Economic, Social and Biological Attributes of Two Marine Reserves Within New Zealand
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Economic, social and biological attributes of two marine reserves within New Zealand By Ursula A. Rojas Nazar A thesis submitted to Victoria University of Wellington In fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Marine Biology. 2013 This thesis was conducted under the supervision of: Dr James J Bell (Primary Supervisor) Victoria University of Wellington Wellington, New Zealand Dr Jonathan PA Gardner (Co-Supervisor) Victoria University of Wellington Wellington, New Zealand And Dr Ross Cullen (Co-Supervisor) Lincoln University Christchurch, New Zealand 2 Abstract Marine Reserves (MRs) are amongst the most common tools used for marine conservation around the world. New Zealand (NZ) has 34 MRs protecting approximately 7.6% of NZ‘s territorial seas. In NZ the main purpose of MRs is to allow scientific research to be conducted in the absence of human disturbance. The establishment of MRs around the country produces different biological, social and economic effects in the surrounding communities. However, the majority of previous MR studies have evaluated the biological effects of protection and not the social and economic effects. This thesis investigates how established MRs are performing in terms of social, economic, social and biological goals and contributing to society‘s well-being within New Zealand. For this research I conducted research at two MRs. The Taputeranga MR (TMR) was established in 2008, and is the newest MR established in New Zealand. It is located in the Wellington region, on the Wellington south coast, and extends from Princess Bay to Quarry Bay, protecting 8.54 km2 of coastal waters. Kapiti MR (KMR), which is one of the oldest MRs in New Zealand, was established in 1992 in the Wellington region, approximately 50 km north of Wellington city. It is located on the Kapiti coast in front of Paraparaumu beach. The KMR covers 20.90 km2of coastal water, divided into two parts; the largest part is 17.50 km2and the smaller part is 3.4 km2. In this thesis I am starting to explore the financial cost of the MRs (chapter 2), where I attempted to estimate all of the costs required to establish a MR. The Taputeranga MR was used as a case study along with an analysis of the management costs for four other MRs. I aimed to find predictor variables across these five MRs to explain differences in their management cost. In addition, I also estimated the displacement cost to fishermen. Results showed that the Taputeranga‘s pre-establishment process cost approximately NZ $508,000, and the establishment process cost approximately NZ $ 354,000. In addition, the average management cost across five MRs per year was around NZ $63,000 year -1. With respect to the predictor variables, the Akaike Information Criterion (AICc) analysis showed that MR size best explains cost, where small MRs are more expensive to maintain than big MRs. The displacement cost was estimated as NZ $22,000 approximately per vessel. 3 I also researched and examined the social impacts of MRs (chapter 3). The aim of this chapter was to explore the human dimensions of the TMR and KMR and a hypothetical MR as a control area. I used a series of questionnaires with five main groups affected by the establishment of the MRs. Results showed that of the people who conducted activities close to the TMR and KMR, nobody selected either area specifically because there was a MR in the vicinity. With respect to MR knowledge, the majority of people at both MRs and at the hypothetical MR believed they knew what a MR was, however, nobody could provide a correct description of the main reasons for MR designation in New Zealand. Most groups surveyed at KMR indicated that its establishment had not personally affected them. At TMR, all groups believed they had experienced direct (personal) and indirect problems since the establishment of the MR. At the hypothetical MR, the majority of respondents perceived that its establishment would not cause any personal or family problems. I found that respondents at both MRs and the hypothetical MR believed that MRs are a good tool for protecting the environment. I also develop a framework to understand and estimate MR goods and services by using the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment framework (chapter 4). The aim of this study was to identify and determine use and non-use values of the Taputeranga MR and Kapiti MR. At KMR and TMR I identified eight main value-categories: (1) Commercial fishing benefits from MR, (2) Nature-based tourism, (3) Education, (4) Research, (5) Public recreation, (6) Recreational fishing benefit from MR, (7) Ecosystem health, and (8) Existence – Bequest value. The existence-bequest values (non-use values) were estimated based on the public‘s willingness to pay (WTP) and found to have a mean value of NZ $61.54 at the TMR and NZ $31.45 at the KMR per household/year. After being exploring cost of MRs, social effects of MRs and MR goods and services, I researched the biological effects of MRs. For this I examined the effect of MRs on rock lobster (Jasus edwardsii) biomass and abundance (chapter 5). I investigated how rock lobsters (RLs) (Jasus edwardsii) have responded to the protection afforded by the TMR and KMR by comparing rock lobster Catch Per Unit Effort (CPUE) between reserve and non- reserve areas. The average CPUE was higher inside both MRs than outside. Also bigger RLs were caught inside both MRs‘. In addition, the TMR catches were twice as high compared with historical catches, and the KMR compared with historical catches were 1.93 times higher. 4 By integrating all these different chapters and methodologies I have been able to provide insights that will help in the future of conservation of MRs, by improving the level of information for better decision-making, improving the communication between decision- makers and stakeholders and to build better relationships between researchers and non- extractive users of MRs. Moreover, I provide recommendations that could be useful to include within the current Marine Protected Area Policy and potentially improve it. These recommendations also attempt to minimize the time and costs involved in MRs from the pre- establishment stages, by creating effective and formal alliances between different groups of stakeholders. 5 Dedicated to my son Sebastian, my loved Cristian, my mother and father Acknowledgments First of all I would like to thank my supervisors James Bell, Jonathan Gardner and Ross Cullen for giving me the opportunity to conduct this research and for their valuable and critical assessment and advice through the course of my study. Through our long conversations they helped me become a dedicated researcher with an ability to think critically I would like to thank all the people that in one way or another helped me to achieve my targets in this research. I am particularly grateful to my son Sebastian, and my partner Cristian, as well as the newest family members Maty and Cony, for constantly supporting me and for their patience. I really love them, and without their support my time in New Zealand would have been very difficult. Many thanks for believing in me, I truly appreciate that. Also important has been the support of all those friends and colleagues that have helped make my thesis better with their ideas, logistic support and conversations that made my thesis and my life in New Zealand so much better, I would like to thanks Fernanda, Agnes, Mike M-Y., Cesario, Simona Sandra, Tyler, Tim, Keko, Andrea, Marita, Marce & Cristian, Pauli, Paul M., Alejandro, Ceviche, Sonja, Poncho, Colin R., Andrew C., Alejandra P., Alejandra Mc., Alix, John, Michael G. I am also grateful to the crawfishing crew: Michael Meredyth-Young, Don Nelson, Hawea Tomoana, Seba, Cristian & Matias C., Simona, Cesario, Ian, Alejandro, Pauli, Henrieta, Teresa, Alejandra, Hayden, Katja, Tim, Daniela, Tyler, Fernanda, Leana, Luke, Smrutica, Rodney, Graham, Katia, Flyn, Shane P. Ewa K. for helping with the English and the questionnaire design; Peter H. for promoting this study between locals, Nicky F., Phoebe A., Mathew N. for their help with the questionnaire as interviewers. I also acknowledge the support of public organizations, businesses, services and clubs at national and community level who enabled me to get alongside and fully understand the 6 social, political, and economic significance of marine reserves: Daryl Sykes and The New Zealand Rock Lobster Industry Council Ltd; Debbie F., Helen K. and Peter S. (DOC); NIWA, Forest and Bird; Island Bay, Paraparaumu and Waikanae Public libraries; the Bowling Club Island Bay; Kapiti Underwater Club; Raumati Fishing club; Waikanae Fishing club; Owhiro Bay School; Island Bay School; Houghton Valley School; Raumati Beach School; St Francis de Sales School; Paraparaumu Beach School; Paraparaumu College, Kapiti College, Te Ra School, Tawa School, Wellington Girls College, Berhampore School, Evans Bay Intermediate, Karori Normal School, Karori West Normal School, Kelburn Normal School, Lyall Bay School, Raroa Normal Intermediate, Ridway School, South Wellington Intermediate, Miramar Christian School, St Mark´s Church School, St Theresa's School; Island Bay divers; Splash Gordon Diving shop; Dive Kapiti (Ben) and Kapiti Tours and Zoe S (EMR). I want to thank the VUW Staff, for constantly supporting me as student and person. Special thanks to Patricia S., Shona D.S., Marry M., Sandra T., Paul M., Magdalen S., Jan S. and Maria G. for their patience and always being willing to help and assist the Chilenos. I wish to thank those agencies that have funded my studies as well as my research the CONYCTYT-Chile, Department of Conservation (DOC) – New Zealand. I am also thankful to Victoria University of Wellington and Victoria University Coastal Ecology Laboratory (VUCEL) for letting me be part of their community.