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8 Complement Clause Types and Complementation Strategies In Dixon / Complementation 08-Dixon-chap08 Page Proof page 178 16.1.2006 2:40pm 8 Complement Clause Types and Complementation Strategies in Tariana ALEXANDRA Y. AIKHENVALD 1. Background Tariana has four types of complement clauses and four complementation strategies which include nominalizations, sequential subordinate clauses, and serial verb constructions. Complement clauses can only occur in O function, while nominalizations can be used in any other function, except for A. Unlike objects expressed with noun phrases, neither complement clauses nor most nominalizations can be targets of passive or any other valency-changing derivation. Tariana is an endangered North Arawak language spoken by about 100 people in the linguistic area of the Vaupe´s river basin (north-west Amazonia, Brazil). A fascinating property of this area is its institutionalized ‘multilingual exogamy’ operating between speakers of Tariana and of languages belonging to the East Tucanoan subgroup (with Tucano as its major representative). One can only marry a person who belongs to a diVerent language group (that is, a Tariana can marry a Tucano, or a Wanano, but not another Tariana). There is a strong cultural inhibition against language mixing viewed in terms of borrowing morphemes. Long-term interaction between East Tucanoan lan- guages and Tariana has resulted in the rampant diVusion of grammatical and semantic patterns (though not so much of forms) and calquing of categories. A detailed study of areal diVusion and marriage patterns is in Aikhenvald (2002a).1 1 Tariana used to be a continuum of numerous dialects (one for each of several hierarchically organized clans). The only dialect that survives is that of the WamiaQikune, the lowest-ranking clan; within it there are two varieties (Santa Rosa: all children but one do not speak the language) and Periquitos (children do speak the language; but the inXuence of East Tucanoan languages is stronger). Dixon / Complementation 08-Dixon-chap08 Page Proof page 179 16.1.2006 2:40pm 8 Tariana 179 At present, Tucano is rapidly gaining ground as the major language of the area. As a result of this encroaching dominance, innovative speakers of Tariana display more Tucano-like patterns in their language than do trad- itional speakers. A striking feature of Tariana is the way in which the language combines features shared with genetically related Arawak languages and patterns acquired via areal diVusion from genetically unrelated East Tucanoan lan- guages; there are also independent innovations. Comparison with Baniwa of Ic¸ana and Piapoco, two North Arawak languages closely related to Tariana but spoken outside the Vaupe´s area, is particularly instructive. Tari- ana shares about 85–8 per cent lexicon with Baniwa and about 60–70 per cent with Piapoco; but their morphology and syntax are very diVerent. The structure and usage of both complement clauses and complementation strat- egies have been aVected by the rampant diVusion of patterns from the neighbouring East Tucanoan languages. A combination of areally diVused and inherited patterns partly accounts for the complexity of the Tariana complementation. 2. Typological proWle and clause types Tariana is a polysynthetic agglutinating language with some fusion. Its head- marking properties are inherited from the proto-language, while dependent marking was acquired by areal diVusion from East Tucanoan languages (see detailed discussion in Aikhenvald 2002a). For instance, unlike most other Arawak languages, grammatical relations in Tariana are marked by cases, calquing an East Tucanoan pattern. Constituent order mostly depends on discourse; word order within some constituents is Wxed and within others depends on what is in focus. Open classes are nouns and verbs; underived adjectives form a closed class of about thirty members. Nominal categories are noun classes (with agreement marked on adjec- tives) and classiWers (on numerals, demonstratives, in possessive construc- tions, and on verbs in relative clauses); number; and case. Nouns are inXectionally complex (there can be double agreement in noun class; double marking of grammatical function; and double marking of number). Verbal categories include tense (fused with evidentiality), various aspects, moods, valency-changing derivations, etc. The structure of a verbal word in Tariana is fairly complex. A simple predicate has one preWx position, up to nine suYx positions, and over ten enclitic positions (see Aikhenvald 2003a: 253–4). Most enclitics are ‘Xoating’, that is, they attach either to the predicate or to any focused constituent (see Aikhenvald 2002b). Dixon / Complementation 08-Dixon-chap08 Page Proof page 180 16.1.2006 2:40pm 180 Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald Just as in most Arawak languages, grammatical relations in Tariana are marked with personal preWxes, roughly on an active-stative basis. There is no object marking on the verb. Every verbal root in Tariana is either preWxed or preWxless. PreWxed verbs can be transitive (e.g. -wapeta ‘wait for something’), ditransitive (-bueta ‘teach’), ambitransitive (A ¼ Sa, e.g. -hima ‘hear, see, think, understand’, or O ¼ Sa, e.g. -thuka ‘break’) or active intransitive (Sa, e.g. -emhani ‘walk around’). Most preWxless verbs are stative intransitive (e.g. kasitana ‘be annoyed’); some are A ¼ So ambitransitives (e.g. nhesiQi ‘like (not food)’) or O ¼ So ambitransitives (hui ‘like (food); be tasty’). Grammatical relations are also marked by cases, on a subject/non-subject basis, as shown in Table 1. This system was calqued from East Tucanoan; the markers are of Arawak origin (the core case markers go back to reanalysed locative and oblique markers: Aikhenvald 2003b). PreWxless verbs fall into two additional types. A preWxless stative So verb is shown in (1). Its subject, ‘her husband’, takes the zero subject case. (If focused, it would take the -ne/-nhe case.) (1)haQame-pu-pidana du-saniQi be.scared-aug-rem.past.rep 3sgf-husband ‘Her husband (So) got very scared’ PreWxless ‘oblique subject’ verbs (this constituent is termed Sio: see Aikhen- vald 2001) cover physical and emotional states, and three complement-clause- taking Secondary-A verbs (‘be diYcult’, ‘be diYcult (to see)’, ‘be easy (to see)’). Unlike preWxless stative verbs, their only argument is in the object case—see (2). (2) adaki-pidana di-na be.fever-rem.past.rep 3sgnf-object.case ‘He had fever’ (lit. him was.fever) Two further oblique cases are the instrumental -ne and the locative -se. All the case markers appear once per noun phrase, and go onto its last constituent (see Aikhenvald 2003a: 139–62). Table 1. Grammatical relations and core cases in Tariana Grammatical function Discourse status Nouns Pronouns subject (A/S) non-focused -Ø focused -ne/-nhe non-subject (Non A/S) non-topical -Ø -na topical -nuku Dixon / Complementation 08-Dixon-chap08 Page Proof page 181 16.1.2006 2:40pm 8 Tariana 181 In addition to simple verbs, Tariana has a variety of complex predicates which include passive, admirative, and a few more, with modal meanings (see Aikhenvald 2003a: 458–9). Contiguous multi-word serial verbs consisting of several grammatical and phonological words are highly productive (see Aikhenvald 2005). When several clauses are combined to form one sentence, all but the main clause are marked diVerently depending on whether their subject is the same as, or diVerent from, that of the main clause. This feature (known as switch- reference: see Roberts 1997 for an up-to-date account) is shared with Tucanoan languages, and provides a useful criterion for distinguishing sub- jects (A/Sa/So), alongside case marking and same-subject requirement in serial verb constructions. The subjecthood of the Sio constituent is somewhat problematic: it is treated on a par with A/Sa/So in serial verbs, but not with respect to switch-reference or case marking (see Aikhenvald 2001). The major deWnitional property of direct objects (which are marked in the same way as obliques) is that they can be targets of the passive derivation, while obliques cannot. Any non-subject constituent can be promoted to the subject slot provided it is more topical than the underlying subject (see Aikhenvald 2003a: 283–5). The subject then triggers classiWer agreement on the verb, marked with the suYx-ni (this is called topic-advancing derivation). Tariana has a variety of deverbal agent, object, action, and instrumental nominalizations. Of these, only agent nominalizations can be targets of passives or the topic-advancing derivation. The three fully productive nom- inalizations employed as complementation strategies (§4) are -nipe ‘action, state, and object nominalization’; -mi ‘past action, result, and locative nom- inalization’; and -Qi ‘non-past nominalization; concomitant action or state’. All nominalizations formed on preWxed verbs cross-reference the A/Sa con- stituent. Like any other noun phrase, a nominalization can be preposed or postposed to the verb. Nominalizations take only a subset of nominal morph- ology. They cannot take a plural marker. For the purpose of agreement with modiWers they are treated as collective inanimate nouns, take the plural form of diminutive -tupe, and require that the speciWer article occur in its singular form. If a nominalization has a second argument, it cannot be case-marked. Such an argument occurs preposed to the nominalization, e.g. payaQu pa-ni-nipe (manioc.whiskey impers-make-nom.act) ‘one’s making of manioc whiskey’. Constructions containing a nominalization with an overtly expressed A/Sa are similar to possessive constructions
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