with elegance and taste!” (Byla, 2005, p. 239) b) „- Et! Tie vaikigaliai, - kalbėjo jis, - tiktai gadina mūsų, padoriųjų vagių, gerą vardą! Kas tai matė – mušti žmones! Gražiai viskas daryti reikia. Elegantiškai. Su skoniu!“ (Sruoga, 2019, p. 232) In this case the speaker which is a thief, blames young people who commit this crime for ruining “the good names of ... thieves”. Since the thieves are not actually honorable profession, it can be stated that irony in this case is not intentional, the speaker honestly believes what he is saying. And this statement of his illustrates internal contradiction since the speaker states that the young thieves who also beat people are putting dishonor to this profession and not the nature of this, so called profession. This extract is translated by using literal translation because all words are used in their original meaning, their place in the sentence is not changed. So, this means that this extract is translated by using all methods of literal translation and meets all qualifications for it to be assigned to literal translation. Example No. 6

a) “Having been caught trying to get such information out of camp, one usually hastened to die, in one way or another, so as never again to be tempted to write what should not be written.“ (Byla, 2005, p. 269) b) „Pabandęs tokių žinių teikti už lagerio sienų, paprastai pasistengdavo lageryje šiokiu ar tokiu būdu numirti, kad daugiau jo nebeimtų pagunda rašyti, kas nereikia.“ (Sruoga, 2019, p. 260) In this extract, author ironically explains faith of the people who tries to inform outer world about thing that are happening in the Stuthoff’s concentration camp. As it is known from history, all communication with people from outside of the camp, was restricted or even prohibited and people who risked and did it anyway, usually were punished very harsh. Balys Sruoga in this case ironically told how people who committed this crime “voluntarily” chose death. Internal contradiction can be recognized while thinking about the nature of this phenomenon. People who are brave enough to tell people from outside about horrible things that happens in the concentration camp, suddenly chooses to die in order to never do that again. This kind of brave behavior would not suggest that the next thing that this person will do is suicide. So, according to this, it can be stated that this case of verbal irony is internal contradiction and is translated according to the rules of literal translation. This can be grounded by the choice of words in English version of the text. All words preserved their meaning, as well as the word order in the sentence. For more examples, see Appendix No. 2

3. Fallacious reasoning. One of the way this strategy can be recognized only if the reader is familiar with the background of the speaker or character that is the main object of the discussion. The main idea of this strategy is proving one’s statement with an unreasonable argument. Example No. 7 a) “My attempt to make a career in the hospital, to reach the position of registrar, had not succeeded, obviously because of my inability to master such an intricate job.“ (Byla, 2005, p. 128) b) „Mano bandymas padaryti ligoninėje karjerą – pasiketi registratoriaus laipsnį – aiškiai nepavyko dėl mano nesugebėjimo tokį sudėtingą darbą dirbti.“ (Sruoga, 2019, p. 125) In this case the speaker ironically grounds the argument why he is not qualified enough to work at hospital’s registration. He says that he is not able to work a job that is that complicated with his knowledge. His background argues differently. As the reader knows, the main character, Balys Sruoga himself was Lithuanian intellectual, the professor. In this case this is unreasonable to state that the speaker is underqualified to do such simple job as to register the patients in the hospital. The

irony remained in the same position in Lithuanian and in English by keeping the words with the same meaning in both languages. Example No. 8 a) “Forest of the Gods“ (Byla, 2005, p. 7) b) „Dievų miškas“ (Sruoga, 2019, p. 5) The memoirs are known as one of the most ironic piece of literature in Lithuanian literature. The first time the irony can be seen is in the title. Forest of Gods can be imagined as a magical place and is inhabited by god-like creatures which brings joy and happiness to people. But that is contradicted by the content of the memoirs. Concentration camp where the author lived for several years is defined as a cruel place where people are being murdered for not agreeing with Nazi ideology or just being different (Jewish, homosexual, Romani, having any disability, different skin color, etc.). The events that took place in Stuthoff’s concentration camp are horrible and are defined as crime against humanity. After one is familiar with this information, it is hard to imagine this place as the area where gods may live. So, the title of the memoirs itself is ironic. During the process of translation of the title, literal translation was put to action. It can be proved by mentioning that every word from Lithuanian is present in English, all words are preserved by their meaning, there was no changes in word order in the sentence. Example No. 9 a) “In two years I never learned this march properly. This science proved too complex for my poor head, though sharp cuffs on the ears often elaborated on the secrets of the march.“ (Byla, 2005, p. 66) b) „Šito maršo aš per dvejus metus taip ir neišmokau kaip reikiant, per daug sudėtingas mokslas tai buvo mano galvai, nors skardūs antausiai nuolat aiškindavo maršo paslaptis.“ (Sruoga, 2019, p. 65) In this extract, the author tells how he did not learn march in two years and when he made a mistake, guards “helped” him by using physical punishments. This case of verbal irony can be assigned to fallacious reasoning because the author expressed that this “science” was too hard for him. As it is known from Sruoga’s background, he was very intellectual, worked as a professor in Vilnius University and was one of the brightest people in Lithuania during this period. So, it can be stated that the fact that he said that it was challenging for him to learn march is ironic. To understand the irony of the author’s expression about his learning situation it is important to know his life before arrival into concentration camp. In addition, this extract was translated by using literal translation, since all words are preserved in their primary meaning, the word order in the sentence has not been changed as well.

For more examples, see Appendix No. 3 To sum up, this strategy is used the most frequently because of the translator’s Aušrinė Byla possible high knowledge of both English and Lithuanian, so the majority of the cases of verbal irony are translated by using literal translation. The words are kept with their original and only meaning and because of that the verbal irony is preserved in both languages without changing its place and/or meaning. 3.2.2. ST irony is enhanced in TT with some word/expression Another translation strategy for translating verbal irony states that irony can be increased by the usage of words or expressions which emphasizes the irony in Target Language. Mateo (1995) distinguished only one sub-category for this translation strategy. Mostly, it is used in theatre, drama plays, but can be adapted to dialogues in fictional or non-fictional literature. This strategy was noticed in five cases of the collected verbal irony examples from Forest of the Gods (2019). Dramatic irony. According to Mateo’s presented example of this strategy, the irony lies in the fact that when the speaker’s choice of disrespectful or harsh words to describe someone without minding the past events. While the past events and context of the play states that the speaker encouraged the other party of the conversation to behave inappropriately in order of the speaker’ well- being in the future. Example No. 10 a) “So who needs teeth?” b) „Lageryje kur kas smagiau be dantų!” (Sruoga, 2019, p. 82) Irony in this extract is emphasized by using expression from English. The strength of irony in Lithuanian and English is similar, although it could be stated, that in English it is emphasized by the rhethorical question instead of the usage of mood in Lithuanian. The translator A. Byla chose to remove the whole sentence from Lithuanian and changed it into ironical phrase which is used to understate the importance of things that are quite important in order of quality life. In Lithuanian phrase “kur kas smagiau” is not equal to English expression “So who needs sth?”. To summarize, even with changing the whole structure and words of the sentence, the irony is preserved and did not disappear nor was moved to other place of the sentence. For more examples, see Appendix No. 4 To summarize, this translation strategy allows the translator to change some part of the sentence with more convenient expression in Target Language. But it does not mean that the main idea of the sentence can be changed. It mostly allows to replace part of the text in Source Language into particular

expression in Target Language to highlight the irony in the most “comfortable” manner for the reader, so he or she would be able to understand specific idea of the original writer. 3.2.3. ST ironic innuendo becomes more restricted and explicit in TT Mateo (1995) explains this translation strategy with the extract from the play The School for Scandal. According to the quotes from the play, this strategy can be understood as if definition of someone or someone’s situation is emphasized or used in insulting manner in Target Language. Mateo distinguished only one sub-category for this strategy – innuendo. Only two cases, collected from the novel Forest of the Gods (2019) were assigned to this translation strategy. Innuendo. According to Mateo’s presented examples of innuendo it is difficult to explain this phenomenon, so an innuendo, according to Leech, is a special kind of ironic statement which is remarkable for what it omits rather than for what it mentions (1969:174-75). It is a kind of depreciatory irony that draws heavily on insinuation. The speaker appears to be positive, but means to be negative. That is, he numbers another person’s merits, to imply his outnumbered demerits. Example No. 11 a) “Do you sons of bitches appreciate my kind heart?” … “We understand, Wacek. We appreciate it! We appreciate it!” (Byla, 2005, p. 108) b) „- Ar jūs, kiauliasnukiai, įvertinat mano gerą širdį?- ... - Suprantam, Vaceli, įvertinam, įvertinam!” (Sruoga, 2019, p. 105) The irony in this extract lies in the fact that one of the chiefs of the prison is genuinely assured that he is not doing bad things and gesture such as opening the window has to be very appreciated by the prisoners. In Lithuanian epithet that he calls the prisoners literally mean pig faces (kiauliasnukiai), but in English it is changed into much more insulting phrase and the guard refers to the prisoners as sons of bitches. In this way the irony becomes more restricted by using explicit words in order to downsize self respect of the inmates, so they would appreciate the guard more and would consider him as their friend and not enemy. For more examples, see Appendix No. 5 The summary of this translation strategy and examples of its usage, is that this translation strategy allows the translator to emphasize particular words in order to highlight the true intentions of the speaker. It also changes irony into more restricted and explicated which emphasizes the experiences of the characters in the piece of literature. 3.2.4. ST irony becomes TT sarcasm The sarcasm is very complicated stylistic device, but so is the verbal irony. Mateo (1995) suggested that the irony from Source Language can become sarcasm in Target Language during the

process of translation. Sarcasm, in its origin, usually is used when someone wants to insult or degrade other person or situation. Irony, on the other hand, is different. Irony’s main purpose is not insulting, it is used to highlight the comic situation or person’s actions. Mateo (1995) presented two sub-categories of this translation strategy – dramatic irony and understatement. This translation strategy was used only once, according to the cases of verbal irony collected from the novel Forest of the Gods (2019). Understatement. This strategy is used when someone wants to degrade person and insult him/her. From the example provided by Mateo (1995) this sub-category is similar to the sub-category of the first translation strategy praising in order to blame. But in this case, the speaker does not even bother to say something positive about the other person, he or she says insulting things right away. Example No. 12 a) “No, dear friend,” I say to him as mild a voice as I can muster. “This one didn’t shoot, for sure. He’s too dumb to fire a gun, this one. He probably can’t tell the difference between the barrel and the breach.” (Byla, 2005, p. 132) b) „- Ne, mielas bičiuli, - sakau jam, kiek galėdamas mielesniu balsu, - šitas; tai jau tikrai nešaudė. Žioplas toks. Jis turbūt šautuvo smaigalio nuo pučkos neatskiria.” (Sruoga, 2019, p. 129) In this extract the verbal irony from Lithuanian becomes sarcasm in English. In Lithuanian the word (žioplas) that was used in order to reference the young Ukrainian man could be translated as clumsy in order to emphasize that he is not focused enough or is simply clumsy to be shooting at people, but the translator named him dumb during the process of translation. This results in the sarcasm as there is no hidden message in English, which originally was in Lithuanian. The translated text openly insults this young man by accusing him of not being smart enough to use a gun or even participate in the front line of the combat. To sum up, this strategy changes the literary device from irony in Source Language to sarcasm in Target Language. Since sarcasm is very difficult literary device to use and recognize, this translation strategy is hard to use as well. Sarcasm is used when one wants to insult something or someone, so it is really important not to overuse it, so it would not become bullying. Overall, this translation strategy was not used very much during the process of translation of these particular memoirs, so it can be said, that this translation strategy is not the most popular because of its nature and purpose.

3.2.5. ST ironic ambiguity has only one of the two meanings translated in TT Mateo (1995) presented this theory with the example from the theatrical play when the character described the woman’s physical appearance with only one word shape. The translator of this play did

not mind the fact, that the woman is or was pregnant and this could affect her physical appearance. So, the broader explanation of this theory can be that during the translation only one meaning of the word is translated and the translator does not include other possible meanings of the specific word which is included in the original text. Mateo (1995) presented only one sub-category with this strategy – innuendo. The usage of this translation strategy in the English Forest of the Gods (Byla, 2005) can be proved with only two of the collected cases of verbal irony. Innuendo. According to Mateo’s presented examples of innuendo it is difficult to explain this phenomenon, so an innuendo, according to Leech, is a special kind of ironic statement which is remarkable for what it omits rather than for what it mentions (1969:174-75). It is a kind of depreciatory irony that draws heavily on insinuation. The speaker appears to be positive, but means to be negative. That is, he numbers another person’s merits, to imply his outnumbered demerits. Example No. 13 a) “Happily, I found more comfortable spot for dining – the washroom. Here it was quiet,...” (Byla, 2005, p. 212) b) „Norom nenorom teko pasiieškoti pietum patogesnės vietelės. Radau. Puikiai susitvarkiau, - išvietėje. Ten ramu buvo.“ (Sruoga, 2019, p. 205) The verbal irony in this extract is when the author talks about some quiet place where he could eat his dinner in tranquil environment. In Lithuanian the author stated that this quiet area was a place where people would come to perform their natural processes, e.g. the toilet. In the English this place becomes washroom which is used for cleaning self up. Logically, it could be understood why the author chose this specific place since it is most probably empty during lunch and would not remind him of disgusting smells and visuals. Rather different this place is understood in Lithuanian. So, the irony in this extract could be found only partially, since it is quite ironic that the author had to use such measures in order to be able to dine in a peaceful place, but on the other hand, this place has different meanings in Lithuanian and English, which makes the irony to be not fully conveyed in English. For more examples, see Appendix No. 6 Overall, this translation strategy changes the perception of the text in Target Language because it transfers only one part of the meaning of the wording chosen by the original author. In order to preserve quality of the ideas and meaning of the text, the translator should translate every word with every meaning that the author has written. Translating only one meaning of the word can make reader’s perception of the text dissimilar than it was intended. When it comes to translating irony and using this translation strategy, irony can be conveyed different or misunderstood completely.

3.2.6. ST irony replaced by a “synonym” in TT with no two possible interpretations Mateo (1995) presents this theory with another example from theatrical play. In this case she presents how the irony can be translated by using similar word, synonyms. The usage of synonyms does not change the meaning of the original idea, but can be understood differently by the readers. While using this translation strategy, the translator is able to change word order in the sentence and the meaning of the key words without changing the whole concept and context of the original text. In this case, the verbal irony can be preserved in Target Language as it was intentional is Source Language. Mateo also distinguished only one sub-category for this translation strategy – innuendo. Four out of all collected cases from Forest of the Gods (Sruoga, 2019) of verbal irony are assigned to this translation strategy. Innuendo. According to Mateo’s presented examples of innuendo it is difficult to explain this phenomenon, so an innuendo, according to Leech, is a special kind of ironic statement which is remarkable for what it omits rather than for what it mentions (1969:174-75). It is a kind of depreciatory irony that draws heavily on insinuation. The speaker appears to be positive, but means to be negative. That is, he numbers another person’s merits, to imply his outnumbered demerits. Example No. 14 a) “The gas chamber was also deficient.” (Byla, 2005, p. 342) b) „Baisiai menka ir nepatogi buvo ir dujų kamera.” (Sruoga, 2019, p. 332) In Lithuanian the author emphasized how uncomfortable the gas chamber was (menka ir nepatogi), although in English the words which expressed the unpleasant environment were changed by synonym deficient. But besides that, the irony in both extracts is present although as it could be interpretated in Lithuanian, it is impossible to do the same in English. For more examples, see Appendix No. 7

3.2.7. Ironic ST completely deleted in TT As the title of this translation strategy suggests, when this strategy is put to action, the verbal irony from Source Language disappears when the text is translated into Target Language. Mateo (1995) in her article Translation of the Irony grounded this theory by presenting examples from the theatrical play. She illustrated how the irony vanished in the Target Language and explained that this happened because of the political context and the timing that the translation took. Some parts of the play were deleted because of the government of Spain. She also presented two sub-categories of this strategy – innuendo and analogy and ambiguity.

This strategy is assigned with four cases of the verbal irony’s translation of the Forest of the Gods (Byla, 2005). 1. Innuedo. According to Mateo’s presented examples of innuendo it is difficult to explain this phenomenon, so an innuendo, according to Leech, is a special kind of ironic statement which is remarkable for what it omits rather than for what it mentions (1969:174-75). It is a kind of depreciatory irony that draws heavily on insinuation. The speaker appears to be positive, but means to be negative. That is, he numbers another person’s merits, to imply his outnumbered demerits. Example No. 15 a) “Many, many prisoners had been maimed or killed by Pabst, and no one had ever made anything of it.” (Byla, 2005, p. 271) b) „Daugelį, daugelį žmonių lageryje Pabstas buvo sužalojęs, daugelis ir mire dėl to – ir niekas jam už tai dėkui nebuvo pasakęs.” (Sruoga, 2019, p. 261) In this case, verbal irony in Lithuanian means that people have not been grateful to the guard that injured or even killed other people. But in English the verbal irony dissapeared and it can be seen that after translation there is not even a clue about being grateful as it is in Lithuanian (dėkui nebuvo pasakęs). It only mentions that no one has said something to the guard and he did not face any charges or shame. Being thankful for something and not doing anything about horrible behaviour of people in charge means different things, so it can be stated that this example illustrates how verbal irony was present in Lithuanian and completely removed in English. 2. Analogy and ambiguity. According to Mateo’s (1995) provided explanation for this sub- category of translation strategy, this strategy means that irony is removed from Target Language because of the choice of the analogues used by the translator. Example No. 16 a) “As it happened, only seven of us died naturally in camp, and two more were killed.” (Byla, 2005, p. 143) b) „Tiesą pasakius, lageryje mūsiškių mirė tiktai septyni, nes kiti du buvo užmušti.“ (Sruoga, 2019, p. 140) In this extract the irony lays in the difference that author gave the idea of the difference between dying and being murdered, as if it did not mean the same thing - passing away. Therefore, in translated version of the same extract the irony is completely lost, because the translator used specific terminology and stated that one group of people died naturally and the other were killed. She clearly emphasizes the difference between these processes and differentiates them from one another. So, it could be stated that during the translation of this specific extract the verbal irony from Lithuanian

was completely deleted in English and now this sentence in English does not have the same idea and power as it had in the original version of the novel. All in all, this translation strategy affects how the reader can understand what did the author wanted to say. If author described something ironically in Source Language, but the translator deleted irony in Target Language, the perception of the main idea is compromised. For more examples, see Appendix No. 8

3.2.8. Statistical summary of the research As the analysis of the cases of verbal irony from Lithuanian and English versions of the novel Forest of the Gods (written by Sruoga in 1957 and translated by Byla in 2005) presented, not all strategies of translation were used or assigned to the specific translation strategy, but out of 56 cases of verbal irony collected from the memoirs Forest of the Gods cases of verbal irony were assigned to specific translation strategies in this way: Table No. 1

Translation of verbal irony

ST irony becomes TT irony with literal translation 0 4 ST irony is enhanced in TT with some word/expression 4

ST ironic innuedo becomes more restricted and 2 explicit in TT 1 ST irony becomes TT sarcasm 1

ST ironic ambiguity has only one of the two 5 meanings translated in TT

ST irony replaced by a "synonym" in TT with no two possible interpretations 39

Ironic ST completely deleted in TT

No irony in ST becomes irony in TT

The usage of different translation strategies can be described in this way: translation strategy that was used the most frequently is ST irony becomes TT irony with literal translation (39 cases). It can be explained that it is the least difficult strategy because it includes translating text as it is. With using the same words, not changing their meaning, keeping the word order.

The least used translation strategies include: ST ironic innuedo becomes more restricted and explicit in TT and ST irony becomes TT sarcasm (1 case each). While translating the text which includes insults, source language can have different expressions which do not quite translate correct and can be misunderstood. When that happens, translator used insults easier comprehended by the readers in target language. Also, since sarcasm is a difficult literary device, it is also not used that much in target language. The reason for that can be that the translator would not puzt the text intzo situation when it can be understood differently. Other strategies were used from 2 to 5 times.

CONCLUSIONS

The purpose of having analyzed translation strategies used in the translation of the verbal irony has been fulfilled in consonance with the objectives presented in the introductory part of the research. Finally, the final conclusions have been drawn: 1. Out of 56 cases of verbal irony drawn from the memoirs Forest of the Gods, 39 cases were transferred from Lithuanian to English by using literal translation; in 5 cases irony in English was enhanced with additional words of expressions; in 4 cases irony was completely deleted in English, as well in 4 cases irony in English was replaced by synonyms without any space for interpretation; in 2 cases only one meaning of the word has been translated into English; irony in English has become more restricted only once, as well as irony has become sarcasm in English – these strategies were found one time each. Other translation strategies suggested by M. Mateo were not used and could not be assigned to any collected cases of verbal irony. 2. Translation strategies which were suggested by other linguists were presented in theoretical part of this research paper. Only two of the researchers have suggested translation strategies for translating irony and strategies suggested by M. Mateo were used in analysis of this research paper. 3. Verbal irony has been transferred from Lithuanian to English by using translation strategies provided by M. Mateo’s research. According to the research done in this paper, literal translation was used more frequent than other translation strategies.

SUMMARY IN LITHUANIAN

Šio darbo tikslas yra ištirti vertimo strategijas, naudojamas versti žodinę ironiją Balio Sruogos memuaruose „Dievų miškas“. Tikslui pasiekti buvo išsikelti tokie uždaviniai: 1. Analizuoti žodinės ironijos pavyzdžius, rastus „Dievų miške“ ir jų atitikmenis išverstoje kūrinio versijoje; 2. Nustatyti, kokios vertimo strategijos buvo pasitelktos vykstant vertimo procesui; 3. Analizuoti, kaip žodinės ironijos vertimas iš lietuvių kalbos įtakoja jos pokyčius angliškai verstame tekste. Atliekant tyrimą buvo išrinkti 56 žodinės ironijos pavyzdžiai iš Balio Sruogos „Dievų miško“. Šio darbo tyrime naudota metodologija: • Kokybinis metodas – naudotas analizuojant žodinės ironijos vertimą memuaruose „Dievų miškas“ pasiremiant jau surinkta teorine informacija. Šis metodas buvo naudojamanas norint susisteminti vertimo teorijų panaudojimą priskiriant kiekvienai teorijai išrinktus pavyzdžius; • Turinio analizė – panaudota pakartotinoms ir pagrįstoms išvadoms daryti interpretuojant ir koduojant tekstinę medžiagą, surinktą iš romano „Dievų miškas“. Šis tyrimo metodas buvo pasirinktas dėl galimo taikymo tekstinėje medžiagoje ir naudojamas analizuojant žodinės ironijos pokytį verčiant tekstą iš vienos kalbos į kitą. Be to, jis buvo pritaikytas atskiriant žodinę ironiją nuo situacinės ironijos ar sarkazmo. Kad tyrimas būtų sėkmingas, svarbu atskirti žodinės ironijos atvejus ir išnagrinėti, ar vertimo procese žodinė ironija kito arba išliko tokia pati; • Kiekybinis metodas - naudojamas stebint ir išvardinant žodinės ironijos atvejus romane „Dievų miškas“. Buvo pastebėti ir išanalizuoti 56 žodinės ironijos atvejai;

Tyrimui atlikti būtini procedūriniai žingsniai: 1. Analizuojamuose memuaruose atskirti žodinę ironiją; 2. Rasti žodinės ironijos atitikmenis angliškame memuarų vertime; 3. Palyginti tas pačias ištraukas ir išanalizuoi, kokia vertimo strategija buvo naudojama norint sėkmingai išversti sakinį iš lietuvių į anglų kalbą; 4. Identifikuoti vyraujančią vertimo strategiją, naudojamą verčiant žodinę ironiją iš lietuvių į anglų kalbą;

Šio darbo tyrimas yra paremtas M. Mateo pateiktomis ironijos vertimo strategijomis. Analizuojant išsirinktus pavyzdžius, jie buvo priskirti tam tikroms ironijos vertimo strategijoms: 1. Šaltinio kalbos ironija tampa tikslinės kalbos ironija naudojant tiesioginį vertima;

2. Šaltinio kalbos ironija sustiprinama tikslinėje kalboje su tam tikru žodžiu ar išsireiškimu; 3. Šaltinio kalbos įžeidžimas tampa labiau nepadorus tikslinėje kalboje; 4. Šaltinio kalbos ironiška dviprasmybė tikslinėje kalboje turi tik vieną išverstą reikšmę; 5. Šaltinio kalbos ironija yra pakeičiama sinonimu tikslinėje kalboje be galimų interpretacijų; 6. Ironija iš šaltinio kalbos visiškai dingsta tikslinėje kalboje; 7. Šaltinio kalboje esanti ironija tampa sarkazmu tikslinėje kalboje; Šio tyrimo rezultatai parodė, kad: 1. Iš viso buvo rasta penkiasdešimt šeši žodinės ironijos pavyzdžiai lietuviškoje memuarų versijoje ir jų atitikmenys anglų kalboje. 2. Iš 56 žodinės ironijos atvejų, surinktų iš atsiminimų „Dievų miškas“, trisdešimt devyni žodinės ironijos atvejai buvo išversti iš lietuvių į anglų kalbą, naudojant pažodinį vertimą; penkis kartus ironija anglų kalboje buvo sustiprinta naudojant papildomus žodžius ar išsireiškimus; keturi atvejai nuorodė, jog ironija visiškai dingo angliškame kūrinio vertime, taip pat keturiais atvejais ironija anglų kalba buvo pakeista sinonimais be jokios galimos interpretacijos; dviem atvejais į anglų kalbą išversta tik viena žodžio reikšmė; ironija anglų kalba tapo labiau apribota tik vieną kartą, taip pat ironija anglų kalba tapo sarkazmu - šios strategijos buvo rastos po vieną kartą. Kitos M. Mateo pasiūlytos vertimo strategijos nebuvo naudojamos ir jų negalima priskirti jokiems surinktiems žodinės ironijos atvejams. 3. Teorinėje šio tyrimo dalyje buvo pateiktos vertimo strategijos, kurias pasiūlė kiti lingvistai. Tik du tyrėjai pasiūlė vertimo strategijas ironijai, o M. Mateo pasiūlytos strategijos buvo naudojamos analizuojant „Dievų mišką“. 4. Žodinė ironija buvo perkelta iš lietuvių į anglų kalbą naudojant M. Mateo tyrimo pateiktas vertimo strategijas. Remiantis šiame darbe atliktais tyrimais, pažodinis vertimas buvo naudojamas dažniau nei kitos vertimo strategijos.

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26. Byla A. (2005). Forest of the Gods. Vilnius: Versus Aureus, 2005. 27. Sruoga B. (2019). Dievų Miškas. Vilnius: Baltų lankų leidyba, 2019.

APPENDICIES

Appendix No. 1 ST irony becomes TT irony with literal translation Praising in order to blame 1. a) “Hey, compared to the way it used to be, this place is a seaside resort.” “Resort?” “Look! Pines are growing. Isn’t that just like resort? And the sea is three kilometers away. There’s no shortage of air… Nonsense. You can live here. Just don’t drink the water. It’s infected with all sorts of typhus and cholera. See how the chimney’s smoking?” (Byla, 2005, p. 34) b) „- Dabar čia palygint su tuo, kas anksčiau buvo, yra tikras pajūrio kurortas. - Kurortas?! - Matai, pušelės auga. Kuo ne kurortas? Jūra už trijų kilometrų. Ir oro čionai nepritrūksta... Niekis. Galima gyventi. Negerkite tiktai čionai jokio vandens. Jis čia visokiom šiltinėm ir cholerom apkrėstas. Matote, kaminas rūksta?“ (Sruoga, 2019, pp. 32-33) 2. a) “And me – I’m not alone. They won’t make soap out of me yet, it appears.” (Byla, 2005, p. 19) b) „- O, aš – nebe vienas! Vadinas, muilo iš manęs nebevirs!“ (Sruoga, 2019, p. 17) 3. a) “I snuggle up and chatter my teeth. What else is there to do except chatter?“ (Byla, 2005, p. 64) b) „Glaudžiuos ir kalenu dantimis, - ką gi kita veiksi nekalenęs?“ (Sruoga, 2019, p. 63) 4. a) “For a missing tooth of gold, you’re as responsible as if you’d stolen a golden nugget from the S.S. Treasury. Teeth are deposited only temporarily in your gums. When you croak, you must conscientiously turn in your golden hoard to the treasury.“ (Byla, 2005, p. 84) b) „Už pražudytą auksinį dantį atsakysi taip, kaip atsakytum iš SS iždo aukso gabalėlį pavogęs. Dantys tiktai laikinai deponuoti tavo gerklėje. Nusprogęs turi sąžiningai grąžinti iždui visa lobį.“ (Sruoga, 2019, p. 83) 5. a) “This is camp’s detachment of cripples. It is a labor detachment! The cripples ‘go to work’ and ‘work’ according to their capabilities.“ (Byla, 2005, p. 92) b) „Tai – lagerio klipatų komanda. Ji – taip pat darbo komanda! „Eina“ „darbo dirbti“, „darbo“ – atitinkamo jos pajėgumą.“ (Sruoga, 2019, p. 90) 6. a) “The cripples of our camp, it seems, didn’t fully appreciate his technique: they begun dying in unison like spring ducklings beset with leeches.“ (Byla, 2005, p. 123)

b) „Mūsų lagerio klipatos šios dorybės, matyti, neįvertino kaip reikiant: ėmė mirti sutartinai, it žąsiukai pavasarį, dėlių apsėsti.“ (Sruoga, 2019, p. 119) 7. a) “The other Lithuanian intellectuals who landed in the hospital found an easier way out: they began dying one after the other.“ (Byla, 2005, p. 141) b) „Kiti lietuviai inteligentai, patekę į ligoninę, rado paprastesnę išeitį, ėmė mirti vienas po kito.“ (Sruoga, 2019, p. 137) 8. a) “Though head of the camp’s most important office, he didn’t even know how to write decent German.“ (Byla, 2005, p. 209) b) „Svarbiausios lageryje raštinės viršininkas, o vokiškai taisyklingai rašyti nemokėjo.“ (Sruoga, 2019, p. 202) 9. a) “For those who were sick, lying in the hospital, the enactment of the punishment was postponed until they were well, but those who rushed into death were absolved of further punishment.“ (Byla, 2005, p. 264) b) „Sergantiem, gulintiem ligoninėj bausmės vykdymas buvo atidedamas, kol jis pasveiks, o pasiskubinę numirti buvo visiškai nuo bausmės atleidžiami.“ (Sruoga, 2019, p. 254) 10. a) “The authorities by 1944 couldn’t take it any more and replaces the prisoners assigned to that detail with horses. This was startling innovation, to have horses in camp; apparently they too had been convicted of racial inferiority.“ (Byla, 2005, p. 289) b) „Valdžia nebeapsikęsdama 1944 metais į tuos vežimus ėmė kinkyti arklius. Iš viso tą vasarą dėl neežinomų priežasčių, - ar tik ne dėl rasinių nusikaltimų? – į koncentracijos lagerį buvo patekę arkliai.“ (Sruoga, 2019, p. 280) 11. a) "...implying that Pabst, having gotten a trifle drunk on the sly, took this Pole and ruffled his feathers a bit, attempting to instill discipline, but for his own reasons this perverse Pole took it in his head to kick off. That the Pole managed to actually die was mainly due to the notorious Polish obstinance.“ b) „Esą Pabstas šiek tiek slaptai išgėręs, tą lenkelį trupučiuką tiktai paplunksnavęs, paklusnumo pamokęs, bet mirti jam nebuvę dėl ko. Kad jis pasimirė – tai buvęs jo asmeniškas reikalas, kilęs iš lenkiško atkaklumo.“ (Sruoga, 2019, p. 262) Appendix No. 2 ST irony becomes TT irony with literal translation Internal contradiction 1. a) “Of course, if he wasn’t smart enough to die at the right time, many stood by ready and able to help him fulfill his obligation.” (Byla, 2005, p. 81)

b) „Na, žinoma, jei jis pats nesusiprasdavo tinkamu laiku numirti, atsirasdavo, kas jam padėdavo atlikti jo prievolę.“ (Sruoga, 2019, 80) 2. a) “This spat was typical of our relations with the Poles in camp. Poles protected us from Poles.“ (Byla, 2005, p. 112) b) „Šios peštynėlės iš viso buvo labai būdingos mūsų santykiam lageryje su lenkais. Lenkai mus apgynė nuo lenkų.“ (Sruoga, 2019, p. 108) 3. a) “…But so long as there are thieves, the police can rest assured that they’ll have a job and bread on the table, something to chase, something to guard… Now wouldn’t you agree with me, Mr. Raportführer, Sir?“ (Byla, 2005, p. 239) b) „- ... Kol yra vagių, policija gali būti rami, - ji turės duonos, - turės ką gaudyti, ką saugoti, - ar ne tiesa, pone raportfiureri?“ (Sruoga, 2019, p. 233) 4. a) “The camp is an entirely separate republic. Autonomous and independent, like a maharaja’s dominion.“ (Byla, 2005, p. 35) b) „- Lageris – tai visiškai atskira respublika, autonomiškai nepriklausoma, kaip maharadžių dominija.“ (Sruoga, 2019, p. 34) 5. a) “Questions if the camp are taboo. You must be psychologist and prophet in one. You must predict when and in which bandit a brainstorm will begin to brew, and what it’s all about. You must forecast what ill winds will blow through the mind of a hoodlum, since you’ll be beaten till you understand what he wants – without him saying a word, of course.“ (Byla, 2005, p. 86) b) „Lagery klausti negalima. Lagery turi būti psichologas ir pranašas. Turi žinoti, kada kas kokiam banditui į galvą šauna. Turi pats numanyti, kas ant seilės užėjo tave lydinčiam mušeikai. Gausi mušti, kol suprasi savaime, ko jisai nori.“ (Sruoga, 2019, p. 84) 6. a) “Finding ourselves in these bunks, we felt like honorable citizens of the camp, with rights equal to those who beat up others.“ (Byla, 2005, p. 102) b) „Patekę į šitokias lovas, pasijutome lyg garbingi lagerio piliečiai, lygiateisiai su tais, kurie muša.“ (Sruoga, 2019, p. 99) Appendix No. 3 ST irony becomes TT irony with literal translation Fallacious reasoning 1. a) “As if to spite Mayer, the Norwegians began dying off.” (Byla, 2005 323, p.) b) „Kiti norvegai iš pasipiktinimo Mayerio elgesiu mirti pradėjo.” (Sruoga, 2019, p. 312) 2. a) “As far as this relates to me,” I begin bravely, “I never walk anywhere. I’m a poet and I don’t involve myself in politics.” (Byla, 2005, 21)

b) „- Kiek tai liečia mane, - įsidrąsinau ir aš, - tai aš niekur nevaikštau. Aš esu poetas ir jokia politika nesiverčiu.“ (Sruoga, 2019, p. 20) 3. a) “Have you had dinner? Are you hungry?” (Byla, 2005, p. 54) b) „- Pietų valgei? Nori valgyti?“ (Sruoga, 2019, p. 53) 4. a) “Captain, Sir,” Willie replied, “it was so bad with Kozlowski, so terribly bad, that I decided to walk back to Stutthof…” (Byla, 2005, p. 310) b) „- Pone hauptšturmfiureri, - teisinasi Willis, - pas Kozlovskį buvo taip bloga, taip bloga, - kad aš nutariau pėsčias sugrįžti į Stutthofą...“ (Sruoga, 2019, p. 300) 5. a) “And if a package doesn’t know enough to split open by itself, what’s wrong with giving it a little help?“ (Byla, 2005, p. 290) b) „Jeigu siuntinys pats nesusipranta praplyšti, kodėl gi jam nebūtų galima šiek tiek padėti?“ (Sruoga, 2019, p. 281) 6. a) “He slams down the club and like a broken record repeats over and over: “Die Arbeit macht das Leben suus! Die Arbeit macht... Work makes life sweet!“ (Byla, 2005, 97) b) „Smogia lazda ir liežuviu vis pritaria kaip gramofonas: - Die Arbeit macht das Leben suss! Die Arbeit macht... – Darbas daro gyvenimą saldų!“ (Sruoga, 2019, p. 94) 7. a) “Cussing is more important than bread.“ (Byla, 2005, p. 99) b) „Keiktis svarbiau už duoną.“ (Sruoga, 2019, p. 96) 8. a) “Numerus stultorum infinitus est – the number of fools is infinite. Unquestionably, the number of fools is always greater than necessary. Every nation has enough for itself and enough for export; likewise, every nation has its own derelicts, its own saints.“ (Byla, 2005, p. 112) b) „Numerus stultorum infinitus est, - kvailių skaičius yra begalinis. Ko ko, bet kvailių visur yra daugiau, negu reikia. Kiekviena tauta jų turi ir sau, ir eksportui pakankamai, lygiai kaip kiekviena tauta turi nuosavus latrus ir šventuosius.“ (Sruoga, 2019, p. 109) 9. a) “Some managed to die, voluntarily as it were; others, in accordance with official custom, were handsomely hung with all pomp and circumstance.“ (Byla, 2005, p. 236) b) „Kiti iš jų ir savanoriškai mirti sugebėdavo, kitus gi – pagal oficialius papročius – gražiai iškilmingai pakardavo.“ (Sruoga, 2019, p. 229) 10. a) “Of the twenty-five nations who lived in camp, not one liked the Latvians. The Latvians, out of the vexation, began to rapidly die.“ (Byla, 2005, p. 244) b) „Iš dvidešimt penkių lageryje gyvenusių tautų nė viena latvių nemėgo. Patys gi latviai iš to apmaudo ėmė skubotai mirti.“ (Sruoga, 2019, p. 237)

11. a) “As an extra precaution, the camp kept a separate dog detachment composed of about twenty quadrupeds and several bipeds in S.S. uniforms. The bipeds were a pure Germanic breed; the quadrupeds were mostly of the German shepherd race, but there was some mixed blood.“ (Byla, 2005, p. 312) b) „Lageris dėl visa ko laikė šunų atskirą komandą, kuriai priklausė apie dvidešimtį keturkojų ir keliolika dvikojų SS uniforma. Dvikojai buvo grynos germanų veislės, keturkojai buvo daugiausia vilkų rasės, bet buvo ir maišyto kraujo.“ (Sruoga, 2019, p. 302) 12. a) “If a Latvian told you he was dying, he wouldn’t deceive you. About such matters the Latvians didn’t kid around.“ (Byla, 2005, p. 425) b) „Jei jau latvis pasakė, kas jis mirs – šventa. Jis neapgaus. Mirs kaip reikiant, - juokų nekrės.“ (Sruoga, 2019, p. 417) 13. a) “I rewrote the letter. ‘Our electrified barbed wire fence shines and sparkles as if it were sprinkled with fine silvery sugar. Visible behind the fence are three birches, two tree stumps and one mushroom.’“ (Byla, 2005, p. 288) b) „Laišką perrašiau. Rašau: mūsų spygliuotų įelektrintų vielų tvora spindi žaižaruoja kaip sidabrinė, smulkiu cukrumi apibarstyta. Už tvoros matyti trys berželiai, du kelmai ir vienas grybas.“ (Sruoga, 2019, p. 279) 14. a) “How thoughtful!” (Byla, 2005, p. 37) b) „- Sakyk tu man, koks rūpestingumas!“ (Sruoga, 2019, p. 36) Appendix No. 4 ST irony is enhanced in TT with some word/expression 1. a) “Lawyers, professors, priests, financiers, writers and all the rest of the Lithuanian rabble,” (Byla, 2005, p. 95) b) „- Advokatai, profesoriai, kunigai, finansistai, rašytojai ir visas kitas lietuviškas mėšlas,-“ (Sruoga, 2019, p. 92) 2. a) “Sonofabitch! Don’t you know that beating’s not allowed?” foams and gargles Wacek. “I’ll show you how you’re supposed to beat, you dogshit!” (Byla, 2005, p. 106) b) „- Ar tu nežinai, šunsnuki, kad mušti negalima? – gargaliuoja Vacius apsiputodamas. – Aš tau parodysiu, šunų išjoda, kaip reikia mušti!” (Sruoga, 2019, p. 102) 3. a) “S.S. Tech Sergeant Marholz, whose specialty throughout the journey was helping the weary hurry home with a bullet.“ (Byla, 2005, p. 400) b) „SS feldfebelis Marholz, kurio specialybė buvo – per visa kelionę – pavargėliam su kulka padėti.” (Sruoga, 2019, p. 390)

4. a) “He didn’t exactly kill anyone, it just so happened that... Oh, it’s tedious to recount such trifles!“ (Byla, 2005, p.197) b) „Užmušti jis nieko tenai neužmušė. Šiaip tiktai trupučiuką...ach, kas per smulkmeniškumas skaičiuoti tokius mažmožius!” (Sruoga, 2019, p. 190)

Appendix No. 5 ST ironic innuendo becomes more restricted and explicit in TT 1. a) “This little person, this Master Sergeant Haupt, had a kind heart. Every week he drove out to Gdansk to see his wife, usually bringing her, the poor thing, two good-sized packages: margarine, sausage, flour, groats, sugar – and all sorts of other things which, quite obviously, could not possible be needed by the dying cripples...” (Byla, 2005, p. 124) b) „Geros širdies žmogelis buvo tasai feldfebelis Hauptas. Kas savaitė vis važiuodavo į Gdanską pas savo žmonelę nuveždamas jai, vargšei paprastai du geroku paketu: margarino, dešros, miltų, kruopų, cukraus – ir visų kitų dalykų, kurie mirštantiem klipatom negi gali būti reikalingi...” (Sruoga, 2019, p. 121)

Appendix No. 6 ST ironic ambiguity has only one of the two meanings translated in TT 1. a) “Hurry up, you old carcass!” I am also bestowed a label and two sticks across the neck. ... Hm... Any way you look at it, the customs of this land are rather strange! I’d even prefer the old Asian greeting of rubbing noses with men... “ (Byla, 2005) b) „- Greičiau tu, maitos vaike, - gavau ir aš pavadinimą ir dvi lazdas per sprandą. ... Hm... Vis dėlto keistoki šitos šalies papročiai! Man jau geriau patiktų Azijos gyventojų pasisveikinimo būdas, kai susitikę vyrai nosimis pasitrina...” (Sruoga, 2019, p. 27)

Appendix No. 7 ST irony replaced by a “synonym” in TT with no two possible interpretations 1. a) “Don’t tell me I choked him with my big toe?!” moaned Jonas.” (Byla, 2005, p. 72) b) „- Ir pasitaikyk tu man taip! – aimanavo mano mielas bičiulis Jonas, bambizas nuo Biržų. – Argi aš būsiu jį savo nykščiu uždusinęs?!” (Sruoga, 2019, p. 71) 2. a) “In the fall of 1944 he bragged he’d already spent five years in the war, though of course he’d never fired a shot. He spent all his time warring with weaponless prisoners – slugging, strangling, stealing.” (Byla, 2005)

b) „Todėl dar 1944 metų rudenį mėgdavo jisai girtis, kad jau penkeri metai besirandąs kare, nors karo lauko veiksmuose jis niekuomet nedalyvavo – visą laiką pravertė su beginkliais kaliniais bekariaudamas, - juos mušdamas, smaugdamas, apiplėšdamas.” (Sruoga, 2019, p. 56)

Appendix No. 8 Ironic ST completely deleted in TT Analogy and ambiguity 1. a) “He and I were good friends at this time. Occasionally he even gave me a cigarette. He didn’t just let me take one from his heavy silver cigarette case. No. He took a cigarette out of the case himself and threw it on the ground for me. I’d immediately jump up, retrieve the cigarette and provide a light for his smoke. Our friendship had already reached this level of intimacy!” (Byla, 2005, p. 204) b) „...- šiuo metu mudu su juo buvome geri bičiuliai. Jis man kartais net cigaretę duodavo. Ne taip – pačiam iš jo sunkaus sidabrinio portsigaro pasiimti. Ne. Jis pats cigaretę iš portsigaro išsiimdavo ir numesdavo po kojų man ant žemės. Aš juo pašokdavau, pasiimdavau cigaretę ir pasirūpindavau uždegti jo rūkalą, - mudviejų bičiulystė jau buvo pasiekusi tokio aukšto laipsnio!” (Sruoga, 2019, p. 197)