AGREEMENTAGREEMENT ININ TUYUCATUYUCA

bbyy

JoshuJoshuaa WaynWaynee BowlesBowles

A thesithesiss submittedsubmitted ttoo thethe facultyfaculty ofof TheThe UniversitUniversityy ofof UtahUtah iinn partiapartiall fulfillmentfulfillment ooff ththee requirementrequirementss forfor ththee degreedegree ofof

MasteMasterr ooff ArtsArts

DepartmenDepartmentt ofof LinguisticsLinguistics

ThThee UniversitUniversityy ofof UtahUtah

DecembeDecemberr 20082008 CopyrightCopyright © JoshuJoshuaa WaynWaynee BowleBowless 20082008

AlAlll RightRightss ReservedReserved THE UNIVERSITY OF UTAH GRADUATE SCHOOL

SUPERVISORY COMMITTEE APPROVAL

of a thesis submitted by

Joshua Wayne Bowles

This thesis has been read by each member of the following supervisory committee and by majority vote has been found to be satisfactory. THE UNIVERSITY OF UTAH GRADUATE SCHOOL

FINAL READING APPROVAL

To the GraduateCouncil of the University of Utah:

I have read the thesis of Joshua Wayne Bowles in its final form and have found that (1) its format, citations, and bibliographic style are consistent and acceptable; (2) its illustrative materials including figures, tables, and charts are in place; and (3) the final manuscript is satisfactory to the supervisory committee and is ready for submission toThe Graduate School.

Date Campbell air: SupervisoryCommittee

Approved for the MajorDepartment

ChairlDean

Approved for the GraduateCouncil

David S. Chapman Dean of The Graduate School ABSTRACTABSTRACT

TheThe maimainn premispremisee ooff thithiss thesithesiss isis thathatt subjecsubjectt agreemenagreementt morphologmorphologyy inin TuyucaTuyuca cancan bbee isolateisolatedd frofromm ththee resrestt ofof ththee morphologymorphology.. SubjectSubject agreementagreement appearsappears onon evidentials,evidentials, nominalizersnominalizers,, animateanimate classifiers,classifiers, gerunds,gerunds, anandd ververbb stemsstems requirinrequiringg anan auxiliary.auxiliary. ThiThiss agreemenagreementt iiss instantiateinstantiatedd bbyy a pervasivpervasivee finalfinal vowevowell patterpatternn thatthat codescodes variousvarious valuevaluess ofof gender,gender, numbernumber,, anandd persopersonn featuresfeatures.. TheseThese finafinall vowelvowelss alsalsoo codecode thethe samesame informatioinformationn oonn nounnounss andand pronounspronouns.. BeforBeforee arguingarguing forfor mmyy analysianalysiss Ir providprovidee somesome preliminarpreliminaryy materiamateriall oonn Tuyuca.Tuyuca. ChapterChapter 1I iiss a briebrieff discussiodiscussionn ooff ththee sociolinguisticsociolinguistic contextcontext ooff ththee languagelanguage.. ChapterChapter 2 discussediscussess issuesissues relevanrelevantt ttoo TuyucTuyucaa datdataa anandd surveyssurveys somesome ooff ththee literaturliteraturee relaterelatedd toto TuyucaTuyuca;; iitt alsoalso discussediscussess somesome methodologicamethodologicall concernsconcerns arisingarising fromfrom ththee datadata andand importantimportant ttoo ththee thesithesiss iinn general.general. ChapterChapter 3 iiss a briebrieff sketchsketch ofof

TuyucaTuyuca grammagrammarr importanimportantt ttoo agreementagreement.. AnalysiAnalysiss isis donedone iinn ChaptersChapters 4 anandd 5.5.

InIn ChapterChapter 4 rI argue,argue, inin a descriptive-typologicadescriptive-typologicall framework,framework, thathatt bbyy isolatingisolating agreementagreement a generalgeneral deverbalizindeverbalizingg functiofunctionn cacann bbee seenseen codedcoded inin ththee morphemmorphemee I-g-I.l-g-l.

ThisThis morphemmorphemee hahass predictablpredictablee interpretationinterpretationss iinn restricterestrictedd morphosyntacticmorphosyntactic environments.environments. ItIt cancan bbee interpretedinterpreted aass a progressivprogressivee oror perfectivperfectivee aspect,aspect, anan animateanimate classifier,classifier, a gerund,gerund, andand a nominalizer.nominalizer.

IInn ChapteChapterr 5 Ir relatrelatee ththee generagenerall premispremisee ooff isolatinisolatingg agreemenagreementt iinn TuyucTuyucaa toto theoreticaltheoretical issueissuess belonginbelongingg ttoo ththee MinimalistMinimalist ProgramProgram.. I shoshoww thathatt isolatinisolatingg agreementagreement morphememorphemess fromfrom evidentialevidentialss isis,, assumingassuming ththee analysisanalysis iinn ChapterChapter 4,4, straightforward.straightforward. ThisThis hahass a practicalpractical advantageadvantage ooff makingmaking itit easieeasierr ttoo observobservee variatiovariationn betweebetweenn presenpresentt tensetense andand paspastt tensetense morphologmorphologyy ofof ththee evidentials.evidentials. I taktakee thithiss aass straightforwarstraightforwardd evidencevidencee thatthat tenstensee iiss fusedfused witwithh evidential.evidential. I alsoalso givgivee evidencevidencee thathatt supportssupports ththee pro-drop statusstatus ofof

TuyucaTuyuca,, conjecturingconjecturing thatthat subjectsubject agreemenagreementt iiss packagepackagedd witwithh nominativenominative case.case. I alsoalso arguarguee informallinformallyy thathatt verbalverbal inflectioinflectionn oftense-evidentialsof tense-evidentials anandd subjecsubjectt agreemenagreementt araree

"extensions""extensions" oofthef the ververbb phrasphrasee anandd relatrelatee ththee predicatiopredicationn oofYPf VP ttoo somesome speecspeechh timtimee anandd discoursediscourse situatiosituationn oftheof the ververbb event,event, relativrelativee ttoo somesome specificspecific worldworld.. ThiThiss resultresultss iinn a modemodell offunctionalof functional hierarchhierarchyy thathatt placeplacess EvidentiaEvidentiall undeunderr TensTensee PhrasePhrase.. I conjecturconjecturee thatthat thisthis EvidentialEvidential positiopositionn iiss a predicationalpredicational oneone,, iinn contrascontrastt ttoo ththee mormoree accepteacceptedd notionnotionss ofof

MoodcvidentialMoodevidentiai oorr ModalModalepistemic,epistemic, whichwhich areare knowknownn ttoo bbee aboveabove TensTensee PhrasePhrase.. I providprovidee twtwoo detaileddetailed modelsmodels,, oneone withwith ththee conventionalconventional hierarchhierarchyy andand oneone witwithh mmyy hierarchyhierarchy,, arguingarguing forfor ththee latter-basedlatter—based oonn generagenerall principleprincipless ofof syntacticsyntactic economeconomyy anandd locality.locality. I alsoalso providprovidee a technicatechnicall analysianalysiss ooff syntacticsyntactic localitlocalityy foforr ththee morphosyntactimorphosyntacticc fusiofusionn ooff tense­tense- evidentialsevidentials iinn a DistributedDistributed MorphologMorphologyy framework.framework.

v I dedicatededicate thithiss worworkk ttoo mmyy wife,, whwhoo hahass alwaysalways believedbelieved thatthat I wilwilll bebe a goodgood linguist-Ilinguist—I

hophopee ththee followinfollowingg doesdoes nonott disappoint.disappoint. TABLTABLEE OOFF CONTENTSCONTENTS

ABSTRACABSTRACTT ...... iivv

LISLISTT OOFF TABLETABLESS ...... iix

LISLISTT OOFF ABBREVIATIONABBREVIA TIONSS ...... x

ACKNOWLEDGMENTACKNOWLEDGMENTSS ...... xxi i

INTRODUCTIOINTRODUCTIONN ...... 1I

1I.. TUYUCTUYUCAA ANANDD ITITS PLACPLACEE ...... 2

1.11.1.. ThThee peoplpeoplee anandd ththee lanlandd ...... 2 1.2. The language and the family: Sources and influence ...... 4 1.2. The language and the family: Sources and influence 4 2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND ...... 6 2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 6 2.1. Introduction ...... 6 22.1.2.. MorphosyntacticIntroduction assumptions ...... 86 2.3.2.2. MorphosyntactiAdditional commentsc assumption on the sorganization of raw data ...... 98 2.4.2.3. AdditionaLiteraturel overviewcomment ...... s on the organizatio...... n of raw ...... data ...... 109 2.5.2.4. LiteraturSome tertninoloe overviegyw ...... 120 22.5.6. ASom notee terminolog on glossesy in the data ...... 1312 2.2.67. A notenote onon dataglosse ...... s in .th...... e dat..a...... 1413 2.7. A note on data 14 3.3. BASIC TYPOLOGICALTYPOLOGICAL PROFILEPROFILE ...... 1616

3.1.3.1. IntroductionIntroduction ...... 1616 3.2.3.2. WordWord orderorder inin TuyucaTuyuca ...... 1616 3.3.3.3. SomeSome featuresfeatures ofof agreementagreement inin TuyucaTuyuca ...... 1818 3.4.3.4. NounsNouns ...... 1919 3.5.3.5. PerPersonasonall pronounspronouns ...... 2323 3.6.3.6. VerbsVerbs ...... 2323 33.7.7.. AuxiliaryAuxiliary verbsverbs ...... 2525 3.8.3.8. EviEvidentialdentials ...... 2626 44.. "G"G"" CLASCLASSS AGREEMENAGREEMENTT ...... 3300

4.14.1.. IntroductioIntroductionn ...... 3300 4.24.2.. ThThee basibasicc datdataa ...... 3311 4.34.3. . SpecifyinSpecifyingg predictablpredictablee environmentenvironmentss ...... 4545 4.44.4.. AnimatAnimatee possessivpossessivee nounounn classifieclassifierr iiss nonott aa gerungerundd ...... 4646 4.54.5.. ThThee gerungerundd ...... 4499 4.64.6.. ConclusioConclusionn ...... 5500

55.. AGREEMENAGREEMENTT ANANDD EVIDENTIALEVIDENTTALSS ...... 5533

5.15.1.. IntroductionIntroduction:: AgainsAgainstt conflatinconflatingg agreemenagreementt anandd evidentiaevidentiall morphememorphemess ...... 5533 5.25.2.. BasiBasicc issueissuess ...... 6622 5.35.3.. TuyucTuyucaa doedoess nonott havhavee pronominapronominall argumenargumentt suffixesuffixess ...... 6464 5.45.4.. A notnotee oonn auxiliarauxiliaryy agreemenagreement..t ...... 7733 5.55.5.. Tuyuca,, agreement,, anandd tense-evidentialtense-evidentialss ...... 7755 5.6.. A notnotee oonn reanalysireanalysiss ooff aspecaspectt ...... 8686 5.7. Conclusion ...... 87 5.7. Conclusion 87 6. THE END RESULT ...... 89 6. THE END RESULT 89 Appendices Appendices A. TUKANOAN F AMIL Y CLASSIFTCA TTON ...... 94 A. TUKANOAN FAMILY CLASSIFICATION 94 B. TUKANOAN LEXICAL COGNATES ...... 96 B. TUKANOAN LEXICAL COGNATES 96 C. POTENTIAL NOUN CLASSIFIER COGNATES ...... 98 C. POTENTIAL NOUN CLASSIFIER COGNATES 98 D. CINQUE HIERARCHy ...... 100 D. CINQUE HIERARCHY 100 E. DATA SET ...... 102 E. DATA SET 102 REFERENCES ...... 110 REFERENCES HO

viiiviii LISLISTT OOFF TABLETABLESS

Table Page

1I.. NounNounss iinn TuyucTuyucaa ...... 2200

22.. NouNounn agreemenagreementt iinn EasEastt TukanoaTukanoann ...... 2200

33.. PersonaPersonall pronounpronounss ...... 2211

44.. AgreemenAgreementt paradigparadigmm foforr dependendependentt verbverbss ...... 2211

55.. EvidentiaEvidentiall paradigparadigmm foforr TuyucTuyucaa ...... 2222

66.. Nominalizer/DeverbalizeNominalizer/Deverbalizerr agreemenagreementt ...... 3232

7.. AgreemenAgreementt paradigparadigmm foforr dependendependentt verbverbss ...... 3232

8.8. PresenPresentt tenstensee evidentialevidentialss iinn TuyucTuyucaa ...... 3535

9.9. GerundsGerunds ...... 4040

10.10. PresentPresent tenstensee agreementagreement forfor verbverbss ...... 4040

II.11. PresenPresentt tensetense nominalizernominalizer agreement..agreement ...... 4040

12.12. AnimateAnimate classifiersclassifiers ...... 4848

13 . PredictedPredicted environmentsenvironments forfor "g""g" classclass morphemesmorphemes ...... 5151

14. BasicBasic typologytypology forfor tense-evidentialtense-evidential languageslanguages' ...... 5757

15.15. RevisedRevised TuyucaTuyuca paradigmparadigm ...... 6161 LISLISTT OOFF ABBREVIATIONABBREVIATIONSS

1 firsfirstt personperson INTINTSS intensifier/intensiveintensifier/intensive 22 seconsecondd persopersonn I10O indirecindirectt objecobjectt 33 thirthirdd persopersonn PP transitivtransitivee patienpatientt ACACCC accusativaccusativee PARPARTT participlparticiplee ADVADVRR adverbializeradverbializer PASPASSS passivpassIvee AANN animateanimate PCLPCLFF possessivpossessivee classifierclassifier APAPRR apparenapparentt evidentialevidential PFCPFCTT perfectperfect ASASMM assumeassumedd evidentialevidential PREPREPP prepositionpreposition ASASPP aspectaspect PRPRFF perfectiveperfective AUAUXX auxiliaryauxiliary PRPRNN pronounpronoun BEBENN benefactivebenefactive PPLL pluralplural CLCLFF classifierclassifier POSpassS possessivepossessive COMPCOMPLL completivecompletive POSPOSTT postpositionpostposition CONCONCC concessiveconcessive PROPROGG progressiveprogressive OATDAT dativedative PRSPRS presentpresent DEFDEF definitedefinite PRTPRT preteritepreterite DESDES desdesiderativ iderati vee PRXTPRXT proximatproximatee (I(1 deictic)deictic) DUBDUB dubitativedubitative PSTPST pastpast EVDEVD evidentialevidential QUaTQUOT quotativequotative F femininefeminine RDPRDP reduplicationreduplication FUTFUT futurefuture RECREC recentrecent (past)(past) GENGEN genitivegenitive RELREL relativerelative clauseclause markermarker GERGER gerundgerund REPREP reportativereportative evidentialevidential TMPFIMPF imperfect(imperfect(ive ive)) SB1SBJ subjectsubject LaCLOC locativelocative SCDSCD second-handsecond-hand evidentialevidential M masculinemasculine SGSG singularsingular MDLMDL modalmodal SPECSPEC specificspecific NEGNEG negativenegative SUB1SUBJ subjunctivesubjunctive NOMNOM nominativenominative SUBRSUBR subordinatorsubordinator NPSTNPST nonpastnonpast SUPSUP superlativesuperlative NVISNVIS nonvisualnonvisual evidentialevidential SUSSUS sustantivadorsustantivador OB1OBJ objectobject TNSTNS tensetense TNINA ANN inanimateinanimate TOPTOP topictopic INFRINFR inferentialinferential evidentialevidential TRTR transitivetransitive TNTINT interrogativeinterrogative VISLVISL visualvisual evidentialevidential TNTRINTR intransitiveintransitive VNVN verbalverbal nounnoun ACKNOWLEDGMENTACKNOWLEDGMENTSS

I wouldwould likelike toto acknowledgeacknowledge mymy intellectualintellectual debtdebt toto LyleLyle Campbell,Campbell, whowho changedchanged mmyy vievieww ooff linguistilinguisticc workwork,, literallyliterally,, onon ththee firstfirst dadayy ofof graduatgraduatee classes.classes. I thanthankk hihimm forfor allall hishis helphelp anandd forfor hihiss unwaverinunwaveringg insistenceinsistence thathatt studentsstudents nonott onlonlyy understandunderstand a theorytheory bubutt criticallcriticallyy evaluatevaluatee it.it. MucMuchh ofof ththee materiamateriall ofof ChapterChapterss 1I,, 22,, 3 anandd 4 hahadd theirtheir beginninbeginningg iinn hihiss DocumentinDocumentingg LanguagesLanguages anandd TypologTypologyy andand UniversalUniversalss classesclasses.. ThankThank youyou alsoalso ttoo MauriciMauricioo MixcoMixco forfor alwayalwayss beinbeingg openopen toto observationsobservations andand forfor helhelpp onon

SpanishSpanish ttoo EnglisEnglishh translationstrarislations.. I alsalsoo wanwantt ttoo thanthankk EEdd RubiRubinn foforr beinbeingg a greatgreat

DepartmentDepartment ChaiChairr andand forfor effectivelyeffectively communicatingcommunicating hihiss respecrespectt forfor ththee studystudy ofof

linguistilinguisticc science.science. AAnn additionaadditionall thanthankk yoyouu goesgoes ttoo AnikAnikoo CsirmaCsirmazz foforr allall heherr detaileddetailed helhelpp anandd observations.observations. HeHerr dedicatiodedicationn ttoo understandinunderstandingg linguisticslinguistics,, criticalcritical awareness,awareness, andand observationalobservational scrutinyscrutiny iiss anan exampleexample.. MucMuchh ofof ththee materiamateriall inin ChapteChapterr 5 hadhad itsits beginninbeginningg iinn heherr MorphologMorphologyy andand AdvanceAdvancedd SyntaxSyntax classes.classes. ThankThank yoyouu alsoalso toto WilsonWilson

Silva,Silva, whwhoo convinceconvincedd meme inin ouourr AmericaAmericann IndiaIndiann LanguageLanguagess coursecourse witwithh ProfessorProfessor

CampbellCampbell toto startstart studyingstudying AmazoniaAmazoniann languageslanguages.. HeHe alsoalso deservedeservess thankthankss foforr allowingallowing a nearnear strangestrangerr ttoo accompanaccompanyy himhim oonn a fieldfield worworkk grangrantt wwee wrotwrotee togethetogetherr inin summersummer 2007,2007, andand foforr lettingletting mmee staystay aatt hihiss parent'parent'ss houshousee inin ManausManaus foforr a fewfew weeks—anweeks-andd alsoalso forfor puttinputtingg uupp withwith mmyy horriblhorriblee PortuguesePortuguese.. LastlyLastly,, thankthankss ttoo ThiagThiagoo ChacoChaconn whwhoo waswas alwaysalways exciteexcitedd ttoo talktalk andand shareshare hihiss knowledgknowledgee aboutabout TukanoanTukanoan languages.languages.

ThisThis thesithesiss couldcould nonott havhavee beebeenn writtewrittenn withouwithoutt ththee helphelp ofof thosthosee mentionedmentioned INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION

ThereThere araree manymany linguisticlinguistic issueissuess nonott coverecoveredd iinn thesthesee chapters,chapters, bubutt inin anotheranother sense,sense, thertheree araree totooo manymany.. FoForr exampleexample,, ChapteChapterr 5 touchetouchess oonn issueissuess ooff languaglanguagee change,change, grammaticalization,grammaticalization, evidentiality,evidentiality, economeconomyy iinn minimalisminimalistt syntax,syntax, cartographiccartographic domains,domains, thethe semanticsemanticss ooff tensetense anandd aspectaspect,, ththee typologtypologyy anandd morphologymorphology ofof fusedfused tense­tense- evidentialsevidentials,, anandd sisterhoodsisterhood relationrelationss foforr fusedfused morphememorphemess inin a DistributeDistributedd MorphologyMorphology framework.framework. ChapterChapter 5 iiss bbyy fafarr thethe mosmostt ambitiousambitious,, abstractabstract,, andand theoreticatheoreticall sectiosectionn ooff thethe thesisthesis;; thertheree iiss a definitdefinitee risriskk thathatt I havehave bittebittenn ofofff mormoree thathann I cancan chew.chew. HoweverHowever,, IT believbelievee thathatt anan analysianalysiss ooff ththee grammaticagrammaticall issuesissues TI amam dealingdealing withwith necessitatesnecessitates touchingtouching oonn alalll thesethese issueissuess anandd TI welcomewelcome thethe challenge.challenge . AnytimeAnytime oneone comescomes acrossacross aa sufficientlysufficiently narrowednarrowed focusfocus ooff researcresearchh thathatt seemseemss ttoo bbee atat ththee crossroadscrossroads ofof soso manmanyy theoreticatheoreticall pathspaths ononee shoulshouldd neveneverr shyshy awayaway iinn feafearr ofof havinhavingg ttoo confronconfrontt complicationscomplications.. TI believbelievee thatthat thisthis thesisthesis hahass sufficientlsufficientlyy narrowenarrowedd ththee focufocuss ofof researcresearchh ttoo twtwoo particulaparticularr aspectaspectss ofof agreementagreement iinn TuyucaTuyuca,, namelnamelyy ththee morphemmorphemee l-g-lI-g-I anandd ththee inflectionalinflectional endingending ooff verbs,verbs, andand it woulwouldd bbee regrettablregrettablee ifif I shyeshyedd awaawayy frofromm ththee complicatecomplicatedd problemproblemss thathatt thesethese piecepiecess ooff TuyucTuyucaa morphosyntamorphosyntaxx poinpointt towards.towards. 1.1. TUYUCTUYUCAA ANANDD ITSITS PLACEPLACE

1.1.1.1 .Th Thee peoplpeoplee anandd ththee landland

TheThe TuyucTuyucaa peoplepeople,, aass parpartt ofof ththee largelargerr TukanoanTukanoan languaglanguagee familyfamily andand culture,culture, belonbelongg ttoo lanlandd onon ththee bordeborderr ooff ColombiColombiaa andand BrazilBrazil,, whicwhichh makemakess uupp parpartt ofof ththee AmazonAmazon regionregion.. MorMoree specifically,specifically, thetheyy livelive alonalongg ththee TiquiTiquiee RiveRiverr andand ththee OncaOnlj:a,, Cabari,Cabari, andand

AbiyliAbiyu streamstreamss asas welwelll aass alongalong partpartss ofof ththee PapurPapurii RiveRiverr (Barnes(Barnes 1984,1984, 1990,1990, 1994)-all1994)—all araree areasareas oofthef the UppeUpperr RioRio NegrNegroo areareaa andand VaupeVaupess RiveRiverr region.region. TheThe languaglanguagee iiss spokenspoken bbyy fewefewerr thanthan 303000 peoplpeoplee iinn ColombiColombiaa anandd 590590 peoplpeoplee inin BraziBrazill (Barnes(Barnes 1984,1984, 1990,1990,

1994);1994); seesee FigurFiguree 1I.. TheThe TuyucTuyucaa havhavee roughlroughlyy 1515 sibs,sibs, oorr tribestribes,, andand thetheyy areare expertexpert basket-weaversbasket-weavers andand canocanoee carvers.carvers.

TheThe TukanoaTukanoann family,family, ttoo whicwhichh TuyucaTuyuca belongsbelongs,, consistconsistss ofof twenttwentyy languageslanguages separateseparatedd intintoo threethree subbranchesubbranchess (see(see AppendiAppendixx A forfor classification)classification).. TuyucaTuyuca isis commonlcommonlyy callecalledd bbyy nativnativee speakerspeakerss DokapuarDokapuaraa oorr UtapinomakaphonaUtapinomakaphomi.. OtherOther namesnames includeinclude TuiucaTuiuca,, TuyukaTuyuka,, Tuyuka-tapuyoTuyuka-tapuyo,, DocDochh KafuaraKafuara,, Dohka-poarDohka-poaraa oorr DoxkapuaraDoxkapuara

(Stenze(Stenzell 2006,2006, FabreFabre 2005)2005).. TuyucaTuyuca hahass nnoo referencreferencee grammargrammar bubutt articlesarticles writtewrittenn byby

JaneJanett BarnesBarnes,, a missionarmissionaryy linguistlinguist,, overover a perioperiodd ofof twenttwentyy yearyearss containcontain muchmuch essentialessential datadata.. MyMy analysisanalysis iiss basebasedd oonn heherr worworkk (see(see references)references),, asas welwelll asas onon KarKarnn (1976(1976,, 1979).1979).

ThThee TukanoanTukanoan peoplpeoplee areare famousfamous foforr theirtheir exogamousexogamous marriagmarriagee patterns.patterns.

ExogamyExogamy herheree isis dependendependentt onon languaglanguagee identitiesidentities.. ThisThis resultresultss inin a bilinguabilinguall (at(at least)least) homehome environmentenvironment wherwheree ththee maternamaternall andand ththee paternalpaternal languagelanguagess areare spoken.spoken. However,However, 3 ththee childchild identifiesidentifies witwithh ththee paternapaternall languagelanguage.. ThiThiss languaglanguagee iiss considereconsideredd thethe primeprime determinatdeterminatee ooff ethnicity.ethnicity. ConsequentlyConsequently,, thertheree iiss nnoo distinctiodistinctionn betweebetweenn aann individual'sindividual's language,language, ethnicityethnicity,, anandd statustatuss iinn TukanoaTukanoann culture.culture. IIff ononee identifieidentifiess witwithh ththee TuyucaTuyuca languagelanguage thenthen,, ononee iiss alsoalso ethnicallethnicallyy TuyucaTuyuca andand assumesassumes ththee socialsocial statusstatus thathatt TuyucaTuyuca ethnicitethnicityy hahass inin ththee TukanoaTukanoann communitiescommunities.. IInn otheotherr wordswords,, ththee labelabell TukanoanTukanoan iiss a culturaculturall andand socialsocial umbrellumbrellaa tertermm whichwhich subsumessubsumes undeunderr iitt ththee variouvariouss languagelanguagess andand cultureculturess thathatt areare parpartt ofof ththee TukanoaTukanoann familyfamily.. ThiThiss includeincludess ththee TukanTukanoo languagelanguage,, fromfrom whicwhichh ththee familfamilyy derivederivess itsits namename,, aass welwelll aass ththee twenttwentyy oror ssoo otheotherr languages.languages. TukanoanTukanoan peoplpeoplee havhavee a ververyy keekeenn linguistilinguisticc senssensee forfor recognizinrecognizingg affiliationaffiliationss ttoo theitheirr ownown languageslanguages.. AAss fafarr aass I knowknow,, thertheree areare nonott manmanyy instancesinstances wherwheree linguistslinguists anandd nativenative speakersspeakers ofof TukaTukanoano ann languagelanguagess disagredisagreee aboutabout whicwhichh languagelanguagess belonbelongg ttoo ththee family;family; thoughthough linguistlinguistss disagredisagreee amonamongg themselvethemselvess abouaboutt ththee internainternall classificationclassification,, specificallyspecifically iinn regardregardss ttoo ththee splitsplit betweebetweenn ththee EasterEasternn brancbranchh anandd ththee otheotherr languageslanguages (Appendix(Appendix A)A)..

TukanoaTukanoann languagelanguagess araree closelyclosely relaterelatedd anandd sharsharee manmanyy similaritiessimilarities (Appendices(Appendices BBand and C forfor somsomee comparisons).comparisons).

TheThe TukanoaTukanoann socialsocial hierarchhierarchyy ooff language/ethnicitlanguage/ethnicityy reportedlreportedlyy hahass itsits originorigin iinn a

Boreka-DesanBoreka-Desanoo creationcreation mytmythh communicatedcommunicated ttoo mmee bbyy FelicianFelicianoo PimentPimentaa LanaLana,, a nativenative

TukanoaTukanoann whwhoo identifieidentifiess witwithh ththee BorekBorekaa dialecdialectt ooff ththee DesanDesanoo language/ethnicity.language/ethnicity.

AccordinAccordingg ttoo hihiss mytmythh (personal(personal communication)communication) ththee beginninbeginningg ooff ththee worlworldd consistedconsisted ofof alalll peoplpeoplee ridinridingg insideinside a giantgiant snaksnakee thathatt swaswamm ththee riveriverr waterswaters.. AAtt somsomee poinpointt ththee snakesnake camcamee oonn lanlandd andand ththee moremore daringdaring peoplpeoplee thathatt happenehappenedd ttoo bbee atat ththee frontfront ooff thethe snakesnake decideddecided ttoo ggoo outsidoutsidee intintoo ththee worldworld.. TheThe relativrelativee timtimee atat whicwhichh peoplpeoplee exiteexitedd thethe snakesnake 4 determinedeterminedd theitheirr statustatuss withiwithinn ththee TukanoaTukanoann societysociety.. ThThee firstfirst toto emergeemerge fromfrom ththee snakesnake anandd exploreexplore ththee worlworldd werweree ththee Boreka-DesanBoreka-Desanoo group.group.

PortuguesePortuguese and/oand/orr SpanishSpanish areare spokespokenn bbyy mosmostt TukanoaTukanoann younyoungg adultsadults andand childrenchildren.. ThesThesee colonialcolonial languageslanguages araree taughtaughtt iinn schooschooll anandd commonlcommonlyy usedused iinn commerce.commerce.

ThThee TucanoTucano languagelanguage,, fromfrom whicwhichh ththee familfamilyy getgetss itsits namename,, iiss welwelll knowknownn asas a lingualingua francafranca forfor ththee TukanoanTukanoan peoplpeoplee andand mamayy possiblpossiblyy bbee considereconsideredd a prestigprestigee languagelanguage alonalongg witwithh SpanisSpanishh andand PortuguesePortuguese.. MosMostt oror alalll ooff ththee TukanoanTukanoan languagelanguagess (Appendi(Appendixx A)A) areare losinlosingg groundground ttoo TucanoTucano,, Spanish,Spanish, andand PortuguesePortuguese.. TheThe futurfuturee forfor Tuyuca11 iiss ththee samesame asas ththee otherother TukanoaTukanoann languageslanguages:: encroachinencroachingg economieconomicc anandd culturaculturall forcesforces iinn BraziBrazill andand

ColombiaColombia areare endangerinendangeringg ththee languaglanguagee andand culture.culture.

1.2.1,2.Th Thee languagelanguage anandd thethe famfamily ily:: SourcesSources andand influenceinfluence

LittlLittlee iiss knowknownn abouaboutt hohoww agreemenagreementt systemssystems iinn TukanoaTukanoann languagelanguagess workwork.. ForFor example,example, interactionsinteractions betweenbetween stresstresss andand tone/pitch-accentone/pitch-accentt (d(dee LacyLacy 20020022 forfor KubeKubeoo andand

BowlesBowles unpublisheunpublishedd 20072007bb forfor WananoWanano)) maymay helhelpp marmarkk distinctionsdistinctions iinn persopersonn categories.categories

Gomez-ImbertGomez-Imbert (1996)(1996) anandd Gomez-ImbertGomez-Imbert andand KenstowicKenstowiczz (2000(2000)) showshow thathatt a distinctiondistinction betweebetweenn persopersonn categoriecategoriess iinn BarasanBarasanoo iiss partiallpartiallyy codedcoded bbyy a tonatonall alternatioalternationn suchsuch thatthat

1stst andand 22ndnd person,person, [+person],[+person], areare signaledsignaled byby aa HighHigh tonetone andand 33rdrd person,person, [-person],[-person], isis signaledsignaled bbyy a fallinfallingg tonetone HLHL (se(seee alsoalso BarneBarness 19961996 andand SmithSmith 19981998 forfor analyseanalysess ofof

TuyucTuyucaa prosodprosodyy anandd ititss interactiointeractionn witwithh morphosyntax)morphosyntax).. NeedlesNeedlesss ttoo sasayy thithiss areareaa needsneeds muchmuch mormoree investigation.investigation. Tr dodo notnot considerconsider prosodicprosodic factorsfactors inin analyzinganalyzing thethe agreementagreemen t

1 I DuringDuring fieldfield workwork inin SummerSummer 20072007 I hadhad heardheard storiesstories ofaof a TuyucaTuyuca schoolschool inin oneone ofof thethe communities.communities. ItIt waswas,, reportedlyreportedly,, doingdoing welwelll anandd hahadd sufficiensufficientt funding.funding. 5 systemsystem ofof TuyucaTuyuca becausbecausee thethe relevanrelevantt informationinformation isis nonott fullyfully availableavailable inin writtenwritten sourcessources andand ththee emphasisemphasis ofof thithiss analysisanalysis isis morphosyntactic.morphosyntactic.

TheThe TukanoanTukanoan languageslanguages exhibitexhibit otherother typologicallytypologically interestininterestingg phenomenaphenomena that,that, ifif investigatedinvestigated properly,properly, mamayy addadd tremendousltremendouslyy ttoo ourour understandinunderstandingg ofof thethe typologytypology ofof languageslanguages andand ttoo languagelanguage universalsuniversals.. ForFor example,example, SilvaSilva andand BowlesBowles (2007)(2007) notenote somesome possiblepossible inconsistenciesinconsistencies inin currentcurrent typologiestypologies ofof nounnoun classificationclassification systemssystems comparedcompared toto thethe functionfunction ofof nounnoun classifiersclassifiers inin selectedselected TukanoanTukanoan languages.languages. MaloneMalone (1988)(1988) usesuses

Barnes'Barnes' evidentialevidential datadata fromfrom TuyucaTuyuca ttoo givegive anan historicalhistorical accountaccount forfor thethe originorigin ofof evidentiaevidentiall morphemesmorphemes inin a numbernumber ofof TukanoanTukanoan languages.languages. DeDe HaanHaan (200(2001 I)) usesuses thethe samesame TuyucaTuyuca datadata inin workwork aboutabout thethe cross-linguisticcross-linguistic grammaticalgrammatical originorigin ofof visualvisual evidentiality;evidential ity; seesee alsoalso PalmePalmerr (2001)(2001) andand PaynePayne (1997)(1997) foforr ususee ofof Barnes'Barnes' data.data. VariousVarious theoreticaltheoretical accountsaccounts havehave usedused datadata fromfrom TukanoanTukanoan languagelanguagess toto supportsupport theirtheir claims:claims:

KayeKaye (1971)(1971) attemptsattempts theoreticaltheoretical explanationsexplanations ofof nasalnasal harmonharmonyy basebasedd onon hishis fielfieldd workwork ofof DesanoDe sano, , andand KayKayee (1970)(1970) isis oneone ofof thethe firstfirst generativegenerative analysesanalyses ofof evidentials.evidentials. WalkerWalker

(2000,2001)(2000, 2001) useusess BarnesBarnes worworkk onon TuyucaTuyuca forfor anan optimalityoptimal ity theortheoryy accountaccount ofof nasalnasal harmonharmonyy andand transparency.transparency. SmithSmith (1998)(1998) usesuses TuyucaTuyuca datadata foundfound inin Barnes'Barnes' workwork toto makemake claimsclaims aboutabout noun-faithfulnesnoun-faithfulnesss andand wordword stressstress iinn anan optimalityoptimality theoretictheoretic framework.framework. FallerFaller (2001)(2001) alsoalso useusess Barnes'Barnes' worworkk inin attemptingattempting ttoo establishestablish a hierarchhierarchyy ofof evidentialevidential typestypes.. LastlyLastly,, BowleBowless (to(to appear)appear) incorporateincorporatess datadata fromfrom Barnes'Barnes' worworkk onon evidentialsevidentials ttoo supportsupport claimsclaims aboutabout phrasephrase structurestructure hierarchiehierarchiess andand thethe typologtypologyy ofof fusedfused tense-evidentialtense-evidential morphememorphemess iinn a generative/minimalistgenerative/minimalist prograprogramm framework.framework. 22.. THEORETICATHEORETICALL BACKGROUNDBACKGROUND

2.2.1.1 .Introductio Introductionn

IItt iiss commonlcommonlyy understoounderstoodd thathatt thertheree iiss nnoo linguisticlinguistic (or(or scientific)scientific) analysisanalysis thathatt isis completelcompletelyy frefreee fromfrom theoreticaltheoretical persuasiopersuasionn oror biabiass (Chomsk(Chomskyy 20002000,, FodorFodor 1984,1984,

GreenberGreenbergg 1970,1970, HansoHansonn 1969,1969, PoppePopperr 1959,1959, QuinQuinee 1960).1960). FoForr exampleexample,, iinn compilingcompiling thethe

SurreySurrey DatabaseDatabase ofof Agreement,Agreement, CorbettCorbett (2003(2003:: 44)) statesstates "th'"thee notionotionn ooff anan atheoreticalatheoretical databasdatabasee iiss a chimera.chimera. WWee havehave toto basbasee ourselveourselvess onon generallygenerally sharedshared theoreticaltheoretical viewsviews...... " AlsoAlso,, NewmeyeNewmeyerr (1998(1998)) hahass arguearguedd thathatt aann understandinunderstandingg ofof hohoww anyany particularparticular languaglanguagee workworkss iinn a descriptivedescriptive typological-functionatypological-functionall vievieww cancan onlonlyy arisearise frofromm thethe moremore abstractlyabstractly theoreticatheoreticall (generative)(generative) analysianalysiss oofthatf that language'language'ss fonnalformal structure.structure. CampbelCampbelll (2007(2007 classclass notesnotes)) hahass highlightehighlightedd ththee importancimportancee ofof recognizingrecognizing

2 one'sone's commitmentcommitment ttoo ththee ontological 2 statusstatus ofof linguistilinguisticc elementelementss whewhenn writinwritingg referencereference grammars.grammars. ThaThatt isis,, recognitiorecognitionn ofof thethe existencexistencee andand interactiointeractionn ooff categoriecategoriess sucsuchh asas

NounNoun,, VerbVerb,, andand AdjectivAdjectivee presupposepresupposess somsomee theoreticatheoreticall commitmencommitmentt ttoo basicbasic typologicatypologicall phenomenphenomenaa suchsuch asas predicationpredication,, case,case, modificationmodification,, anandd argumenargumentt structure.structure.

DifferenDifferentt theorietheoriess havehave differentdifferent waywayss ofof explaininexplainingg thesthesee languaglanguagee phenomenaphenomena.. IInn providinprovidingg felicitoufel icitouss descriptiondescriptionss ofof a languaglanguagee L ononee doedoess nonott wanwantt notationnotation andand jargojargonn toto

'get'get iinn ththee wayway'' ooff a usefuusefull description.description. ThThee tensiotensionn betweebetweenn usefuusefull descriptiodescriptionn andand

2 BByy "ontology""ontology" I meanmean:: (I)(1) thethe generalgeneral linguistilinguisticc ontologyontology foundfound iinn FarraFarrarr anandd LangendoeLangendoenn (2003)(2003) andand thethe resrestt ooff ththee GOLDGOLD anandd E-MELE-MELDD projectsprojects,, asas welwelll aass (2(2)) ththee narronarroww philosophicaphilosophicall notionotionn ofof ththee existenceexistence ofof a classclass ofof certaincertain primitiveprimitive objects.objects. ForFor example,example, mostmost linguistslinguists makemake atat thethe veryvery leastleast anan ontologicalontological commitmentcommitment toto ththee existencexistencee ofof nounsnouns,, verbsverbs,, andand sentences/clausesentences/clausess (see(see QuinQuinee \960).1960). 7 theoreticatheoreticall explanation3 isis alsalsoo carriedcarried overover intointo projectprojectss witwithh leslesss ambitiouambitiouss scopscopee thanthan databasesdatabases oorr referencreferencee grammarsgrammars,, suchsuch aass thisthis one.one.

I1 taketake issueissue withwith certaincertain inconsistenciesinconsistencies inin thethe descriptiondescription ofof Tuyuca.Tuyuca. Namely,Namely, thertheree seeseemm ttoo bbee obviouobviouss anandd systematisystematicc patternpatternss ooff agreemenagreementt markemarkedd onon ververbb phrasesphrases thathatt araree nonott reflectereflectedd iinn ththee interlinearinterlinear glosseglossess ofof primarprimaryy datadata.. I assumeassume a particularparticular theoreticatheoreticall frameworkframework abouaboutt morphologmorphologyy andand syntaxsyntax (discussed(discussed iinn §2.2),§2.2), inin whichwhich revisinrevisingg thesthesee glossingglossing inconsistencieinconsistenciess leadsleads ttoo conclusionconclusionss aboutabout ththee morphosyntamorphosyntaxx ofof

TuyucTuyucaa thathatt ggoo beyonbeyondd mermeree notationanotationall differences.differences.

ThiThiss thesithesiss iiss abouaboutt ththee agreemenagreementt systesystemm ofof a languaglanguagee belonginbelongingg ttoo iinn a grougroupp ofof languagelanguagess thathatt iiss geographicallygeographically situatesituatedd iinn aann areareaa ofof ththee worlworldd notnot wellwell documenteddocumented.. IItt iiss dondonee explicitlyexplicitly inin a functional-typologicalfunctional-typological frameworframeworkk (Chapter(Chapterss 3,3, 44)) bubutt alsalsoo assumesassumes somsomee particulaparticularr insightinsightss fromfrom generative-formalgenerative-formal theorietheoriess (se(seee §2.2)§2.2) thathatt araree appliedapplied iinn

ChapteChapterr 5.5. BecausBecausee ofof ththee laclackk ofof generagenerall knowledgknowledgee aboutabout grammaticalgrammatical systemssystems ofof languageslanguages iinn thethe AmazoniaAmazoniann regioregionn (compared(compared ttoo Indo-EuropeanIndo-European languages)languages),, thethe morphemimorphemicc glossingglossing techniquetechniquess anandd ththee informatioinformationn thetheyy conveconveyy taktakee oonn moremore importancimportancee thathann ththee glossinglossingg techniquetechniquess ofof languageslanguages witwithh a largerlarger bodbodyy ofof criticalcritical literatureliterature,, e.g.e.g.,, EnglisEnglishh oorr SpanishSpanish.. ThThee TuyucaTuyuca languaglanguagee datdataa I amam workinworkingg witwithh areare entirelentirelyy second-hand,second-hand, comincomingg frofromm publishepublishedd articlearticless bbyy JanetJanet BarnesBarnes andand GloriaGloria JeanJean

KarnKarn (see(see references)references).. TheiTheirr publicationpublicationss areare ththee onlyonly materialmaterialss basebasedd oonn first-handfirst-hand fieldfield workwork thatthat areare widelwidelyy accessibleaccessible ttoo ththee mainstreamainstreamm linguistilinguisticc community;community; nnoo otherother

3 SeeSee WoodburWoodburyy (2003(2003:: 4242)) ""...... thertheree isis a dialecticadialecticall relationshirelationshipp betweebetweenn corpuscorpus andand apparatusapparatus - thethe corpuscorpus informinformss ththee analytianalyticc apparatus;apparatus; bubutt analysianalysiss - includinincludingg everythineverythingg yoyouu brinbringg ttoo ththee tabltablee whenwhen doindoingg grammaticagrammaticall anandd lexicalexicall elicitationelicitation - iinn turnturn alsalsoo informsinforms ththee corpus.corpus."" CampbelCampbelll (2007(2007 clasclasss notes)notes) highlighthighlightss ththee notionotionn ooff ththee hermeneutihermeneuticc cyclecycle:: one'one'ss expectationexpectationss oorr theortheoryy ofof a languaglanguagee isis transformetransformedd byby ththee primarprimaryy datdataa whilwhilee aatt ththee samesame timtimee ththee kinkindd ofof primarprimaryy datdataa ononee looklookss forfor oorr collectscollects isis informeinformedd byby whawhatt one'one'ss linguistilinguisticc theortheoryy saysayss iiss importanimportantt foforr understandinunderstandingg a languaglanguagee anandd ititss organization.organization. SeeSee alsoalso LasLasss (1997)(1997) andand HimmelmanHimmelmannn (1998(\998)) foforr discussiodiscussionn ooff hermeneutihermeneuticc explanation.explanation. 8 accessibleaccessible documentationdocumentation oftheof the TuyucTuyucaa languagelanguage existsexists.. TherTheree araree alsalsoo nnoo competingcompeting analyseanalysess aboutabout ththee datadata fromfrom eitheeitherr nativnativee speakerspeakerss oorr linguistlinguistss (Kar(Kamn soughtsought ththee advicadvicee ofof

BarneBarness inin heherr analysisanalysis anandd interlineainterlinearr glossinglossingg ooff Tuyuca)Tuyuca).. TToo makmakee mattermatterss worse,worse,

BarnesBarnes iiss nonott consistenconsistentt inin thethe wayway sheshe glosseglossess ththee primarprimaryy data.data.

ForFor example,example, workwork publishepublishedd iinn EnglisEnglishh glosseglossess thethe auxiliariesauxiliaries tiiIii anandd wnTiz asas

EnglisEnglishh 'be''be' (Barne(Barness 1984,1984, 1990,1990, 1994,1994, 1996,1996, 1999),1999), bubutt worworkk publishepublishedd iinn SpanisSpanishh givesgives

'ser'ser'' foforr riunTi anandd 'hacer''hacer' foforr tiiIii (Barnes(Barnes 1977,1977, BarneBarness anandd MalonMalonee 2000)2000).. TranslatedTranslated intointo

EnglisEnglishh thithiss shouldshould givgivee 'be''be' foforr 'ser''ser' anandd 'do/make''do/make' foforr 'hacer.'hacer.'' ThThee negativnegativee resulresultt ofof thisthis inconsistencyinconsistency isis someonsomeonee onlonlyy familiafamiliarr witwithh BarnesBarnes'' EnglisEnglishh publicationpublicationss mamayy assumeassume thatthat tiiIii anandd riunTi areare morphophonemimorphophonemicc alternatealternatess oorr thathatt a syncretismsyncretism iinn ththee paradigparadigmm ooff 'be''be' iiss lefleftt unexplained;unexplained; shshee givegivess nnoo explanationexplanation forfor ththee paipairr nonorr doedoess sheshe drawdraw attentionattention ttoo it iinn heherr EnglisEnglishh publicationspublications.. ThThee realitrealityy iiss thathatt thetheyy represenrepresentt twtwoo differendifferentt classesclasses ofof auxiliariesauxiliaries thatthat influencinfluencee ththee behaviobehaviorr ofof ththee TuyucaTuyuca inflectionainflectionall systesystemm (see(see ChapterChapter 4 andand footnotefootnote 3 forfor mormoree details).details).

2.2.Morphosyntacti2.2. Morphosyntacticc assumptionsassumptions

ThThee theoreticaltheoretical modemodell ooff morphologmorphologyy andand syntaxsyntax thathatt I assumassumee cacann bbee summedsummed upup nicelnicelyy bbyy Baker'Baker'ss (1985(1985:: 375375)) MirroMirrorr Principle.Principle.

(I)(I) The Mirror PrinciplePrinciple MorphologicaMorphologicall derivationderivationss musmustt directldirectlyy reflecreflectt syntactisyntacticc derivationderivationss (and(and vicevice versa)versa)..

LinearLinear relationrelationss betweebetweenn morphememorphemess reflecreflectt syntacticsyntactic embeddingembedding.. FoForr example,example, taktakee thethe sequencsequencee /gi//gi/.. TheThe differencdifferencee betweebetweenn analyzinganalyzing -gi aass ththee agreemenagreementt morphemmorphemee versuversuss -i 9 aass ththee agreementagreement morphemmorphemee (where(where g- wouldwould havhavee toto bbee somsomee otherother morpheme)morpheme) meansmeans thatthat twtwoo differentdifferent syntacticsyntactic structuresstructures araree beinbeingg implicatedimplicated (see(see ChapteChapterr 4).4). SomeSome useusess ofof thethe MirrorMirror PrinciplPrinciplee cancan bbee founfoundd inin CinquCinquee (1999)(1999),, whicwhichh iiss a typological-generativetypological-generative surveysurvey ofof languagelanguagess usinusingg ththee MirroMirrorr PrinciplPrinciplee ttoo establisestablishh a universauniversall syntacticsyntactic hierarchyhierarchy,, anandd RicRicee (1997)(1997) whicwhichh useusess aann approacapproachh similasimilarr ttoo ththee MirrorMirror PrinciplPrinciplee thatthat relaterelatedd semanticsemantic scopscopee anandd morphemmorphemee ordeorderr iinn AthapaskaAthapaskann languages.languages. A typological-typological- functionalfunctional paralleparallell ofof ththee MirrorMirror PrinciplPrinciplee cacann bbee founfoundd iinn BybeBybeee (1985).(1985).

2.32.3.Additional. Additional commentscomments onon ththee organizatioorganizationn ofof raraww datadata

ThThee decisionsdecisions ooff hohoww ttoo organizorganizee ththee raraww linguisticlinguistic datadata (reflecte(reflectedd iinn thethe interlineainterlinearr glosses)glosses) havhavee alreadalreadyy beebeenn madmadee bbyy JaneJanett Barnes.Barnes. IItt shoulshouldd bbee notenotedd thathatt herher interlinearinterlinear glossesglosses frofromm thethe perioperiodd ooff 19761976 ttoo 20020000 araree nonott entirelentirelyy consistent.consistent.44

Furthermore,Furthermore, somesome ooff ththee publicationpublicationss containcontain onlyonly a translatiotranslationn ooff ththee TuyucaTuyuca datdataa intointo

SpanishSpanish oorr EnglishEnglish whilwhilee otheotherr publicationpublicationss contaicontainn fairlyfairly detailedetailedd interlinearinterlinear glossing.glossing.

NNoo otherother substantiasubstantiall worworkk existexistss ttoo testestt heherr analyticanalytic decisionsdecisions againstagainst,, andand accessaccess toto nativenative speakerspeaker judgmentjudgmentss abouaboutt heherr analysianalysiss isis harhardd ttoo comcomee byby.. WhilWhilee thisthis makemakess thingsthings philosophicallyphilosophically difficultdifficult,, andand eveneven linguisticalllinguisticallyy hardhard,, iitt doedoess nonott makmakee a significantsignificant

(re)analysis(re)analysis ooff TuyucaTuyuca agreementagreement patternpatternss impossibleimpossible.. I assumeassume mosmostt ooff BarnesBarnes'' initialinitial descriptiodescriptionn isis correctcorrect andand generallgenerallyy acceptaccept herher decisionsdecisions aboutabout hohoww ttoo organizorganizee ththee data.data.

In factfact,, ththee motivatiomotivationn foforr mmyy analysisanalysis partlpartlyy comescomes frofromm a suggestiosuggestionn iinn BarneBarness (1984:(1984:

4 SeeSee §2. 1I herheree anandd BarneBarness (1984,(1984, 1994.1994, 1996).1996). TwoTwo phonemicallyphonemically distincdistinctt auxiliaryauxiliary verbverbss areare glossedglossed asas 'be''be',, implyingimplying thetheyy mamayy bbee allomorphsallomorphs.. BuButt iinn BarneBarness anandd MalonMalonee (2000(2000)) ththee samsamee auxiliarauxiliaryy verbverbss areare glosseglossedd aass SpanishSpanish 'hacer'hacer'' anandd 'ser','ser', translatetranslatedd intintoo EnglisEnglishh aass 'do/make'do/make'' andand 'be', respectivelyrespectively.. ComparisonComparison witwithh otheotherr TukanoaTukanoann languagelanguagess showsshows thathatt ththee auxiliariesauxiliaries araree inin factfact semanticallsemanticallyy distincdistinctt anandd areare notnot allomorphicallomorphic,, asas BarneBarness (1984,(1984, 1994,1994, 1996)1996) seemedseemed ttoo imply.imply. 1010

258258)) abouaboutt ththee neeneedd foforr furtherfurther studystudy iinn thethe possiblpossiblee separationseparation ofof agreementagreement morphemesmorphemes

frofromm evidentialevidential morphemes.morphemes.

A larglargee parpartt ofof thisthis thesisthesis concernsconcerns mmyy reanalysisreanalysis ofof ththee interlineainterlinearr glossingglossing ofof thethe

existenexistentt TuyucaTuyuca data.data. I taktakee advantageadvantage ofof BarnesBarnes'' variouvariouss morphemimorphemicc glosseglossess anandd thethe

glosseglossess foundfound iinn KarKarnn (1976,(1976, 1979),55 asas welwelll aass cross-linguisticross-linguisticc worworkk oonn otheotherr TukanoanTukanoan

languagelanguagess includinincludingg sketchsketch grammarsgrammars,, journajournall articlesarticles,, anandd dictionariesdictionaries.. AlthougAlthoughh it maymay

seeseemm ttoo somesome thathatt takintakingg libertielibertiess witwithh ththee interlinearinterlinear glossinglossingg ofof datdataa iiss nonott productive,productive,

oorr thathatt changinchangingg interlinearinterlinear glosseglossess iiss merelymerely a mattematterr ooff notationanotationall differencedifference,, [I showshow iinn

PartPart IIII thathatt suchsuch libertiesliberties areare productiveproductive,, anandd iinn facfactt alloweallowedd bbyy ththee LeipziLeipzigg GlossingGlossing

RulesRules.. AlsoAlso,, [I shoshoww thathatt a "mere""mere" changechange iinn notationotationn bbyy ththee placemenplacementt ofof hyphenshyphens

betweenbetween morphememorphemess cacann resultresult inin ververyy dramatidramaticc differencesdifferences ooff analysisanalysis - eveevenn iiff thethe

MirrorMirror PrinciplePrinciple (and(and thethe entireentire bodbodyy ooff generativgenerativee theortheoryy thathatt goesgoes withwith itit)) iiss notnot assumed.assumed. InIn thethe workwork thatthat followsfollows I wilwilll alwaysalways explicitlexplicitlyy pointpoint outout glosseglossess thathatt areare thethe resulresultt ofof mmyy analysis.analysis.

2.4.Literatur2.4. Literaturee overviewoverview

ThereThere araree foufourr groupsgroups ooff publicationpublicationss thathatt areare relevanrelevantt ttoo ththee analysianalysiss ooff TuyucaTuyuca agreementagreement thathatt I attemptattempt herehere.. OOff thesthesee groupsgroups,, nonnonee actuallactuallyy contaicontainn raraww datadata frofromm thethe

languagelanguage.. (For(For alalll worworkk oonn TuyucTuyucaa containingcontaining raraww datadata seesee ththee referencereferencess foforr JanetJanet

BarnesBarnes andand GloriaGloria JeaJeann Karn).Karn).

5 Karn'sKarn's (1976(1976,, 1979)1979) interlineainterlinearr glossesglosses areare problematicproblematic forfor manmanyy reasonreasonss bubutt mostmost obviouslobviouslyy becausebecause sheshe rarelyrarely glossesglosses evidentialsevidentials,, insteainsteadd glossingglossing thethemm aass agreementagreement.. ThiThiss iiss nonott impressiveimpressive,, aass ththee evidentialevidential systemsystem iinn TuyucTuyucaa isis oneone oofthef the mosmostt complecomplexx anandd uniquuniquee systemssystems iinn ththee worldworld;; ttoo nonott recognizrecognizee thethe evidentialevidential systesystemm througthroughh interlineainterlinearr glossesglosses iiss missinmissingg aann essentialessential parpartt ooff ththee grammagrammarr oofTuyucaf Tuyuca anandd thethe generalgeneral charactercharacter ofof ththee typologtypologyy ooff ththee evidentials.evidentials. 1111

2.4.12.4.1.. TheThe SummerSummer InstitutInstitutee ooff LinguisticsLinguistics (S(SIL IL))

ThereThere araree fourfour SILSIL bookbookss focusingfocusing explicitlyexplicitly oonn a TukanoaTukanoann languagelanguage andand

publishepublishedd undeunderr ththee Studies in the Languages of Colombia seriesseries.. TheTheyy areare alalll roughlyroughly

200200 pagepagess lonlongg andand reareadd liklikee smallsmall sketchsketch grammarsgrammars.. TheThe languagelanguagess includedincluded areare

BarasanBarasanoo (Jones(Jones anandd JoneJoness 1991),1991), CubeCubeoo (Mors(Morsee anandd MaxwellMaxwell 1999),1999), DesanDesanoo (Miller(Miller

1999),1999), andand RetuarRetuaraa (Strom(Strom 1992).1992). InIn additionaddition toto thesthesee textstexts,, SILSIL alsalsoo publishepublishedd a seriesseries

titledtitled Estudios Tucanos volumevolumess 1-51-5 inin ththee 1970I 970ss containingcontaining essentialessential datadata anandd analysisanalysis

coveringcovering phonetics/phonologyphonetics/phonology,, morphologymorphology,, syntaxsyntax,, anandd discoursdiscoursee oonn severalseveral TukanoanTukanoan

languageslanguages..

2.4.22.4.2.. OtheOtherr workworkss oonn TukanoaTukanoann languageslanguages

WhatWhat followfollowss iiss nonott a completecomplete bibliographybibliography.. InsteadInstead,, I lislistt workworkss thatthat I amam

familiafamiliarr witwithh anandd thathatt havhavee provideprovidedd significansignificantt cross-linguisticross-linguisticc helhelpp inin understandingunderstanding

TuyucaTuyuca.. ThesThesee includincludee BalBalll (2004),(2004), CookCook anandd GralowGralow (2001)(200 I),, Gomez-ImbertGomez-Imbert (1996,(1996,

20012001,2007),, 2007), Gomez-ImbertGomez-Imbert anandd KenstowicKenstowiczz (2000),(2000), KayeKaye (1970)(1970),, MalonMalonee (1988),(1988), PaynePayne

(1990)(1990),, SilvaSilva anandd BowleBowless (2007)(2007),, StenzelStenzel (2004(2004,, 2007)2007),, SorensenSorensen (1969),(1969), andand WaltWaltzz andand

WheelerWheeler (1972).(1972). SeSeee alsalsoo FabreFabre (2005(2005)) forfor a fairlfairlyy comprehensivcomprehensivee bibliographbibliographyy ofof

TukanoaTukanoann languagelanguage sources.sources.

2.4.32.4.3.. TypologicaTypologicall studiesstudies

ThereThere iiss a lolott ooff worworkk relaterelatedd ttoo agreementagreement~; I lislistt whatwhat hahass beebeenn directlydirectly helpful:helpful:

CorbetCorbettt (1991(1991,, 20002000,, 20032003,, 2006)2006),, ComrieComrie (1981)(1981),, GivoGivonn (1984(1984,, 1990),1990), HarriHarriss andand

CampbelCampbelll (1995),(1995), HaspelmatHaspelmathh etet alal.. (2005)(2005),, MithuMithunn (2003(2003)) anandd SiewierskaSiewierska (2004).(2004). 12

2.4.42.4.4.. GenerativeGenerative studiesstudies

IInn thethe generativgenerativee frameworkframework agreemenagreementt hahass becombecomee a cruciacruciall topic.topic. I listlist herehere workwork thathatt IT findfind stimulatingstimulating andand interesting;interesting ; thoughthough somesome ofof thethe workwork listedlisted belowbelow hashas notno t positivelpositivelyy influencedinfluenced meme,, iitt hashas hadhad anan effecteffect onon mmyy thinkinthinkingg abouaboutt significansignificantt aspectsaspects ofof agreementagreement andand whawhatt kindkindss oflanguageof language datadata provideprovide relevanrelevantt informationinformation:: BakeBakerr (1985,(1985,

1996,1996, 2003a,2003a, 2003b,2003b, 2008),2008), BejaBejarr (2002),(2002), BobaljiBobaljikk (2006(2006,, 2007)2007),, BoskoviBoskovi6c (2007),(2007),

ChomskyChomsky (1981,(1981, 1995,1995, 20012001,, 2005),2005), CinquCinquee (1999)(1999),, CsirmaCsirmazz (2006)(2006),, HallHallee anandd MarantzMarantz

(1993,(1993, 1994),1994), HarleHarleyy andand RitteRitterr (2002),(2002), JelineJelinekk (1984),(1984), MiyagawMiyagawaa (2005)(2005),, PesetskyandPesetsky and

TorregTorregoo (2001,(2001, 20042004,, 2007)2007),, RubiRubinn (2002,(2002, 2005)2005),, anandd SpeaSpeass (2004a(2004a,, 2004b,2004b, 2007)2007).. TheyThey alalll representrepresent variousvarious,, ifif nonott atat timetimess conflicting,conflicting, analyseanalysess importanimportantt ttoo agreemenagreementt iinn currencurrentt (morpho(morpho)syntacti )syntacticc theory.theory.

2.5.Some2.5.Some terminologyterminology

ThereThere isis somsomee variatiovariationn iinn ththee wawayy certaincertain termtermss relevanrelevantt toto agreemenagreementt systemssystems araree used.used. DifferenDifferentt linguistlinguistss useuse anandd defindefinee termtermss differently.differently. ManyMany ooff thesethese termsterms includeinclude:: concord, agreement, government, controller, feature,feature, value, domain, condition,condition, target, probe, anaphoric pronoun, pronominal argument andand agreement marker. If,If, oror when,when, I ususee thesthesee termtermss I explicitlexplicitlyy defindefinee thethemm andand hopefullhopefullyy havehave madmadee theitheirr ususee clearclear iinn thethe contextcontext inin whichwhich I ususee themthem.. AlsoAlso,, iinn ChapteChapterr 5 thertheree iiss quitquitee a bibitt ofof technicaltechnical formalisformalismm thathatt I ususee iinn orderorder ttoo sketchsketch ththee theoreticatheoreticall significancsignificancee ooff ththee resultresultss ofof mymy analysis.analysis. UnderstandinUnderstandingg thesethese formalismformalismss isis nonott cruciacruciall ttoo understandinunderstandingg mmyy analysisanalysis inin

ChapterChapter 4,4, bubutt a solid-atsolid—at leastleast introductory—backgrounintroductory-backgroundd iinn MinimalisMinimalistt SyntaSyntaxx iiss 1313 necessarynecessary toto understanunderstandd ththee potentiapotentiall issueissuess relatinrelatingg ttoo thosethose sectionssections andand ChapterChapter 5 inin general.general.

2.6.A2.6. A notenote onon glosseglossess iinn thethe datadata

I highlyhighly recommendrecommend lookinglooking atat AppendiAppendixx E.E. ItIt isis parpartt ofof a largerlarger projectproject ofof minemine

(The(The TuyucTuyucaa DatDataa Set)Set) ttoo colleccollectt alalll ththee publishepublishedd datadata onon TuyucaTuyuca andand applapplyy "good"good practicespractices"" consistentconsistent interlineainterlinearr glosseglossess soso thathatt ththee datadata setset cancan bbee formattedformatted foforr digitaldigital archiving.archiving. FoForr ththee purposespurposes ofof thithiss thesisthesis,, I havhavee taketakenn parpartt ofof ThThee TuyucTuyucaa DataData SetSet andand givengiven twtwoo contrastingcontrasting glossesglosses forfor eaceachh exampleexample.. ThThee firstfirst setset ooff glossesglosses (with(with wholewhole sequentialsequential numbersnumbers,, e.g.e.g. 1I,, 22,, 3...3 ...) ) representrepresentss whawhatt I havhavee superficiallysuperficially modifiemodifiedd fromfrom thethe workwork ooff BarnesBarnes andand KarKarnn (see(see referencesreferences)) ttoo conformconform ttoo thethe LeipziLeipzigg GlossingGlossing RulesRules

(LGR).(LGR). TheThe secondsecond setset (numbere(numberedd 1.1,1.1, 2.12.1,, 3.1...3.1 ... ) reflectreflectss ththee resultresultss ooff mmyy analysis.analysis. I providprovidee AppendiAppendixx E asas wawayy toto prevenpreventt possiblpossiblee confusioconfusionn iinn readinreadingg variouvariouss glosseglossess ofof thethe samesame datadata iinn thithiss thesisthesis.. FoForr exampleexample,, ChapterChapter 3 containscontains glossesglosses superficiallysuperficially modifiemodifiedd ttoo conformconform ttoo LGLGRR andand comprisecomprise ththee firsfirstt setset iinn AppendixAppendix EE.. ChapterChapter 4 containscontains multiplmultiplee versionversionss ofof glosseglossess forfor ththee samsamee datdataa asas a meansmeans ttoo showshow hohoww Barnes'Barnes' collectedcollected workwork isis itselitselff inconsistentinconsistent., andand alsoalso ttoo reflecreflectt differendifferentt analysesanalyses anandd theitheirr interpretations.interpretations.

ChapteChapterr 5 containscontains datadata thathatt reflecreflectt ththee applicatioappl icationn ofof mmyy analysisanalysis anandd constitutesconstitutes thethe secondsecond setset iinn AppendiAppendixx E.E. ByBy providinprovidingg anan appendiappendixx thathatt comparecomparess "before""before" andand "after""after" glosseglossess nexnextt ttoo eaceachh otheotherr ononee cacann quicklquicklyy referencreferencee mmyy analysianalysiss ooff TuyucTuyucaa withoutwithout havinhavingg toto trolltroll througthroughh eaceachh chapterchapter anandd risriskk beinbeingg confuseconfusedd bbyy variouvariouss analysesanalyses ooff data.data. 1414

2.72.7.A. A notnotee onon datadata

TheThe datadata thathatt comprisecomprise generagenerall knowledgknowledgee oofthef the TuyucTuyucaa languagelanguage comcomee fromfrom publishedpublished,, accessiblaccessiblee sourcessources.. ThereThere areare alsalsoo quitquitee lengthlengthyy recordingrecordingss ooff religiousreligious

(Christian)(Christian) materiamateriall frofromm ththee JoshuaJoshua ProjecProjectt ((www.joshuaproject.net)www.ioshuaproject.net) thathatt neeneedd ttoo bebe transcribedtranscribed.. MosMostt ooff ththee materiamateriall comprisingcomprising ththee accessiblaccessiblee datdataa forfor TuyucTuyucaa comescomes fromfrom narrativesnarratives.. IItt iiss commocommonn knowledgknowledgee thathatt narrativenarrativess usuallusuallyy havhavee somesome kinkindd ooff scriptedscripted formform oorr standarstandardd structurestructure,, e.g.e.g.,, beginningbeginning,, middlemiddle,, end,end, aass welwelll asas ththee useuse ooff proverbs,proverbs, metaphormetaphor,, anandd otheotherr narrativnarrativee techniquestechniques.. TuyucaTuyuca isis nnoo exceptionexception (Karn(Karn 1976,1976, 1979).1979).

BarnesBarnes'' worworkk containcontainss a lolott ooff dialoguedialogue,, bubutt iitt appearappearss ttoo bbee mainlmainlyy dialoguedialogue betweebetweenn herher anandd nativenative TuyucansTuyucans.. InIn otheotherr wordswords,, nonnonee ofof datadata appearappearss ttoo bbee representativrepresentativee ofof commocommonn daildailyy discoursdiscoursee betweebetweenn nativnativee TuyucTuyucaa speakersspeakers.. ThiThiss doesdoes nonott posepose anan insurmountableinsurmountable problemproblem,, butbut iitt doesdoes meameann thathatt certaincertain avenueavenuess ofof investigationinvestigation cancan gogo soso farfar.. ForFor example,example, iinn ChapteChapterr 5 I applapplyy numerounumerouss diagnostidiagnosticc techniquetechniquess iinn ordeorderr ttoo formform hypotheseshypotheses aboutabout ththee structurstructuree ooff TuyucaTuyuca.. NamelyNamely,, IT tr tryy ttoo seseee iiff TuyucTuyucaa iiss a configurationaconfigurationall oorr nonconfigurationanonconfigurationallanguagel language bbyy testintestingg forfor ththee existencexistencee ofof pronominalpronominal arguments,arguments, whicwhichh araree fulfulll argumentsarguments ooff ththee ververbb thathatt loolookk liklikee agreemenagreementt markersmarkers.. OneOne wayway ttoo testestt forfor thithiss iiss ttoo fintindd sentencessentences wherwheree a fulfulll subject/objecsubject/objectt NNPP co-occurco-occurss withwith subject/objecsubject/objectt agreementagreement.. In languagelanguagess witwithh pronominapronominall argumentargumentss ththee fulfulll subject/objectsubject/object

NNPP wilwilll bbee treatetreatedd aass anan extra,extra, dislocateddislocated,, element.element. OnOnee testestt foforr thithiss isis ttoo loolookk atat wordword order—iorder-ifthef the subject/objectsubject/object NNPP hahass a variablvariablee andand unpredictablunpredictablee positiopositionn iinn ththee clauseclause it might bbee dislocateddislocated.. AnotheAnotherr testestt iiss ththee presencpresencee ofof aann intonatiointonationn pauspausee betweebetweenn ththee fullfull subject/objecSUbject/objectt NNPP andand ththee resrestt ooff ththee clauseclause.. TheThe probleproblemm forfor TuyucTuyucaa iiss thathatt mostmost ofof thethe datdataa onlonlyy showsshows ththee canonicacanonicall S(O)VS(0)V order-andorder—and eveneven iinn thethe strictesstrictestt worwordd orderorder 1515 languagelanguagess ononee cacann alwaysalways finfindd variablvariablee worwordd orderorderss duduee atat lestlest ttoo topic-focutopic-focuss factorsfactors (of(of course,, pidginpidginss mamayy bbee aann exception)exception).. BuButt variablvariablee worwordd ordersorders dodo nonott reallreallyy showshow uupp iinn ththee TuyucaTuyuca data,, thougthoughh ononee cacann reasoreasonn thathatt thetheyy musmustt bbee allowedallowed byby ththee constraints ofof

TuyucTuyucaa grammargrammar;; seseee especiallyespecially §5.3.2§5.3.2 andand footnotfootnotee 2323..

1T willwill assumeassume throughoutthroughout thisthis thesisthesis thatthat whilewhile thethe lacklack ofof aa moremore completecomplete setset ofof datadata showinshowingg a richericherr setset ofof phenomenphenomenaa putputss limitlim itss onon ththee deptdepthh ofof analysis,, iitt does notnot makmakee analysianalysiss impossiblimpossiblee oorr unproductiveunproductive.. I taktakee forfor grantegrantedd thathatt ththee datadata thathatt exisexistt araree a faifairr characterizatiocharacterizationn ofof ththee basic formform ooff TuyucaTuyuca grammagrammarr anandd areare a consistentconsistent reflectionreflection ooff ththee empiricaempiricall facts.facts. IItt woulwouldd bbee nicnicee ttoo havhavee a large-scallarge-scalee TuyucaTuyuca referencreferencee grammar, bubutt thithiss doedoess nonott precludprecludee a basibasicc analysis.analysis. AnAndd a basibasicc analysisanalysis doedoess nonott limitlimit ththee qualityquality ooff interestininterestingg anandd significantsignificant results.results. 33.. BASIBASICC TYPOLOGICALTYPOLOGICAL PROFILEPROFILE

3.1.3.1 .Introductio Introductionn

ThThee profilprofilee herheree iiss intendeintendedd ttoo introduceintroduce basibasicc datadata fromfrom TuyucaTuyuca aass presentepresentedd inin ththee publishepublishedd sourcessources.. TheThe intentiointentionn iiss ttoo familiarizfamiliarizee ththee readereaderr withwith ththee languaglanguagee anandd toto serveserve aass ththee backdrobackdropp foforr ththee analyseanalysess I proposproposee iinn ChapterChapterss 4 anandd 5.5. ThThee profilprofilee herheree isis notnot comprehensivcomprehensivee anandd dealdealss onlonlyy witwithh basibasicc issueissuess relevanrelevantt ttoo agreement,agreement, coveringcovering wordword orderorder anandd agreemenagreementt iinn nouns,nouns, verbsverbs,, auxiliaries,auxiliaries, andand evidentials.evidentials. ThThee interlinearinterlinear glossesglosses inin ththee followinfollowingg exampleexampless areare modifiedmodified frofromm BarnesBarnes'' originaloriginalss bubutt ddoo nonott reflectreflect a substantialsubstantial differencdifferencee frofromm heherr initiainitiall work;work; thetheyy merelmerelyy conformconform ttoo ththee LeipzigLeipzig GlossingGlossing

RulesRules (http://www.eva.mpg.de/lingua/index.html).(http://www.eva.mpg.de/lingua/index.html).

3.2.Wor3.2. Wordd orderorder inin TuyucaTuyuca

BarneBarness (1984,(1984, 1999(999)) classifieclassifiess TuyucaTuyuca aass exhibitinexhibitingg a flexiblflexiblee SOYSOV worwordd order.order.

SentenceSentence (1(l)) hahass ththee referentiareferentiall animatanimatee nounounn 'father,'father,'' ththee otheotherr sentencsentencee (2)(2) containcontainss a pronominallypronominally possessedpossessed subjecsubjectt ('her('her dog')dog').. OnlyOnly sentencesentence (I)(1) meetmeetss ththee stricstrictt criteriacriteria establishedestablished forfor determiningdetermining basibasicc worwordd orderorder (e.g.(e.g.,, iitt isis indicativeindicative,, hahass fulfulll nounounn phrases,phrases, thethe subjecsubjectt iiss definite,definite, agentivagentivee anandd humanhuman,, thethe objecobjectt iiss a definitedefinite patientpatient,, andand ththee verbverb isis anan actioactionn witwithh twtwoo argumentargumentss wherwheree thertheree iiss anan obviouobviouss transfetransferr ofof activitactivityy andand anan obviousobvious effeceffectt frofromm agenagentt ttoo patient).patient). 1717

(1(1)) PaktPak+ yayaii sia-yfgt.sTa-yfg+. fathefatherr jaguajaguarr kill-EVD.PST.SCD.3MSGkill-EVD.PST.scD.3MSG 'Fathe'Fatherr killekilledd a jaguar.'jaguar.'

(2)(2) Koo-ya-g.j.Ko6-ya-g+ dfyidiyi y4+-ryi-t-ree tutf-wi.tuti-wi. 3FSG3rSG-poSS.SG-NR.MSG-P0SS.SG-NR.MSG dogdog I1 SG-SPEC SG-SPEC scold-EVD.PST.VIS.3MSGSC0ld-EVD.PST.VIS.3MSG 'He'Herr dogdog barkebarkedd aatt me.'me.' (adapted(adapted frofromm BarneBarness 1994:1994: 327-329)327-329)

BecauseBecause ooff ththee abundanabundantt useuse ooff pronominapronominall agreemenagreementt morphememorphemess iinn TuyucaTuyuca,, it isis difficuldifficultt toto finfindd datadata samplessamples wherewhere ththee subjectsubject iiss namednamed explicitlyexplicitly,, i.e.i.e.,, iiss a barbaree definitedefinite noun.noun. TuyucaTuyuca,, liklikee otherother TukanoanTukanoan languagelanguagess iiss highlhighlyy agglutinativagglutinativee witwithh multiplemultiple suffixationsuffixation ooff meaningfumeaningfull morphememorphemess ttoo ththee rootroot.. ThThee ververbb phrasphrasee isis ththee locuslocus ofof mosmostt ofof ththee suffixationsuffixation whilwhilee ththee nounnoun phrasphrasee iiss typicalltypicallyy madmadee uupp ooff smallesmallerr setssets ooff morphemesmorphemes andand playsplays a smallersmaller rolerole inin sentencesentence constructionconstruction thathann thethe VPVP.. PostpositionaPostpositionall casecase cliticsclitics areare suffixedsuffixed ttoo NPsNPs.. ThThee mostmost commocommonn nominanominall elementelementss consisconsistt ofof pronominalpronominal agreementagreement markersmarkers,, suffixedsuffixed ttoo ththee ververbb oorr auxiliaryauxiliary,, signifyinsignifyingg semantisemanticc and/orand/or grammaticalgrammatical gender,gender, numbernumber,, oorr person.person.

BecausBecausee ofof ththee laclackk ofof examplexamplee sentencessentences thathatt meemeett ththee strictstrict critericriteriaa forfor determiningdetermining basibasicc worwordd order,order, itit isis difficultdifficult ttoo establisestablishh whethewhetherr oorr nonott TuyucaTuyuca isis consistentconsistent withwith SOY,SOV, OV,OV, andand SV,SV, butbut ththee smallsmall numbenumberr ofof examplesexamples clearlclearlyy showshow

S(O)VS(0)V typology.typology. TheThe datadata alsalsoo seemseem ttoo suggessuggestt ththee followinfollowingg orders:orders: AdjNAdjN,, andand GenN.GenN.

TheThe WWAL ALSS databasedatabase (Haspel(Haspelmat mathh eett al.al. 20052005)) classifieclassifiess TuyucTuyucaa aass havinhavingg postpositionalpostpositional diticsclitics (NPost).(NPost). TheseThese orderorderss araree confirmedconfirmed bbyy (3(3)) AdjNAdjN,, (4)(4) GenNGenN,, andand (5)(5) NPost.NPost.

(3)(3) Sia-rf-d.j.kaSTa-ri-d+ka nana-rf-d.j.kanana-ri-d+ka illuminate-NR.INAN.SG-NCL.stickilluminate-NR.lNAN.SG-NCL.stick be.bad-NR.lNAN.SG-NcL.stickbe.bad-NR.lNAN.SG-NCL.stick 1818

biki-dika.b+k+-d+ka. old.object-cLF.stickold.object-CLF.stick ''AA terribleterrible,, oldold flashlight.'flashlight.'

(4)(4) Koo-ya-gKoo-ya-gi+ k+f-ya-gi-kdrkH-ya-gi-koroo nn-Tnit-i.. 3FSG-POSS.SG-NR.MS3FSG-POSS.SG-NR.MSGG 3MSG3MsG-poss.SG-NR.MsG-alike-P0SS.SG-NR.MSG-alike be-EVD.PRES.VIS.3MSbe-EVD.PRES.VIS.3MSGG 'He'Herr animaanimall iiss ththee samesame aass hihiss animaL'animal.'

(5)(5) Wese=p+.Wese=p+. field=LOfield=LocC 'Tolat'To/at ththee field.'field.' (adapted(adapted frofromm BarnesBarnes 1994:1994: 328-330)328-330)

TheThe linealinearr orderorder ooff elementelementss iinn (3)-(5)(3)-(5) conforconformm toto ththee generalgeneral predictionpredictionss ooff ththee ordeorderr ofof elementselements iinn thethe standarstandardd SOVSOY,, OV,OV, andand SVSV typologietypologiess (e.g.(e.g.,, GreenberGreenbergg 1966,1966, ComrieComrie

1981,1981, GivonGivon 1984,1984, SongSong 2002001) I) .. ThiThiss provideprovidess mormoree evidencevidencee thathatt iinn spitespite ofof ththee smallsmall numbenumberr ofof prototypicalprototypical wordword ordeorderr sentencessentences showinshowingg SOYSOV ordeorderr thatthat iitt isis iinn facfactt a correctcorrect generalizationgeneralization.. AdditionallyAdditionally,, TuyucaTuyuca appearsappears toto havhavee a ververyy strictstrict SOYSOV order.order.

AlthougAlthoughh BarneBarness classifieclassifiess it aass havinhavingg "flexible""flexible" worwordd orderorder nonnonee ofof ththee availableavailable datadata actuallyactually showsshows exampleexampless ofof discoursdiscoursee dependentdependent alternativesalternatives suchsuch aass ververbb oror objectobject frontingfronting witwithh fullfull NNPP subjects,subjects, i.e.i.e.,, VSOVSO,, OSV;OSV; seesee AppendiAppendixx E.E.

3.3.3.3. SomeSome featuresfeatures ooff agreemenagreementt inin TuyucaTuyuca

I reviewreview herehere somesome aspectsaspects ofof agreementagreement onon differentdifferent categoriescategories showingshowing howhow theythey interactinteract onon a basibasicc levellevel (i.e.,(i.e., subject-verbsubject-verb agreement)agreement).. I dodo nonott covercover ththee nominativenominative

(null)(null) anandd accusativaccusativee (/-re/(I-reI)) cascasee systesystemm ofTuyucaof Tuyuca becausbecausee thertheree iiss nonott a larglargee degredegreee ofof morphologicamorphologicall casecase markinmarkingg inin TuyucTuyucaa thathatt dealsdeals witwithh subjectsubjectss anandd directdirect objectsobjects (e.g.,(e.g., examplesexamples 2 anandd 5)5).. 1919

TuyucaTuyuca agreemenagreementt featurefeaturess cacann bbee foundfound markemarkedd oonn nounnounss (Tables(Tables I1 anandd 2),2), personapersonall pronounpronounss (Tabl(Tablee 3)3),, verbverbss (Table(Table 4),4), auxiliarauxiliaryy verbsverbs,, anandd agreeingagreeing tense­tense- evidentialevidentialss (Tabl(Tablee 5).5). ThesThesee araree nonott allall ththee possiblpossiblee elementselements,, bubutt foforr purposepurposess ofof spacespace T limitlimit thethe analysianalysiss ttoo crucialcrucial itemsitems.. SincSincee agreemenagreementt iiss obligatorobligatoryy inin allall clausesclauses iinn Tuyuca,Tuyuca, exampleexampless ofof agreemenagreementt cancan bbee seenseen iinn anyany clausclausee oror sentencesentence givengiven throughouthroughoutt thithiss thesis.thesis.

3.4.Noun3.4.Nounss

AgreementAgreement iinn nounnounss iiss markemarkedd iinn ititss mosmostt generagenerall forformm bbyy masculinemasculine -i oror -i,-i, femininfemininee -0,-o, anandd pluraplurall -a; althougalthoughh thesthesee cancan codcodee mormoree informationinformation forfor personperson and/orand/or gendergender dependindependingg oonn ththee morphosyntacticmorphosyntactic environment.environment. TheTheyy allall havhavee nasalnasal counterpartscounterparts determinedeterminedd bbyy phonologicaphonologicall contextcontext thathatt ddoo nonott diffedifferr iinn grammaticalgrammatical features.features.

A differencedifference iinn markingmarking gendegenderr onon nounnounss appearsappears inin TableTable I1 betweebetweenn (I.a)(1 .a) andand

(I.b)(1 .b) witwithh ththee additionaladditional l\d/k/ precedinprecedingg ththee gendegenderr markemarkerr iinn (I.a).(1 .a). ITnn pluralsplurals,, ththee finalfinal vowelvowel cacann signasignall pluralitpluralityy (l.c)(I.c).. TuyucTuyucaa also,also, howeverhowever,, hahass lexicalizedlexicalized pluralpluralss (I.d)(l.d) thatthat requirrequiree a singularizingsingularizing suffisuffixx (I.e).(1 .e). TnIn general,general, agreementagreement featuresfeatures ofof thethe headhead nounnoun determindeterminee agreemenagreementt witwithh otheotherr clausalclausal elements.elements.

TablTablee 2 showshowss ththee isolateisolatedd agreemenagreementt morphememorphemess iinn TuyucaTuyuca thathatt areare suffixedsuffixed toto nouns-Tnouns—I comparecompare TuyucTuyucaa witwithh otheotherr EasterEasternn TukanoaTukanoann languagelanguagess thathatt exhibitexhibit similarsimilar patternspatterns.. ITnn thesthesee otherother languageslanguages suchsuch nominanominall agreemenagreementt markersmarkers havehave beebeenn analyzedanalyzed asas nounnoun classeclassess (Retuara(Retuara bbyy StromStrom 1992)1992) andand nounounn suffixesuffixess (Wanano(Wanano bbyy StenzelStenzel 2004);2004); thertheree isis alsoalso ththee potentiapotentiall thathatt thetheyy areare a typtypee ofof pronominapronominall nounounn classifieclassifierr oorr perhapperhapss a pronominalpronominal clitic.clitic. 2200

TablTablee 11

NounNounss iinn TuyucaTuyuca

TuyucTuyucaa NounNounss witwithh GenderGender Tuy_ucaTuyuca NounsNouns iinn PluralPlural I l.l.aa l.I.bb I.cl.c l.I.dd l.I.ee 1 M Pa'ki bdbibabi ba'i SGSG jukdjuka andana wa'i 'father'' 'child''child' 'brother'' 'vulture'vulture'' 'viper'viper'' 'pieces'pieces'' -Wi-wi F Pa'ko bd'bdba'b6 bai'jo PPLL jukd-ajuka-a dnd-dana-a bubidbiibia singularsingular 'mother'' 'child''child' 'sister'' 'vultures''vultures' 'vipers'vipers'' 'grandmas''grandmas'

TablTablee 2

NouNounn agreemenagreementt iinn EasEastt TukanoanTukanoan66

MSMSGG FSFSGG PPLL

TuyucaTuyuca -k+/-i-ki/-i -ko/-o-ko/-o --aa

CubeoCubeo -k-kii -ko-ko -wa-wa

DesanoDesano -gi-g» -go-go -r-raa RetuaraRetuara -ki-ki -ko-ko -r-raa

WananoWanano -tt/-ktt-«/-k« -o-o/-k/-koo -a/-n-a/-naa

6 1ncludedIncluded herheree iiss Cubeo,Cubeo, whoswhosee mostmost commoncommon nounnoun agreemenagreementt suffixessuffixes includeinclude -ki ''masculinmasculinee singular',­singular', - ko 'feminine'feminine singularsingular'',, anandd -wa-wil 'plural' plural'' (Mors(Morsee anandd MaxwelMaxwelll 1999:1999: 77);77); DesanDesanoo suffixesuffixess -gi ''masculinmasculinee singular'singular',, -go 'feminin'femininee singular'singular',, -ril-ra 'animat'animatee plural'' (Mille(Millerr 19991999:: 35);35); RetuarRetuaraa nounounn classclass suffixes:: -ki-ki ''masculine'masculine',, -ko ''feminine'feminine ',, -ra-ril ''animatanimatee pluralplural'' (Strom(Strom 1992:: 47)47);; WananWananoo barbaree nominanominall rootrootss endingending iinn -u 'masculine,'masculine,'' -o-0 'feminine,'feminine,'' -a-al-nai-nil 'animat'animatee pluralplural'' anandd WananWananoo nominanominall suffixessuffixes -ku 'masculine','masculine', -ko-ko ''feminine'feminine ',, anandd -al-na-ai-nil 'a'animatnimatee plural'' (Stenzel(Stenzel 20042004:: 128).128). 21

TablTablee 3

PersonaPersonall pronounpronounss inin TuyucaTuyuca

1lSsIt PersonPerson SingularSingular y+'yi'tt PluralPlural exclusivexclusivee t'saTsa inclusiveinclusive beIdibadt nd 2nd PersonPerson SingularSingular mbt'i PluralPlural 'bta*b+a ra 3r d PersoPersonn SingularSingular masculinmasculinee kt'ik?1 femininfemininee ko'oko'o PluralPlural 'kta'k+a

TablTablee 4

AgreemenAgreementt forfor dependentdependent verbsverbs

DEPENDENDEPENDENTT VERVERBB SUFFIXESSUFFIXES AnimatAnimatee SingularSingu ar PluraPlurall MasculineMasculine FeminineFeminine PRESENPRESENTT -g-gt+ -go-go -ra-ra PASPASTT -ngt-rig+ -rigo-rigo -nra-rira REC.PASREC.PASTT -angt-arigi -arigo-arigo -anra-arira

FUTURFUTUREE -id-idii -odo-odo -adara-adara 2222

TablTable 5

EvidentiaEvidentiall paradigparadigmm forfor TTuyucuyucaa

VISUAV ISUALL NONVISUANONVISUALL APPARENApPARENTT SECONDHANDSECONDHAND ASSUMEDASSUMED PASPASTT OTHEROTHER -w-Wt+ --tttt -y-yuu --yirylro -hTy-hiyuu 3MS3MSGG -wii -t-ti -y-yi --yigyigi --hTyhiyii 3FS3FSGG --wwoo -t-too -y-yo -yig-yigoo -hiyo-hTyo 33PL PL --wwaa -t-taa -y-yaa -yir-yiraa --hTyhiyaa

PREPRESS OTHEOTHERR -a -g-gaa --kkuu 3MS3MSGG -i -g-gii -4TThiiT --kkii 3FS3FSGG -yo-yo -g-goo -hi-hto -ko 3PL3 PL -y-yaa -ga-ga --hlrhiraa --kukuaa 2323

3.5.3.5.Persona Personall pronounspronouns

TheThe finalfinal vowelvowelss onon ththee personapersonall pronounpronounss grougroupp generallgenerallyy ttoo marmarkk thethe distinctiondistinction betweenbetween singularsingular -4-f anandd pluraplural-a;l -d; seesee TableTable 33.. TwTwoo exceptionexceptionss standstand ououtt fromfrom thethe

singular/plurasingular/plurall patternpattern:: firsfirstt persopersonn pluraplurall hahass aann inclusivinclusivee forformm anandd ththee thirthirdd singulasingularr hashas

a femininefeminine formform thatthat correlatescorrelates withwith thethe patterpatternn forfor agreementagreement onon nouns.nouns. ExamplesExamples (6)(6) anandd (7(7)) showshow ththee ususee ooff personapersonall pronouns.pronouns.

(6)(6) K3aKia-re-re irla-dtga-ri-yigo.Tna-d+ga-ri-yigo. 3PL-SPE3PL-SPECC see-DES-NEG-EVD.PST.SCD.3FSGSee-DES-NEG-EVD.PST.SCD.3FSG '(She'(She)) diddid nonott wanwantt ttoo seseee them.'them.'

(7)(7) Koo-ya-gKoo-ya-gti diydiyii yit-ryii-ree tuti-wi.tuti-wi. 3FSG-POSS.SG-NR.MSG3FSG-POSS.SG-NR.MSG dogdog IlSG-SPE SG-SPECC SC0ldscold-EVD.PST.VIS.3MSG-EVD.PST.VIS.3MSG 'Her'Her dogdog barkedbarked aatt me.'me.' (adapted(adapted frofromm BarneBarness 1994:1994: 330)330)

3.63.6.. VerbsVerbs

AgreementAgreement oonn verbsverbs,, TableTabless 4 anandd 55,, iiss typicalltypicallyy markemarkedd througthroughh suffixingsuffixing anan obligatorobligatoryy agreeing-evidentialagreeing-evidential ttoo ththee enendd ooff ththee ververbb stemstem.. TheThe forformm ofof ththee agreeing-agreeing- evidentiaevidentiall isis contingencontingentt oonn ththee agreemenagreementt featurfeaturee valuevaluess ooff thethe heaheadd nounounn ooff ththee clauseclause anandd constituteconstitutess subject-verbsubject-verb agreementagreement.. In ththee situatiosituationn wherwheree anan auxiliaryauxiliary verbverb

accompanieaccompaniess ththee maimainn ververbb (i(inn whicwhichh cascasee I refereferr ttoo ththee maimainn ververbb aass a dependent verb,verb,

i.e.i.e.,, dependentdependent oonn ththee auxiliary),auxiliary), ththee evidentialevidential isis suffixedsuffixed toto ththee auxiliaryauxiliary whilwhilee thethe

dependendependentt ververbb expresseexpressess subject-verbsubject-verb agreementagreement throughthrough a differendifferentt classclass ofof morphmorphss thatthat

alsalsoo agreagreee witwithh ththee heaheadd nounnoun.. In thesthesee clausesclauses ththee agreementagreement featurfeaturee valuevaluess ooff ththee verbverb

anandd auxiliarauxiliaryy wilwilll bbee virtuallvirtuallyy ththee samesame,, botbothh agreeinagreeingg witwithh ththee heaheadd nounnoun ooff ththee clause.clause.

ThiThiss cancan bbee seeseenn inin TablTablee 44,, whichwhich representrepresentss mymy organizatioorganizationn ooff ththee morphememorphemess asas 2244 founfoundd inin ththee originaloriginal sourcessources;; seseee BarnesBarnes (1977,(1977, 1984,1984, 1994,1994, 1996,1996, 1999),1999), BarneBarness andand

MalonMalonee (2000)(2000),, andand KarKarnn (1976,(1976, 1979).1979). ToTo summarize,summarize, verbverbss thathatt dependependd oonn aann auxiliaryauxiliary musmustt stillstill agreeagree witwithh ththee subject/heasubject/headd nounounn ooff ththee clauseclause,, ththee morphsmorphs iinn TableTable 4 araree usedused forfor thithiss purposepurpose;; agreemenagreementt oonn lexicallexical verbverbss iiss suffixesuffixedd ttoo ththee endend ofof ththee evidentiaevidentiall morphmorph andand areare placeplacedd iinn bolboldd iinn TablTablee 5.5.

3.6.13.6.1.. OrdeOrderr ofof constituentsconstituents iinn ththee ververbb phrasephrase

BarneBarness (1999(1999)) notenotess thathatt "modality"modality indicatorindicatorss araree suffixessuffixes whicwhichh followfollow thethe verbverb rooroott anandd precedprecedee anan evidential,evidential, imperativimperativee oror interrogativeinterrogative ending.ending. ThesThesee moomoodd indicatorsindicators include:include: negativenegative,, probability/conditionalprobability/conditional,, contraexpectation,contraexpectation, desiderativedesiderative,, ability,ability, andand emphatic.emphatic."" AssuminAssumingg ththee universauniversall morphemmorphemee ordeorderr inin CinquCinquee (1999(1999,, seesee AppendiAppendixx D)D)

7 wwee cancan derivederive thethe followingfollowing ordeorderr forformm BarnesBarnes'' statementstatement:: [V-ModaI/Mood[V-Modal/Mood ]].. BarnesBarnes andand

MalonMalonee (2000(2000)) statestate thathatt "Los"Los modomodoss irreal.irreal, frustrativofrustrativo,, desiderativodesiderativo y potencial..potencial.... siguensiguen aall tematema verbaverball y a loslos sufijossufijos ddee aspecto."aspecto." IInn otherother wordswords,, ththee desiderative,desiderative, frustrative,frustrative, anandd potentiapotentiall moodmoodss follofolloww ththee ververbb rooroott andand ththee aspectaspect suffixsuffix.. FroFromm thithiss statementstatement wewe cacann derivderivee ththee overalloverall [V[V-Aspect-Modal/Mood -Aspect-ModallMood]] orderorder.. Typically,Typically, nnoo mormoree thathann twotwo elementelementss occuoccurr betweebetweenn ththee ververbb rooroott andand ththee evidentialevidential ending,ending, whicwhichh araree thethe onlyonly obligatorobligatoryy partpartss ooff ththee ververbb phrasephrase.. ThiThiss ordeorderr ooff verbaverball suffixessuffixes iinn TuyucaTuyuca appearsappears ttoo bebe fixedfixed aass [V-(Asp)-(ModlMood)-Evd];[V-(Asp)-(Mod/Mood)-Evd]; elementelementss iinn parenthesiparenthesiss areare optionaloptional.. ThThee evidentialevidential iiss a 'fused'fused'' oorr 'portmanteau'portmanteau'' forformm (i.e.(i.e.,, containscontains multiplmultiplee kindkindss ofof grammaticagrammaticall informationinformation

7 BarneBarness makesmakes nnoo semanticsemantic distinctiondistinction betweenbetween moodmood anandd modalitymodality.. FoForr consistencconsistencyy I wilwilll follofolloww herher assumptionassumption iinn thithiss ChapterChapter,, thougthoughh I thinthinkk sheshe iiss wrongwrong.. A clearclear distinctiondistinction betweebetweenn moomoodd anandd modalitymodality cacann bbee definedefinedd aass ththee differencedifference betweebetweenn variablevariabless ranginrangingg oveoverr ththee speaker'sspeaker's opinionopinion ooff a worlworldd (modality),(modality), anandd variablevariabless ranginrangingg oveoverr ththee worlworldd itself(mood).itself (mood). 2525 iinn oneone morpheme)morpheme),, encodingencoding person,person, numbernumber,, gender,gender, tensetense,, andand thethe speaker'sspeaker's sourcesource ooff informationinformation;; seesee 3.3.88 forfor moremore detailsdetails onon evidentials.evidentials.

3.7.Auxiliary3.7.Auxiliary verbsverbs

TherTheree areare twtwoo TuyucaTuyuca auxiliarauxiliaryy verbs,, tii- 'do/make'do/make'' andand nii-riii- 'be.''be.' TheyThey onlyonly occuroccur inin declarativedeclarative clausesclauses whewhenn thetheyy havehave anan agreeing-evidentialagreeing-evidential suffixedsuffixed ttoo themthem.. In (8-11)(8-11) ththee maimainn ververbb isis suffixedsuffixed witwithh anan agreementagreement morphemmorphemee fromfrom TableTable 4, whilewhile ththee auxiliaryauxiliary carriecarriess ththee agreeing-evidentialagreeing-evidential (example(exampless araree asas thetheyy appearappear inin ththee originaloriginal texttextss exceptexcept II superficiallysuperficially changedchanged ththee interlineainterlinearr glossingglossing ttoo conformconform ttoo ththee LeipziLeipzigg GlossingGlossing Rules).Rules).

(8)(8) we'swe'see tada-'rtada-'nia tii-'kuatii-'kua chagrachagra cortar-PLcortar-PL hacer-EVD.PRES.ASMhacer-EVD.PRES.ASM..3P3PLL 'seguramente'seguramente estanestan rozandorozando (preparando(preparando uunn terreno),terreno)' 'They'They areare clearinclearingg ththee field'field' (my(my translation)translation)

(9)(9) yj.'tyi'i waa-'gwaa-'gti tii-'wttii-'w+ yyoo remarremar-MSG-MSG hacer-EvD.PST.hacer-EVD.PST VIS.!.viS.1/ /22 'yo'yo estabaestaba remando'remando' 'I'I wawass rowingrowing'' (m(myy translation)translation)

(10(10)) waa-ri-gwaa-n-gt+ oii-wintf-wi gO-RESLTgO-RESL T-3MSG -3MSG be-EvD.PST.VIS.3MSGbe-EVD.PST.VIS.3MSG 'He'He went.'went.'

(II)(11) dfigadfiga ape-gtape-gi tii-itii-i soccesoccerr playplay-MsG-MSG do/make-EvD.PRES.Vls.3MSGdo/make-EVD.PRES.vis.3MSG 'H'Hee isis playingplaying soccer.'soccer.' (adapted(adapted fromfrom BarnesBarnes 1984:1984: 252599 andand BarnesBarnes andand MaloneMalone 2000:2000: 442442)) 2626

3.8.3.8.Evidential Evidentialss

TheThe TuyucaTuyuca evidentialevidential paradigparadigmm iiss relativelrelativelyy largelarge andand complex,complex, andand hahass beenbeen usedused bbyy manymany (e.g.,(e.g., FallerFaller 2002001 I,, PalmePalmerr 2001200 I)) asas anan exemplarexemplaryy casecase ofof anan evidentialevidential system. 8 TheThe evidentialevidential paradigmparadigm consistsconsists ofof thethe generalgeneral distinctionsdistinctions betweenbetween directdirect

(VISUAL(VISUAL)) andand indirectindirect (NONVISUAL,(NONVISUAL, APPARENTAPPARENT,, SECONDHAND,SECONDHAND, andand ASSUMED),ASSUMED), shownshown iinn

TableTable 5.5. TheseThese categoriescategories encodeencode a generalgeneral distinctiondistinction betweenbetween 3rdrd persopersonn andand OTHEROTHER (1/2(1/2 person)person).. TheThe OTHEROTHER (1/2(1/2 person)person) categorycategory makesmakes nono distinctiondistinction betweenbetween singular,singular, plural,plural, feminine,feminine, oror masculinemasculine.. OnOn thethe otherother handhand,, thethe 3rdrd personperson doesdoes makemake thithiss distinction.distinction.

3.8.1.3.8.1. TypesTypes ofof evidentialsevidentials inin TuyucaTuyuca

TheThe morphosyntacticmorphosyntactic distributiondistribution ofof thethe fivefive typestypes ofof evidentialsevidentials (Table(Table 5)5) isis thethe consistentconsistent betweebetweenn allall thethe subtypessubtypes ofof eviential.eviential. ThatThat is,is, allall typestypes (and(and subtypes)subtypes) maymay occuroccur inin thethe samesame environment:environment: obligatorilyobligatorily suffixedsuffixed ttoo thethe endend ofof thethe verbverb stemstem oror auxiliaryauxiliary inin declarativedeclarative clauses.clauses. Tense,Tense, whicwhichh isis fusedfused witwithh thethe evidential,evidential, iiss markedmarked forfor thethe wholwholee clauseclause whethewhetherr itit isis suffixedsuffixed toto thethe maimainn verbverb stemstem oror ththee auxiliary.auxiliary. IInn (12a-c)(12a-c) ththee evidentialevidential isis suffixedsuffixed toto ththee maimainn verb.verb. WhenWhen therethere isis anan auxiliaryauxiliary thethe evidentialevidential attachesattaches directlydirectly ttoo itit (12d-t).(12d-f). BotBothh typetypess ofof constructionsconstructions forfor TuyucaTuyuca cancan bbee seenseen inin (12).(12).

(12)(12) a.a. tutt-wituti-wi h.b. hea-wahea-wa scold-EVD.PST.VIS.3MSGscold-EVD.PST.vis.3MSG arrive-EvD.PST.VIs.3PI,arrive-EVD.PST.vis.3PL 'barked''barked' '(they)'(tney) arrived'arrived'

c. sia-yigisla-yig* d.d. ape-g+ape-g+ tii-itii-i kill-EVD.PST.SCD.3MSki II-EVD.PST.SCD.3MSGG play-MSplaY-MSGG dO-EVD.PRES.V[s.3MSGdo-EVD.PRES.VIS.3MSG '(he)'(he) killed'killed' '(He)'(He) isis playing'playing'

8 PaynePayne (1997:(1997: 256256)) sayssays "This"This languagelanguage [Tuyuca][Tuyuca] hahass oneone ofof ththee mosmostt complexcomplex systemssystems ofevidentialityof evidentiality II havhavee seenseen.. ItIt hahass ththee addedadded complexitycomplexity ofof havinghaving evidentialityevidentiality interwoveninterwoven witwithh thethe verbalverbal participanparticipantt referencreferencee systemsystem andand thethe tenstensee system.system."" 2277

, ee.. waa-rigwaa-ngti nii-winfi-wi gOgo-3MSG-3MSG be-EvD.PST.VIS.3MSGbe-EVD.PST.VIS.3MSG '(He'(He)) went'went*

ff.. bue-gbue-goo tii-atii-a Study-MSstudy-MSGG dO-EVD.PRES.VlS.1I2do-EVD.PRES.VIS.1/2 '('(II am/youam/you are)are) studying'studying' (adapte(adaptedd frofromm BarneBarness 1984,1984, 19941994))

TheThe ordeorderr ofof morphologicamorphologicall affixesaffixes foforr ththee ververbb iiss givengiven iinn ththee formulformulaa inin (13(13)) andand foforr auxiliariesauxiliaries iinn (14)(14);; seseee alsoalso 3.6.13.6.1.. OptionalOptional elementelementss araree iinn parentheseparenthesess andand obligatoryobligatory elementselements araree not.not. ThThee ververbb rooroott anandd ththee tense-evidential-agreementense-evidential-agreementt morphemmorphemee areare obligatory.obligatory. (The(The '+'+'' symbosymboll indicatesindicates a stricstrictt surfacsurfacee orderinorderingg relatiorelationn iinn whicwhichh V alwaysalways comescomes beforbeforee AuxAux andand thertheree iiss nnoo interveningintervening material).material).

(13(13)) [V[VRooT-(ASP)-(MOD)/(MOOD)-EVD.TENSE.AGR]ROOT-(ASP)-(MOD)/(MOOD)-EVD.TENSE.AGR] (14)(14) [VRooT-AGR][VRQOT-AGR] + [AU[AuxX -(NEG)-(REC.PST)-EVD.TENSE.AGR]9-(NEG)-(REC.PST)-EVD.TENSE.AGR]9

ThThee fivfivee evidentiaevidentiall categoriecategoriess generallgenerallyy splisplitt betweebetweenn ononee direcdirectt forformm anandd fourfour indirectindirect formsforms,, aass mentionementionedd aboveabove.. TheThe [±[± 3rdRD personperson]] formsforms araree groupegroupedd undeunderr PSPSTT andand

PREPRESS tense,tense, aass cancan bebe seeseenn inin TableTable 5.5. BarnesBarnes'' originaoriginall worworkk showsshows twotwo evidentialevidential categoriecategoriess thathatt araree nonott founfoundd iinn ththee commocommonn literatureliterature:: APPARENAPPARENTT anandd SECONDHANDSECONDHAND..

TheseThese mamayy bbee replacereplacedd bbyy ththee moremore commoncommon INFERREDrNFERRED anandd HEARSAYHEARSAY,, respectivelyrespectively.. ThereThere

9 NoticNoticee [I havhavee beenbeen placinplacingg ththee categorcategoryy TENSTENSEE asas occurringoccurring afterafter EVIDENTIALEVIDENTIAL.. [I givegive nnoo argumentsarguments forfor thithiss orderinorderingg herheree anandd assumeassume itit throughouthroughoutt ChapterChapterss 3 anandd 44.. ChapteChapterr 5 containcontainss ththee thrusthrustt ooff thethe argumenargumentt foforr placinplacingg TENSTENSEE afteafterr EVIDENTIALEVIDENTIAL;; howeverhowever,, itit shouldshould bbee notenotedd thathatt ththee twtwoo categoriescategories areare morphologicallmorphologicallyy fusefusedd (portmanteau(portmanteau)) andand ananyy argumenargumentt forfor aann orderinorderingg relationrelation musmustt relrelyy oonn anan abstracabstractt characterizationcharacterization.. 2288 isis nnoo evidenceevidence thatthat BarnesBarnes'' labelslabels refereferr ttoo categoriecategoriess independentindependent fromfrom thethe mormoree commoncommon names.names. I[ wilwilll continucontinuee ttoo ususee herher labellabelss foforr consistency.consistency.

Lastly,Lastly, ththee finalfinal vowelvowelss oonn ththee evidentialevidentialss (Table(Table 5)5) correlatcorrelatee witwithh thethe gendegenderr andand pluraplurall markinmarkingg patternpatternss iinn TuyucTuyucaa iinn generagenerall (Tables!,(Tables 1, 2,2, 3 anandd 4)4);; analyzinganalyzing thesthesee finalfinal vowelvowelss asas separatseparatee agreemenagreementt morphememorphemess resultresultss iinn a ververyy pervasivpervasivee patterpatternn throughoutthroughout ththee entireentire language.language. AnAndd iinn facfactt BarneBarness herselherselff acknowledgeacknowledgess ththee patternpattern,, statingstating thatthat

"Since"Since ththee personperson,, number,number, andand gendergender informatioinformationn iiss carriecarriedd mainlmainlyy bbyy ththee finafinall vowelvowel,, itit woulwouldd seemseem thathatt ththee evidentiaevidentiall informatioinformationn iiss carriecarriedd bbyy ththee resrestt ooff thethe morpheme..morpheme .... thisthis areareaa needneedss furtherfurther study"study" (Barne(Barness 1984:1984: 258)258).. [I investigatinvestigatee thisthis patterpatternn iinn mormoree deptdepthh iinn

PartPart II.II.

3.8.2.3.8.2. DefectiveDefective formformss iinn ththee evidentiaevidentiall paradigmparadigm

InIn ththee evidentialevidential paradigmparadigm,, TablTablee 55,, ththee NONVTSUANONVISUALL categorcategoryy iinn PST.1/PST.! 122 andand

PST.3MSPST.3MSGG botbothh shareshare thethe finalfinal vowelvowel Iii./*/. ComparComparee thithiss ttoo ththee VISUAVISUALL categorcategoryy PST.l/PST. 1122 andand

PST.3MSPST.3MSGG forms:forms: thetheyy alternatealternate betweebetweenn IiiIII ~ Iii./+/. SegmentalSegmental phonologphonologyy oofTuyucaf Tuyuca showsshows thathatt l\lIii ~ Iii/+/ alternationsalternations areare phonemiphonemicc (Barne(Barness anandd TakagiTakagi ddee SilzerSilzer 1976).1976). IIff thethe

rdrd differencedifference inin vowevowell alternationalternation inin ththee VISUAVISUALL categorcategoryy markmarkss a distinctiodistinctionn betweebetweenn [+[+ 33 ]

rdrd andand [_3[-3 ] personspersons,, thethenn ththee lossloss ofof alternationalternation iinn ththee NONVISUANONVISUALL categorcategoryy suggestssuggests a syncretismsyncretism ofof ththee agreementagreement valuevaluess iinn ththee twtwoo formsforms thathatt ddoo nonott showshow ththee alternation.alternation.

FurtherFurther problemproblemss arisearise whewhenn lookinlookingg aatt ththee VISUAVISUALL PRESPRES.. I1/ 122 anandd VISUAVISUALL

PRES.3MSPRES.3MSGG formsforms.. TheyThey appeaappearr nonott ttoo havhavee aann evidentialevidential atat alalll bubutt ttoo bbee composecomposedd simplysimply ofof ththee vowevowell agreemenagreementt morphememorpheme.. ThisThis reallreallyy onlonlyy holdsholds,, howeverhowever,, iinn ththee PRES.3SGPRES.3SG morphsmorphs;; ththee PRESPRES.. 1121/2 isis deviant.deviant. A pragmatipragmaticc anandd functionafunctionall explanatioexplanationn arisearisess foforr thethe 2299 droppindroppingg ooff a formform thathatt referreferss ttoo ththee sourcesource ofof information,, iiff andand onlonlyy iiff iitt isis assumedassumed thathatt duringduring naturanaturall speechspeech allall speecspeechh participantparticipantss araree locatelocatedd iinn ththee samsamee spatio-temporalspatio-temporal domaidomainn anandd havhavee equalequal accessaccess ttoo ththee referencreferencee ofof eventevent timetimess anandd worlworldd situations.. In thisthis contexcontextt ththee sourcsourcee ofof visuavisuall informatioinformationn iiss explicitexplicit ttoo alalll speecspeechh participantparticipantss anandd neeneedd notnot bbee specified.specified. Thus,, droppindroppingg ththee visuavisuall evidentiaevidentiall morphemmorphemee iiss economicaleconomical asas it neeneedd notnot bbee redundantlredundantlyy statedstated ttoo ththee speecspeechh participantparticipantss thathatt ththee sourcsourcee ooff informatioinformationn iiss visual;

(see(see 5.5.5.5.2 forfor anotheanotherr explanation).. However,, thithiss doedoess nonott explaiexplainn ththee otheotherr presenpresentt tensetense visuavisuall formformss oof3f 3FSFSG andand 3PL3pL.. TheseThese issuesissues araree importanimportantt bubutt thetheyy dodo nonott directldirectlyy affectaffect ththee analysisanalysis ooff agreemenagreementt andand soso I ignoreignore thethemm inin thithiss thesisthesis.. Lastly,, ththee OOTHETHER evidentialevidentialss clearlyclearly ddoo nonott fifitt ththee finalfinal vowelvowel patternpattern soso pervasivpervasivee iinn ththee 3rdrd persopersonn formsforms.

FoForr thithiss reasoreasonn rI ignoreignore ththee OTHEOTHER evidentiaevidentiall formsforms. 44.. "G""G" CLASCLASSS AGREEMENTAGREEMENT

4.4.1.1 .Introductio Introductionn

TherTheree iiss a systematisystematicc patterpatternn ofof agreemenagreementt iinn TuyucaTuyuca bbyy whicwhichh ththee finalfinal vowevowell ofof certaicertainn classeclassess ooff morphemesmorphemes functionsfunctions aass ththee agreemenagreementt markemarkerr cross-referencingcross-referencing thethe headhead nounounn ofof ththee clausclausee (see(see ChapteChapterr 3)3).. I investigatinvestigatee herheree ththee consequencesconsequences ooff analyzinganalyzing thethe finalfinal vowevowell agreemenagreementt markermarkerss aass separatseparatee frofromm a specificspecific sesett ofof morphemesmorphemes,, namelynamely whawhatt iiss usuallusuallyy analyzeanalyzedd aass ththee nominalizernominalizer,, dependentdependent ververbb agreement,agreement, andand gerundgerund morphemesmorphemes.. ThThee usuausuall analysianalysiss ooff thesthesee morphememorphemess (i.e(i.e.. ththee analysisanalysis ofof BarneBarness andand Karn)Karn) restrestss onon viewinviewingg thethemm aass portmanteauportmanteau formformss - typicalltypicallyy fusinfusingg gendergender anandd persopersonn witwithh a specificspecific grammaticagrammaticall functiofunctionn ofof ththee "g""g" clasclasss morphememorpheme.. ThThee goalgoal ofof thithiss chapterchapter iiss toto treatreatt thesthesee "g"g"" clasclasss morphememorphemess aass morphologicallmorphologicallyy separableseparable frofromm ththee finalfinal vowelsvowels thatthat encodencodee ththee agreementagreement featurfeaturee valuesvalues.. IIff thithiss separatioseparationn iiss valivalidd thethenn a consistentconsistent analysisanalysis ooff ththee segmentablesegmentable partpartss ofof whawhatt iiss assumeassumedd ttoo bbee a portmanteaportmanteauu forformm willwill resultresult.. IInn otherother wordswords,, ththee "g""g" clasclasss morphememorphemess wilwilll havhavee consistenconsistentt grammaticagrammaticall functionsfunctions iinn specificspecific anandd predictablpredictablee morphosyntactimorphosyntacticc environmentsenvironments., aass wilwilll ththee agreementagreement morphemes.morphemes. IIff thisthis iiss soso,, thethenn I believbelievee I wilwilll havhavee madmadee a stronstrongg argumentargument foforr analyzinanalyzingg agreementagreement asas a separateseparate morphemmorphemee withiwithinn thithiss limitelimitedd sesett ooff TuyucTuyucaa morphologymorphology.. AdditionallyAdditionally,, thisthis separationseparation revealrevealss somesome precisprecisee andand interestininterestingg functionsfunctions ooff ththee smallsmall sesett ofof "g""g" classclass morphememorphemess thathatt havhavee nonott receivedreceived adequatadequatee attentionattention.. IIff sucsuchh aann argumenargumentt iiss valivalidd thethenn it mamayy necessitatenecessitate a reconsideratioreconsiderationn ooff otheotherr TukanoaTukanoann languagelanguagess inin thisthis regard.regard. 3131

NeverthelessNevertheless,, I limitlimit analysisanalysis ttoo TuyucaTuyuca anandd makmakee nnoo expliciexplicitt comparisonscomparisons betweebetweenn mmyy conclusionconclusionss herheree anandd ththee conclusionconclusionss iinn worworkk oonn otherother TukanoanTukanoan languages. 1010

4.2.Th4.2. Thee basibasicc datadata

MuchMuch ooff thethe analysisanalysis ooff TuyucaTuyuca datadata inin thithiss chaptechapterr willwill concernconcern ththee interlinearinterlinear glosseglossess originalloriginallyy givegivenn inin BarnesBarnes'' worworkk (se(seee references)references).. AAss a preludpreludee ttoo ththee analysis,analysis, IJ quotquotee fromfrom thethe LeipziLeipzigg GlossingGlossing RuleRuless (http://www.eva.mpg.de/lingua/index.html):(http://www.eva.mpg.de/lingua/index.html):

"Glosses"Glosses areare parpartt ofof ththee analysis,analysis, nonott parpartt ooff ththee datadata.. WhenWhen citingciting anan examplexamplee frofromm a publishepublishedd source,source, ththee glosglosss mamayy bbee changechangedd byby ththee authoauthorr iiff thetheyy prefepreferr differentdifferent terminologyterminology,, a differentdifferent stylestyle oror a differendifferentt analysis.analysis."" I makmakee expliciexplicitt ththee placeplacess inin whichwhich

I changechange Barnes'Barnes' originaloriginal interlinearinterlinear glosses,glosses, butbut itit shouldshould bebe notednoted thatthat byby andand largelarge I follofolloww heherr analysesanalyses andand conclusions.conclusions. A differencdifferencee inin analysisanalysis,, howeverhowever,, wilwilll nonott changechange thethe formform ofof ththee basicbasic data.data. IItt iiss toto thesethese datdataa I nonoww tum.turn.

BarneBarness (1994(1994)) andand BarneBarness andand MalonMalonee (2000(2000)) (B(BMM frofromm herheree afterafter)) analyzanalyzee a specifispecificc setset ooff morphememorphemess thathatt functiofunctionn ttoo reducreducee ththee valencvalencyy ooff ththee ververbb oorr turturnn it intintoo a noun,noun, whicwhichh resultresultss inin a reductioreductionn (o(orr eliminationelimination)) ooff ththee numbenumberr ooff argumentargumentss ooff thethe verb.verb. TablTablee 6 showshowss thithiss setset ooff morphemesmorphemes,, a larglargee portioportionn ofof whicwhichh cacann alsalsoo bbee seenseen functioninfunctioningg aass agreementagreement markermarkerss oonn dependendependentt verbverbss (lexica(lexicall verbverbss thatthat areare dependentdependent oonn anan auxiliaryauxiliary iinn ththee samesame clauseclause;; seesee TableTable 4)4).. TablTablee 7 showsshows ththee fulfulll paradigparadigmm ofof agreemenagreementt morphologymorphology forfor depenendepenentt verbverbss anandd iiss partlpartlyy basebasedd oonn BarneBarness (1996(1996)) anandd onon mmyy observationsobservations ofof datdataa iinn ththee restrest ofof BarnesBarnes'' workwork,, aass welwelll aass KarKamn (1976(1976,, 1979).1979).

1010 SeeSee RamireRamirezz ((1997 1997)) foforr comparisocomparisonn ofof whawhatt rI calcall"l "g g"" clasclasss morphemesmorphemes.. rI thanthankk ThiagThiagoo ChacoChaconn forfor pointingpointing outout somesome generalgeneral similaritiessimilarities betweebetweenn mmyy analysianalysiss anandd Ramirez'Ramirez'ss (1997).(1997). 3232

TableTable 6

NoNomm inalizerinalizer/Deverba/Deverball izerizer agreementagreement ll

NOMINNOMFNALIZERS/DEVERBALIZERALIZERS/DEVERBALIZERSS AnimatAnimatee InanimateInanimate SingularSinj jular PluraPlurall Non-Non- PlacePlace MasculineMasculine FemininFemininee countcount PRPRESENESENTT -gt, 1)1 -go, 1)0no -ra, rara -re-re -ro, -ra-rd PASPASTT -rigt-rig+ -rigo-rigo -nra-rira -ri-riggee -riro-riro REC.PASREC.PASTT -arigt-arigi -arigo-arigo -anra-arira -ange-arige -ariro-ariro FUTURE'FUTURE' l.2 -idi-idi -odo-odo -adara-adara -ad-adar aree -adaro-adaro

TableTable 7

AgreemenAgreementt paradigparadigmm forfor dependentdependent verbsverbs

DDEPENDENEPENDENTT VERBVERB SUFFIXESSUFFIXES AnimatAnimatee InanimateInanimate SingularSingu ar PluralPlural -ro-ro MasculineMasculine FeminineFeminine PRESENTPRESENT -g-gt+ -go-go -ra-ra PASPASTT -rig-rigt* -rigo-rigo -rira-rira .. RECREC..P PASASTT -arig-angtt -arigo-arigo -arira-arira FUTURFUTUREE -tdt-+d+ -odo-odo -adara-adara

11 II ThesThesee nominalizernominalizerss areare alsalsoo usedused inin thethe constructioconstructionn ofof relativrelativee clauses,, iinn whicwhichh ththee restrictingrestricting clausclausee isis nominalizenominalizedd andand ththee agreementagreement markemarkerr referreferss ttoo ththee heaheadd nounnoun ofof ththee maimainn clause.. I amam nonott concernedconcerned herehere witwithh relativrelativee clauses. 12 TheThe futurefuture iiss a differendifferentt mattematterr fromfrom ththee otheotherr tensetensess andand I willwill nonott dealdeal withwith itit here;here; thoughthough I includeinclude itit soso ththee paradigmsparadigms cancan bbee seenseen iinn theirtheir entirety.entirety. 3333

ExamplesExamples (15)-((15)-(17 17)) shoshoww ththee nominalizinnominalizingg oorr deverbalizindeverbalizingg functionfunction ofof morphememorphemess fromfrom TableTable 6.6. (18)-(21)(18)-(21) shoshoww ththee unanalyzeunanalyzedd interpretatiointerpretationn ooff morphemesmorphemes frofromm TablTablee 7-J7—1 arguarguee thathatt thesthesee morphememorphemess (i(inn boldbold)) cancan bbee decomposedecomposedd andand analyzedanalyzed aass aann agreemenagreementt morphemmorphemee (th(thee finafinall vowelvowel)) andand eitheeitherr aann aspect,, classifier,, gerund,, oror nominalizenominalizerr morpmorphh (th(thee l-g-lI-g-I element).element). TuyucaTuyuca systematicallysystematically useusess ththee morphmorphss iinn TablTablee 7 iinn [V[V + AuxAux]] combinations;combinations;

(15)(15) bue-gtbue-g+ estudiar-MsGestudiar-MSG studystudy-NR.MSG-NR.MSG 'professor'professor''

(16)(16) w++-ri-wwtt-ri-wt+ volar-susvolar-SUS-CLs:vehfculo-CLS:vehiculo flyflY-NR-cLF:vehicle-NR-CLF:vehicle 'ariplane'ariplane''

(17)(17) yaa-'reyaa-'re comer-sucomer-SUSs eateat-NR-NR 'food'food'*

(18(18)) buegobuegotii- tif-aa '(I'(I)) aamm studying.'studying.'

(19(19)) diigdfigaa apegapegii tif-itif-i '(He'(He)) isis playinplayingg soccer.'soccer.'

(20)(20) waarigwaarigii no-winTf-wi '(He)'(He) went.'went.'

(21)(21) weswesee soerigs6erigii no-winTf-wi '(He'(He)) burneburnedd hihiss field.'field.' (adapted(adapted fromfrom BarnesBarnes 1984:1984: 259)259) 3344

InIn spitspitee ofof ththee factfact thathatt somesome ooff Barnes'Barnes'origina originall datdataa providprovidee nnoo morpheme-by­morpheme-by- morphememorpheme glosglosss ttoo exampleexampless liklikee (18)-(21),(18)-(21), nonorr ttoo ananyy datadata iinn heherr ververyy importanimportantt andand widelwidelyy citedcited (1984(1984)) papepaperr onon evidentials,evidential, thesthesee exampleexampless providprovidee interestininterestingg evidenceevidence abouaboutt hohoww progressivprogressivee andand perfecperfectt aspecaspectt araree formeformedd iinn Tuyuca.Tuyuca. BarneBarness notenotess foforr (18)(18) anandd (19)(19),, whicwhichh constitutconstitutee aann eveneventt ththee speakespeakerr iiss witnessinwitnessingg atat ththee timtimee ofof ththee speecspeechh actact reportreport,, "a"a progressivprogressivee constructionconstruction isis usedused"" (Barnes(Barnes 1984:1984: 259).259). FoForr (20(20)) anandd (21(21)) sheshe statestatess thathatt "Visual"Visual evidentiaevidentialsl areare useusedd iinn a compouncompoundd constructioconstructionn ttoo describedescribe ththee endend resultresult ofaof a statestate oror eventevent whewhenn ththee statestate oror eventevent itselfwasitself was nonott seenseen bubutt thethe enendd resultresult waswas"" (Barnes(Barnes 1984:1984: 259).259). BByy thithiss lattelatterr descriptiodescriptionn BarneBarness isis referrinreferringg ttoo a perfectiveperfective aspecaspectt (Barnes(Barnes andand MaloneMalone 20002000:: 442).442).

ItIt isis notnot cleaclearr hohoww ththee visuavisuall evidentiaevidentiall iiss responsiblresponsiblee foforr botbothh ththee progressivprogressivee inin

(18)(18),, (19)(19) anandd ththee perfectivperfectivee inin (20),(20), (21)(21);; especiallyespecially whewhenn ththee auxiliaryauxiliary appearappearss ttoo bebe partlypartly responsibleresponsible foforr thesthesee aspectualaspectual interpretations.interpretations. ItIt iiss trutruee thathatt thertheree areare manymany casescases iinn whicwhichh evidentialevidentialss havhavee originateoriginatedd frofromm reanalyzereanalyzedd aspectual-likaspectual-Iikee morphemesmorphemes,, suchsuch asas participlesparticiples (Harris(Harris anandd CampbelCampbelll 19951995 anandd CampbelCampbelll 1991)1991) iinn EstoniaEstoniann anandd resultativesresultatives

(Csat(Csatoo 2000,2000, JohansoJohansonn 2000,2000, ShroederShroeder 20002000)) iinn TurkishTurkish.. ITnn fact,fact, MalonMalonee (1988:(1988: 139)139) hashas analyzedanalyzed evidentialsevidentials iinn TukanoaTukanoann aass originatinoriginatingg frofromm aspectuaaspectuall morphemesmorphemes:: "Nonvisual"Nonvisual paradigmparadigmss appeaappearr ttoo havhavee developedevelopedd frofromm a progressivprogressivee (or(or other)other) aspectualaspectual gerundialgerundial constructionconstruction...... [and][and] ththee '+/-'+/- directdirect'' paradigmparadigmss appearappear ttoo havhavee developeddeveloped aatt somesome laterlater stagestage frofromm aann oldold perfectperfect constructioconstructionn plupluss evidentialevidential suffixes....suffixes ...." " ThereThere iiss eveevenn a smallsmall setset ooff homophonouhomophonouss pairpairss inin TuyucaTuyuca thathatt retairetainn botbothh anan evidentialevidential andand anan aspectualaspectual meaning.meaning. ThThee formsforms g-i, g-o, andand g-a cacann bbee progressivprogressivee oorr perfectiveperfective aspectaspect andand thetheyy areare parpartt ooff ththee evidentialevidential paradigparadigmm iinn TablTablee 8.8. 3535

TableTable 8

PresentPresent tensetense evidentialsevidentials inin TuyucaTuyuca

VISUAVISUALL NONVISUANONVISUALL APPARENApPARENTT SECONDHANDSECONDHAND ASSUMEDASSUMED

PRESPRES OTHEOTHERR -a-a -ga-ga -ku-ku 3MSG3MSG -I-i -gi-gi -hii-hii -ki-ki 3FSG3FSG -yo-yo -go-go -hio-hto -ko-ko 3PL3 PL --yyaa -ga-ga -hira-htra -kua-kua 3366

HoweverHowever,, asas I willwill soosoonn show,show, thertheree iiss nono environmenenvironmentt inin whicwhichh g-i, g-o, andand g-ag-a havhavee simultaneoussimultaneous evidentialevidential andand aspectualaspectual interpretationsinterpretations.. TheThe meaningmeaningss ooff thethe morphemesmorphemes araree entirelyentirely dependentdependent onon morphosyntactimorphosyntacticc environmentenvironment.. ThiThiss situatiosituationn isis similarsimilar ttoo whatwhat hahass occurredoccurred iinn botbothh EstonianEstonian anandd TurkishTurkish,, wherwheree ththee reanalyzedreanalyzed morphememorpheme stilstilll retainretainss ititss originaoriginall meaninmeaningg iinn specificspectfic environmentsenvironments,, whilwhilee ththee evidentialevidential meaninmeaningg isis alsalsoo restricterestrictedd ttoo otherother specific environments.environments. FoForr example,example, iinn EstonianEstonian thethe participleparticiple interpretationinterpretation isis founfoundd iinn subordinatsubordinatee clauseclausess andand ththee reportereportedd speecspeechh evidentialevidential iiss foundfound suffixedsuffixed ttoo finitfinitee verbverbss inin maimainn clauseclausess anandd subordinatsubordinatee clauseclausess inin botbothh paspastt tensetense

/-vatI-vat!/ andand presenpresentt tenstensee I-nud/./-mid/. IInn TurkisTurkishh /misIml~1/ iiss aann indirecindirectt paspastt tense-evidentiatense-evidentiall withwith finitefinite verbsverbs,, butbut signalsignalss resultativresultativee aspecaspectt witwithh nonfinitnonfinitee verbsverbs.. TuyucaTuyuca iiss ververyy differentdifferent fromfrom TurkishTurkish andand EstoniaEstoniann iinn thathatt it hahass a lotlot moremore evidentiaevidentiall morphemmorphemee typetypess andand subtypessubtypes thathatt makemake manmanyy direct/indirecdirect/indirectt distinctionsdistinctions.. In EstoniaEstoniann andand TurkishTurkish a smalsmalll setset ofaspectual-likeof aspectual-like morphememorphemess underwenunderwentt ththee historicahistoricall procesprocesss ooff reanalysireanalysiss and,and, subsequently,subsequently, camecame toto havehave anan evidentialevidential interpretatiointerpretationn inin restricterestrictedd morphosyntacticmorphosyntactic environments.environments. BuButt inin TuyucaTuyuca ththee evidenceevidence iiss weaweakk thathatt onlonlyy g-i, g-o, anandd g-a (either(either asas aspecaspectt oorr nominalizer/gerundnominalizer/gerund)) werweree reanalyzereanalyzedd anandd extendeextendedd ttoo makmakee uupp thethe entireentire

TuyucTuyucaa paradigparadigmm (see(see MalonMalonee 19881988 forfor Proto-TukanoaProto-Tukanoann aspecaspectt anandd HarriHarriss anandd CampbellCampbell

19951995 foforr technicatechn icall expositioexpositionn ofof Preanalysis'reanalysis'' anandd 'extension')'extension ').. EvidentialsEvidentials,, cross­cross- linguisticallylinguistically,, interacinteractt witwithh aspectaspect andand iinn somsomee casecasess signalsignal aann imperfective,imperfective, perfectiveperfective,, oror progressivprogressivee aspecaspectt (see(see JohansoJohansonn anandd UtaVtass 20002000,, StenzelStenzel 20042004,, SumbatovaSumbatova 19991999 forfor

TurkiTurkicc languages,languages, ththee EasternEastern TukanoanTukanoan languaglanguagee WananoWanano,, andand KartveliaKartveliann languages,languages, respectively).respectively). IInn manmanyy casescases ooff historicahistoricall reanalysireanalysiss ooff aspecaspectt ttoo evidentialevidential therethere areare casescases ooff ambiguityambiguity betweebetweenn aspectuaaspectuall oror evidentiaevidentiall interpretationsinterpretations.. BuButt ththee homophonouhomophonouss pairspairs 3377 ofof nonvisuanonvisuall evidentialsevidentials anandd aspectualaspectualss iinn TuyucTuyucaa (g-i, g-a, g-o), whilwhilee leftleft unexplainedunexplained foforr nownow,, neveneverr appearappear iinn environmentenvironmentss wherwheree thetheyy cacann bbee simultaneouslsimultaneouslyy oorr ambiguouslyambiguously interpretedinterpreted aass evidentialevidential and/or aspectaspect.. BarneBarness andand MalonMalonee (2000)(2000) analyzanalyzee progressiveprogressive aspectaspect aass derivinderivingg fromfrom a gerungerundd morphemmorphemee suffixedsuffixed ttoo ththee maimainn verb—iverb--inn collaborationcollaboration withwith aann auxiliarauxiliaryy thathatt hahass aann evidentiaevidentiall suffixesuffixedd ttoo itit.. TheTheyy ddoo nonott mentiomentionn anyany aspectualaspectual rolrolee ooff ththee evidentialevidential.. AnAndd whilwhilee iitt mamayy bbee trutruee thathatt aatt leasleastt somsomee TuyucTuyucaa evidentialsevidentials originatedoriginated fromfrom aspectuaaspectuall morphemesmorphemes., thetheyy ddoo nonott appeaappearr ttoo plaplayy ananyy aspectualaspectual rolerole.. In

TuyucaTuyuca,, ththee morphosyntactimorphosyntacticc distributiondistribution foforr evidentialevidentialss anandd progressivprogressivee anandd perfectiveperfective aspecaspectt iiss completelcompletelyy differentdifferent.. AAss I wilwilll showshow,, anan auxiliarauxiliaryy isis needeneededd ttoo constructconstruct a progressivprogressivee oorr perfectiveperfective.. InIn thithiss casecase,, ththee aspectaspect iiss suffixesuffixedd directlydirectly ttoo ththee ververbb stemstem.. AsAs

TI argueargue inin thethe restrest ofof thisthis chapter,chapter, partlypartly followingfollowing BarnesBarnes andand MaloneMalone (2000),(2000), thethe morphosyntacticmorphosyntactic constructioconstructionn ooff progressivprogressivee anandd perfectivperfectivee aspectaspect doesdoes nonott supportsupport evidencevidencee thathatt ththee aspectuaaspectuall interpretationinterpretationss areare inin factfact duduee ttoo ththee presencepresence ofof aann evidential.evidential.

4.2.1.4.2.1. ProgressivProgressivee aspecaspectt iinn TuyucaTuyuca

A mormoree precisprecisee interlinearinterlinear glossinglossingg ooff (18(18)) andand (19)(19) cancan bbee seenseen inin (22)(22) andand (23)(23) bubutt areare nonott mmyy finafinall gloss.gloss.

(22(22)) bue-gbue-goo tif-atif-a study-FSGstudy-FSG dO-EVD.PREs.vrs.1/2do-EVD.PRES.VIS.1/2 '(I'(I amam)) studying.'studying.'

(23(23)) diigadiiga ape-gape-gti til—tii-ii soccersoccer playplaY-MsG-MSG dO-EVD.PRES.VIS.3MSGdo-EVD.PRES.vis.3MSG '(He'(He)) iiss playinplayingg soccer.'soccer.' 3388

ThThee glosseglossess aboveabove areare consistentconsistent witwithh otheotherr interpretationinterpretationss givegivenn bbyy BarnesBarnes inin variousvarious publicationspublications.. TheyThey araree alsalsoo generallgenerallyy consistenconsistentt witwithh Karn'Kam'ss (1976(1976,, 1979)1979) glossesglosses ofof

TuyucTuyucaa texttextss andand witwithh glossesglosses foundfound cross-linguisticallycross-linguistically withiwithinn thethe TukanoaTukanoann familyfamily

(e.g.,(e.g., CookCook andand GraloGraloww 20012001,, StroStromm 1992,1992, StenzelStenzel 2004)2004).. rI havhavee separatedseparated whawhatt iiss calledcalled thethe nominalizenominalizerr and/oand/orr gerundgerund bbyy BarneBarness frofromm thethe lexicallexical verbverb.. ThesThesee araree ththee dependentdependent verb agreementagreement suffixessuffixes ofof TableTable 77,, alsoalso discusseddiscussed iinn sectionssections 3.63.6,3.7,, 3.7, anandd 3.83.8.. TheyThey onlyonly appeaappearr oonn ththee lexicalexicall ververbb whewhenn it iiss a dependent verb: thathatt isis,, whewhenn ththee maimainn lexicallexical verbverb iiss accompaniedaccompanied bbyy aann auxiliarauxiliaryy ththee lattelatterr taketakess ththee fullyfully specificespecificedd agreemenagreementt morphmorph

(gender,(gender, personperson,, andand numbernumber)) anandd ththee evidential,evidential, whereawhereass ththee dependentdependent ververbb taketakess anan underspecificeunderspecificedd agreemenagreementt suffixsuffix (gender,(gender, numbernumber)) shownshown iinn TablTablee 7;7; botbothh dependentdependent ververbb anandd auxiliaryauxiliary agreagreee witwithh ththee heaheadd nounounn ooff ththee clause-butclause—but thetheyy diffedifferr iinn thethe specificationspecification ofof thithiss agreement.agreement. ThThee distributiondistribution ooff ththee morphememorphemess iinn TableTable 7 isis restrictedrestricted toto thethe specificspecific morphosyntactimorphosyntacticc environmentenvironment ooff a dependentdependent verbverb.. GlossinGlossingg thethe auxiliaryauxiliary tii asas 'do''do' iiss consistenconsistentt witwithh B8MM glossesglosses ofthisof this morphemmorphemee asas SpanisSpanishh hacer 't'too do/make.'do/make.'

PartlPartlyy followinfollowingg BM8M,, rI arguarguee thathatt ththee progressivprogressivee interpretatiointerpretationn iiss duedue ttoo ththee presencpresencee ofof thethe auxiliaryauxiliary tii iinn combinatiocombinationn witwithh a morphemmorphemee frofromm TableTable 7 suffixesuffixedd ttoo ththee lexicallexical verbverb.. However,However, rI wilwilll eventuallyeventually arguarguee thathatt oneone cacann isolatisolatee ththee agreementagreement markersmarkers,, inin thethe forformm ooff ththee finalfinal vowelvowel,, frofromm ththee resrestt ooff ththee morphememorphemess iinn TableTable 7.7.

BBMM brieflbrieflyy discussediscussess ththee progressivprogressivee aspecaspectt andand givgivee a morphologicamorphologicall templatetemplate forfor itit,, whicwhichh rI modifmodifyy bbyy addingadding tenstensee (tiempo)(tiempo) iinn (24(24)) anandd providinprovidingg anan EnglishEnglish translatiotranslationn beneatbeneathh itit inin (25).(25).

(24(24)) [tema[tema verbaverball + sufijsufijoo ddee genero/numero/animadogenero/numero/animado]] + [//[tii/ + evidencial+tiempo]evidencial+tiempo] (25(25)) [verb[verb rooroott + gender/number/animatgender/number/animatee suffixsuffix]] + [tii + evidential+tense]evidential+tense] 3399

BBMM statestate that,that, iinn generalgeneral,, aspectaspect iinn TuyucTuyucaa isis formefonnedd iinn threthreee waysways:: (a(a)) frofromm a combinationcombination ooff ththee gerungerundd (seen(seen iinn TableTable 9)9) anandd auxiliarauxiliaryy verbverb,, (b(b)) anan independenindependentt aspectaspect morphemmorphemee betweebetweenn ververbb rooroott anandd evidentialevidential,, oorr (c)(c) subordinatiosubordinationn suffixes.suffixes. 13

EIEl aspectaspectoo progressivprogressivoo ssee fonnaforma poporr medimedioo ddee uunn gerundigerundioo mamass el verboverbo auxiliarauxiliar titiii - 'hacer'hacer'' flexionadflexionadoo parparaa llaa categoriacategoria evidencial.evidencial. EIEl gerundiogerundio estaesta integradointegrado poporr uunn temtemaa verbaverball mamass uunn sufijsufijoo ququee indicindicaa eell genero,genero, elel numernumeroo y eell condici6ncondicion animadanimadaa o0 inanimadinanimadaa dedell sujeto.sujeto. (Barne(Barness anandd MalonMalonee 20002000:: 440)440)

WhatWhat iiss cruciacruciall herheree iiss ththee firsfirstt strategystrategy (a)(a):: combinincombiningg ththee gerungerundd anandd auxiliaryauxiliary.. B8MM gogo oonn toto saysay thathatt thethe gerungerundd isis integratedintegrated witwithh ththee ververbb rooroott anandd ththee suffixsuffix thathatt indicatesindicates gendergender,, numbernumber,, anandd persopersonn asas seenseen inin ththee templattemplatee inin (24)(24).. BMBM givgivee a paradigparadigmm forfor thethe gerundgerund,, whicwhichh T adaptadapt inin TableTable 9.9 .Notice Notice thatthat TableTable 99 correspondscorresponds equivalentlyequivalently withwith

TablTablee 1010 andand partiallpartiallyy witwithh TableTable 1111 (al(aloo seseee TableTabless 6 anandd 7 foforr mormoree detaileddetailed comparison). 1414 IItt alsalsoo partiallpartiallyy correspondscorresponds witwithh PRESENPRESENTT tensetense NONVISUANONVISUALL evidentialsevidentials fromfrom TablTablee 8,8, whicwhichh rI wilwilll deadeall witwithh laterlater.. WithWith respecrespectt ttoo thethe correspondenccorrespondencee ofof gerundsgerunds iinn TableTable 9 witwithh ththee morphmorphss iinn TableTabless 1010 anandd II,11, iitt seemseemss thathatt oneone setset ooff morphememorphemess iiss responsiblresponsiblee foforr ththee generagenerall functiofunctionn ofof makinmakingg verbverbss moremore nominalnominal;; assumingassuming oneone interpretinterpretss gerundsgerunds,, nominalizenominalizedd verbsverbs,, anandd progressive/perfectivprogressive/perfectivee aspecaspectt asas lessless 'verby.''verby.1

InIn mosmostt ooff BarnesBarnes'' worworkk ththee morphememorphemess inin TableTabless 66,, 77,, 9,9,1 I 0 andand 1111 areare generallygenerally glossedglossed aass agreemenagreementt morphemesmorphemes,, thoughthough sheshe recognizerecognizess theitheirr aspectual,aspectual, nominalizer,nominalizer, anandd gerundgerund functions.functions. ThThee goagoall herheree iiss toto seesee iiff deverbalizindeverbalizingg functionfunctionss cancan bbee isolatedisolated toto particularparticular morphemesmorphemes,, whicwhichh mamayy warranwarrantt anan interlineainterlinearr glossinglossingg thathatt reflectreflectss moremore preciselyprecisely thesthesee grammaticagrammaticall functionsfunctions.. SoSo far,far, itit seemsseems thatthat progressivprogressivee aspectaspect,, gerundsgerunds

1313 "E"EIl aspectaspectoo sese indicindicaa yyaa seasea poporr ununaa combinatiocombinaci6nn dedell gerundigerundioo y uunn verbverbao auxiliaryauxiliary,, o0 poporr sufijossufijos queque siguesiguenn alal temtemaa verbaverball y precedeprecedenn a llaa terminatioterminaci6nn evidencialevidencial,, oa a loloss sufijosufijoss ddee subordinacionsubordinaci6n"" (8M:(BM: 442).442).

14 14 InterestinglyInterestingly,, B8MM notnotee thathatt "a"a loloss sufijossufijos ddee subordinaci6n"-suffixessubordinacion"—suffixes ooff subordinatiosubordinationn useusedd ttoo constructconstruct relativrelativee clauses-canclauses—can bbee useusedd foforr constructinconstructingg aspecaspectt iinn TuyucaTuyuca.. TheThe morphememorphemess inin TableTabless 6 anandd 1II1 areare alsoalso employeemployedd inin makinmakingg relativrelativee clausesclauses anandd havhavee almosalmostt ththee samesame forformm aass thosthosee iinn TableTabless 77,, 1010 andand 8.8. 4400

TableTable 9

GerundGerundss

ClassClass NumberNumber GenderGender AnimatAnimatee SingularSingular MasculinMasculinee -g+ FemininFemininee -go-go PluralPlural -r-raa InanimateInanimate -r-roo

TablTablee 1010

PresentPresent tenstensee agreemenagreementt foforr verbsverbs

DEPENDENDEPENDENTT VERVERBB SUFFSUFFIXEIXESS AnimatAnimatee InanimatInanimatee SingularSingu ar PluraPlurall -r-roo MasculineMasculine I FemininFemininee I PRESENPRESENTT -g-g++ I-go-go -ra-ra

TableTable 1II1

PresentPresent tenstensee nominalizenominalizerr agreementagreement

NOMINALIZERS/DEVERBALIZERNOMINALIZERS/DEVERB ALIZERS AnimatAnimatee InanimatInanimatee SingularSingular PluralPlural Non-Non- PlacePlace MasculinMasculinee FeminineFeminine councountt I PRPRESENESENTT -g+, nI)rT -go, 1)0rjo -ra,, rara -r-ree -ro,, -ra-ro 4411 anandd nominalizersnominalizers areare easileasilyy segmentablsegmentablee intointo aann isolateisolatedd agreementagreement morphemmorphemee suffixedsuffixed ttoo variouvariouss aspect,aspect, classifierclassifier,, gerund,gerund, anandd nominalizenominalizerr morphemesmorphemes.. FoForr exampleexample,, I seesee nono reasoreasonn whwhyy -gi cannocannott havhavee ththee fourfour glosseglossess iinn (28),(28), ononee asas aspectaspect,, ononee asas classifier,classifier, oneone aass gerungerundd andand oneone asas nominalizer—inominalizer-itt mamayy bbee ththee cascasee thatthat gerungerundd anandd nominalizernominalizer araree thethe same,same, bubutt I treatreatt thethemm differentlydifferently ttoo seseee iiff thetheyy havhavee differentdifferent distributionaldistributional properties.properties.

(28)(28) a.a. g-ig4 bb.. gg-t4 cc.. g-g-i+ d.d. g-ig4 ASP-MSASP-MSGG GER-MSGER-MSGG NR-MSNR-MSGG CLF-MSGCLF-MSG

InsteadInstead ooff progressivprogressivee aspectaspect beinbeingg builbuiltt fromfrom ththee gerundgerund,, nonoww I-g-il/-g-i/ cacann bebe interpretedinterpreted asas anan aspectuaaspectuall morphemmorphemee witwithh agreemenagreementt when it is in the correctcorrect environment. ThiThiss iiss similasimilarr ttoo English:English: wwee dodo nonott saysay thathatt progressivprogressivee aspecaspectt comecomess fromfrom thethe compositioncomposition ooff aann auxiliarauxiliaryy witwithh a gerundgerund,, oorr thathatt gerungerundd comecomess frofromm deletindeletingg thethe auxiliarauxiliaryy ofof a progressiveprogressive.. Instead,Instead, EnglishEnglish -ing functionfunctionss aass eithereither progressivprogressivee oror gerundgerund iinn a particulaparticularr morphosyntactimorphosyntacticc environmentenvironment.. TheThe environmentenvironmentss forfor thethe interpretationsinterpretations inin

(28(28)) wilwilll bbee madmadee mormoree explicitexplicit iinn latelaterr sections.sections. I turtumn nonoww ttoo a mormoree preciseprecise morphologicamorphologicall analysianalysiss ofof (20)(20) anandd (21).(21).

4.2.24.2.2.. PerfectivPerfectivee aspecaspectt iinn TuyucaTuyuca

ThThee perfectivperfectivee aspecaspectt iiss ththee tertermm forfor anan eventevent thathatt hahass hahadd a cleaclearr 'end'end result.'result.'

GiveGivenn ththee similaritsimilarityy ofof ththee 'end'end resultresult'' constructionsconstructions ttoo otheotherr aspectuaaspectuall constructionsconstructions asas describedescribedd bbyy BBMM anandd aass seenseen iinn (22)-(25(22)-(25)) I interpretinterpret ththee 'en'endd result'result' meaninmeaningg iinn (20)(20) andand 4422

(21)(21) aass ththee perfectivperfectivee aspectaspect.. MorMoree explicitexplicit versionversionss ooff (20(20)) andand (21)(21) cacann bbee seenseen inin (29)(29) anandd (30)(30) bubutt areare nonott mmyy finafinall gloss.gloss.

(29(29)) waa-riwaa-n-gt-g+ nTT-wnii-wii gO-RSLT-MSgO-RSLT-MSGG be-EvD.psT.3MsGbe-EVD.PST.3MSG *H'Hee went.'went.'

(30)(30) weswesee soe-ri-gisoe-ri-g* nTT-wnii-wii fielfieldd burnburn-RsL-RSLT-MS T-MSG G be-EvD.psT.3MSGbe-EVD.PST.3MSG 'H'Hee burneburnedd hihiss field.'field.'

Again,Again, ththee glosseglossess areare consistenconsistentt witwithh glossesglosses madmadee iinn BarnesBarnes'' otherother worworkk andand witwithh otherother

TukanoanTukanoan worksworks.. BarnesBarnes (1984:(1984: 259259)) saysayss thathatt "I"Inn thisthis constructionconstruction,, ththee maimainn ververbb isis suffixedsuffixed bbyy ththee 'resultative'resultative'' morphemmorphemee -ri anandd gender-numbegender-numberr morphememorpheme.. ThThee evidentialevidential isis suffixedsuffixed ttoo thethe auxiliarauxiliaryy ververbb nil."nIT." In otherother glossesglosses sheshe neveneverr showsshows ththee RSLTRSLT interpretatiointerpretationn ofof /-ri/-ril/ (see(see TablTablee 7 anandd exampleexampless (20)(20) anandd (21(21)) ».. InsteadInstead,, /-riI-ril/ isis glossedglossed asas partpart ofof ththee deverbadeverball agreementagreement markermarker.. AlthougAlthoughh sheshe mentionmentionss thathatt anan enendd resultresult interpretationinterpretation iiss assigneassignedd ttoo constructionconstructionss iinn (29(29)) anandd (30(30)) sheshe doesdoes nonott communicatecommunicate thisthis througthroughh heherr glosses.glosses. LastlyLastly,, thertheree isis a differentdifferent auxiliary,auxiliary, nil,nIT, useusedd iinn thesethese sentencessentences

(compare(compare tii inin (22)(22) anandd (23».(23)).

I havehave explicitlyexplicitly shownshown inin mymy glossingglossing ofof thethe datadata thethe resultativeresultative morphememorpheme andand separateseparatedd it frofromm I-gil,/-g+/, whicwhichh hahass ththee aspectuaaspectuall interpretationinterpretation herehere.. IItt iiss reasonablereasonable thatthat agglutinationagglutination ofof a resultativresultativee morphemmorphemee followedfollowed bbyy aann aspectuaaspectuall morphemmorphemee thathatt cancan bebe interpreteinterpretedd asas progressivprogressivee woulwouldd yielyieldd a perfectivperfectivee readingreading;; addingadding ththee glossingglossing conventionconventionss iinn (28(28)) ttoo (30(30)) givegivess (31).(31). 4433

(3(31 I)) weswesee soe-ri-g-i-soe-ri-g4 nTT-wnit-wii field burnburn-RsLT-ASP-MSG-RSLT-ASP-MSG be-EvD.psT.3MSGbe-EVD.PST.3MSG 'H'Hee burneburnedd hishis field.'field.'

HereHere I stillstill useuse ASASPP foforr ththee morphemmorphemee thathatt appearappearss ttoo yielyieldd a consistenconsistentt perfectiveperfective

interpretationinterpretation iinn ththee correccorrectt morphosyntactimorphosyntacticc environmentenvironment;; I wilwilll continucontinuee ttoo ddoo soso iinn

orderorder ttoo keekeepp ththee analysisanalysis frofromm makinmakingg totooo strongstrong a claim.claim. OnlyOnly nativnativee speakerspeaker judgmentjudgmentss cacann verifverifyy ththee claimclaim thathatt l-g-l/-g-/ iiss progressivprogressivee oror perfectivperfectivee inin thesethese

constructions:constructions; bubutt iitt seemsseems clearclear thathatt it iiss somesome formform ooff aspectuaaspectuall markermarker.. UndeUnderr thesethese

conventions,conventions, (29(29)) woulwouldd loolookk liklikee (32)(32).. BarneBarness alsalsoo showshowss thathatt /-a-/-a-// iiss ththee recenrecentt pastpast

morphemmorphemee thathatt cancan agglutinatagglutinatee ttoo ththee perfectivperfectivee aspectaspect,, bubutt failfailss ttoo explicitlyexplicitly glosglosss iitt iinn

somesome instanceinstancess (see(see TablTablee 6)6) whilwhilee glossinglossingg iitt inin others.others. IInn (33)(33) andand (34)(34) I shoshoww whatwhat

somesome ooff ththee datadata looklookss likelike witwithh mmyy glossinglossingg conventions.conventions.

(32)(32) waa-ri-g-i-waa-ri-g-i nTT-wnit-wii gOgO-RSLT-ASP-MSG-RSLT-ASP-MSG be-EvD.psT.3MsGbe-EVD.PST.3MSG 'H'Hee went.'went.'

(33)(33) Pade-ri-a-ri-g-oPade-ri-a-ri-g-o yiyiti makmak6o nTT-ynIl-yoo WOrkwork-NEG-REC.PST-RSL-NEG-REC.PST-RSLT-ASP-PST.FS T-ASP-PST.FSGG 1I SSGG daughtedaughterr be-EvD.APR.PST.3FSGbe-EVD.APR.PST.3FSG 'ThThee oneone whwhoo dididd nonott wanwantt ttoo worworkk isis mmyy daughter.'daughter.'

(34(34)) Yaa-ri-a-ri-gYaa-ri-a-ri-g-i4 nTT-a-wnii-a-wiT eateat-NEG-REC.PST-RSL-NEG-REC.PST-RSLT-ASP-MS T-ASP-MSGG bebe-REC.PST-REC.PST-EVD.PST.VIS -EVD.PST.VIS.3MSG.3MSG 'Evidentl'Evidentlyy hhee diddid nonott eateat (th(thee foodfood iiss stilstilll here).'here).' Literally:Literally: 'Evidently'Evidently hhee wawass a non-eatingnon-eating one'one' (adapte(adaptedd fromfrom BarneBarness 1994:1994: 333-4)333-4)

BarneBarness includeincludess ththee extraextra translatiotranslationn iinn (34)(34) ttoo highlighhighlightt ththee deverbalizingdeverbalizing naturenature

ooff ththee morphologymorphology.. OnOnee differencdifferencee betweebetweenn mmyy glossgloss oof(33)f (33) andand (34)(34) anandd BarnesBarnes'' iiss thatthat 4444

I explicitlyexplicitly separateseparate thethe resultativeresultative I-ri/,/-ri/, whicwhichh sheshe recognizesrecognizes butbut rarelyrarely separates,separates, andand I separateseparate ththee agreementagreement markemarkerr frofromm I-g-I.l-g-l. ThiThiss latterlatter separationseparation resultresultss iinn ththee necessitnecessityy ooff assigningassigning a morphologicamorphologicall labelabell ttoo l-g-l.I-g-I. MMyy argumenargumentt iiss thathatt iinn thisthis morphosyntacticmorphosyntactic environmenenvironmentt ththee interpretatiointerpretationn foforr I-g-Il-g-l iiss deverbalizindeverbalizingg andand aspectual;aspectual; whereaswhereas,, iinn anotheanotherr environmentenvironment itit mamayy functiofunctionn asas a nominalizenominalizerr oorr a gerundgerund.. WhaWhatt mmyy analysisanalysis implieimpliess iiss a mormoree detaileddetailed syntactisyntacticc structure,structure, givegivenn ththee assumptionsassumptions ooff ththee MirrorMirror

PrinciplePrinciple..

ThThee differentdifferent functionalfunctional interpretationsinterpretations ofof I-g-Il-g-l iinn thesthesee exampleexampless cancan bebe unifiedunified bbyy a generalgeneral themthemee ofof deverbalizationdeverbalization:: makinmakingg a ververbb leslesss 'verby'verby'' oorr mormoree nominalnominal.. ThThee glossesglosses iinn (33(33)) anandd (34(34)) cancan bbee cumbersomecumbersome bubutt I believbelievee thetheyy areare moremore accurataccuratee anandd reflectreflect ththee actuaactuall functiofunctionn ofof ththee morphologymorphology.. HoweverHowever,, ththee functiofunctionn ooff l-g-lI-g-I musmustt bbee consistentconsistent andand predictablpredictablee inin orderorder foforr ththee mormoree intricatintricatee glossinglossingg ttoo bbee warrantedwarranted.. I showshow iinn ththee nexnextt section,section, 4.34.3,, thathatt ththee environmentenvironmentss foforr ththee differentdifferent functionsfunctions areare iinn facfactt highlyhighly predictable.predictable.

Lastly,Lastly, I havhavee soso fafarr beebeenn dealingdealing onlyonly witwithh thethe I-g-Il-g-l elementelement inin presentpresent,, pastpast,, anandd recenrecentt paspastt tensestenses.. I wilwilll continuecontinue ttoo dodo soso eveevenn thougthoughh ththee fullfull paradigmparadigmss ooff TableTabless 6 anandd

7 includeinclude morphemesmorphemes thatthat varyvary fromfrom I-g-I.l-g-l. IfIf a consistentconsistent analysisanalysis forfor I-g-Il-g-l cancan bebe workedworked outout thethenn thithiss analysisanalysis cancan bbee extendedextended ttoo accountaccount foforr ththee varyinvaryingg formsforms founfoundd iinn TableTabless 6 andand 7;7; specificallyspecifically ththee pluraplurall animatanimatee anandd inanimateinanimate categoriescategories,, asas welwelll aass ththee futurefuture tense,tense, whicwhichh seemsseems ttoo bbee entirelyentirely differendifferentt frofromm ththee otherother tenses.tenses.IS15

1155 ThThee directiondirection foforr dealindealingg witwithh thethe "variant""variant" formsforms ooff ththee paradigmparadigmss shouldshould bbee fairlyfairly obviousobvious:: thetheyy alalll shareshare twtwoo categoriecategoriess iinn commocommonn witwithh oneone phonemephoneme:: inanimatinanimatee and/oand/orr pluraplurall animatanimatee appearappearss ttoo bbee codedcoded bbyy initiainitial/-r-Il l-r-l wherwheree ththee otheotherr categoriescategories havhavee initiainitial/-g-I.l l-g-l. ThThee futurefuture tenstensee inin allall categoriecategoriess hahass a I-d-Il-d-l wherwheree I-g-Il-g-l andand I-r-Il-x-l occuoccurr bubutt iitt appearappearss ttoo havhavee a significantlsignificantlyy differentdifferent formform fromfrom ththee otherother tenses,tenses, suggestingsuggesting a differendifferentt historicahistoricall path.path. 4455

4.3.Specifying4.3.Specifying predictablpredictablee environmentsenvironments

ThThee mosmostt obviouobviouss predictablpredictablee environmentenvironmentss foforr interpretininterpretingg l-g-l/-g-/ araree ththee aspectualaspectual

(progressiv(progressivee anandd perfectiveperfective)) ones.ones. WhaWhatt appearappearss ttoo bbee ththee mosmostt highlhighlyy restrictedrestricted environmentenvironment ofof ththee twotwo iiss ththee perfectiveperfective,, whicwhichh requirerequiress aann obligatoryobligatory resultativeresultative morphemmorphemee ttoo directldirectlyy precedprecedee itit.. I havhavee foundfound nnoo datadata iinn whicwhichh a perfectivperfectivee interpretationinterpretation oftheof the clauseclause occuroccurss withouwithoutt ththee resultativresultativee morphememorpheme.. OnOnee mighmightt assumeassume thatthat thethe resultativresultativee plupluss aspectualaspectual l-gl/-g/ formeformedd ththee perfectiveperfective.. BuButt thertheree iiss moremore.. TheThe auxiliaryauxiliary riiinTi

'be,''be,' comparecomparedd toto Iiitii 'do/make,''do/make,' musmustt alsalsoo occuroccur iinn tandetandemm witwithh thethe resultativresultativee markedmarked aspect.aspect. ApplyinApplyingg ththee glossinglossingg conventionsconventions givegivenn iinn (28(28)) ttoo (25(25)) wwee cancan derivderivee (35)(35) foforr thethe perfectivperfectivee formulaformula.. TheThe progressivprogressivee datadata shoshoww thathatt ththee auxiliarauxiliaryy co-occurringco-occurring withwith aspectualaspectual l-g-l/-g-/ isis tii 'do/make.'do/make.'' OOnn analogyanalogy ttoo (35)(35) wwee gegett (36(36)) forfor ththee progressive.progressive.

(35)(35) PERFECTIVE ASPECT:ASPECT: [VSTE[VSTEMM + /-g-/l-g-l + gender/number/animategender/number/animate suffix]suffix] + [nit[nTi + evidential]evidential]

(36)(36) PROGRESSIVE ASPECT:ASPECT: [V[VSTESTEMM + /-g-/l-g-l + gender/number/animategender/number/animate suffix]suffix] + [tii[tii + evidential]evidential]

ThThee formulasformulas inin (35)(35) anandd (36)(36) appearappear ttoo holholdd forfor allall ththee datdataa TI havhavee seenseen inin allall ofof

Barnes'Barnes' workworkss (se(seee references)references),, aass wellwell aass iinn KarKarnn (1976(\ 976,, 1979)\ 979).. ProgressivProgressivee andand perfectivperfectivee aspectaspect areare predictablepredictable.. AspectuaAspectuall l-g-l/-g-/ hahass a consistenconsistentt analysisanalysis aass anan independenindependentt morpheme—separatmorpheme-separatee frofromm resultativeresultative andand subjectsubject agreement.agreement. 4466

4.4.Animat4.4.Animatee possessivpossessivee nounounn classifierclassifier isis nonott a gerundgerund

ThisThis sectiosectionn iiss a ververyy latelate additionaddition.. I hahadd originalloriginallyy arguedargued thathatt thertheree wawass evidenceevidence forfor a possessivpossessivee gerungerundd iinn Tuyuca.Tuyuca. ItsIts environmentenvironment wawass definedefinedd aass [NP[NP + GEGENN + l-g-l/-g-/ + gender/numbegender/numberr suffix]suffix].. HoweverHowever,, explainingexplaining hohoww aann NPNP,, usuallusuallyy a pronounpronoun,, camcamee toto acquiracquiree a gerund—suffixegerund-suffixedd ttoo a genitivegenitive case-wascase—was problematicproblematic.. TheThe combinationcombination ofof onlyonly recentlyrecently readinreadingg Baker'Baker'ss (2005)(2005) papepaperr oonn gerundgerundss andand takintakingg anotheanotherr looklook atat Barnes'Barnes'

(1990(1990)) analysianalysiss ooff animatanimatee classifiersclassifiers resulteresultedd iinn mmyy changchangee ofof mind.mind.

(37)(37) - (43)(43) shoshoww a genitivgenitivee cascasee markemarkerr (underlined)(underlined) directldirectlyy precedinprecedingg l-g-l./-g-/. TheThe genitivegenitive hahass ththee singulasingularr valuvaluee forfor numbernumber,, eveneven iinn instancesinstances ofof referentiareferentiall pluralityplurality;; seesee

(42).(42).

(37)(37) Koo-YJ!-g-iKo6-ya-g4 k+t-ya-g-t-kork~YJ!-g-i-k6r6o nTT-T.nrt-i.1616 3FSG-GEN.SG-CLF.AN-MS3 FSG-GEN. SG-CL F.AN -MSGG 3MSG-GEN.SG-CLF.AN-MSG-alik3MSG-GEN .SG-CLF .AN -MSG-al ikee be-EvDbe-EVD.PRES.VIS-3MS .PRES. VIs-3 MSGG 'Her'Her (animal)(animal) iiss ththee samesame aass hihiss (animal).'(animal).'

(38)(38) Ko6-yaKoo-YJ!-g-i-g4 diyidiyi yti-ryit-ree tuti-w-i.tuti-w-i. 3FSG-GEN.SG-CLF.AN-MS3FSG-GEN.SG-CLF.AN-MSGG dogdog 1SG-ACC SG-ACC scold-EVD.PST.VIS-3MSGSC0ld-EVD.PST.VIS-3MSG 'Her'Her dodogg barkebarkedd atat me.'me.'

(39)(39) mii-YJ!-g-imTI-ya-g4 2SG-GEN.2SG-GEN.SG-CLF.AN-MS SG-CLF .AN -MSGG 'your'your (animal)'(animal)'

(40)(40) bariya-YJ!-g-ibariya-ya-g4 mary-GEN.SG-CLF.AN-MSmary-GEN .SG-CLF .!\N-MSGG 'Mary's'Mary's malmalee creaturcreaturee (dog(dog,, bird,bird,...) ... )''

(41)(41) mti-ya-g-omw-ya-g-o 2SG-GEN.SG-CLF.AN-FS2SG-GEN.SG-CLF.AN-FSGG 'your'your femalefemale creaturcreaturee (dog,(dog, hen,hen,...) ... )''

(42(42)) mti-YJ!-r-am+t-ya-r-a 2SG-GEN.SG-CLF.AN-P2SG-GEN.SG-CLF.AN-PLL

1616 ThisThis isis nonott aann auxiliaryauxiliary.. 4747

'your'your creatures'creatures' (adapte(adaptedd fromfrom BarneBarness 1990,1990, 1994)1994)

(43)(43) ki+kit,, poterimacara-ya-g-ipoterimacani-~-g-i,, kitkH,, Coamad,Coamaci, 33MSG,MSG, indian.people-GEN.SG-CLF.AN-MSG,indian.people-GEN.SG-CLF.AN-MSG , 3MSG,3MSG, Coamact,Coamaci, 'he,'he, Coamact,Coamaci, belongebelongedd ttoo uuss IndiaIndiann people'people' (adapted(adapted frofromm KamKarn 1976:1976: 1I))

TuyucTuyucaa possessivepossessivess comcomee iinn threethree varietiesvarieties:: (44a)(44a) a noun/pronounoun/pronounn followefollowedd bbyy thethe genitivegenitive singularsingular /-ya-/-ya-// oror genitivegenitive pluraplurall /-ye-/-ye-// plupluss a nounounn classifierclassifier,, (44b(44b)) jusjustt thethe genitivgenitivee singularsingular plupluss nounounn classifier,classifier, oorr (44c)(44c) noun/pronounoun/pronounn plusplus nounnoun - wherwheree thethe secondsecond nounounn iiss a kinshikinshipp termterm.. In alalll casecasess ththee firstfirst nounounn isis ththee possessopossessorr anandd ththee secondsecond possessedpossessed;; (glosses(glosses areare modifiemodifiedd frofromm BBMM ttoo conformconform witwithh LGLGRR andand areare translatetranslatedd intointo

EnglishEnglish bbyy me).me).

(44(44)) a.a. paki-ya-wpakt-ya-wii bb.. ya-wya-wii cc.. ytt-paktyii-paki fatherfather-GEN.SG-CLF:house-GEN.SG-CLF:house GEN.SG-cLF:houseGEN.SG-CLF:house 1SG-father SG-father 'father''father'ss househouse// houshousee ooff father'father' 'm'myy house'house' 'my'my father'father'

(adapte(adaptedd frofromm BarneBarness anandd MaloneMalone 20002000:: 446)446)

(37(37)) - (43)(43) mosmostt closelcloselyy resemblresemblee (44a)(44a),, excepexceptt inin (37)(37) - (43)(43) ththee classifieclassifierr iiss a generalgeneral animatanimatee classifieclassifierr witwithh subjectsubject agreemenagreementt markedmarked;; seesee TablTablee 12.12. TukanoanTukanoan languagelanguagess dodo nonott typicalltypicallyy expresexpresss thithiss kinkindd ooff restricterestrictedd subjectsubject agreemenagreementt iinn ththee nounounn classifierclassifier systesystemm (see(see SilvSilvaa anandd BowleBowless 20072007;; seesee Gomez-ImberGomez-Imbertt 20072007 forfor argumentsarguments thatthat classifierclassifierss dodo constituteconstitute agreementagreement iinn Tatuyo).Tatuyo). 4488

TableTable 121712'7

AnimatAnimatee classifiersclassifiers

DEPENDENDEPENDENTT VERVERBB SUFFIXESSUFFIXES AnimatAnimatee SingularSingu ar PluraPlurall MasculinMasculinee FemininFemininee PRESENPRESENTT -&-gt -g-goo -ra-ra PASPASTT -rig-rigt+ -rtgo-rigo -rira-rira FUTURFUTUREE 4d-KIt+ -od-odoo -adara-adara

17 NoticNoticee TableTable 1212 iiss a subsetsubset ooff nominalizenominalizerr morphmorphss iinn TablTablee 6 andand dependendependentt ververbb agreementagreement anandd aspectaspect morphsmorphs inin TableTable 7.. 4949

TherTheree iiss goodgood reasoreasonn ttoo believbelievee thathatt TukanoaTukanoann nounounn classifieclassifierr systemsystemss araree developingdeveloping intointo a nounounn classclass systemsystem similarsimilar ttoo thosethose foundfound iinn BantBantuu languagelanguagess (Grinevald(Grinevald andand SeifartSeifart 2004).2004). BarneBarness (1990:(1990: 289)289) characterizecharacterizess ththee classifieclassifierr formformss iinn (37)(37) - (43)(43) aass tensetensedd animateanimate nounnoun classifiersclassifiers;; -gi-gf = presenpresentt tenstensee masculinmasculinee singularsingular,, anandd -go = presenttenspresenttensee femininefeminine singular.singular, andand -ra —= presentpresent tensetense plural.plural. BarnesBarnes goesgoes onon toto saysay that that whewhenn thesthesee nounnoun classifierclassifierss araree suffixesuffixedd ttoo verbverbss thetheyy functiofunctionn aass nominalizersnominalizers.. I argueargue thathatt l-g-l/-g-/ inin TableTable 1212 anandd (37)(37) - (43)(43) functionfunctionss aass aann animateanimate possessivpossessivee nounounn classifier.classifier.

TheThe distributiondistribution ofof thethe possessivpossessivee formsforms createcreatedd frofromm thithiss morphologmorphologyy iiss restricterestrictedd bbyy ththee typicatypicall distributiodistributionn ofof possessivpossessivee nounnounss oorr nounounn phrasephrasess thetheyy attachattach toto..

ThThee environmentenvironment foforr morphememorphemess inin TableTable 1lOis0 is (45)(45)..

(45)(45) ANIMATE POSSESSIVE CLASSIFIER:CLASSIFIER: [NP[NP + GEN.SGEN.SGG + l-g-l/-g-/ + gender/numbegender/numberr suffix]suffix]

4.5.Th4.5.Thee gerundgerund

ThereThere isis., insteadinstead ofof (45).(45), anotheanotherr environmenenvironmentt forfor ththee gerund:gerund: asas a modifiemodifierr ooff a stativstativee ververbb ofof ththee typetype glosseglossedd 'be.bad''be.bad' oorr 'be.big.'be.big.'' TheThe environmentenvironment includeincludess a copulacopula niTriil anandd a stativestative verbverb wherwheree ththee gerungerundd cacann functiofunctionn aass ththee predicatpredicatee adjectiveadjective,, aass iinn (46)(46)--

(47)(47).. AAnn interestininterestingg exampleexample showingshowing hohoww ththee predicatpredicatee adjectivadjectivee gerundgerund (in(in boldbold)) anandd ththee animatanimatee classifierclassifier (underlined)(underlined) interactinteract iiss showshownn inin (48)(48)..

(46(46)) pai-g-ipai-g-i be.bigbe.big-GER-MSG-GER-MSG '(is)'(is) bigbig'' 5050

(47)(47) Nana-q-Nana-IJ-i* nTT-ri-ht-nTI-ri-hi-iT be.bad-GER-MSbe .bad-GER -MSGG be-be-NEG-EVD.PRES.APR-3MSNEG-EVD.PRES.APR -3MSGG

kame-rf-a-y-ikame-rf-a-y-i.. reciprocate-NEG-REC-PST-EVD.PST.APR-3MSreciprocate-NEG-REC-PST-EVD.PST.APR-3MSGG 'Apparently'Apparently hhee iiss nonott badbad,, apparentlapparentlyy hhee diddid nonott reciprocatreciprocatee (woun(woundd foforr wound).'wound).'

(48(48)) Kff-ya-gKti-ya-g:i4 mff-ya-gmti-ya-g:i4 nemd-rnemo-roo pai-g-ipai-g-i 3MSG-GEN.SG-CLF.AN-MSG3MSG-GEN.SG-CLF.AN-MSG 2SG-GEN.SG-CLF.AN-MS2SG-GEN.SG-CLF.AN-MSGG more-ADVmore-ADVRR be.big-GER-MSGbe.big-GER-MSG

nTT-Tnii-i.. be-EVD.PRES.VIS-3MSbe-EvD.PRES.VIS-3MSGG 'Hi'Hiss animalanimal isis biggebiggerr thathann youryour animal.'animal.'

Here,Here, nii-in'ii-iis is nonott aann auxiliaryauxiliary andandpai-g-ipai-g-4 functionsfunctions aass ththee predicatpredicatee adjectivadjectivee (see(see (49)),(49)), whilewhile Kli-ya-g-iKtt-ya-g-i anandd mtt-yd-g-4m#.ya-g-i showshow ththee possessivpossessivee classifieclassifierr ooff (45).(45).

TheThe formulaformula foforr ththee predicatpredicatee adjectiveadjective gerundgerund iiss (49)(49).. I alsoalso includincludee a formulformulaa foforr nominalizenominalizerr l-g-l/-g-/ inin (50),(50), foforr whicwhichh somesome datdataa wawass provideprovidedd iinn (15)-(17)(15)-(17).. ThThee nominalizernominalizerss seem,seem, initiallyinitially,, ttoo havhavee a differendifferentt distributiodistributionn thathann ththee gerundsgerunds,, requiringrequiring nnoo stativestative verbverb.. FoForr thithiss reasoreasonn I treatreatt nominalizersnominalizers separatelyseparately frofromm gerundsgerunds.. I leavleavee openopen ththee ideaidea thathatt gerundgerund andand nominalizenominalizerr areare ththee samesame thing.thing.

(49)(49) PREDICAPREDlCATEADJECTlVEGERUND: TE ADJECTIVE GERUND: [VSTATIVE[VSTATIVE + I-g-/l-g-l + gender/number/animatgender/number/animatee suffix]suffix]

(50)(50) NOMINALIZER:NOMINALIZER:

[V[VROOROOTT + l-g-l/-g-/ + gender/number/animatgender/number/animatee suffix]suffix]

4.6.Conclusio4.6.Conclusionn

ThThee l-g-l/-g-/ clasclasss ofof morphememorphemess sharesshares ththee consistenconsistentt anandd unifieunifiedd functionfunction ooff

"deverbalizing""deverbalizing" a ververbb (assuming(assuming progressive/perfectprogressive/perfect aspectaspect,, gerundsgerunds,, andand nominalizersnominalizers 51

araree deverbalizeddeverbalized forms).forms). ThiThiss classclass receivereceivess specifispecificc interpretationinterpretationss basebasedd onon restrictedrestricted

morphosyntactimorphosyntacticc environments.environments. I havehave separatedseparated ththee agreemenagreementt markermarkerss frofromm ththee /-g-/l-g-l

classclass ofof morphememorphemess inin orderorder ttoo moremore preciselpreciselyy isolatisolatee theitheirr functions.functions. BuButt it seemsseems clearclear

thathatt ththee gender/number/animatgender/number/animatee suffixessuffixes useusedd ttoo marmarkk agreemenagreementt araree obligatoryobligatory onon allall

thesthesee forms.forms. I believbelievee I havehave givegivenn sufficientsufficient evidencevidencee thathatt interlineainterlinearr glossesglosses inin TuyucaTuyuca

neeneedd ttoo reflecreflectt ththee precisprecisee functionsfunctions ofof thethe morphememorphemess iinn TableTabless 6,6, 7,7, 8,8, andand 9-and9—and thatthat

isolatinisolatingg l-g-l/-g-/ resultresultss iinn a mormoree detaileddetailed anandd consistentconsistent morphologmorphologyy foforr Tuyuca.Tuyuca. BarnesBarnes

herselherselff recognizerecognizess virtuallvirtuallyy alalll ofof ththee functionsfunctions dealtdealt witwithh herehere,, bubutt isis inconsisteninconsistentt inin herher

glossingglossing anandd analysisanalysis,, typicalltypicallyy onlyonly indicatinindicatingg ththee agreemenagreementt valuevaluess oror usinusingg ththee labellabel

nominalizenominalizerr forfor ththee l-g-lI-g-/ clasclasss morphemesmorphemes.. I havhavee arguearguedd thathatt ththee "nominalizer""nominalizer" labelabell isis

nonott precisprecisee enoughenough.. ItIt doedoess nonott capturcapturee ththee aspectuaaspectuall interpretationsinterpretations,, nonorr doedoess it indicateindicate ththee possessivpossessivee animateanimate classifierclassifier,, nonorr ththee predicatpredicatee adjectivadjectivee gerund.gerund. ThisThis makemakess mymy analysianalysiss appealinappealingg becausbecausee it isis easeasyy ttoo testtest.. GivenGiven ththee predictepredictedd interpretationsinterpretations basebasedd onon ththee morphosyntacticmorphosyntactic environmentsenvironments I havhavee proposeproposedd here,here, oneone neeneedd onlyonly findfind instancesinstances wherwheree ththee l-g-l/-g-I classclass morphemmorphemee behavebehavess countecounterr ttoo mmyy predictionspredictions.. FoForr convenienceconvenience I grougroupp ththee predictepredictedd environmentsenvironments togethertogether iinn TablTablee 1313.. LastlyLastly,, takintakingg intintoo accountaccount thethe typologicatypologicall similaritysimilarity betweebetweenn ththee TukanoaTukanoann languageslanguages,, I believbelievee mmyy argumentsarguments necessitatenecessitate anotheranother loolookk aatt agreementagreement iinn otheotherr TukanoanTukanoan languageslanguages basebasedd onon ththee resultresultss iinn thithiss chaptechapterr andand iinn TablTablee 1313.. 5252

TableTable 1133

PredictePredictedd environmentsenvironments forfor "g""g" classclass morphemesmorphemes

PROGRESSIVEPROGRESSIVE ASASPECT.PECT: (35)(35) [V[VSTESTEMM + //-g--g-// + gender/numbergender/number/animat/animatee suffisuffixx]] + [tii[tii + evidential]evidential] PERFECTIVEP ERFECTIVE ASASPECT.PECT: (36) [V[VSTESTEMM + RRSLSLTT + l-g-l/-g-/ + gender/number/animatgender/number/animatee ssuffixuffix]] + [no[nn + evidential]evidential] ANIMATEANIMATE PPOSSESSIVEOSSESSIVE CLASSCLASSIFIER:IFIER: (45) [NP[NP + GEGEN.SN.SGG + /-gl-g-l-/ + gender/numbegender/numberr ssuffixuffix] PREDICATEPREDICATE ADJECTIVEADJECTIVE GGERUND:ERUND : (49) [V[VSTATIVSTATIVEE + /l-g-l-g-/ + ggender/number/animatender/number/animatee ssuffixuffix]] NOMINALIZER:NOMINA LlZE R: (50)(50) [V[VROOROOTT + l-g-l/-g-/ + gender/number/animatgender/number/animatee ssuffixuffix] 5.5. AGREEMENTAGREEMENT ANANDD EVIDENTIALSEVIDENTIALS

5.5.I.Against1 .Against conflatingconflating agreementagreement anandd evidentialsevidentials

ThThee goagoall ooff thithiss chapterchapter iiss ttoo surveysurvey somesome theoreticatheoreticall consequencesconsequences ofof separatingseparating agreementagreement morphologmorphologyy fromfrom evidentiaevidentiall morphologmorphologyy inin TuyucaTuyuca.. I discussdiscuss whatwhat evidentialsevidentials areare,, theirtheir grammaticagrammaticall category,category, typestypes ofof evidentialsevidentials,, anandd theitheirr relatiorelationn ttoo tensetense,, aspect,aspect, personperson,, andand subjectsubject agreement.agreement. TheThe samsamee generalgeneral premispremisee thathatt workeworkedd iinn ChapterChapter 4 alsoalso workworkss herehere,, i.e.i.e.,, thathatt thertheree iiss a systematicsystematic anandd predictablpredictablee patterpatternn ofof finafinall vowelvowelss thatthat correlatecorrelatess witwithh ththee distributiondistribution ofof personperson,, gendergender,, anandd numbenumberr features—mosfeatures-mostt generally-igenerally -i

= masculinemasculine,, -0-o =- feminine,feminine, andand -a = plural-andplural—and thatthat thesethese agreementagreement markersmarkers areare isolablisolablee frofromm ththee resrestt oftheof the morphologymorphology.. TheThe analysianalysiss ofof separatingseparating agreemenagreementt fromfrom evidentialsevidentials iiss straightforwardstraightforward anandd simplesimple;; it requiresrequires littlelittle argumentation.argumentation. InsteadInstead,, thethe bulbulkk ofof thithiss chapterchapter dealdealss witwithh ththee significansignificantt impactimpact TuyucTuyucaa evidentialevidential morphologmorphologyy maymay havehave oonn currencurrentt syntacticsyntactic generativegenerative theory.theory. I trtryy ttoo limitlimit dependencdependencee oonn technicaltechnical terminologyterminology inin ordeorderr ttoo communicatcommunicatee ththee basibasicc ideaideass andand keekeepp ththee generalgeneral typologicaltypological formaformatt ofof thethe thesis.thesis. BuButt aann understandinunderstandingg ofof ththee basibasicc tenetstenets ooff X-barX-bar theorytheory,, Principles­Principles- and-Parameterand-Parameterss theoriestheories,, DistributeDistributedd MorphologMorphologyy theorytheory,, andand MinimalistMinimalist ProgramProgram attitudeattitudess isis helpfulhelpful;; seseee CarnieCarnie (2002(2002,, 2008)2008),, ChomskChomskyy (1995(1995,, 2002001) I),, EpsteiEpsteinn anandd SeeleySeeley

(2007)(2007),, Hornstein,Hornstein, NunesNunes,, anandd GrohmannGrohmann (2005)(2005),, LasnikLasnik anandd UriagerekaUriagereka witwithh BoeckxBoeckx

(2005)(2005),, PesetskPesetskyy anandd TorregTorregoo (2002),(2002), RadforRadfordd (2006)(2006),, andand UriagerekUriagerekaa (1998).(1998). ByBy fafarr thethe mosmostt technicatechnicall sectionssections areare 5.4,5.4, 5.4.15.4.1 anandd 5.4.2.5.4.2. 5454

5.1.1.5.1.1. WhatWhat areare evidentialevidential morphemes?morphemes?

EvidentialEvidential morphsmorphs areare intlectionalinflectional morphemesmorphemes thatthat referrefer toto ththee sourcesource ofof evidenceevidence

oftheof the speaker'sspeaker's proposition.proposition. DifferentDifferent analysesanalyses ofof evidentialsevidentials groupgroup themthem underunder differentdifferent

grammaticalgrammatical categories.categories. TheThe firstfirst kinkindd ofof analysisanalysis makemakess useuse ofof thethe distinctiondistinction betweenbetween

evidentialsevidentials asas MoodMood (Cinque(Cinque 1999)1999) oror ModalityModality (Chung(Chung 2005,2005, MatthewsonMatthewson etet al.al. 2006).2006).

OtherOther accountsaccounts analyzeanalyze thethe evidentialevidential asas eithereither fusedfused witwithh oror relatingrelating toto ththee categorycategory

AspectAspect (Johanson(Johanson andand UtaUtass 20002000,, MalonMalonee 1988,1988, StenzelStenzel 2004,2004, SumbatovaSumbatova 1999).1999). TheThe

generagenerall typologicaltypological conclusionsconclusions aboutabout evidentialevidential morphologmorphologyy andand evidentialityevidentiality inin 1 Q general, 18 seem to be that it is either an independent category (Aikhenvald 2006, Speas general, seem to be that it is either an independent category (Aikhenvald 2006, Speas 2004a, 2004b, 2007) or part of the Tense-Aspect-Mood system, and that individual 2004a, 2004b, 2007) or part of the Tense-Aspect-Mood system, and that individual languages express evidentiality in a variety of ways (see footnote 15). languages express evidentiality in a variety of ways (see footnote 15). This variety is constrained and principled. Speas (2004b, 2007) argues that it is This variety is constrained and principled. Speas (2004b, 2007) argues that it is reasonable to conclude that the concept of "evidence" is itself not a grammatical reasonable to conclude that the concept of "evidence" is itself not a grammatical primitive-in the sense that the types of evidence coded in evidential morphemes is primitive—in the sense that the types of evidence coded in evidential morphemes is limited to a few basic types that can be organized along a direct and indirect partition limited to a few basic types that can be organized along a direct and indirect partition

IH ThereThere iiss a differencedifference betweebetweenn evidential morphemes andand evidentiality.eVidentiality. TheThe latterlatter cancan bbee expressedexpressed inin anyany languagelanguage;; asas seenseen iinn thesthesee EnglishEnglish examples.examples.

a.a. I seesee thatthat JohnJohn washewashess hishis car.car. b.b. I seesee JohnJohn washingwashing hishis car.car.

InIn (a)(a) andand (b)(b) ththee complexcomplex interactiointeractionn betweebetweenn ththee tenstensee andand aspect,aspect, asas welwelll asas thethe differentdifferent lexicallexical propertiesproperties ofof ththee verbverb see, interactinteract toto givegive differentdifferent interpretationsinterpretations ooff thethe evidential basbasee ofof ththee proposition.proposition. InIn (a)(a) thethe intuitivintuitivee interpretationinterpretation isis thathatt ththee speakerspeaker infersinfers fromfrom somesome indirectindirect kindkind ofof evidenceevidence - contrarycontrary toto directlydirectly watchinwatchingg JohJohnn washwash hishis carcar - thathatt JohnJohn inin factfact washewashess hishis car.car. InIn (a),(a), thethe evidenceevidence mamayy bebe indirect,indirect, inin thathatt ththee speakerspeaker alwaysalways noticenoticess thathatt John'John'ss carcar isis clean.clean. BasedBased onon thisthis,, thethe speakerspeaker infersinfers thatthat JohnJohn washeswashes hishis car,car, butbut ththee propositiopropositionn doesdoes notnot entailentail thathatt ththee agentagent ofof washes isis actuallyactually John;John; itit mamayy bbee somebodysomebody JohJohnn hireshires.. InIn (b).(b), thethe interpretatiointerpretationn isis thathatt thethe speakerspeaker hahass directdirect visuavisuall evidenceevidence thatthat JohJohnn isis washingwashing hishis car,car, whicwhichh entailsentails thathatt JohnJohn iiss ththee agentagent ofof washing. TheThe differencedifference betweenbetween (a)(a) andand (b)(b) cancan alsoalso bebe reducedreduced toto ththee differencedifference ofof thethe verbverb see; iinn (a)(a) itit hashas anan indirecindirectt basbasee andand cancan bbee substitutedsubstituted bbyy otherother verbsverbs suchsuch asas understand, know,knolV, hear, andand eveneven perhapsperhaps feel.feel. ThiThiss iiss onlonlyy possiblpossiblee foforr (b(b)) witwithh ththee ververbb hear, anandd perhapsperhaps feel. ButBut clearly,clearly, EnglisEnglishh hashas nono evidentialevidential morphemmorphemee equivalentequivalent toto ththee inflectionalinflectional typtypee seenseen inin TuyucaTuyuca (§3.8)(§3.8).. SeeSee DrubiDrubigg (2001)(2001) forfor aann analysisanalysis ofof EnglishEnglish andand GermaGermann epistemicepistemic modalitymodality asas expressingexpressing degreesdegrees ooff evidentiality.evidentiality. 5555

(Faller(Faller 20012001,, WilletWillet 1988).1988). AlthougAlthoughh therethere areare disputesdisputes aboutabout thethe numbenumberr ofof typestypes ofof evidentials,evidential, theythey tentendd toto fallfall intointo fivefive oror sevenseven basicbasic types:types: Visual,Visual, NonvisualNonvisual,, Inferred,Inferred,

Hearsay,Hearsay, Secondhand,Secondhand, Apparent,Apparent, andand Assumed.Assumed. SomeSome ofof thesethese termsterms maymay overlap,overlap, oror otheotherr peoplpeoplee mamayy ususee differentdifferent terminology,terminology, bubutt thethe generalgeneral typologicatypologicall constraintsconstraints seemseem ttoo definedefine a ververyy specificspecific boundary.boundary. ForFor example,example, ononee doesdoes notnot seesee anyany typetype ofof evidentialevidential morphemmorphemee thatthat referreferss ttoo evidenceevidence basebasedd onon religiousreligious ceremony,ceremony, religioureligiouss text,text, proverbialproverbial sayings,sayings, oror legallegal discourse;discourse; thougthoughh thesthesee areare reasonablereasonable pragmatipragmaticc sourcessources forfor basingbasing one'one'ss evidencevidencee aboutabout propositionspropositions.. TheThe conclusionconclusion seemsseems toto bbee thatthat ththee semanticsemantic domaindomain ooff evidentialsevidentials isis limitedlimited toto ththee sensory-perception.sensory-perception. Dreams,Dreams, visionsvisions,, feelingsfeelings,, andand generalgeneral objectobjectss ofof imagination,imagination, howeverhowever,, areare notnot codedcoded inin evidentialevidential morphemesmorphemes - unlessunless oneone countcountss rationarationall inferenceinference asas a feelinfeelingg oror a vision.vision. OnlyOnly sensorysensory evidenceevidence basedbased onon sightsight

(o(orr laclackk of),of), hearinghearing (or(or laclackk of),of), andand possiblypossibly touchingtouching oror smell;smell; inin thethe extremeextreme perhapsperhaps oneone couldcould argueargue forfor tastetaste.. EvenEven inin ththee extreme,extreme, oneone findsfinds a highlyhighly constrainedconstrained boundaryboundary forfor thethe typestypes ofof evidenceevidence used,used, andand thus,thus, cancan concludeconclude thatthat "evidence""evidence" isis nonott a grammaticagrammaticall primitiveprimitive.. TheThe typtypee ofof "evidence""evidence" codedcoded inin evidentialevidential morphemesmorphemes isis cross­cross- linguisticallylinguistically constrainedconstrained andand hahass a principledprincipled,, albeitalbeit poorlypoorly understoodunderstood,, distribution.distribution.

5.1.2.5.1.2. EvidentialEvidentialss withwith inherentinherent 15tst persopersonn features?features?

TheThe interactioninteraction betweebetweenn evidentialevidential morphememorphemess andand 15tst persopersonn pronounspronouns isis well­well- attestedattested (Aikhenvald(Aikhenvald 2006)2006).. ItIt isis clearclear thathatt inin casescases wherewhere ththee speakerspeaker andand grammaticalgrammatical subjectsubject areare thethe same,same, andand nono overtovert 15tst personperson markermarker isis present,present, thethe evidentialevidential stillstill refersrefers ttoo ththee sourcesource ofof evidenceevidence forfor thethe speaker.speaker. ITnn thithiss wayway oneone mightmight argueargue thathatt evidentialevidential 5656

morphememorphemess dodo iinn factfact havhavee unpronounceun pronouncedd I1 stst persopersonn pronominapronom inall featuresfeatures,, butbut ththee kindskinds ooff evidenceevidence anandd datudatumm thatthat shoulshouldd bbee useusedd ttoo showshow thithiss isis stillstill nonott clear.clear.

WhaWhatt isis withouwithoutt disputdisputee iiss thathatt evidentialevidential morphemesmorphemes araree inflectional,inflectional, anandd becausebecause ooff thithiss cancan inflecinflectt forfor subjectsubject agreementagreement,, includingincluding 1stst personperson.. FurthermoreFurthermore,, evidentialevidential morphememorphemess araree knowknownn ttoo bbee expressedexpressed iinn somsomee languageslanguages asas portmanteauportmanteau formformss thatthat simultaneouslsimultaneouslyy codcodee sourcesource ooff evidenceevidence anandd tensetense.. DatDataa forfor portmanteaportmanteauu formformss thatthat simultaneouslsimultaneouslyy codcodee sourcsourcee ooff evidenceevidence anandd subjectsubject agreementagreement araree weaklweaklyy attestedattested (see(see thethe morphmorphss undeunderr ththee 1121/2 anandd VISUAVISUALL categoriescategories inin TablTablee 5 andand discussiondiscussion ooff themthem iinn

§3.8.2§3.8.2 anandd §5.5.2).§5.5.2).

5.1.3.5.1.3. FuseFusedd tense-evidentialtense-evidentialss andand inflectioinflectionn forfor agreementagreement

A surveysurvey ooff ththee WorldWorld AtlasAtlas ofof LanguagLanguagee StructuresStructures (Haspelmath(Haspelmath etet alal.. 20052005)) forfor languageslanguages withwith tense-evidentialtense-evidentialss resultedresulted iinn a countcount ofof twenty-fourtwenty-four.. ToTo thithiss numbenumberr I addedadded fivfivee additionaladditional languageslanguages thatthat werweree nonott inin ththee WWAL ALSS database.database, forfor whicwhichh I provideprovide ththee sourcesource references;references; resultresultss araree shownshown iinn TableTable 1144 (see(see alsoalso BowleBowless ttoo appear)appear).. OVandOV and

VVOO refereferr toto worwordd orderorder anandd -F

(gender,(gender, numbernumber,, anandd personperson)) areare inflecteintlectedd onon ththee tense-evidential.tense-evidential.

TheThe typologicatypologicall originorigin (i.e.(i.e.,, grammaticalizatiogrammaticalizationn oorr reanalysisreanalysis)) ooff evidentialevidentialss iinn generalgeneral appearsappears ttoo bbee verbaverball iinn naturenature.. ForFor example,example, verbverbss witwithh ththee meaninmeaningg ofof'say 'say'' cancan bebe becombecomee hearsahearsayy oror quotativequotative evidentialsevidentials (Campbell(Campbell 20020044 anandd referencereferencess therein)therein).. TheThe originorigin oftense-evidentials,of tense-evidentials, onon ththee otherother handhand,, isn'isn'tt alwaysalways ththee fusionfusion ofof anan evidentialevidential morphemmorphemee witwithh a tenstensee morphememorpheme.. FoForr exampleexample,, FlecFleckk (2007(2007)) showsshows ththee origioriginn ofof tense­tense- evidentialsevidentials iinn MatseMatsess toto bbee nominalizersnominalizers.. AAss discussediscussedd iinn sectionsection 4.24.2,, HarrisHarris andand 5757

TablTablee 1144

19 Basic typology for tense-evidential 19,20 Basic typology for tense-evidential ''

NAMNAMEE oOVv vVOo (D-

1919 WorWordd ordeorderr (OV(OV anandd YO)VO) iiss includeincludedd becausbecausee durinduringg ththee samplinsamplingg I noticednoticed thathatt aann overwhelmingoverwhelming majoritmajorityy ofof tense-evidentiatense-evidentiall languageslanguages werweree head-finalhead-final.. ThThee resultresultss ooff thithiss samplesample araree bbyy nnoo meansmeans definitivedefinitive,, bubutt thetheyy dodo suggestsuggest thathatt thertheree mamayy bbee a correlatiocorrelationn betweebetweenn tense-evidentialittense-evidentialityy anandd head-finality.head-finality. SoSo farfar,, ththee onlyonly explanationexplanation forfor whwhyy head-finahead-finall languagelanguagess woulwouldd bbee mormoree likellikelyy ttoo fusefuse tenstensee anandd evidentialevidential morphememorphemess iiss thathatt ththee highlhighlyy suffixalsuffixal naturnaturee ooff head-finahead-finall languagelanguagess couldcould providprovidee ththee conditionconditionss underunder whicwhichh fusiofusionn iiss mormoree likely;likely; LylLylee CampbelCampbelll (p.c.)(p.c.) anandd MauriciMauricioo MixcMixcoo (p.c)(p.c.).. ThisThis iiss aass fafarr aass I pursupursuee thethe mattermatter here.here. 2200 TablTablee 1414 iiss nonott meanmeantt toto bebe exhaustive.exhaustive. ThaThatt isis,, virtuallyvirtually allall ththee TukanoanTukanoan languagelanguagess havhavee tense­tense- evidentiaevidentiall morphememorphemess (onl(onlyy 4 ofof ththee 2200 araree shown).shown). ThThee AltaicAltaic,, Nakh-DaghestanianNakh-Daghestanian,, anandd KartvelianKartvelian familiefamiliess probablprobablyy havhavee mormoree languagelanguagess thathatt coulcouldd bbee shown.shown. 2211 WALWALSS hahass nnoo informatioinformationn onon Laz,Laz, bubutt HarrisHarris andand CampbelCampbelll (1995(1995:: 216216)) statestate thathatt "In"In LaLazz worwordd ordeorderr isis relativelrelativelyy freefree...... bubutt ththee unmarkeunmarkedd orderorder isis SOY."SOV." 5588

CampbelCampbelll (1995)(1995) anandd CampbelCampbelll (1991(1991)) showshow thathatt EstonianEstonian tense-evidentialtense-evidentialss comecome fromfrom reanalysireanalysiss ofof fusedfused tense-participltense-participlee endingsendings inin subordinatesubordinate clausesclauses.. ThThee TurkishTurkish resultativresultativee /mis/mI~// appearsappears ttoo havhavee beebeenn reanalyzereanalyzedd asas anan indirecindirectt paspastt tense-evidentiatense-evidentiall withwith finitefinite verbsverbs,, whilwhilee nonfinitnonfinitee verbverbss stilstilll yielyieldd ththee resultativresultativee interpretatiointerpretationn (Csato(Csato 2000,2000,

JohansoJohansonn 2000,2000, ShroederShroeder 2000)2000).. Finally,Finally, MalonMalonee (1988:(1988: 139)139) statestatess foforr TuyucTuyucaa thatthat

"Nonvisual"Nonvisual paradigmparadigmss appearappear toto havehave developeddeveloped frofromm a progressivprogressivee (or(or other)other) aspectualaspectual gerundialgerundial constructionconstruction...... [and][and]'+/ '+/-- direct'direct' paradigmparadigmss appearappear ttoo havhavee developeddeveloped atat somesome laterlater stagestage fromfrom anan ololdd perfectperfect construction"construction" (se(seee alsoalso §4.2).§4.2). Interestingly,Interestingly, ifif oneone comparecomparess ththee presenpresentt tensetense nonvisualnonvisual evidentialsevidentials (Table(Tabless 8)8) ttoo mmyy analysianalysiss ooff perfectiveperfective anandd progressivprogressivee formsforms (Table(Table 13),13), asas welwelll aass ttoo ththee presenpresentt tenstensee formsforms ooff Barnes'Barnes' nominalizersnominalizers,, dependentdependent ververbb subjecsubjectt agreemenagreementt markersmarkers,, anandd gerundgerundss (Table(Tabless 66,, 77,9,, 9, 10,10, andand 11II)) thertheree iiss a strikingstriking equivalencequivalencee iinn form.form. MyMy analysis,analysis, thenthen,, coulcouldd corroboratecorroborate

Malone'Malone'ss claimclaim aboutabout ththee aspectualaspectual anandd gerundiagerundiall origioriginn ofof evidentialsevidentials (with(with obviousobvious extensionextension andand phonologicaphonologicall changchangee iinn thethe paradigm)paradigm).. AspectuaAspectuall morphememorphemess frofromm whichwhich evidentialsevidentials werweree derivedderived stillstill havhavee theitheirr aspectuaaspectuall interpretatiointerpretationn iinn restrictedrestricted morphosyntacticmorphosyntactic environments.environments. ThisThis iiss similasimilarr ttoo ththee TurkisTurkishh oorr EstonianEstonian exampleexampless ofof reanalysisreanalysis,, wherwheree ononee forformm wawass reanalyzereanalyzedd bubutt stilstilll retaineretainedd itsits originaloriginal meaning.meaning.

5.1.45.1.4.. EvidentialityEvidentially asas agreementagreement

AnotheAnotherr possibilitpossibilityy iiss ttoo consideconsiderr agreemenagreementt morphememorphemess aass sub-classifyingsub-classifying evidentialityevidentiality amonamongg ononee ooff ititss otherother features,features, i.ei.e.. gendergender,, personperson,, andand numbernumber.. BuButt thithiss isis aann unattesteunattestedd featurfeaturee ooff agreementagreement (Corbett(Corbett 1991,1991, 20002000,, 20032003,, 20062006,, ComriComriee 19811981,,

SiewerskaSiewerska 20042004,, SongSong 2001).2001). DecidinDecidingg whatwhat kinkindd ooff empiricaempiricall evidencevidencee woulwouldd supportsupport 5959 suchsuch a claiclaimm isis highlyhighly problematic.problematic. A moremore reasonablereasonable conjectureconjecture isis toto assumeassume allall evidentialevidential morphememorphemess cancan agreeagree witwithh subjectssubjects withouwithoutt havinghaving ttoo showshow overtovert subjectsubject agreementagreement inflection.inflection. TheThe approachapproach thatthat assumesassumes anan unpronouncedunpronounced 1I stst personperson featurefeature inherentinherent ttoo evidentialsevidentials (§5.1.2)(§5.1.2) assumesassumes a deepdeep interactioninteraction betweebetweenn evidentialsevidentials andand agreement.agreement. ItIt doesdoes notnot classifyclassify evidentialevidential morphememorphemess asas agreementagreement morphemesmorphemes themselvesthemselves.. BuButt iitt doesdoes recognizerecognize,, basedbased onon empiricalempirical datadata thathatt showsshows well-attestedwell-attested interactionsinteractions betweenbetween evidentialsevidentials andand I1 stst person,person, thathatt thethe categorycategory EvidentiaEvidentiall sharesshares somesome commocommonn behaviobehaviorr withwith thethe categorycategory TenseTense inin termsterms ofof deixisdeixis andand interactioninteractionss withwith pronounpronounss (see(see SpeasSpeas 2004a,2004a, 2004b,2004b, 2007)2007).. TuyucaTuyuca evidentialsevidentials dodo nonott primarilyprimarily functionfunction ttoo marmarkk agreementagreement withwith ththee subjectsubject ofof thethe clause,clause, jusjustt asas tensetense doesdoes notnot.. Instead,Instead, evidentialsevidentials codecode ththee deicticdeictic sourcesource ofof evidenceevidence forfor speakerspeaker propositionproposition jusjustt asas TenseTense codescodes ththee deicticdeictic sourcesource ofof timetime forfor anan eventevent andand speechspeech act.act. Technically,Technically, inin thisthis approachapproach evidenceevidence iiss notnot a grammaticalgrammatical primitive,primitive, andand soso evidentialsevidentials cannotcannot actuallyactually "code"code thethe sourcesource ofof evidence."evidence." Instead,Instead, thetheyy codecode thethe source of situation for a discursive andand evaluative event (Speas(Speas 2007)2007).. HereHere,, evidentialityevidentiality cancan bebe distinguisheddistinguished fromfrom moodmood andand modalitymodality inin thethe followingfollowing wayway.. IfIf a clearclear distinctiondistinction betweebetweenn moodmood andand modalitmodalityy cancan bebe defineddefined asas ththee differencedifference betweebetweenn variablevariabless ranginrangingg overover ththee speaker'sspeaker's opinion/attitudeopinion/attitude ofof thethe worldworld (modality),(modality), andand variablesvariables rangingranging overover thethe worlworldd itselfitself (mood),(mood), thenthen evidentialityevidentiality cancan bbee defineddefined asas variablevariabless rangingranging overover thethe situationssituations inin thethe worldworld.. Tense,Tense, toto dradraww a parallelparallel,, isis thethenn defineddefined asas variablevariabless ranginrangingg overover timestimes and/orand/or events.events. OneOne conjectureconjecture isis thatthat ththee categorycategory EvidentiaEvidentiall maymay agreeagree withwith otherother categoriescategories inin termsterms ofof

st worldsworlds,, events,events, times,times, andand situations-andsituations—and perhapperhapss 1I st personperson.. EitheEitherr wayway,, thethe gender/number/persongender/number/person endingsendings onon tense-evidentialtense-evidentialss inin TuyucaTuyuca areare markinmarkingg agreementagreement 6060 witwithh ththee subjectsubject andand ddoo nonott plaplayay a rolrolee inin evidentialitevidentialityy (se(seee §3.8§3.8 anandd §5.3§5.3 foforr detaileddetailed arguments)arguments)..

5.1.5.5.1.5. ConcludinConclud ingg remarkremark:: ConflatinConflatingg agreemenagreementt andand evidentialsevidentials

ThThee generagenerall conclusioconclusionn thathatt cancan bebe drawndrawn iiss thatthat subjectsubject agreemenagreementt (gender,(gender, numbernumber,, anandd personperson)) iiss separatseparatee fromfrom evidentialityevidentiality.. BByy factorinfactoringg outout ththee commoncommon agreemenagreementt morphmorphss ononee cacann easileasilyy seseee ththee variatiovariationn inin forformm betweebetweenn presenpresentt andand pastpast tensetense,, aass welwelll asas betweebetweenn typetypess ooff evidentialevidential.. TheThe focufocuss herheree wilwilll bbee onon thosethose evidentialsevidentials witwithh 3rdrd persopersonn valuesvalues.. TablTablee 1155 iiss aann applicatioapplicationn ooff ththee generagenerall premispremisee ooff thithiss thesithesiss toto evidentiaevidentiall morphologmorphologyy (se(seee ChapteChapterr 4 foforr argumentargumentss concerningconcerning otheotherr partpartss ooff thethe morphology)morphology).. OnOnee benefibenefitt frofromm separatingseparating agreementagreement fromfrom evidentialevidential iiss thathatt ononee cancan easilyeasily seseee ththee variationvariation inin morphologymorphology betweebetweenn ththee twtwoo tensestenses.. TheThe agreementagreement morphememorphemess dodo nonott varvaryy fromfrom presenpresentt toto paspastt tensetense;; bubutt ththee evidentialevidential does.does. I taktakee thithiss asas straightforwardstraightforward evidencevidencee thathatt tenstensee iiss fusedfused witwithh ththee evidentiaevidentiall andand nonott witwithh agreement.agreement.

AlthoughAlthough ththee notationanotationall innovatioinnovationn forfor separatinseparatingg ththee agreementagreement markermarker frofromm thethe evidentialevidential isis notnot ververyy interesting,interesting, ththee theoreticatheoreticall issueissuess arisinarisingg frofromm itit areare.. NamelyNamely,, wherewhere universauniversall syntacticsyntactic hierarchieshierarchies ooff functionalfunctional structurestructure havhavee beebeenn proposeproposedd ththee usuausuall orderorder iiss EvidentiaEvidentiall oveoverr TensTensee ((E>E > TT)) (Cinque(Cinque 1999;1999; seesee AppendiAppendixx D)D).. BuButt analysisanalysis ooff thethe interactiointeractionn betweebetweenn agreemenagreementt anandd evidentialevidentialss iinn TuyucaTuyuca,, assuminassumingg MinimalistMinimalist constraintsconstraints oonn agreemenagreementt anandd clausclausee structurestructure aass welwelll aass ththee basibasicc intuitiointuitionn thatthat TPTP shouldshould constrainconstrain tenstensee anandd subject-versubject-verbb agreementagreement,, resultresultss iinn a surprisinsurprisingg reversareversall ofof twotwo functionalfunctional categories,categories, placingplacing EvidentiaEvidentiall undeunderr TenseTense ((TT > E)E).. I alsoalso attributattributee thisthis surprisingsurprising resulresultt partlpartlyy ttoo ththee fusedfused naturnaturee ooff ththee evidentiaevidentiall morphologmorphologyy iinn termtermss ofof 6161

TableTable 1155

RevisedRevised TuyucaTuyuca paradigmparadigm

VIVISS NVISNvis APAPRR SeDSCD ASASMM PASPASTT OTHER(OTHER(1/21/2)) -W-t-W-+ -t-t-t4 -y-u-y-u -ylr-o-yir-o -hiy-u-hTy-u 3MSG3MSG -W-I-w-i -t-i-t-i -y-I-y-i -ylg-+-yig4 -hiy-i-hTy-i 3FSG3FSG -w-o-w-o -t-o-t-o -y-o-y-o -yig-o-yig-o -hiy-o-hTy-o 3PL3PL -w-a-w-a -t-a-t-a -y-a-y-a -yir-a-yir-a -hiy-a-hTy-a

PRESENTPRESENT OTHER(1/2OTHER( 1/2)) -a-a -g-a-g-a -k-u-k-u 3MSG3MSG --Ii -g-I-g-i -hi-i -k-i-k-i 3FS3FSGG -y--y-oo -g-o-g-o -hi-o-hT-o -k-o-k-o 3PL3PL --y-y-aa -g--g-aa -hir-a-htr-a -ku-a-ku-a 6622 definingdefining sisterhoodsisterhood relationrelationss thathatt licenslicensee fusionfusion.. TuyucTuyucaa seemsseems toto providprovidee evidenceevidence thatthat otherother languagelanguagess witwithh fusedfused tense-evidentialtense-evidentialss mamayy alsoalso requirrequiree ththee T > E order.order.

5.2.5.2.Basi Basicc issuesissues

In ChapterChapter 4 I assumeassumedd thathatt gender/number/persongender/number/person morphologmorphologyy suffixedsuffixed ttoo verbsverbs wawass subjectsubject agreementagreement andand thathatt TuyucaTuyuca clauseclausess dodo nonott neeneedd ttoo expresexpresss anan overovertt subject.subject.

ReferencReferencee ttoo variousvarious typetypess ofof definitedefinite oror indefiniteindefinite subjectsubjectss iiss madmadee througthroughh subjectsubject agreementagreement markemarkedd onon thethe verbverb stestemm (se(seee AlexiadoAlexiadouu andand AnagnostopouloAnagnostopoulouu 1998,1998,

ChomskChomskyy 1981,1981, andand JelineJelinekk 19819844 foforr discussiondiscussion ooff nonovernon overtt subjects).subjects). HoweverHowever,, itit isis typologicalltypologicallyy possiblpossiblee ttoo expresexpresss a fullfull argumentargument subjecsubjectt througthroughh whawhatt iiss callecalledd a pronominal argument, whicwhichh looklookss likelike aann agreemenagreementt markermarker.. StraightforwardStraightforward diagnosticdiagnostic techniquetechniquess (Baker(Baker 2003b2003b)) cancan bbee appliedapplied toto determindeterminee whethewhetherr aann elemenelementt isis a pronominapronominall argumenargumentt oror notnot.. MorMoree importantlimportantlyy forfor TuyucaTuyuca,, I wilwilll argueargue thatthat //th~lthee finalfinal vowelvowelss ddoo nonott patterpatternn asas pronominapronominall arguments—beinarguments-beingg agreemenagreementt markermarkerss instead-theninstead—then fusefusedd tense-evidentialstense-evidentials musmustt occuroccur lowelowerr thanthan TP.TP. TheThe premispremisee behinbehindd thisthis iiss simple:simple: subject-versubject-verbb agreemenagreementt anandd tensetense morphologmorphologyy isis markemarkedd foforr thethe entirentiree clauseclause,, whichwhich meanmeanss ththee clauseclause musmustt bbee constructeconstructedd beforbeforee agreemenagreementt cacann bbee markemarkedd oonn itit.. IInn standardstandard

MinimalisMinimalistt accounts,accounts, agreemenagreementt morphologmorphologyy "co-occurs""co-occurs" witwithh tenstensee (and(and case)case) morphologymorphology.. In otheotherr wordswords,, ththee syntactisyntacticc assignmenassignmentt ofof agreementagreement (an(andd case)case) isis tied-uptied-up witwithh thethe tenstensee ooff ththee clause.clause. I wilwilll presenpresentt twtwoo modelsmodels.. OnOnee iiss basebasedd oonn a CinqueCinque hierarchyhierarchy (1999,(1999, AppendiAppendixx E)E),, ththee otherother iiss mymy modelmodel.. I argueargue thathatt botbothh modelmodelss cancan explaiexplainn ththee datdataa bubutt minminee doedoess itit iinn a leslesss complex,complex, mormoree eleganelegantt way.way. 6363

5.2.1.5.2.1. A notnotee onon whywhy T > E isis importantimportant

WhWhyy iiss ththee orderorder (T,(T, EE)) oror (E(E,, TT)) importanimportantt ifif ththee twtwoo categoriecategoriess areare fusedfused?? TheThe firsfirstt answeanswerr iiss thathatt assuminassumingg a lexicalllexicallyy insertedinserted fusedfused tense-evidentiatense-evidentiall morphememorpheme

brushebrushess ththee issueissue ooff ordeorderr asideaside.. IItt doedoess nonott providprovidee aann explanatioexplanationn forfor whwhyy thethe categoriescategories

TenseTense anandd EvidentiaEvidentiall cacann bbee fusefusedd inin ththee firsfirstt placeplace.. InIn alalll casecasess oflanguagesof languages withwith evidentialevidential morphologmorphologyy onlonlyy a smalsmalll numbenumberr ofof thethemm fusfusee witwithh TenseTense morphologmorphologyy (Table(Table

1212 foforr a nonexhaustivnonexhaustivee setset ooff tense-evidentialtense-evidential languages)languages).. ItIt mamayy inin factfact bbee ththee casecase thatthat ththee TuyucTuyucaa lexiconlexicon insertsinserts a fusefusedd tense-evidentiatense-evidentiall morphemmorphemee intointo thethe syntax,syntax, bubutt thisthis doedoess nonott explaiexplainn hohoww thithiss morphologmorphologyy developedevelopedd (tense-evidentia(tense-evidentiall isis nonott a grammaticalgrammatical oorr lexicalexicall primitiveprimitive,, iitt musmustt havhavee somesome historicahistoricall developmendevelopmentt foforr whicwhichh ththee interactioninteraction betweebetweenn morphologmorphologyy andand syntasyntaxx araree partlpartlyy responsible).responsible).

Additionally,Additionally, investigatinginvestigating ththee ordereorderedd relatiorelationn betweebetweenn T-ET-E andand seekingseeking anan explanatioexplanationn foforr hohoww tense-evidentiatense-evidentiall morphememorphemess develodevelopp relaterelatess toto concernconcernss ooff meta­meta- theoreticatheoreticall significance.significance. SimplySimply putput,, ththee investigationinvestigation ofof morphologicamorphologicall (and(and morphosyntactimorphosyntacticc featurefeature)) changchangee iinn languagelanguagess wilwilll shedshed lighlightt oonn ththee naturnaturee ofof ththee kindskinds ofof parameterparameterss bbyy whichwhich languageslanguages maymay varvaryy (Kemenade(Kemenade 2007;2007; bubutt seesee BakeBakerr 20082008,, ChapterChapter

55,, foforr argumentsarguments thathatt purelpurelyy syntacticsyntactic parameterparameterss exist-andexist—and §5.4§5.4 herehere forfor a briebrieff notnotee on,on, anandd explicatioexplicationn of,of, Baker'Baker'ss syntacticsyntactic parameters)parameters).. AAnn explanatioexplanationn ooff howhow tense-evidentialtense-evidential morphologmorphologyy iiss derivederivedd nonott onlonlyy reliesrelies oonn a solisolidd explanatioexplanationn foforr ththee interfaceinterface betweenbetween morphologmorphologyy andand syntax,syntax, bubutt alsalsoo oonn a clearlyclearly articulatearticulatedd notionotionn ooff languagelanguage changchangee andand reanalysireanalysiss iinn ththee formallformallyy orienteorientedd MinimalisMinimalistt ProgramProgram.. UntiUntill recentlyrecently,, languaglanguagee changechange anandd reanalysireanalysiss wawass ththee provinprovingg groungroundd foforr functionalisfunctionalistt theoriestheories ofof language.language. ButBut collaboratiocollaborationn andand competitioncompetition betweebetweenn theorietheoriess thathatt constitutconstitutee ththee twtwoo dominantdominant 6464 paradigmparadigmss ofof linguisticlinguistic researchresearch,, broadlybroadly construedconstrued asas FunctionalistFunctionalist andand FormalistFormalist (see(see

NewmeyerNewmeyer 19981998 forfor detaileddetailed definitiondefinition ofof thesethese terms),terms), cancan onlyonly bebe a catalystcatalyst ttoo progressprogress iinn understandinunderstandingg hohoww languageslanguages workwork.. Ir ddoo nonott pretenpretendd toto havehave a "solid"solid explanation"explanation" forfor thethe morphology-syntamorphology-syntaxx interfaceinterface oror a "clearly"clearly articulatedarticulated notion"notion" ofof reanalysisreanalysis inin formalistformalist termsterms,, bubutt rI believebelieve thathatt investigatininvestigatingg ththee orderedordered relatiorelationn betweebetweenn T-ET-E andand thethe morphologicamorphologicall instantiationinstantiation ofof thisthis relatiorelationn wilwilll contributecontribute toto bothboth anan "explanation""explanation" andand anan "articulation""articulation" ooff morphosyntactimorpho syntacticc reanalysis.reanalysis.

5.3.5.3.Tuyuc Tuyucaa doesdoes nonott havhavee pronominalpronominal argumentargument suffixessuffixes

5.3.1.5.3.1. SettingSetting ththee stagestage

InIn languagelanguagess thatthat havehave pronominalpronominal argumentargument suffixessuffixes anan apparentapparent agreementagreement markemarkerr isis actuallyactually a fullfull argumentargument ofof thethe verb:verb: it influencesinfluences valencvalencyy andand isis markemarkedd forfor case.case. IInn languageslanguages thathatt dodo nonott havehave pronominapronominall argumentargument suffixessuffixes therethere iiss a co-co­ occurrencoccurrencee restrictiorestrictionn inin thethe distributiondistribution ofof agreement markers, pronominals, andand definitedefinite nominal arguments. ThisThis restrictionrestriction onon ththee co-occurrenceco-occurrence of,of, forfor exampleexample independentindependent pronounspronouns andand fulfulll NNPP arguments,arguments, cancan bebe seenseen fromfrom examplesexamples inin GermanGerman andand EnglishEnglish adapteadaptedd fromfrom MithuMithunn (2003:(2003: 236-237)--read236-237)—read witwithh nnoo intonationalintonational pauses:pauses:

(51)(51) German EnglishEnglish aa.. ErEr beobachtet.beobachtet. b.b. HeHe watches.watches. MeiMeinn VateVaterr beobachtet.beobachtet. MyMy fatherfather watches.watches. ErErij beobachtebeobachtett diedie Kinderk.Kinder^ HeHeij watcheswatches thethe childrenk.children^. *Mein*Mein VateriVaterj erier, beobachtet.beobachtet. *My*My fatherifather, heihej watches.watches. *Eri*Erj beobachtebeobachtett sie]siej diedie Kinder].Kinder,. *Hei*Hej watcheswatches themjthenij thethe childrenj.children,. 6655

AAss seeseenn iinn (51(51)) thertheree isis a restrictiorestrictionn oonn allowinallowingg subjectsubject oorr objectobject NPNPss ttoo co-occurco-occur witwithh a pronoupronounn foforr whicwhichh ththee referencreferencee isis thethe samesame.. HoweverHowever thesthesee exampleexampless areare perfectlyperfectly acceptableacceptable witwithh appropriateappropriate intonationaintonationall pausepausess relaterelatedd ttoo discoursediscourse andand topic-topic- focusfocus phenomenaphenomena,, signaledsignaled bbyy placemenplacementt ooff ththee commcommaa iinn (52).(52). TherTheree areare similarsimilar datdataa iinn

SpanishSpanish andand PortuguesPortuguesee (53)(53),, whicwhichh areare pro-drop languageslanguages,, i.e.i.e.,, thetheyy ddoo nonott neeneedd toto overtlovertlyy expresexpresss ththee subjectsubject.. InsteadInstead,, thetheyy relrelyy oonn subjecsubjectt agreemenagreementt morphememorphemess ttoo recoverrecover subjectssubjects thathatt areare nonott fullfull NPs.NPs.

(52)(52) EnglishEnglish a.a. MMyy fatherfather,, hhee sees.sees. h.b. HHee seessees themthem,, thethe children.children.

(53)(53) SpanishSpanish Brazilian PortuguesePortuguese a.a. MMii PapaPapa vivioo loloss nifios.ninos. ff.. MeMeuu PaPaii viviuu crian<,:ia.criancia. 'My'My fatherfather seessees ththee children.'children.' 'My'My fathefatherr seessees thethe children.'children.'

h.b. (El)(El) vio.vio. g.g. (Ele)(Ele) viu.viu. '(He)'(He) sees.'sees.' '(He)'(He) sees.'sees.'

cc.. ViViao loloss nifios.ninos. h.h. ViViuu crian<,:ia.criancia. '(He/she)'(He/she) seeseess ththee children.children. '(He/she)'(He/she) seessees ththee children.'children.'

dd.. *Mi*Mi papdpapaij elelij viviao loslos nifiosninosjj. i. *Meu*Meu paipaiij e1eielej viuviu crian<,:iaj.crianciaj. 'My'My daddad hhee seeseess ththee children.'children.' 'My'My daddad hhee seessees ththee children.'children.'

ee.. MiMi PapaiPapa;,, elelij viviao loloss nifiosj.ninosj. jj.. MeMeuu PaiPail'„ e1eielej viviuu crian<,:iacrianciajJ.• 'My'My dad,dad, hhee seessees ththee children.'children.' 'My'My dad,dad, hhee sees.'sees.'

GermanGerman,, EnglishEnglish,, Spanish,Spanish, andand PortuguesPortuguesee areare ververyy differentdifferent frofromm languagelanguagess suchsuch asas Walpiri,Walpiri, whicwhichh treatstreats alalll instancesinstances ooff fullyfully specifiedspecified referentiareferentiall nounounn phrasephrasess asas nonessentialnonessential.. JelineJelinekk (1984(1984)) callcallss thithiss ththee Pronominal Argument Hypothesis. ForFor exampleexample,, thethe ErgativErgativee case-markecase-markedd subjecsubjectt iinn (54a(54a)) 'th'thee childchild'' andand iinn (54b)(54b) 'the'the man'man' areare 6666 adjoined,adjoined, oorr dislocated, materiamateriall nonott needeneededd forfor corecore predicate-argumenpredicate-argumentt structure.structure. TheyThey araree similarsimilar ttoo thethe fullfullyy referentiareferentiall nominalnominalss iinn (53e-j(53e-j)) anandd (52a-b)(52a-b).. TheThe differencdifferencee betweenbetween

WalpiriWalpiri andand EnglishEnglish,, Spanish,Spanish, andand PortuguesPortuguesee iiss thathatt ththee agreemenagreementt oonn ththee verbverbss iinn (52),(52),

(53a-b)(53a-b),, andand (53f-g),(53f-g), i.ei.e.. watch-s, vi-o, vi-u, doesdoes nonott forceforce ththee definitedefinite subjecsubjectt nounnoun phrasephrase,, i.e.,father,i.e., father, papa, pai, oorr ththee subjectsubject pronounpronoun,, i.e.i.e. he, el,e/, ele, toto bbee interpretedinterpreted asas adjoineadjoinedd oror dislocateddislocated materiamaterial-l - asas thetheyy araree inin (53e-j(53e-j)) andand (52a-b).(52a-b).

(54)(54) Walpiri (adapted(adapted fromfrom HalHalee citedcited iinn JelineJelinekk 1984:1984: 60)60) a.a. Kurdu-ngkuKurdu-ngku ka-zERo-nyanuka-ZERO-nyanu ngarrka-ngarrka-00 nya-nyinya-nyi child-ERGChild-ERG PRES-3SG.NOM-REFPRES-3SG.NOM-REFLL man-ABman-ABSS see-NONPASTsee-NONPAST 'Hei'Hei ththee childichildj seessees himselfihimself (as(as)) a man.man.''

b.b. Kurdu-0Kurdu-o ka-zERo-nyanuka-ZERO-nyanu ngarrka-ngkungarrka-ngku nya-nyinya-nyi child-ABSChild-ABS PRES-3SG.NOM-REFPRES-3SG.NOM-REFLL man-ERman-ERGG see-NONPASTsee-NONPAST 'Hei'Hei ththee manimanj seessees himselfhimselfi, (as(as)) a child.'child.'

BakeBakerr (2003b:(2003b: 1I)) sayssays ofof Jelink'Jelink'ss (1984)(1984) analysianalysiss oofWalpirif Walpiri thatthat

[the][the] articlearticle introduceintroducedd ththee PronominaPronominall ArgumenArgumentt HypothesiHypothesiss intointo PrinciplesPrinciples anandd Parameters-stylParameters-stylee theoriestheories.. IInn briefbrief:, heherr ideideaa wawass thathatt somesome languagelanguagess havhavee obligatorobligatoryy pronominapronominall agreements/c1iticsagreements/clitics thathatt countcount aass thethe argumentargumentss ofof verbverbss andand otheotherr predicatorspredicators.. FulFulll NP'NP'ss inin sucsuchh languageslanguages areare thuthuss neveneverr themselvethemselvess argumentsarguments;; whewhenn presenpresentt aatt allall thetheyy havhavee thethe statusstatus ofof optionaoptionall adjunctadjunctss ofof somesome kind.kind.

BakeBakerr himselhimselff goegoess onon toto shoshoww thathatt fullfull NP'NP'ss iinn languageslanguages witwithh pronominalpronominal argumentargument suffixessuffixes areare dislocated;dislocated: thetheyy areare introduceintroducedd intintoo ththee syntacticsyntactic derivatioderivationn iinn adjunctadjunct positionpositionss anandd nonott asas parpartt ofof ththee ververbb phrasephrase.. FroFromm thisthis,, hhee applieappliess ththee notionotionn ofof dislocation asas a diagnosticdiagnostic forjudginfor judgingg whethewhetherr oorr nonott certaicertainn agreemenagreementt suffixesuffixess araree iinn factfact subjectsubject argumentargumentss ooff ththee verbverb:: ifif agreemenagreementt forceforcess subjecsubjectt NPNPss ttoo bbee dislocateddislocated iinn a languaglanguagee L,L, thethenn L iiss nonconfigurationalnonconfigurational.. HHee concludesconcludes thathatt thertheree araree languagelanguagess thathatt fallfall 6767 iinn betweebetweenn thosethose exhibitingexhibiting ththee propertiepropertiess ofof German,German, English,English, Spanish,Spanish, andand PortuguesePortuguese oonn oneone handhand,, andand WalpiriWalpiri,, MohawkMohawk,, andand NahuatNahuatll onon ththee other.other. TheThe formerformer setset representsrepresents ththee configurationalconfigurational languages,languages, thethe latterlatter ththee nonconfigurationalnonconfigurational.. InIn betweenbetween thethe twotwo extremeextremess areare partiallpartiallyy configurationalconfigurational languagelanguagess likelike Chichewa,Chichewa, Kinande,Kinande,

Slave,Slave, anandd perhapsperhaps NajavoNajavo.. TheThe goalgoal herehere iiss ttoo determinedetermine wherwheree TuyucaTuyuca fitsfits inin this.this typologytypology:: isis itit configurational,configurational, partlypartly configurational,configurational, oror nonconfigurational.nonconfigurational.

5.3.2.5.3.2. A looklook atat TuyucaTuyuca subjectssubjects

TheThe diagnosticdiagnostic ofof subjectsubject dislocation cancan bebe appliedapplied toto Tuyuca.Tuyuca. WithWith dislocateddislocated

(o(orr adjoined)adjoined) subjectssubjects thertheree iiss variabilitvariabilityy inin ththee basibasicc worwordd order.order. ForFor Tuyuca,Tuyuca, thisthis meansmeans thatthat ifif oneone cancan findfind instancesinstances inin whicwhichh ththee canonicalcanonical S(O)VS(0)V ordeorderr iiss violatedviolated withoutwithout causingcausing ungrammaticalityungrammaticality,, thethenn thisthis might bbee a casecase ofof a dislocateddislocated subject.subject. However,However, eveneven noncanonicalnoncanonical wordword orderorder isis notnot a guaranteeguarantee ofof dislocation,dislocation, otherother diagnosticsdiagnostics factorfactor in;in; wordword orderorder isis jusjustt a goodgood placeplace ttoo start.start. UnfortunatelyUnfortunately,, relevanrelevantt datadata forfor noncanonicalnoncanonical wordword orderorder dodo notnot existexist iinn publishepublishedd sources-whichsources—which isis reflectivreflectivee ofof thethe datadata set,set, notnot thethe language.language. DespitDespitee ththee lacklack ofof noncanonicanon canonicall worwordd orderorder inin ththee datadata set,22set,22 thisthis shouldshould notnot underminunderminee ththee suggestivenesssuggestiveness ofof thethe wordword orderorder constraintsconstraints iinn Tuyuca-theyTuyuca—they areare stillstill reliablereliable.. Thus,Thus, therethere areare nono instanceinstancess inin whicwhichh a fullyfully referentiareferentiall definitedefinite NNPP occursoccurs postverballypostverbally,, nonorr dodo subjectsubject pronounspronouns everever deviatedeviate fromfrom thethe S(O)VS(0)V patternpattern iinn TuyucaTuyuca datadata

(55)-(62)(55)-(62).. ThiThiss suggestssuggests thathatt worwordd orderorder isis anan importantimportant organizingorganizing principleprinciple inin TuyucaTuyuca syntax.syntax. (Glosses(Glosses reflecreflectt thethe analysisanalysis inin ChapterChapter 4,4, ththee separationseparation ofof agreementagreement fromfrom

2222 ThereThere araree actuallactuall a fewfew examplesexamples bubutt thetheyy dodo nonott appearappear toto bebe relevantrelevant ttoo thethe purposespurposes herehere.. Also,Also, becausebecause mosmostt ofof ththee nominative-accusativnominative-accusativee casecase markinmarkingg inin TuyucaTuyuca isis covert,covert, analyzinganalyzing variablvariablee wordword orderorder clauseclausess isis notnot productivproductivee - mormoree datadata neeneedd toto bbee collected.collected. 6688 evidentialsevidentials,, andand conformityconformity ttoo ththee LeipziLeipzigg GlossinGlossingg Rules.Rules. I havehave alsoalso mademade mormoree explicitexplicit ththee postpositionalpostpositional cliticclitic representationrepresentation,, bbyy usingusing ththee equaequall sigsignn asas ththee boundarboundaryy foforr cliticclitic

"=""=" (Leipzig(Leipzig GlossingGlossing RuleRuless 2006),2006), ooff whawhatt BarnesBarnes callcallss ththee possessivepossessive morphememorpheme andand I interpretinterpret toto bbee ththee genitivegenitive cascasee /=ya//=ya/;; seseee (58),(58), (60)(60),, (61).(61).

(55)(55) PakPaki* yayaii sia-yfg-t.sTa-yig4. fathefatherr jaguajaguarr kill-Evo.PST.sco-3MSGkill-EVD.PST.SCD-3MSG 'Father'Father killekilledd a jaguar.'jaguar.'

23 (56(56)) PakPaki* yai-reyai_re 23 sla-ylg-t.sTa-yig-4. fathefatherr jaguar-ACC.DEjaguar-Acc.oEFF kill-EVO.PST.sco-3MSGkill-EVD.PST.sCD-3MSG 'Father'Father killekilledd ththee jaguajaguarr (that(that hahadd beebeenn killinkillingg thethe chickens).'chickens).'

(57)(57) MMilS pakipak* wTma-nwim~-IJ+? nTt-rj+nrt_IJ+2424 wiwiti soe-yirisoe-yiri2525? 2S2SGG fatherfather child-Mchild-M be-OJ.MSbe-rn.MSGG houshousee bum-INT.EVo.PsTburn-rNT.EVD.PST 'When'When youyourr fatherfather wawass a child,child, dididd hhee burburnn downdown ththee house?'house?'

(58)(58) Ko6Ko6=ya-g-i-=ya-g4 diydiyii y+4-ryit-ree tutf-w-i.tuti-w-i. 3FSG=GEN.SG-CLF.AN-MSG3FSG=GEN.SG-CLF.AN-MSG dodogg I1 SG-ACC.OEF SG-ACC.DEF scold-EVO.PST.VIS-3MSGSC0ld-EVD.PST.VIS-3MSG 'Her'Her dodogg barkebarkedd aatt me.'me.'

(59)(59) Imi-Imi-~a p*a-rpia-da hea-w-a.hea-w-a. man-PL.Aman-PL.ANN two-PL.AN.QUANTITtwo-PL.AN.QUANTITYY arrive-EVO.PST.VIS-3PLarrive-EVD.PST.VlS-3PL 'Two'Two memenn arrived.'arrived.'

(60)(60) KKii=ya-g-i-**=ya-g4 m+t=ya-gm+i=ya-g-i-4 nemo-ronemo-rd 3MSG=GEN3MSG=GEN.SG-CLF.AN-MS .SG-CLF.AN-MSGG 2SG=GEN2SG=GEN.SG-CLF.AN-MS .SG-CLF.AN-MSGG more-AOVRmore-ADVR

pai-gpai-g-i-4 nTT-TnIT-i.. be.big-GER-MSbe.big-GER-MSGG be-EVO.PRES.VIS-3MSGbe-EVD.PRES.VIS-3MSG 'His'His animalanimal iiss biggebiggerr thathann youyourr animal.'animal.'

(61)(61) Ko6=ya-g-i-Ko6=ya-g4 kii=ya-g-i--korok?f=ya-g4-kdrd 3FSG-GEN.SG-CLF.AN-MSG3FSG-GEN.SG-CLF.AN-MSG 3MSG=GEN.SG-CLF.AN-MSG-alik3MsG=GEN.SG-CLF.AN-MsG-alikee

2233 ThiThiss iiss anan accusativaccusativee cascasee markemarkerr bubutt itit alsalsoo workworkss ttoo signasignall definitdefinitee referencereference., comparcomparee witwithh (55)(55).. TheThe behaviobehaviorr ooff thithiss morphemmorphemee iinn TuyucaTuyuca,, andand iinn otheotherr EasterEasternn TukanoaTukanoann languageslanguages,, isis stillstill somewhatsomewhat ofaof a puzzlepuzzle.. 2424 BarnesBarnes ((1994 1994:: doesdoes nonott explaiexplainn whawhatt shshee meanmeanss bbyy conditioncondition consequenceconsequence foforr nn-rji.nTi-IJi. IItt clearlyclearly agreesagrees witwithh -rji-f)i iinn wlmd-tjiwirna-f)i 'masculine'masculine child.'child.' Ir leavleavee ththee issueissue opeopenn forfor now.now. 2525 ThisThis iiss alsoalso parpartt ooff ththee sesett ofof miscellaneoumiscellaneouss formformss nonott coverecoveredd herehere.. MorMoree specificallyspecifically,, iitt belongbelongss ttoo thethe paradigparadigmm ofof interrogativinterrogativee evidentials.evidentials. AAss farfar asas I knowknow,, interrogativinterrogativee evidentialsevidentials araree extremelyextremely rare.rare. 6969

nTI-InTT-T. be-EVD.PRES.VIS-3MSbe-EvD.PRES.VIS-3MSGG 'He'Herr animaanimall iiss ththee samsamee aass hihiss animaL'animal.'

(62(62)) DiayDiayii y++-rytf.-ree baka-rf-t-i.baka-ri-t-i. dodogg I1 SG-ACC.DEF SG-ACC.DEF bite-NEG-EVD.PST.NVIS-3MSGbite-NEG-EVD.PST.NVIS-3MSG ThThee dodogg dididd nonott bitbitee me.'me.'

AllAll examplesexamples shoshoww ththee canonicacanonicall worwordd orderorder,, S(O)V,S(0)V, wherwheree subjectssubjects araree inin theirtheir expecteexpectedd positiopositionn anandd subjectsubject agreementagreement markermarkerss oonn ththee ververbb oror auxiliaryauxiliary (or(or both)both) explicitlexplicitlyy expresexpresss featurefeaturess thathatt refereferr ttoo ththee subject.subject. In allall ofof ththee sentencessentences oorr clausesclauses iinn

(55)-(62)(55)-(62) ththee fulfulll NPNPss inin subjectsubject positionposition,, whethewhetherr nounnounss oorr pronounspronouns,, cacann bbee droppeddropped withwith nnoo syntacticsyntactic lossloss ofof subjectsubject referencereference,, i.ei.e.. ththee subjecsubjectt referencereference iiss recoverablerecoverable fromfrom ththee agreementagreement markemarkedd oonn ththee ververbb oror auxiliary.auxiliary.

(63)(63) Ne~-bia-to-ha-yig-i.Nee-bia-to-ha-yig4. grab-close-trap-EMPH-EVD.PST.scDgrab-close-trap-EMPH-EvD.PsT.scD-3MsG-3MSG '(He'(He)) grabbegrabbedd (th(thee flea)flea) andand trappetrappedd itit (i(inn hihiss mouth)'mouth)'

(64)(64) Sai-bosa-dtga-ri-w-i.SaT-bosa-diga-ri-w-i. buy-BEN-DES-NEG-EVD.PST.VISbUy-BEN -DES-NEG-EVD.PST. vIs-3-3MS MSGG '(He'(He)) dididd nonott wanwantt ttoo bubuyy itit foforr another.'another.'

(65)(65) waa-ri-gwaa-ri-g-i4 nTT-w-nTI-w-ii gO-RSLT-PERF-MSgO-RSL T-PERF-MSG G be-EvD.PSTbe-EVD.PST.VIS .vIs-3MSG-3MSG '(He'(He)) went.'went.'

(66(66)) Yaa-ri-a-ri-gYaa-ri-a-ri-g-t4 nll-a-w-inff-a-w-T eat-NEG-REC.PST-RSLT-PERF-MSeat-NEG-REC.PST-RSL T-PERF-MSGG be-REc.PST-EVD.PST.VIS-3MSGbe-REC.PST-EVD.PST.VIS-3MSG '(He)'(He) dididd nonott eat/waeat/wass a non-eatinnon-eatingg one.one.''

(67)(67) wesewese soe-ri-gsoe-ri-g-i4 nTI-w-inn-w-i field bum-RSLT-PERF-MSburn-RSL T-PERF-MSGG be-EvDPsT.VIS-3MSGbe-EVDPST.VIS-3MSG '(He)'(He) burneburnedd hihiss field.'field.'

(67(67)) ape-g-iape-g4 tif-itif-i play-PROG-MSplay-PRoG-MSGG dO-EVD.PRES.VIS-3MSGdo-EVD.PRES.VIS-3MSG 7700

'(He)'(He) isis playing'playing'

(68)(68) sia-yig-isla-yig-t kill-EVD.PST.SCDkill-EvD.PST.SCD-3MSG-3MSG '(He'(He)) killed'killed'

(69)(69) hea-w-ahea-w-a arrive-EVD.PST.visarrive-EvD.PST.VIS-3PL-3PL '(they'(they)) arrived'arrived'

(70)(70) bue-g-bue-g-oo tii-atii-a Study-PROG-FSstudy-PROG-FSGG do-EVD.PRES.VIS-1I2do-EVD.PRES.VIS-1/2 '('(IT am/yoam/youu areare)) studying'studying'

AdditionaAdditionall evidencevidencee thathatt subjectssubjects areare notnot dislocatedislocatedd iinn TuyucTuyucaa comecomess frofromm thethe lacklack ofof intonationaintonationall pausepausess betweebetweenn a definitdefinitee subjecsubjectt anandd ththee clauseclause withwith repetitiverepetitive agreementagreement.. BarneBarness andand TakagTakagii ddee SilzeSitzerr (1976(1976)) anandd BarneBarness (1996),(1996), botbothh workworkss onon generalgeneral

TuyucTuyucaa phonologyphonology,, givegive nnoo indicatioindicationn thatthat datadata exisexistt ttoo suggessuggestt thathatt intonationalintonational pausespauses cacann bbee isolatedisolated andand interpretedinterpreted asas markinmarkingg somesome clausclausee boundaryboundary,, oror otherother syntax-syntax- discoursdiscoursee boundaryboundary.. ITnn fact,fact, nothinnothingg iiss eveevenn hintehintedd aatt iinn ananyy worworkk oonn TuyucaTuyuca (see(see Barnes,Barnes,

KarnKam,, andand SmithSmith iinn references).references).

FurthermoreFurthermore,, objecobjectt agreemenagreementt inin TuyucaTuyuca isis optionaoptionall andand doesdoes nonott occuroccur frequentlyfrequently.. NonconfigurationaNonconfigurationallanguagesl languages havhavee obligatorobligatoryy objecobjectt agreementagreement,, bubutt partiallypartially configurationaconfigurationall languagelanguagess alloalloww optionaoptionall objecobjectt agreementagreement.. However.However, TuyucTuyucaa objectobject agreemenagreementt doedoess nonott appeaappearr ttoo behavbehavee aass iitt doedoess iinn partiallpartiallyy configurationalconfigurational languagelanguagess likelike

KinandeKinande (Baker(Baker 2003)2003).. ThaThatt is,is, ththee presencepresence ooff aann objecobjectt markemarkerr (OM)(OM) onon anan objectobject NPNP doedoess notnot dislocatdislocatee thathatt OOMM markemarkedd NPNP.. AlAlll NPNPss iinn TuyucaTuyuca withwith aann OOMM stillstill retairetainn theirtheir canonicacanonicall objectobject positionposition:: SOY.SOV.

(71(71)) PakPaki+ yayaii sTa-yig-4sia-yig-i.. 7171

fathefatherr jaguajaguarr kill-EVD.PST.SCD-3MSGkill-EVD.PST.sCD-3MSG 'Fathe'Fatherr killekilledd a jaguar.'jaguar.'

(72)(72) Pak"Pak+ yai-ryai-ree sla-ylg-t.sTa-yig4. fathefatherr jaguar-ACC.DEjaguar-Acc.DEFF kill-EVID.PST.SCD-3MSGkill-EVTD.PST.scD-3MSG 'Fathe'Fatherr killekilledd ththee jaguajaguarr (that(that hahadd beebeenn killinkillingg ththee chickens).'chickens).'

(73(73)) DfayiDiayi y«-ryii-ree baka-rf-t-i.baka-ri-t-i. dodogg 1SG-ACC.DEF SG-ACC.DEF bite-NEG-EVD.PST.NVIS-3MSGbite-NEG-EVD.PST.NVIS-3MSG 'Th'Thee dogdog dididd nonott bitbitee me.me.''

(74)(74) Ko6=ya-gK06=ya-g-t4 diydfyii yii-ryii-ree tutf-w-i.tuti-w-i. 3FSG=GEN.SG-CLF.AN-MS3FSG=GEN.SG-CLF.AN-MSGG dodogg IlSG-ACC.DEFSCold-EVD.PST.VIS-3MS SG-ACC.DEF scold-EVD.PST.VIS-3MSGG 'He'Herr dogdog barkebarkedd aatt me.me.''

(75)(75) Kia-reKia-re ina-dtga-ri-yig-o.TrTa-diga-ri-yig-o. 3PL-ACC.DE3PL-ACC.DEFF see-DES-NEG-EVD.PST.SCD-3FSGSee-DES-NEG-EVD.PST.SCD-3FSG 'Sh'Shee diddid nonott wantwant ttoo seseee them.'them.'

AdditionallyAdditionally,, outsideoutside ofof topic-focustopic-focus,, ththee referentialitreferentialityy ooff anan objectobject NNPP doesdoes notnot seemseem toto plaplayay a rolrolee iinn determiningdetermining ititss positiopositionn (71)-(72)(71 )-(72),, nonorr doedoess ththee presencpresencee oorr absencabsencee ofof anan overovertt subjecsubjectt NNPP (75).(75).

5.3.3.5.3.3. ConcludinConcludingg remarkremark:: TuyucTuyucaa iiss configurationalconfigurational

ProvidingProviding argumentsarguments anandd evidencevidencee againstagainst dislocateddislocated subjectssubjects (and(and objects)objects) inin

TuyucaTuyuca hahass twtwoo majomajorr resultsresults:: (i(i)) througthroughh providinprovidingg relevanrelevantt datdataa forfor dislocatiodislocationn wwee cancan concludeconclude thathatt TuyucaTuyuca iiss a pro-droppro-drop,, oorr null-subjectnull-subject,, language;language; (ii(ii)) laclackk ooff evidencevidencee forfor dislocateddislocated subjectsubjectss implieimpliess thatthat TuyucTuyucaa iiss configurationaconfigurationall - i.ei.e.. ththee positionpositionss ofof corecore grammaticalgrammatical functioninfunctioningg elementelementss suchsuch aass NNPP subject,subject, NNPP objectobject araree predictablypredictably consistentconsistent anandd verbaverball predicatepredicatess inherentlyinherently retairetainn informationinformation aboutabout ththee lexicalexicall structurestructure and ththee phrasphrasee structurstructuree (an(andd actually,actually, beinbeingg pro-drop entailentailss configurationality).configurational ity). ItIt isis notnot yeyett cleaclearr exactlexactlyy whawhatt pro-drop mechanismmechanismss araree involveinvolvedd iinn TuyucTuyucaa (Alexiadou(Alexiadou andand 7272

AnagnostopouloAnagnostopoulouu 1998),1998), bubutt it seemsseems reasonablreasonablee ttoo assumeassume thatthat thethe unpronounceunpronouncedd subjectsubject nominalnominal,, propro,, iiss packagepackagedd togethetogetherr witwithh agreemenagreementt (gender,(gender, numbernumber,, person)person) andand casecase

(nominative).(nominative). FollowingFollowing standardstandard MinimalistMinimalist accountaccountss (Carni(Carniee 20022002,, 2008,2008, ChomskyChomsky

1995,1995, HornsteinHornstein,, NunesNunes,, andand GrohmanGrohmannn 20052005,, LasniLasnikk andand UriagerekUriagerekaa witwithh BoeckBoeckxx 2005,2005,

PesetskPesetskyy andand TorregoTorrego 2002,2002, RadforRadfordd 20062006,, anandd UriagerekUriagerekaa 1998;1998; seesee alsoalso BakeBakerr 2003a,2003a,

2003b,2003b, 2008),2008), TenseTense (T)(T) hahass twotwo featuresfeatures:: nominativenominative casecase anandd thethe ExtendedExtended ProjectionProjection

PrinciplPrinciplee (EPP)(EPP).. ThThee lattelatterr featurfeaturee iiss essentiallessentiallyy ththee abstractabstract notionotionn ofof a commoncommon descriptivdescriptivee observationobservation:: sentencessentences,, oorr clausesclauses,, musmustt havhavee subjects.subjects. TheThe techniqutechniquee ofof allowinallowingg ththee EPEPPP resultsresults,, basicallybasically,, iinn reservinreservingg a sloslott foforr subjectsubjectss iinn ththee syntacticsyntactic hierarchhierarchyy - technicalltechnicallyy ththee specifiespecifierr ofof ththee TensTensee PhrasePhrase (TP).(TP). In thesthesee termsterms,, andand followinfollowingg iinn particulaparticularr BakeBakerr 2003b2003b,, TuyucaTuyuca iiss liklikee otherother languagelanguagess iinn thathatt ththee agreementagreement

(Agr)(Agr) features-gender,features—gender, numbernumber,, person—arperson-aree parasitiparasiticc oonn either ththee cascasee oror EPPEPP dimensiondimension ofT.of T. Specifically,Specifically, 1I assumeassume thatthat TuyucaTuyuca isis similarsimilar toto SpanishSpanish oror GreekGreek becausebecause ititss AgAgrr featurefeaturess araree parasitiparasiticc oonn ththee cascasee featurfeaturee ofof TT.. AccordinAccordingg ttoo thithiss structurestructure thenthen,, allall subjectssubjects iinn TuyucTuyucaa araree lexicallylexically endoweendowedd witwithh a nominativnominativee casecase featurfeaturee byby defaultdefault ofof occupyinoccupyingg ththee subjectsubject argumentargument positiopositionn ooff ththee predicatingpredicating verbverb,, anandd araree relaterelatedd ttoo T becausbecausee thetheyy neeneedd ttoo filfilll ththee emptyempty nominativnominativee subjectsubject slotslot iinn TPTP foforr ththee configurationalconfigurational syntactisyntacticc structure;structure; seseee (76).(76). ThiTh iss isis a reasonablreasonablee thesithesiss foforr TuyucTuyucaa pro-dropro-dropp andand I adopadoptt it herehere,, thougthoughh ththee evidencevidencee atat thithiss poinpointt iiss basebasedd onon a smallsmall rangerange ofof datadata frofromm publishedpublished sourcessources;; seseee referencereferencess foforr BarneBarness andand forfor Karn?6Karn.26

2266 FoForr exampleexample,, a fullfull descriptivdescriptivee analysianalysiss ofof cliticc1iticss iinn TuyucTuyucaa iiss needeneededd iinn ordeorderr ttoo showshow thathatt itit patternspatterns witwithh GreeGreekk anandd SpanisSpanishh inin fullfull clitic1iticc doubling—wherdoubling-wheree c1iticsclitics cacann co-occurco-occur witwithh NPsNPs,, pronounspronouns,, oorr standstand onon theitheirr own;own; seseee (5)(5),, (58),(58), andand (60)(60).. AnalysiAnalysiss ooff expletiveexpletive structuresstructures iinn TuyucTuyucaa needneedss ttoo bbee done-asdone—as iitt standsstands ththee datdataa suggestsuggest thathatt TuyucaTuyuca doedoess nonott havhavee overtovert expletivesexpletives.. UnaccusativeUnaccusativess iinn TuyucTuyucaa alsalsoo neeneedd ttoo bebe lookelookedd aatt foforr definitenesdefinitenesss effectseffects,, bubutt initiallinitiallyy nnoo definitenesdefinitenesss restrictionsrestrictions seemseem ttoo occur;occur; seesee (59)(59) andand (69).(69). AlsoAlso,, a fulfulll analysianalysiss ooff Caseasee iinn TuyucaTuyuca iiss needed.needed. 7373

5.4. AA notenote onon auxiliaryauxiliary agreementagreement

BakerBaker (2008:(2008: 155)155) proposesproposes a typologytypology thatthat differentiatesdifferentiates Bantu-likeBantu-like (or(or NigerNiger

Congo,Congo, NC)NC) languageslanguages fromfrom IndoIndo European-likeEuropean-like (IE)(IE) languageslanguages inin termsterms ofof twotwo

agreementagreement parameters.parameters. TheThe NCNC languageslanguages generallygenerally havehave thethe valuevalue "yes""yes" forfor thethe

Direction Agreement Parameter thatthat reliesrelies onon thethe syntacticsyntactic relationshiprelationship ofof DPINPDP/NP

asymmetricallyasymmetrically c-commandingc-commanding F (functional(functional head-forhead—for thethe purposespurposes herehere T).T). TheThe IEIE

languageslanguages generallygenerally havehave thethe valuevalue "yes""yes" forfor thethe Case Dependency of Agreement Agreement

Parameter thatthat reliesrelies onon agreementagreement betweenbetween F andand DP/NDPINPP ifif andand onlyonly ifif F valuesvalues ththee casecase

featurefeature ofof thethe DPINP.DP/NP. TheThe parametersparameters forforN NCC andand IEIE languageslanguages mutuallymutually excludeexclude eacheach otherother (IE(IE languageslanguages valuevalue "no""no" forfor thethe Direction Agreement Parameter andand NCNC languageslanguages

valuevalue "no""no" forfor thethe Case Dependency of Agreement Parameter), butbut thethe parametersparameters themselvethemselvess areare notnot mutuallmutuallyy exclusive.exclusive. FoForr example,example, BakeBakerr proposeproposess thathatt TurkishTurkish valuesvalues

"yes""yes" andand GeorgianGeorgian andand WalpiriWalpiri "no""no" forfor botbothh parameters.parameters.

TheThe generalgeneral conclusionconclusion inin 5.3.35.3.3 iiss coveredcovered bbyy ththee Case Dependency of Agreement Agreement

Parameter, specifyingspecifying thatthat TuyucaTuyuca agreementagreement isis packagedpackaged witwithh nominativnominativee case.case. If,If, oror when,when, TuyucaTuyuca datadata showingshowing deviationdeviationss fromfrom canonicalcanonical SOYSOV wordword orderorder werewere found,found, suchsuch

aass OSOSVV oorr OVSOVS,, ththee Case Dependency of Agreement Parameter woulwouldd ensurensuree thathatt suchsuch worwordd orderorder changechangess woulwouldd nonott changchangee agreemenagreementt patternspatterns.. OnlOnlyy ththee NNPP whicwhichh iiss valuedvalued

27 foforr nominativnominativee casecase,, anandd probeprobedd bbyy T ,, woulwouldd exhibiexhibitt normanormall agreement—noagreement-nott a frontedfronted

PrepositionaPrepositionall PhrasPhrasee oorr obliquobliquee NPNP.. IInn termtermss ooff Baker'Baker'ss (2008(2008)) generagenerall typologytypology,, TuyucaTuyuca

shoulshouldd nonott exhibiexhibitfullt full multiplemUltiple agreement oonn botbothh ththee auxiliarauxiliaryy anandd finitfinitee ververbb witwithh thethe

2277 A syntacticallsyntacticallyy highehigherr functionafunctionall categoicategoryy headhead,, sucsuchh aass ththee TensTensee headhead,, iiss saisaidd ttoo probprobee dowdownn intintoo ththee syntactisyntacticc structurstructuree anandd "look"look"" foforr featurefeaturess thathatt iitt needneedss ttoo valuevalue.. IInn thithiss kinkindd ooff theoreticatheoreticall machinerymachinery,, T iiss saisaidd ttoo bbee unvalued foforr CaseCase,, anandd a subjecsubjectt NNPP iiss valued foforr CaseCase.. AAnn unvalueunvaluedd heaheadd T probeprobess foforr a valuedvalued heaheadd NPNP;; seseee ChomskChomskyy (2001(200 I)) anandd PesetskPesetskyy anandd TorregTorregoo (2001(200 I,, 20042004,, 2007)2007),, oorr ththee textbooktextbookss bbyy HornsteinHornstein,, NunesNunes,, anandd GrohmanGrohmannn (2005)(2005),, LasniLasnikk anandd UriagerekUriagerekaa witwithh BoeckBoeckxx (2005)(2005),, oorr RadforRadfordd (2006).(2006). 7474 subjecsubjectt NPNP.. However.However, thithiss kinkindd ofof agreementagreement iiss licenselicensedd bbyy IEIE languageslanguages whenwhen,, andand onlyonly whenwhen,, thethe ververbb iiss aann adjective-likadjective-likee participialparticipial;; BakeBakerr (2008:(2008: 210)210).. Baker'Baker'ss conclusioconclusionn isis thathatt IIEE languagelanguagess allowallow onlyonly ononee finitefinite T thathatt assignassignss nominativnominativee casecase.. OtherOther instanceinstancess ofof

T mustmust bebe ofof thethe participialparticipial type.type. TheThe questionquestion thatthat arisesarises forfor TuyucaTuyuca isis whetherwhether oror notnot thethe

verbverb inin [VERB-AGRsubject[VERB-AGRsubject ...— [Aux-[Aux-T.EVD-AGRT.EVD-AGRsuSUbjectbject1 ] constructionsconstructions isis anan adjective-likeadjective-like participialparticipial.. ThiThiss questioquestionn cancan bbee answeredanswered,, followinfollowingg BakerBaker,, bbyy lookinglooking atat anan asymmetryasymmetry iinn ththee agreemenagreementt featuresfeatures:: ththee ververbb iiss nonott asas fullyfully specifiedspecified aass ththee auxiliary—thauxiliary-thee ververbb hashas gendegenderr andand numbenumberr featuresfeatures whilwhilee ththee auxiliarauxiliaryy hahass gendergender,, numbernumber., anandd persopersonn features.features.

I quotequote BakerBaker (2008:(2008: 210)210) inin fullfull

iitt musmustt bbee acknowledgedacknowledged thathatt [complex[complex tenstensee constructionsconstructions]] dodo showshow a limitelimitedd formform ofof doubldoublee agreemenagreementt eveevenn iinn IIEE languageslanguages.. BuButt thithiss nevernever happenhappenss whewhenn ththee lowelowerr ververbb iiss a fullyfully verbaverball finitefinite form.form. IItt onlyonly happenshappens whewhenn ththee lowelowerr ververbb iiss anan adjective-likeadjective-like participleparticiple,, whicwhichh agreeagreess witwithh thethe subjecsubjectt iinn numbenumberr anandd gendergender bubutt nonott iinn personperson

ThiThiss meanmeanss thatthat TuyucTuyucaa V-AuV-Auxx constructionsconstructions contaicontainn onlyonly ononee finitefinite T heaheadd thatthat valuesvalues nominativnominativee casecase anandd a lowerlower participiaparticipiall T headhead.. TheThe auxiliarauxiliaryy movemovess ttoo ththee finitfinitee T heaheadd wherwheree itit isis markemarkedd forfor agreementagreement witwithh ththee nominativnominativee case-valuecase-valuedd subjecsubjectt (at(at spec,TP)spec,TP) iinn gender,gender, numbenumberr andand personperson (an(andd wherwheree ththee evidentialevidential morphologmorphologyy isis fusedfused witwithh ththee finitefinite T head)head).. TheThe ververbb movemovess ttoo ththee participiaparticipiall T heaheadd wherwheree iitt agreeagreess witwithh thethe subjecsubjectt iinn onlyonly gendegenderr anandd numbernumber.. ThiThiss isis a reasonablreasonablee hypothesihypothesiss foforr TuyucaTuyuca anandd addsadds ttoo thethe evidencevidencee thathatt TuyucTuyucaa grammagrammarr patternpatternss moremore likelike IEIE languagelanguagess thathann NNCC languages,languages, accordinaccordingg ttoo Baker'sBaker's typology.typology.

OnOnee lastlast issuissuee iiss ththee statusstatus ofof ththee relatiorelationn betweebetweenn TuyucTuyucaa andand languagelanguagess thatthat valuvaluee "yes"yes"" forfor botbothh syntacticsyntactic parametersparameters,, e.g.e.g.,, TurkishTurkish.. BakeBakerr (2008:(2008: 168)168) notenotess thatthat

"one"one cancan readilreadilyy imaginimaginee a languaglanguagee iinn whicwhichh T cannocannott agreagreee witwithh NNPP unlesunlesss NNPP c-c- r------

7575

commandscommands T andTand J valuesvalues thethe casecase ofNP."of NP." InIn Turkish,Turkish, anan SOYSOV language,language, nonspecificnonspecific

indefiniteindefinite subjectssubjects areare foundfound toto thethe immediateimmediate leftleft oftheof the verbverb inin a noncanonicalnoncanonical OSY.OSV.

WhenWhen thisthis happenshappens thethe normalnormal SOYSOV subject-verbsubject-verb agreement,agreement, withwith personperson andand numbernumber

featuresfeatures markedmarked onon thethe verb,verb, doesdoes notnot showshow up.up. TheThe lacklack ofof alternatealternate SOYSOV ordersorders inin thethe

availableavailable TuyucaTuyuca datadata doesdoes notnot yetyet allowallow anan analysisanalysis alongalong thesethese lines.lines. ButBut oneone thingthing

seemsseems sure:sure: TuyucaTuyuca valuesvalues "yes""yes" forfor thethe Case Dependency of Agreement Parameter.Parameter.

5.5.5.5.Tuyuca Tuyuca,, agreement,agreement, andand tense-evidentialstense-evidentials

IItt isis importantimportant toto knowknow ifif TuyucaTuyuca isis configurationalconfigurational becausebecause ifif thethe agreementagreement

markersmarkers suffixedsuffixed ttoo verbsverbs andand auxiliariesauxiliaries werewere inin factfact adjoinedadjoined nominalnominal

arguments/pronominalarguments/pronominal argumentsarguments - notnot parpartt ofof ththee argumentargument structurestructure ofof thethe predicatepredicate

verbverb - thethenn I believbelievee certaicertainn constraintsconstraints onon agreemenagreementt andand clausclausee structurestructure woulwouldd notnot

resulresultt inin ththee T>T > E orderingordering relatiorelationn betweebetweenn ththee TenseTense andand EvidentiaEvidentiall categoriecategoriess iinn

TuyucaTuyuca.. IIff ththee agreemenagreementt markermarkerss werweree actuallyactually arguments,arguments, thetheyy woulwouldd nonott marmarkk a clauseclause

boundaryboundary,, aass agreementagreement morphememorphemess do.do.

SubjectSubject nominalsnominals iinn Tuyuca,Tuyuca, definitdefinitee andand indefinitindefinitee NPNPss oorr pro, areare lexicallylexically

inserteinsertedd intintoo ththee predicate-argumenpredicate-argumentt structurstructuree ooff ththee verbverb.. In otheotherr wordswords,, verbverbss comcomee toto

havhavee a specifiespecifierr positiopositionn frofromm direcdirectt combinatiocombinationn witwithh anotheanotherr phrasphrasee (NP(NP)) thathatt hahass beenbeen

formeformedd independentlyindependently.. ThiThiss direcdirectt combinatiocombinationn iiss knowknownn aass ExternaExternall MergeMerge;; comparcomparee toto

InternaInternall MergMergee oorr movement, whicwhichh iiss hohoww TTPP getgetss ititss specifiespecifierr positiopositionn (Bake(Bakerr 20082008,,

2003a2003a,, ChomskChomskyy 1995,1995, HornsteinHornstein,, NunesNunes,, anandd GrohmanGrohmannn 2005)2005).. IItt iiss withiwithinn thithiss structurestructure

thathatt subjecsubjectt nominalnominalss receivreceivee theitheirr semantic/thematic/thetsemantic/thematic/thetaa roleroless aass AgenAgentt oorr Theme.Theme.

FroFromm herehere,, accordinaccordingg ttoo standarstandardd MinimalisMinimalistt accountsaccounts,, ththee subjecsubjectt raiseraisess ttoo checcheckk featuresfeatures 7676 associatedassociated withwith agreementagreement andand casecase iinn oror neanearr thethe domaindomain ofof Tense,Tense, andand inin thethe processprocess subject-verbsubject-verb agreementagreement andand nominativnominativee casecase areare satisfied.satisfied. AsAs notenotedd previouslpreviouslyy inin 5.3.3,5.3.3, itit isis reasonablreasonablee ttoo assumeassume forfor TuyucTuyucaa thatthat agreementagreement featuresfeatures ofof subjectsubject NPNPss areare packagedpackaged togethetogetherr witwithh nominativenominative case.case. SimplifyingSimplifying a greatgreat dealdeal inin (76),(76), ththee resulresultt isis thathatt subjectsubject

NPNPss witwithh casecase andand agreementagreement featuresfeatures ([+case,([+case, +gender,+gender, +person,+person, +number]+number])) raiseraise toto TP,TP, whicwhichh isis licensedlicensed byby thethe (nonfinite)(nonfinite) ververbb raisinraisingg ttoo T forfor tense.tense. VerbVerb movementmovement toto T isis correlatedcorrelated withwith ththee EPP,EPP, whichwhich extendsextends ththee projectioprojectionn ofTPof TP toto formform a specifierspecifier (spec,TP)(spec,TP) toto whicwhichh subjectsubject NPNPss mamayy movmovee ttoo fillfill ththee nominativnominativee subjectsubject slot.slot. AgreemenAgreementt featuresfeatures areare transferretransferredd ttoo ththee nonfinitnon finitee ververbb fromfrom thethe subjectsubject NNPP inin spec,Tspec, TPP positiopositionn asas seenseen iinn

(76)(76)..

(76)(76) TTPP ~ NNPP T'V [NOM][NOM] ______[3MSG][3MSG] vPVP T V / NNP------P v' ~AST][PAST] L [NeM][NOM] ______[3MSG][3MSG] [JM&6][3MSG] VPVP ~V V ------¥ DP' ¥ [AAs:F][PAST]

TheThe tretreee iinn (76)(76) iiss a fairlyfairly simplesimple representationrepresentation ofof anan SOVSOV worwordd orderorder containingcontaining a subjectsubject NPNP withwith 3MSG3MSG agreementagreement featuresfeatures andand a verbverb inin pastpast tensetense thatthat realizesrealizes subjectsubject agreementagreement morphologymorphology.. TheThe complicationcomplication thatthat mustmust bebe introducedintroduced iiss thatthat TenseTense andand

EvidentiaEvidentiall categoriescategories areare fusedfused inin Tuyuca.Tuyuca. In 5.2.15.2.1 I arguedargued thatthat inin spitespite oftheof the possibilitypossibility thatthat TuyucTuyucaa syntaxsyntax treatstreats tense-evidentialstense-evidentials asas lexicallylexically indecomposablindecomposablee (simply(simply statingstating 7777

thisthis isis nonott anan enlighteningenlightening proposaproposall becausbecausee itit brushebrushess asidasidee thethe issuissuee ooff hohoww ththee fusedfused

morphologmorphologyy gotgot toto bbee thathatt way),way), ththee concerconcernn herehere iiss witwithh ththee hierarchicahierarchicall orderingordering

relatiorelationn betweebetweenn TensTensee andand EvidentiaEvidentiall categoriescategories despitedespite historhistoryy (but(but seesee §5.5.1§5.5.1 forfor a

syntactisyntacticc structurestructure thatthat showsshows a fusedfused T-ET-E headhead.. I assumassumee thathatt structurstructuree thertheree anandd workwork

backwardbackwardss ttoo givegive itsits derivatioderivationn basebasedd ththee orderinorderingg relatiorelationn inin §5.5.2).§5.5.2). ThThee basicbasic

intuitionintuition,, referrinreferringg ttoo (76)(76),, isis thathatt TPTP constrainsconstrains ththee wholwholee clausclausee iinn termtermss ooff subject-verbsubject-verb

agreementagreement:: agreemenagreementt markmarkss ththee boundarboundaryy ooff clauseclause.. IIff agreemenagreementt iiss markemarkedd oonn a fusedfused tense-evidentialtense-evidential it seemsseems reasonablreasonablee thathatt thithiss fusionfusion woulwouldd bbee requirerequiredd ttoo happehappenn before,before, oror simultaneously withwith,, subjectsubject agreementagreement onon ththee verbverb.. BuButt iifEf E iiss abovabovee T inin termtermss ofof

CinqueCinque (1999;(1999; seesee AppendiAppendixx D)D),, ththee derivatioderivationn mamayy occuoccurr iinn ththee followingfollowing wayway,, showshownn iinn

(77):(77): thethe lexicalexicall ververbb movemovess ttoo T—wherT-wheree tensetense,, EPPEPP,, andand subjectsubject agreemenagreementt araree satisfied.satisfied.

TheThe ververbb thethenn "waits""waits" forfor thethe evidentialevidential featurefeaturess aatt EE,, herehere referrereferredd ttoo asas [l1-F][rj-F] (Eta-F),(Eta-F), soso thathatt fusiofusionn cancan occur.occur. TheThe phonologicaphonologicall (PF(PF)) spell-ouspell-outt ofof ththee fusefusedd tense-evidentiatense-evidentiall isis thuthuss mademade uupp ofof featuresfeatures frofromm botbothh ththee TTPP andand CPCP domainsdomains.. [l1-F][r|-F] iiss ththee locatiolocationn wherewhere featuresfeatures determiningdetermining ththee typetype ofof evidentialevidential araree sentsent ttoo spell-outspell-out,, whilwhilee ththee emptemptyy bracketbracket spacespace aatt T showshowss ththee locatiolocationn wherwheree featuresfeatures ooff tenstensee anandd subjectsubject agreemenagreementt araree sentsent toto spell-out:spell-out: ththee bolboldd sequence,sequence, sia-[sia-[ ]-i]-i,, representrepresentss surface,surface, E(xternal)-LanguageE(xternal)-Language,, order­order— thethe emptemptyy spacspacee iiss wherwheree ththee tense-evidentiatense-evidentiall belongsbelongs.. TherTheree iiss neveneverr a casecase inin whicwhichh thethe emptyempty brackebrackett space,space, i.ei.e.. thethe tense-evidentialtense-evidential,, isis locatedlocated atat ththee endend ooff ththee ofof ththee ververbb stem,stem,

representerepresentedd iinn (78).(78). IT assumassumee ththee formsforms inin (78(78)) areare ungrammaticaungrammaticall becausbecausee thetheyy nevernever occuroccur inin ththee datadata,, nornor doesdoes BarneBarness oror KarKarnn eveeverr mentiomentionn ththee possibilitpossibilityy ooff (78).(78).

TherTheree isis nothingnothing inherentlinherentlyy wronwrongg witwithh ththee derivationderivation iinn (77(77)) bubutt somesome questionsquestions arisearise frofromm considerinconsideringg it.it. TheThe firstfirst questioquestionn thathatt comecomess ttoo mindmind isis 'Why'Why doesn'doesn'tt thethe verbverb 7788

(77(77)) aa.. PakPakii yayaii sia-yig-i.sla-yig-*.

fatherfather jaguajaguarr kill-PST.EVD.SCD-3MSGkill-PST.EVD.sCD-3MSG 'Fathe'Fatherr killekilledd a jaguar.'jaguar.'

b. [CP ... [MoodEvD

TP E ______------[ll-F] ------.. DP paki [3MSG] ,/" ,/ ,/ [NOM] ,/ ,/ ,/ ,/ sla-. [e'].-I [PAST] VP [3MSG] ~ DP V yai sta [PA-&=F] [Agf]

(78)(78) aa.. *sia-i-[*sia-i-[ ] *. . . bb.. *sia-i-yisla-I-Ylgg c. c. **[ [VV ROOT "- AGRAGRsubjectsubject" - [T[Tpast/presenpastlpresent-E'l-F]]] f Er|-F

raisraisee fromfrom T ttoo E?'E?' ThiThiss iiss nonott possiblpossiblee becausbecausee ththee kindkindss ooff featurefeaturess thathatt woulwouldd motivatemotivate suchsuch movemenmovementt havhavee nonott beebeenn attesteattestedd andand dodo nonott seeseemm likellikelyy ttoo existexist.. AlsoAlso,, consideringconsidering ththee tripartittripartitee structurestructure ooff ththee clausclausee asas CP-TP-VCP-TP-VPP domaindomainss (se(seee CarniCarniee 2008),2008), thethenn oneone mighmightt asaskk iiff evidentiaevidentiall morphologymorphology,, anandd EvidentialityEvidentiality iinn generalgeneral,, belonbelongg ttoo ththee TPTP oror CPCP domaidomainn (o(orr both)both)?? IInn otheotherr wordswords,, ddoo evidentiaevidentiall morphememorphemess (i(i)) relatrelatee ththee predicatiopredicationn ooff

VVPP ttoo somesome speechspeech timtimee andand denotdenotee ththee truth-conditionalittruth-conditionalityy ooff ththee eventevent relativrelativee ttoo somesome specificspecific worlworldd (th(thee TPTP domain),domain), oror (ii)(ii) dodo theythey relaterelate thethe speaker'sspeaker's levellevel ofof confidenceconfidence 7979 abouaboutt ththee truttruthh oror reliabilityreliability ooff ththee tensetensedd propositiopropositionn anandd denotdenotee attitudattitudee oror intentionintention beyonbeyondd ththee truth-conditionalitytruth-conditional ity ooff ththee eventevent (th(thee CPCP domain)?domain)? ThThee derivatioderivationn iinn (77)(77) implieimpliess thatthat featurefeaturess frofromm botbothh thethe TTPP (tense)(tense) andand CPCP (ll-F)(r|-F) domaindomainss areare involvedinvolved;; seesee

§5.1.4.§5.1.4. LastlyLastly,, considerinconsideringg a phasphasee analysianalysiss (Chomsk(Chomskyy 2001200 I,, 2005)2005) ononee mighmightt wondewonderr iiff a differentdifferent orderorder betweebetweenn T-ET-E woulwouldd resulresultt iinn differendifferentt phasesphases.. ButBut eveneven ifEif E werweree undeunderr TPTP ththee phasephase domaindomain woulwouldd stillstill bbee CPoCP. TheThe questioquestionn ooff phasephasess appearsappears toto havhavee nnoo bearingbearing oonn thithiss issue-ifissue—if oneone assumesassumes onlyonly v*v*PP (transitiv(transitivee verbsverbs)) andand CPCP aass phasesphases.. TenseTense andand

EvidentialitEvidentialityy belonbelongg ttoo ththee CPCP phasephase.. BuButt ththee basibasicc intuitiointuitionn thathatt subject-verbsubject-verb agreementagreement andand tenstensee morphologmorphologyy marmarkk clausclausee boundarieboundariess andand areare thuthuss constrainedconstrained bbyy ththee TTPP domaindomain isis a separateseparate issuissuee fromfrom phasesphases.. BaseBasedd onon ththee intuitiointuitionn ooff clausclausee boundariesboundaries,, I argueargue thathatt a simplersimpler modelmodel thathann (77)(77) exists.exists. OneOne thatthat,, undeunderr ththee generalgeneral rubrirubricc ooff economeconomyy iinn thethe

MinimalisMinimalistt ProgramProgram,, appearsappears ttoo bbee leslesss computationallcomputationallyy complexcomplex andand leslesss costlcostlyy inin termsterms ofof requiringrequiring onlonlyy oneone spell-outspell-out location.location. ItIt alsalsoo exploitsexploits localitylocality conditionsconditions thathatt licenselicense sisterhoodsisterhood relationsrelations needeneededd toto morphologicallmorphologicallyy fusefuse twotwo categoriecategoriess andand requiresrequires lessless

MergeMerge (External/Internal)(External/Internal) operationsoperations.. MyMy modemodell alsoalso restrainrestrainss ththee morphologmorphologyy ofof subject­subject- verbverb agreement,agreement, tensetense,, anandd evidentiaevidentiall ttoo TTPP andand doesdoes nonott requirrequiree featurefeaturess frofromm CCPP iinn orderorder ttoo spell-out.spell-out. I arguarguee thathatt tense-evidentialtense-evidentialss inflecteinflectedd forfor subjectsubject agreementagreement areare

"extensions""extensions" ofof thethe ververbb phrasphrasee anandd relaterelate ththee predicatiopredicationn ofVPof VP ttoo somesome speechspeech timtimee andand discoursediscourse situationsituation ofof ththee event,event, relativrelativee ttoo somesome specificspecific world.world.

5.5.15.5.1.. A leslesss costlycostly modelmodel

ThThee modemodell proposeproposedd herheree assumesassumes oneone locatiolocationn forfor ththee spell-ouspell-outt ooff tense­tense- evidentials.evidentials. ItIt conformconformss ttoo ththee probablprobablee assumptionassumption thathatt tense-evidentialstense-evidentials araree directlydirectly 8800 insertedinserted aass ononee lexicalllexicallyy indecomposableindecomposable form.form. (79(79)) incorporatesincorporates cruciacruciall assumptionsassumptions aboutabout ththee diachronidiachronicc naturnaturee ooff ththee morphemmorphemee asas welwelll aass ththee oppositeopposite orderinorderingg relationrelation betweebetweenn T-T-EE iinn (77).(77). 1I assumeassume ththee fusedfused T-ET-E andand worworkk backwardbackwardss inin orderorder ttoo addressaddress thethe initiainitiall orderinorderingg relationrelation inin §5§5.5.2.5.2.. WhetheWhetherr speakersspeakers derivderivee ththee fusefusedd T-T-EE forfor everyevery sentencesentence derivationderivation,, oror ththee fusedfused T-T-EE iiss storedstored iinn ththee lexicolexiconn isis beyonbeyondd thithiss thesisthesis.. WhaWhatt isis atat issuissuee iiss ththee orderinorderingg relatiorelationn despitedespite derivationaderivationall oorr languaglanguagee history.history.

(79)(79) a.. PakiPak* yayaii sia-yig-i.sla-yig-i fatherfather jaguajaguarr kill-PST.EVD.SCD-3MSGkill-PST.EVD.scD-3MSG 'Father'Father killekilledd ajaguar.'a jaguar.'

b. b. [CP[CP...[Mood ... [MoodEEVvDD ~ TPTP^ ^ E,E,

DP paki------[3MSG] [NOM] PF spell-out

sia-yig-i [PAST] -----.. VP [3MSG] ~ [ll-F] DP V yai ~l i [~

AcceptinAcceptingg ththee modemodell inin (77), comparedcompared ttoo (79),(79), meanmeanss alsoalso acceptinacceptingg ththee CinqueCinque hierarchl28 as it• is (Appendix• D), and accepting the existence of a functional category hierarchy" as it is (Appendix D), and accepting the existence of a functional category

28 Cinque'sCinque's (1999)(1999) functionalfunctional hierarchhierarchyy isis ononee ooff ththee firsfirstt generativgenerativee workworkss ttoo taktakee ththee syntasyntaxx ooff evidentiaevidentiall morphememorphemess serious. IItt iiss basebasedd oonn a larglargee sesett ofof cross-linguisticross-linguisticc datadata andand isis nonott intendeintendedd ttoo providprovidee in-deptin-depthh 8181

intervenininterveningg betweebetweenn EvidentialEvidential andand Tense:Tense: [Moodevidential[Moodevidentiai [Modepistemic[Modepistemic [T[T (Past)(Past)......

[T(Future)[T(Future) [[...]]]] ... ]]]].. IInn orderorder toto fusefuse E andand T then,then. ModalitYepistemicModalityepistemic willwill alsoalso havehave toto bebe fused. 2929 ThereThere isis nothingnothing inherentlinherentlyy wrongwrong witwithh thisthis assumption,assumption, butbut again,again, I argueargue thatthat

(79)(79) iiss leslesss costly.costly. First,First, iitt capturescaptures ththee notionnotion thatthat tense-evidentialstense-evidentials maymay bebe directlydirectly

insertedinserted fromfrom thethe lexiconlexicon.. Second,Second, itit constrainsconstrains subject-verbsubject-verb agreementagreement andand tensetense morphologymorphology toto thethe TPTP domain.domain. Third,Third, itit hashas simplesimple conditionsconditions forfor establishingestablishing a sisterhoodsisterhood relatiorelationn betweenbetween T-ET-E thatthat areare necessarynecessary forfor morphologicamorphologicall fusionfusion inin a

DistributedDistributed MorphologyMorphology theory.theory.

5.5.2.5.5.2. FusionFusion andand distributeddistributed morphologymorphology

FusioFusionn iiss thethe combinationcombination ofof morphosyntacticmorphosyntactic andand morpho-phonologicalmorpho-phonological featuresfeatures ofof twtwoo terminal sister nodes into one terminal node inin whicwhichh onlyonly oneone vocabularvocabularyy itemitem cancan bbee insertedinserted (Halle(Halle andand MarantzMarantz 1993).1993). AsAs thethe latterlatter note,note, fusionfusion isis differentdifferent fromfrom head-to-headhead-to-head movemenmovementt oror mergemergerr becausbecausee thesthesee latterlatter syntacticsyntactic processesprocesses dodo notnot combinecombine terminaterminall nodesnodes.. AtAt leastleast twtwoo terminalterminal nodenodess remairemainn whewhenn head-to-headhead-to-head movemenmovementt andand mergemergerr havhavee applied,applied, whereawhereasfusions fusion results in one terminal node. A generalgeneral structurestructure forfor fusionfusion isis shownshown inin (80),(80), adaptedadapted fromfrom KandybowiczKandybowicz (2006:(2006: 139)139)..

TheThe standardstandard syntacticsyntactic definitiondefinition forfor sisterhoodsisterhood follows:follows: y is a sister ofzof z if/hereif there is a YY,, such that Y immediately dominates both y andz z (Carnie(Carnie 2008:2008: 35).35). InIn (80a)(80a) y andand z araree

analysesanalyses ofof eacheach languagelanguage inin ththee datadata set.set. SeeSee KayeKaye (1976)(1976) forfor ththee firstfirst generative,generative, prpree X-baX-barr theory,theory, analysisanalysis ofof evidentials.evidentials. 2~99 TherTheree isis somesome evidencevidencee thathatt TuyucaTuyuca expressesexpresses modalitymodality independentlyindependently ofof evidentiality.evidentiality. BarnesBarnes makesmakes nnoo distinctiodistinctionn betweebetweenn MoodMood andand Modality,Modality, thusthus possiblpossiblyy conflatingconflating thethe twtwoo independentindependent categories.categories. [fthisIf this isis truetrue,, thethenn modalitymodality cannotcannot bbee fusedfused withwith evidentialevidential andand tense.tense. ThisThis issuissuee isis beyondbeyond thethe scopescope ofthisof this thesis,thesis, anandd thethe evidenceevidence requiredrequired ttoo testestt iitt wouldwould necessitatnecessitatee nativenative speakerspeaker judgmentsjudgments.. ItIt musmustt waitwait anotheranother dayday.. 8282

(80) a. X FUSIOFUSIONN OOFF yY ANANDD ZZ b. X ~ • ~ #x# Y #x# ~ #y# #Z#z## • sisterssisters;; thetheyy cancan alsalsoo bbee ththee producproductt ooff head-to-heahead-to-headd movemenmovementt oorr merger,, whicwhichh 'feeds''feeds' fusion,fusion, accordinaccordingg ttoo HalleHalle anandd MarantMarantzz (1993).(1993).

ThThee syntacticsyntactic positiopositionn ooff evidentialevidentialss iiss typicalltypicallyy regarderegardedd aass abovabovee TTPP (Cinque(Cinque

1999).1999). In (81(81a a)) I showshow ththee structurestructure thathatt resultresultss fromfrom adoptingadopting Cinque'Cinque'ss hierarchhierarchyy iinn a

Spec-Comp-HeadSpec-Comp-Head orderorder,, whilwhilee (81(81b b)) representrepresentss aann alternatalternatee modelmodel iinn whicwhichh thethe

EvidentialEvidential PhrasPhrasee (r|P(l1P)) iiss ththee complemencomplementt ofTPof TP iinn a Spec-Comp-HeadSpec-Comp-Head order;order; herheree thethe subjectsubject argumenargumentt iiss representerepresentedd bbyy ththee lowercaslowercasee GreekGreek letterletter alphalphaa 'a''a' inin spec,Tp.spec,TP.3030

(81 ) a [CP ... [Moodevidential b. CP c. CP ~ ~ ~ MO~ 11 TP C TP C a~ a~ ~i A A a T 11 P T 11 P T • ~ vP~J #11# #T#

IInn (81(81a a)) ththee CinquCinquee hierarchhierarchyy iiss kepkeptt intacintactt anandd showsshows thathatt a sisterhoodsisterhood relationrelation

betweebetweenn TenseTense anandd EvidentialEvidential cacann onlonlyy occuoccurr whewhenn T movemovess ttoo ththee emptemptyy MoodMoodevidential-eVidentiai - givegivenn ththee restrictiorestrictionn onon lowerinloweringg ofof elementselements inin ththee antisymmetryantisymmetry frameworkframework ooff KayneKayne

(1994)(1994) thathatt CinquCinquee adopts.adopts. IIfModalepistemif Modalepistemicc iiss occupied,, thethenn a sisterhoodsisterhood relatiorelationn betweenbetween

301 I leaveleave opeopenn foforr nonoww ththee issueissuess anandd consequencesconsequences resultinresultingg fromfrom adoptinadoptingg a stricstrictt LCA—iLCA-inn whicwhichh thethe ordersorders oof(23)f (23) woulwouldd bbee derivedderived fromfrom a Spec-Head-CompSpec-Head-Comp order.. SeSeee LLii (2005:(2005: 160160)) foforr a modifiemodifiedd versionversion ooff ththee LCALCA,, ththee MLCA,, iinn whicwhichh ththee universauniversall orderorder iiss Spec-Comp-Head,Spec-Comp-Head, SOYSOV.. 8383

T-ET-E resultresultss frofromm InternaInternall MergeMerge (move)(move) oofTtof T to EE.. I ddoo nonott pursupursuee (81a(8Ia)) modelmodel.. In (8Ib),(81b), wherwheree ththee evidentiaevidentiall isis base-generatebase-generatedd belobeloww TenseTense,, ththee sisterhoosisterhoodd relatiorelationn arisearisess fromfrom ththee evidentiaevidentiall heaheadd movinmovingg ttoo thethe tenstensee headhead.. TnIn termsterms ofof movementmovement andand merger,merger, (81(81b b))

requirerequiress lessless totatotall MergMergee operationoperationss thathann (8(81a)—eve I a)-evenn ifModalepistemicif ModalepiStemic iiss occupieoccupiedd allall thethe timtimee inin Tuyuca,Tuyuca, whicwhichh it iiss notnot,, (81(81b b)) stillstill hahass a mormoree locallocal relatiorelationn betweebetweenn T andand E;E;

'local'local'' understoounderstoodd herheree intuitively.intuitively.3l31 ForFor example,example, iinn (81a(81 a)) TPTP externallyexternally mergemergess withwith

ModalModal,, whicwhichh thethenn externallyexternally mergemergess witwithh MoodMood.. ThenThen,, T musmustt internallyinternally mergmergee withwith

ModalModal (when(when thethe modalmodal heaheadd iiss emptyempty)) anandd thethenn musmustt internallyinternally mergmergee agaiagainn witwithh Mood.Mood.

AAtt thithiss poinpointt fusiofusionn cacann happen.happen. (81(81b b)) showsshows thathatt ththee 11Pr|P (Et(Etaa PhrasePhrase)) complemencomplementt ofof TPTP hashas externallexternallyy mergemergedd witwithh TPTP,, thethenn alalll ththee 11r| heaheadd hahass ttoo dodo isis internallinternallyy mergmergee witwithh thethe

T head.head. ItIt isis herehere thatthat fusionfusion cancan occur.occur. InIn otherother words,words, localitylocality conditionsconditions thatthat licenselicense sisterhood inin (8(811 bb)) areare mormoree localocall thathann (81(81 a).a). AnotherAnother benefitbenefit ofof (81(81 b)b) isis thatthat anyany AspectAspect

PhrasPhrasee thathatt mamayy interactinteract witwithh TensTensee andand EvidentialityEvidentiality iiss "closer""closer" ttoo ththee evidentialevidential morphemmorphemee (assuming(assuming AspAspPP iiss undeunderr TTPP universallyuniversally;; seseee CinquCinquee 19991999 andand AppendiAppendixx D).D).

In languageslanguages wherwheree thertheree iiss a complecomplexx interactioninteraction ofof tensetense,, evidential,evidential, andand aspectaspect morphology,morphology, ththee structurestructure inin (81(81b b)) isis mormoree accommodating.accommodating. AdditionallyAdditionally,, ththee optionoption ofof somethsomethin ingg similasim ilarr ttoo (81(81b b)) hahass beebeenn arguedargued forfor bbyy ChunChungg (2005(2005:: 162),162), whwhoo amendsamends

Cinque'sCinque's (1999)(1999) analysianalysiss ofof ththee KoreaKoreann evidentialevidential anandd proposeproposess a structurestructure inin whichwhich

TenseTense hahass scopescope overover EvidentialEvidential.. AdditionallyAdditionally,, somethinsomethingg similarsimilar ttoo (81(81b' b')) iiss assumeassumedd iinn

31 FormallyFormally iinn (8lb-c(Sib-c)) T anandd T]q araree iinn a minimaminimall domaidomainn (MinD)(MinD) andand araree equidistantequidistant iffiff MinDMinD isis definedefinedd asas ththee "set"set ofof categoriecategoriess immediatelimmediatelyy containecontainedd oorr immediatelimmediatelyy dominateddominated bbyy projectionprojectionss ofof ththee headhead"" wherewhere thethe heaheadd herheree iiss T anandd ththee targetargett ooff movemenmovementt isis spec,TPspec,TP.. ThisThis equidistanceequidistance oror closenesclosenesss ofof tenstenSee andand evidentialevidential headheadss iiss specificallyspecifically constraineconstrainedd bbyy ththee movementmovement oftheof the subjecsubjectt ttoo spec,Tspec,TPP frofromm whicwhichh thethe subjectsubject agreementagreement featurefeaturess araree morphologicallmorphologicallyy markemarkedd oonn ththee tenstensee heaheadd thathatt iiss occupieoccupiedd bbyy ththee verbverb.. IInn thithiss wayway,, ththee localitlocalityy oofT-Ef T-E iiss constraineconstrainedd bbyy subjecsubjectt agreemenagreementt markinmarkingg (an(andd case)case).. (81a(Sla)) doesdoes nonott havehave thithiss kinkindd ooff localitlocalityy forfor T-ET -E.. AlsoAlso,, (SI(81b-c b-c)) requirrequiree aann operationoperation OOPP thathatt iiss 'smaller'smaller'' thathann aann operatiooperationn OP'OP' inin (SI(81a a)) ififff smaller iiss definedefinedd aass InternaInternall Merge/MovMerge/Movee witwithh ththee shortesshortestt patpathh (crossin(crossingg leastleast numbenumberr ofof nodesnodes and/orand/or categories)categories);; CollinCollinss (1997:(1997: 2323,, 77)77),, HornsteinHornstein,, NunesNunes,, andand GrohmanGrohmannn (2005:(2005: 149).149). 8484

Ince'Ince'ss (2006)(2006) analysisanalysis ooff TurkishTurkish sluicingsluicing,, wherewhere hhee allowallowss anan Evido/ToEvid°/T° thathatt projectprojectss thethe

EvdP/TPEvdP/TP.. ThiThiss isis easileasilyy derivederivedd frofromm (81b')(81 b'),, renumbererenumberedd (82a),(82a), leadinleadingg ttoo ththee fusedfused tense-evidentialtense-evidential iinn (82d);(82d); a iiss iinn spec,TPspec,TP anandd 11Pr|P iiss ththee complemencomplementt oofTPf TP iinn a Spec-Spec-

Comp-HeaComp-Headd order.order.

(82(82)) a.a. TTPP bb.. TTPP cc.. TPTP ~ ~ ~ a ~ a ~v^N. aa ~ nP T ——»•> (l1(nP(r|PP) T| —• (r|P(l1 P) #l1#r|TT# 11 A .... T .... #TI#11## #T##T# #l1#nTT#

d.d. TP/r|TPIrIPP e.e. TuyucaTuyuca PRES.VISPRES. VIS.. 1/I /22 TPIrIPTP/TIP /~\ andand PRES.VIS.3MSPRES.VIS.3MSGG ~/\ .... a #TITT # ....™* a #nT0>T # #l1 # #l1 # LI (D ;f

TheThe derivationderivationss iinn (82(82)) explainexplain ththee TuyucTuyucaa morphologmorphologyy oftense-evidentialsof tense-evidentials iinn a straightforwardstraightforward wayway.. (82d)(82d) iiss ththee final,final, derivedderived,, formform ooff mosmostt tense-evidentialstense-evidentials,, anandd (82e)(82e) representrepresentss ththee specialspecial casecase wherwheree tensetense,, evidentialevidential., anandd agreemenagreementt morphologmorphologyy araree allall fused.fused.

ThThee questionquestion arisesarises whethewhetherr it iiss semanticallsemanticallyy feasiblfeasiblee forfor EvidentialEvidential ttoo bbee underunder

Tense.Tense. I havhavee nnoo adequatadequatee answeanswerr whywhy,, semantically,semantically, T shouldshould scopescope overover E (but(but seesee argumentsarguments iinn ChunChungg 2005)2005).. HoweverHowever,, itit seemseemss possiblpossiblee thathatt thertheree maymay iinn factfact bbee twtwoo E positionpositionss inin ththee functionalfunctional hierarchyhierarchy - ononee foforr ththee CCPP domaindomain anandd ononee foforr ththee TTPP domain.domain.

IInn thithiss case,case, a highehigherr speechspeech acactt EE\i hashas scopscopee overover TT\] (conformin(conformingg ttoo Cinque'Cinque'ss 19991999 hierarchy),hierarchy), whilwhilee T\Ti hahass scopscopee overover a lowerlower predicationapredicationall EE22 (conformin(conformingg ttoo mmyy hierarchyhierarchy

forfor fusefusedd tense-evidentials)tense-evidentials).. IInn thithiss wawayy EE\i = MoodMoodevidentia\evidentiai oorr ModalModalepistemicepistemic anandd EE22 = TJTjPP 8855

(Et(Etaa Phrase)Phrase).. ThThee conjectureconjecture isis thathatt 11r\ workworkss iinn tandetandemm witwithh T ttoo deicticalldeicticallyy refereferr ttoo thethe generalgeneral "context""context" ooff ththee sourcesource ofof evidencevidencee foforr ththee propositiopropositionn inin thethe followinfollowingg wayway.. T deicticallydeictically refersrefers ttoo time, i.e.i.e.,, ththee eveneventt timetime,, speechspeech timetime,, anandd referencreferencee timetime,, r11j deicticallydeictically referreferss ttoo ththee situation, i.e.i.e.,, ththee evaluativevaluativee situation,situation, discoursdiscoursee situationsituation,, anandd referencreferencee situatiosituationn (see(see CinquCinquee 19991999 andand ReichenbacReichenbachh 19471947 foforr notionnotionss ofof time; seseee

SpeasSpeas 20042004,, 20072007 foforr time anandd situation, aass welwelll asas accessibility anandd inclusion conditionsconditions betweebetweenn ththee two)two).. WitWithh ththee notionnotionss ooff time anandd situation couplecoupledd witwithh ththee hypothesihypothesiss ofof T

> E2E2,• thenthen thethe semanticsemantic questionquestion isis whethewhetherr oror nonott UniversaUniversall Grammar-orGrammar—or a generalgeneral propertpropertyy ofof cognitiocognitionn anandd ththee mind—specifiemind-specifiess a relatiorelationn betweebetweenn situationsituationss anandd timestimes.. IInn otherother words,words, araree timetimess composecomposedd ooff situations,situations, oorr vice versa.versa.

I amam cautiouscautious aboutabout assigningassigning a grammaticalgrammatical categorycategory toto EE22 forfor manymany reasons.reasons.

MostMost ofof all,all, thertheree isis notnot mucmuchh consensusconsensus abouaboutt ththee categorycategory oofE,f E, eithereither aass MoodMood,, Modal,Modal,

Aspect,Aspect, oror EvidentialEvidential.. AnotheAnotherr possibilitpossibilityy woulwouldd bbee a ModifieModifierr PhrasPhrasee (Modifevidential)(ModifeVidentiai) iinn termsterms ooff RubinRubin (2002,(2002, specificallyspecifically ChapterChapter 3)3).. ThiThiss analysianalysiss woulwouldd havhavee ththee benefibenefitt ooff creatingcreating a ModifieModifierr shellshell arounaroundd ththee evidentiaevidentiall featuresfeatures,, whicwhichh cacann thethenn bbee definedefinedd bbyy locatinlocatingg itsits placemenplacementt inin thethe functionafunctionall hierarchhierarchyy ooff CinquCinquee (1999):(1999): iinn thethe speechspeech acactt

domaindomain,, i.e.i.e.,, aboveabove TPTP,, ththee ModifModifevidentialevidentiai woulwouldd bbee equivalenequivalentt ttoo MoodMoodevidential.evidentiai- InIn thethe

predicationapredicationall domain,domain, i.e.i.e.,, undeunderr TPTP,, ththee ModifModifevidentialeVidentiai woulwouldd bbee equivalenequivalentt ttoo somethingsomething liklikee AspevidentiaASPevidentiali oror EvidentiaEvidentiall Phrase.Phrase. WorWorkk inin thithiss directiodirectionn needneedss ttoo bbee verifieverifiedd withwith mormoree cross-linguisticross-linguisticc datdataa fromfrom languageslanguages witwithh fusedfused tense-evidentialtense-evidentialss oror fusefusedd aspect­aspect- evidentialsevidentials;; seseee BowleBowless (to(to appear)appear) forfor argumentargumentss similasimilarr ttoo ththee oneoness here.here. 8686

5.6.5.6. A notnotee oonn reanalysireanalysiss ofof aspectaspect

ThThee aspectuaaspectuall origioriginn ooff direcdirectt anandd indirectindirect evidentialevidentialss isis welwelll attestedattested (Csat(Csatoo 2000,2000, ddee HaaHaann 20012001,, JohansoJohansonn 20002000,, MalonMalonee 1988,1988, ShroederShroeder 2000)2000).. IInn languagelanguagess sucsuchh asas

Georgian,Georgian, EasternEastern ArmenianArmenian,, WananoWanano,, anandd SvanSvan evidentialevidential morphmorphss havhavee beebeenn analyzedanalyzed asas beinbeingg fusedfused witwithh a perfectperfect,, perfectiveperfective,, oror imperfectivimperfectivee aspectaspect (Boeder(Boeder 2000,2000,

KozintsevaKozintseva 20002000,, StenzelStenzel 20042004,, SumbatovaSumbatova 1999,1999, respectively).respectively).

BowleBowless (to(to appearappear)) useusess datadata fromfrom TuyucaTuyuca,, EstonianEstonian,, anandd GeorgiaGeorgiann ttoo arguarguee forfor ththee existencexistencee ofof E2.E2. 1I arguarguee thathatt althoughalthough reanalysireanalysiss frofromm ththee AspectuaAspectuall positiopositionn ttoo thethe

MoodevidentiaMoodevidentiali positiopositionn iinn Cinque'Cinque'ss (1999)(1999) functionalfunctional hierarchhierarchyy iiss possiblepossible,, ththee procesprocesss isis

leslesss syntacticallysyntactically costlcostlyy iiff thertheree isis anan EE22 (TI(l1PP oorr EtEtaa PhrasePhrase)) positiopositionn undeunderr TPTP ttoo whichwhich reanalysireanalysiss frofromm AspAspPP cancan go.go. AccordinAccordingg ttoo ththee sisterhoosisterhoodd conditioconditionn ooff morphosyntacticmorphosyntactic fusiofusionn onlonlyy categoriescategories inin a sistersister relatiorelationn cancan fuse,fuse, andand iiff ththee orderorder iiss [EI[Ei > ...... > [T[T > [E[E22 >

[A[A ]]]]]],, thethenn EE22 anandd A headheadss araree sisterssisters andand cancan fuse.fuse. AdditionaAdditionall supportsupport forfor thithiss cancan bebe founfoundd iinn Chung'sChung's (2005)(2005) T>T > E orderingordering iinn KoreanKorean,, andand Ince'sInce's (2006(2006)) assumptionsassumptions abouaboutt a

TurkisTurkishh fusedfused tense-evidentiatense-evidentiall headhead,, Evid°/T°Evido/To.. TheThe additionaddition ofEof E22,, whilwhilee needinneedingg moremore cross-linguisticcross-linguistic support,support, appearappearss ttoo satisfYsatisfy numerounumerouss issues.issues. NamelyNamely,, it iiss ththee leastleast damagingdamaging ttoo ththee ververyy well-supportewell-supportedd CinquCinquee hierarchhierarchyy (Appendi(Appendixx D)D),, whilwhilee explainingexplaining

TuyucaTuyuca datadata iinn ththee leasleastt costlcostlyy wayway.. IItt alsalsoo hahass ththee potentiapotentiall toto explainexplain mormoree datdataa thanthan

CinqueCinque (1999(\999)) inin termtermss ooff ththee well-supportewell-supportedd interactiointeractionn betweebetweenn moodmood,, modality,modality, evidentiality,evidentiality, tensetense,, andand aspectuality.aspectuality. 8787

5.7.Conclusio5.7.Conclusionn

ThThee argumentargument forfor a seconsecondd evidentialevidential positiopositionn iinn a hypothesizehypothesizedd universaluniversal

functionafunctionall hierarchhierarchyy wilwilll neeneedd ttoo bbee supportesupportedd cross-linguistically.cross-linguistically. TimTimee wilwilll teltelll iiff thethe

argumenargumentt iiss valivalidd oror notnot.. BuButt I believbelievee thathatt ononee ooff ththee twtwoo modelmodelss I presentedpresented wilwilll turtumn outout

toto bbee correctcorrect - eithereither (77(77)) anandd (80a(80a)) oror (78)(78) andand (80b(80b)-(81) )-(81).. WhaWhatt iiss importanimportantt herheree isis

recognizinrecognizingg ththee significansignificantt theoreticatheoreticall possibilitiepossibilitiess onconcee agreemenagreementt andand evidentialevidential

morphologmorphologyy araree separated.separated. IItt goegoess fafarr beyonbeyondd a notationanotationall innovationinnovation,, implicatingimplicating corecore

mechanismmechanismss ooff ththee syntaxsyntax ooff TuyucaTuyuca clausclausee structure-ifstructure—if oneone assumesassumes thathatt derivationalderivational andand inflectionainflectionall orderorder reflecreflectt syntacticsyntactic embeddingembedding (se(seee §2.2).§2.2). MyMy analysisanalysis makemakess possiblepossible questionsquestions concerninconcerningg ththee validitvalidityy ofof modelmodelss ooff derivationderivation foundfound inin (77),(77), anandd (79)-(81).(79)-(81).

IInn thithiss chaptechapterr I havhavee givegivenn initialinitial evidencevidencee thathatt TuyucaTuyuca iiss a pro-dropro-dropp language,language, whicwhichh entailsentails thatthat iitt isis configurational.configurational. ThiThiss meansmeans,, specifically,specifically, thatthat TuyucTuyucaa syntaxsyntax isis moremore similarsimilar ttoo Spanish,Spanish, PortuguesePortuguese,, andand GreekGreek thathann iitt isis ttoo MohawkMohawk,, NahuatlNahuatl,, oror

Walpiri.Walpiri. ThisThis conclusioconclusionn implicateimplicatess otherother EasterEasternn TukanoanTukanoan languages.languages. ItIt alsoalso breathesbreathes

liflifee intointo aann intriguingintriguing andand complicatedcomplicated questionquestion aboutabout languaglanguagee contactcontact:: IIss TuyucaTuyuca similarsimilar toto SpanishSpanish andand PortuguesPortuguesee becausbecausee mosmostt speakersspeakers ofof TuyucaTuyuca araree alsoalso speakersspeakers ofof SpanishSpanish anandd Portuguese,Portuguese, oror areare ththee similaritiessimilarities chance?chance?

WhaWhatt TI havhavee dondonee generallgenerallyy iinn thithiss chaptechapterr iiss ttoo presenpresentt anan initiainitiall theoreticaltheoretical analysianalysiss (belongin(belongingg toto ththee MinimalisMinimalistt ProgramProgram)) ofof a languagelanguage thathatt hahass nonott previouslypreviously beebeenn subjectesubjectedd ttoo sucsuchh linguistilinguisticc machinerymachinery.. ThThee resulresultt isis,, iinn somesome sense,sense, surprisingsurprising becausbecausee oofthef the "conservative""conservative" naturnaturee ooff TuyucaTuyuca syntasyntaxx (surprising(surprising onlyonly ifif oneone expectsexpects thatthat

AmazoniaAmazoniann languagelanguagess shouldshould havhavee syntaxsyntax signiticantlysignificantly differentdifferent thathann Indo-EuropeanIndo-European syntax).syntax). WorWordd ordeorderr constraintconstraintss strictlstrictlyy limitlimit ththee interpretationinterpretation ofof definite/indefinitedefinite/indefinite NPsNPs 88 aass subjectsubject oror object;; whewhenn nnoo overovertt NNPP subjectsubject appearsappears thethenn subjectsubject agreemenagreementt markersmarkers suffixesuffixedd ttoo ththee evidentialevidential oorr ververbb stemstem allowallow ththee subjectsubject ttoo bbee recoveredrecovered.. ObjectObjectss mustmust alwayalwayss bbee specifiedspecified bbyy aann overtovert NP,, andand definitdefinitee objectsobjects araree markemarkedd bbyy overovertt accusativeaccusative casecase.. WhaWhatt iiss mosmostt interesting,, typologically,, abouaboutt ththee TuyucaTuyuca languaglanguagee isis ititss evidentialevidential systemsystem.. ItIt iiss a complicatecomplicatedd anandd highlhighlyy integrateintegratedd inflectionainflectionall systesystemm thathatt iiss basebasedd onon recoverinrecoveringg ththee sourcesource (deictically(deictically)) oofaf a speaker'speaker'ss propositionproposition.. ItIt interactsinteracts witwithh tenstensee andand agreementagreement iinn interestininterestingg anandd enlighteninenlighteningg ways. 6.6. THETHE ENENDD RESULTRESULT

TheThe EasternEastern TukanoaTukanoann languageslanguages,, toto whichwhich TuyucaTuyuca belongsbelongs,, havhavee beenbeen documenteddocumented andand analyzedanalyzed jusjustt enoughenough toto not warranwarrantt immediateimmediate needneed ofof fundingfunding forfor moremore documentation.32'JO There are materials on many of the languages that date from the 1970s documentation. " There are materials on many of the languages that date from the 1970s to the present, and a handful of dedicated linguists and students continue to work on to the present, and a handful of dedicated linguists and students continue to work on documenting them (e.g., Thiago Chacon, Patience Epps, Elsa Gomez-Imbert, Henri documenting them (e.g., Thiago Chacon, Patience Epps, Elsa Gomez-Imbert, Henri Ramirez, Wilson Silva, and Kristine Stenzel, and many people at SIL). Collectively, the Ramirez, Wilson Silva, and Kristine Stenzel, and many people at SIL). Collectively, the Tukanoan family (and the Vaupes river region which they inhabit) has one of the most Tukanoan family (and the Vaupes river region which they inhabit) has one of the most complicated and interesting systems of evidentiality found in the world. There is complicated and interesting systems of evidentiality found in the world. There is definitely an imbalance between interest in Tukanoan inflectional systems (and definitely an imbalance between interest in Tukanoan inflectional systems (and phonology) and interest in their documentation and preservation. Only a handful of phonology) and interest in their documentation and preservation. Only a handful of formal analyses (in generative syntax and optimality theory) of the languages can be formal analyses (in generative syntax and optimality theory) of the languages can be found covering only three topics: evidentiality in Tuyuca and Desano---see Bowles (to found covering only three topics: evidentiality in Tuyuca and Desano—see Bowles (to appear), Faller (200 I), and Kaye (1970); nasal harmony in Desano and Tuyuca-see appear), Faller (2001), and Kaye (1970); nasal harmony in Desano and Tuyuca—see Kaye (1970, 1971), Silva (2008), Walker (2000,2003); and pitch-accent/tone in Kaye (1970, 1971), Silva (2008), Walker (2000, 2003); and pitch-accent/tone in Barasano and Tuyuca-see Gomez-Imbert and Kenstowicz (2000), Smith (1998), and Barasano and Tuyuca—see Gomez-Imbert and Kenstowicz (2000), Smith (1998), and also de Lacy (2002). The theoretical interest generated by Tukanoan languages, judging also de Lacy (2002). The theoretical interest generated by Tukanoan languages, judging by the frequency with which primary documentary materials and theoretical articles are by the frequency with which primary documentary materials and theoretical articles are

3312 ThiThiss isis basebasedd onon reviewsreviews ofaof a grantgrant proposalproposal forfor documentingdocumenting threethree TukanoanTukanoan languageslanguages (Desano,(Desano, Cubeo,Cubeo, anandd Tuyuca)Tuyuca) writtenwritten toto ththee NationalNational ScienceScience Foundation'Foundation'ss DocumentingDocumenting EndangeredEndangered LanguageLanguagess PrograProgramm inin 20072007.. 9090 cited,cited, appearappearss ttoo farfar outweigoutweighh currencurrentt interestinterest inin documentingdocumenting andand revitalizinrevitalizingg TukanoanTukanoan languagelanguagess (se(seee sectionssections 1.21.2 andand 2.42.4 forfor mormoree informationinformation oonn literature)literature).. I hophopee theoreticaltheoretical interestsinterests cancan lealeadd ttoo moremore activitactivityy iinn documentationdocumentation,, revitalizationrevitalization,, andand a generalgeneral humanitariahumanitariann awarenessawareness ofof preservatiopreservationn forfor ththee languageslanguages anandd region.region.

IT havehave providedprovided anan analysisanalysis ofof agreementagreement inin TuyucaTuyuca basedbased onon oneone simplesimple prempremise ise,, whicwhichh wawass derivederivedd fromfrom a basibasicc observationobservation ofof ththee datadata andand stimulatedstimulated bbyy aann observationobservation inin BarneBarness (1984(1984)) andand a papepaperr bbyy MalonMalonee (1988)(\988).. ThereThere iiss a systematisystematicc anandd predictablepredictable patterpatternn correlatingcorrelating finafinall vowelvowelss andand agreementagreement featuresfeatures.. GenerallyGenerally,, thisthis patterpatternn iiss -i-/' = masculinemasculine,, -o-0 = femininefeminine,, andand -a = pluralplural.. ThesThesee finafinall vowelvowelss areare realizedrealized oonn manmanyy nouns,nouns, mosmostt pronounspronouns,, andand variouvariouss typetypess ofof subjectsubject agreemenagreementt onon ththee verb-stemverb-stem,, gerunds,gerunds, nominalizersnominalizers,, animateanimate classifiers,classifiers, anandd evidentialevidentialss (Chapter(Chapter 3)3).. TheThe basibasicc ideideaa wawass toto attemptattempt aann analysianalysiss ooff TuyucTuyucaa morphologmorphologyy witwithh thethe guidingguiding assumptioassumptionn thathatt finafinall vowelsvowels areare morphologicallmorphologicallyy isolablisolablee agreemenagreementt markersmarkers (Chapte(Chapterr 4)4).. TheThe hypothesihypothesiss wawass thatthat throughthrough separatingseparating agreemenagreementt frofromm ththee restrest ofof ththee morphologmorphologyy a consistenconsistentt andand reasonablreasonablee analysianalysiss ooff ththee segmentablesegmentable piecepiecess woulwouldd resultresult.. I showedshowed inin ChapteChapterr 4 thatthat thithiss wawass possiblepossible,, anandd thathatt iinn factfact,, anan interestinginteresting patterpatternn emergeemergedd foforr a singlesingle morphememorpheme

/-g-//-g-/;; andand bbyy implicationimplication itsits phonetic/phonologiphonetic/phonologicc variantsvariants.. ItIt hahass systematicsystematic andand predictablpredictablee interpretationinterpretationss asas perfectivperfectivee andand progressivprogressivee aspect,aspect, nominalizer/gerundnominalizer/gerund,, andand animateanimate classifier-basedclassifier—based oonn ititss relativrelativee morphologicamorphologicall positiopositionn andand itsits coordinatiocoordinationn withwith otherother syntacticsyntactic materialmaterial,, specificallyspecifically ththee auxiliarieauxiliariess 'do/make'do/make'' anandd 'be'be'' (Tabl(Tablee 1313 andand examplesexamples (35)-(36),(35)-(36), (45),(45), anandd (49)-(50».(49)-(50)). AdditionaAdditionall supporsupportt thathatt ththee morphemmorphemee l-g-l/-g-/ iiss a progressivprogressivee andand perfectivperfectivee aspect,aspect, comescomes fromfrom Malone'Malone'ss (1988(1988)) conclusioconclusionn thathatt TuyucaTuyuca evidentialsevidentials historicallhistoricallyy comecome frofromm anan ololdd perfectivperfectivee anandd progressivprogressivee aspecaspectt (§5.1.3).(§5.1.3). 9191

InterestinglyInterestingly,, ththee presenpresentt tensetense non-visuanon-visuall categorcategoryy inin thethe evidentiaevidentiall paradigparadigmm lookslooks exactlexactlyy liklikee ththee combinecombinedd aspectualaspectual + agreementagreement formsforms I argueargue foforr inin ChapterChapter 4;4; comparecompare presenpresentt tenstensee non-visuanon-visuall formformss iinn TablTablee 8 ttoo ththee environmentenvironmentss forfor presentpresent perfecperfectt andand progressivprogressivee aspecaspectt iinn TablTablee 1313 anandd presenpresentt tenstensee morphememorphemess inin TablesTables 66,, 7,7, 9,9, 10,10, anandd 11II;; seesee especiallespeciallyy discussiodiscussionn iinn §4.2§4.2,, bubutt alsalsoo §5.1.3.§5.1.3.

I havehave alsoalso providedprovided whatwhat I believbelievee toto bebe significantsignificant avenuesavenues ofof theoreticaltheoretical investigatioinvestigationn iinn ChapteChapterr 5.5. WhetheWhetherr mmyy particulaparticularr theoreticatheoreticall proposalproposalss turturnn ououtt ttoo bebe correctcorrect,, I believbelievee I havhavee contributecontributedd somsomee importanimportantt questionquestionss thathatt neeneedd ttoo bbee askeaskedd (and(and hopefullhopefullyy answeredanswered)) abouaboutt ththee naturnaturee ooff fusefusedd tense-evidentiatense-evidentiall morphologymorphology.. Namely,Namely, whawhatt araree (or(or werewere)) ththee syntacticsyntactic constraintconstraintss thathatt licenselicensedd theitheirr fusiofusionn inin ththee firsfirstt placeplace

(§5.2.1(§5.2.1 anandd §5.5),§5.5), anandd whawhatt araree ththee mosmostt eleganelegantt modelmodelss thathatt cacann bbee proposeproposedd ttoo explainexplain theirtheir statustatuss andand behaviobehaviorr (§5.5.1(§5.5.1 anandd §5.5.2).§5.5.2). AlsoAlso,, I havhavee givengiven ththee basicbasic foundatiofoundationn forfor moremore workwork iinn ththee typologtypologyy ofof fusefusedd tense-evidentialstense-evidentials;; therethere araree somsomee datdataa thathatt suggestsuggest thertheree mamayy bbee a distinctdistinct setset ooff typologicatypologicall featurefeaturess thatthat setsetss tense-evidentiatense-evidentiall languages,languages, oror potentiapotentiall tense-evidentiatense-evidentiall languageslanguages,, aparapartt frofromm otheotherr languageslanguages withwith evidentialevidential morphologmorphologyy thatthat isis nonott oorr cannocannott bbee fusefusedd witwithh tenstensee (§5.1.3)(§5.1.3).. In anotheranother area,area, thethe evidenceevidence foforr TuyucTuyucaa beinbeingg a nominativnominativee cascasee pro-drop languaglanguagee iiss strongstrong (§5.3(§5.3 andand

§5.4).§5.4). NNoo otheotherr linguistilinguisticc worworkk hahass givengiven supporsupportt forfor,, oorr madmadee a proposaproposall forfor,, a TukanoanTukanoan languagelanguage beinbeingg pro-drop. ThiThiss isis anan importantimportant advancemenadvancementt iinn generativgenerativee typologytypology.. ItIt meanmeanss thathatt TuyucTuyucaa hahass a syntaxsyntax mormoree liklikee SpanishSpanish (and(and otherother Indo-EuropeanIndo-European languages)languages) oror TurkisTurkishh thathann WalpiriWalpiri,, Georgian,Georgian, oorr Niger-CongNiger-Congoo languages.languages. IItt alsalsoo meanmeanss thatthat,, givengiven ththee similaritysimilarity ooff ththee EasterEasternn TukanoaTukanoann branchbranch,, languagelanguagess sucsuchh aass WananoWanano,, Tucano,Tucano,

RetuaraRetuara,, anandd DesanDesanoo mamayy bbee ofof ththee samesame typtypee aass Tuyuca.Tuyuca. AdditionallyAdditionally,, ththee facfactt thatthat 9292

TuyucaTuyuca nonoww hahass atat leastleast a basibasicc analysisanalysis ooff ititss pro-dropro-dropp mechanismmechanismss meansmeans thatthat analysesanalyses ooff otheotherr TukanoaTukanoann languageslanguages havhavee a startingstarting place—iplace-inn eithereither arguingarguing againstagainst oror supportinsupportingg mmyy initialinitial claims.claims.

ThThee mosmostt practicapracticall contributioncontribution thithiss thesithesiss makemakess ttoo ththee studstudyy ooff EasternEastern

TukanoanTukanoan languagelanguagess isis oneone ooff consistencyconsistency.. I havhavee gatheredgathered ththee numerounumerouss - sometimessometimes disparatdisparatee - descriptions,descriptions, glosses,glosses, analysesanalyses,, andand insightsinsights thathatt JaneJanett BarneBarness hahass madmadee aboutabout

TuyucTuyucaa intintoo a mormoree cohesivcohesivee formatformat.. IInn a smalsmalll wayway,, thithiss thesithesiss representrepresentss a uniquuniquee kindkind ooff documentation-notdocumentation—not oneone ofof primarprimaryy linguisticlinguistic datadata drawdrawnn frofromm nativenative speakerspeaker sources,sources, bubutt oneone thatthat attemptattemptss toto makmakee a consistenconsistentt characterizatiocharacterizationn ooff a languaglanguagee fromfrom publishedpublished sourcesourcess thathatt araree botbothh difficuldifficultt ttoo acquiracquiree anandd difficuldifficultt ttoo readread.. ThThee worworkk ofof BarneBarness (and(and

KarnKarn)) reflectsreflects anan increasincreasee inin knowledgknowledgee ofTuyucaof Tuyuca grammagrammarr oveoverr a perioperiodd ooff moremore thanthan thirtythirty years.years. DifferentDifferent publicationpublicationss employemploy differendifferentt morpheme-by-morphemmorpheme-by-morphemee glossesglosses

(som(somee witwithh nnoo morphemmorphemee gloss),gloss), takintakingg forfor grantegrantedd inin manymany casecasess previoupreviouss knowledgknowledgee ofof

TuyucTuyucaa grammar—igrammar-inn particulaparticularr thethe knowledgknowledgee thatthat agreementagreement iiss codecodedd bbyy a veryvery systematicsystematic finalfinal vowevowell patterpatternn onon botbothh nominalnominal andand verbaverball categoriescategories,, bubutt alsoalso thatthat evidentialevidentialss areare fusefusedd witwithh tensetense.. TheThe practicapracticall benefibenefitt gainedgained fromfrom thithiss thesithesiss isis a moremore integratedintegrated,, condensedcondensed,, andand accessiblaccessiblee versioversionn ofof a basibasicc sketchsketch ooff howhow TuyucaTuyuca grammargrammar workworkss withouwithoutt thethe hourhourss oflaborof labor requirerequiredd toto finfindd anandd gegett copiecopiess ooff somesome ofof ththee basicbasic publicationpublicationss onon Tuyuca.Tuyuca. ThThee importancimportancee thathatt TuyucaTuyuca datdataa havhavee forfor theoreticatheoreticall andand typologicatypologicall discussiodiscussionn ofof evidentialevidentialss iiss farfar totooo valuablevaluable.. MostMost referencereferencess thathatt ususee datadata fromfrom TuyucaTuyuca onlonlyy citecite Barnes'Barnes' (1984)(1984) seminaseminall paperpaper;; bubutt ththee datdataa iinn thathatt papepaperr araree notnot eveneven accompaniedaccompanied witwithh basibasicc morpheme-by-morphemmorpheme-by-morphemee glossesglosses!! (Se(Seee (18)-(21(18)-(21)) forfor examplesexamples ofof whawhatt ththee publishepublishedd datdataa looklook like)like).. FurthermoreFurthermore,, thethe referencereferencess citedcited herehere 9933 werewere painstakinglypainstakingly gatheregatheredd foforr thethe benefibenefitt ooff thosethose linguistlinguistss whwhoo wanwantt toto knowknow moremore

abouaboutt thethe languaglanguagee thathann ththee ververyy fefeww articlearticless publishepublishedd iinn thethe International Journal ofof

American Linguistics andand ththee fewfew chapterchapterss publishepublishedd iinn editeeditedd volumes.volumes.

Lastly,Lastly, anandd finally,finally, thithiss thesithesiss mamayy alsalsoo contributcontributee ttoo futurefuture fieldfield workwork.. I hophopee thatthat

anyoneanyone whwhoo readreadss iitt willwill finfindd TuyucaTuyuca a stimulatingstimulating anandd interestinginteresting languagelanguage witwithh mucmuchh toto

offeofferr ththee linguisticlinguistic communitycommunity.. HopefullyHopefully,, ththee questionsquestions I havhavee askedasked anandd ththee conclusionsconclusions

I havehave mademade cancan helphelp anyany futurefuture fieldfield workerworker decidedecide whatwhat areare thethe importantimportant grammaticalgrammatical

questionquestionss ttoo asaskk - whawhatt partpartss ofof ththee grammargrammar needneed ttoo bbee mosmostt understoounderstoodd anandd whawhatt partsparts

cacann contributcontributee ttoo ourour generagenerall knowledgknowledgee ooff ththee humahumann capacitycapacity ttoo learlearnn anandd useuse

languageslanguages?? TherTheree iiss mucmuchh abouaboutt TuyucTuyucaa grammagrammarr thathatt 1I havehave notnot eveneven mentioned,mentioned, II

highlyhighly recommenrecommendd ththee originaoriginall sourcesourcess (see(see referencereferencess foforr BarnesBarnes anandd KarnKarn;; butbut seesee alsoalso

FabrFabree 2005)2005).. I cacann onlonlyy hophopee thathatt mormoree interesinterestt iinn ththee theoreticatheoreticall andand typologicaltypological

importanceimportance ofof thesthesee languageslanguages cancan increasincreasee focusfocus onon thithiss regionregion ofof ththee worlworldd andand igniteignite

interesinterestt iinn ththee preservatiopreservationn ooff ththee languageslanguages,, wawayy ofof life,life, cultureculture,, anandd naturanaturall environmentenvironment

ooff ththee people.people. APPENDIXAPPENDIX A

TUKANOANTUKANOAN FAMILYFAMILY CLASSIFICATIONCLASSIFICATION 9955

TherTheree iiss nnoo definitivdefinitivee classificatioclassificationn ofof ththee TukanoanTukanoan familyfamily asas yetyet.. ClassificationsClassifications cacann bbee founfoundd iinn BarnesBarnes (1999),(1999), CampbellCampbell (1997),(1997), Gomez-ImberGomez-Imbertt andand KenstowiczKenstowicz (2000),(2000),

RamirezRamirez (1997),(1997), SorensonSorenson (1967,(1967, 1973),1973), StenzelStenzel (2004)(2004),, andand WaltWaltzz andand WheeleWheelerr (1972).(1972).

A modifiedmodified versioversionn ofof BarnesBarnes (1999)(1999),, CampbellCampbell (1997)(1997),, andand StenzelStenzel (2004(2004)) isis representedrepresented here.here. SeeSee alsalsoo StenzelStenzel (2006(2006)) foforr sociolinguisticsociolinguistic datdataa oonn TukanoanTukanoan languages.languages.

• WESTERNWESTERN BRANCHBRANCH COUNTRYCOUNTRY • a)a) WesterWesternn NorthNorth ii)) KoreguajKoreguajee ColombiaColombia,, EcuadorEcuador iiii)) SecoySecoyaa Colombia,Colombia, EcuadorEcuador iiiiii)) SionSionaa Colombia,Colombia, EcuadorEcuador bb)) WesternWestern SouthSouth ii)) Orej6nOrejon PeruPeru

• CENTRALCENTRAL BRANCHBRANCH ii)) CubeoCubeo Brazil,Brazil, ColombiaColombia ii)ii) Retuara/TanimucaRetuara/Tanimuca Brazil,Brazil, ColombiaColombia

• EASTERNEASTERN BRANCHBRANCH • a)a) EasternEastern NorthNorth ii)) PiratapuyaPiratapuya Brazil,Brazi ColombiaColombia iiii)) TucanoTucano Brazil,Brazi ColombiaColombia iii)iii) WananoWanano BrazBraziLi ColombiaColombia b)b) EasterEasternn CentralCentral ii)) Bani/WaimajaBara/Waimaja Brazil,Brazi ColombiaColombia iiii)) CarapanaCarapana Brazil,Brazi ColombiColombiaa iiiiii)) DesanoDesano BrazBrazil,i ColombiaColombia iviv)) SirianoSiriano Brazil,Brazi ColombiaColombia vv)) TatuyoTatuyo BrazBrazil,i ColombiaColombia vivi)) TuyucaTuyuca Brazil,Brazi ColombiaColombia viivii)) YurutiYuruti BrazBraziLi ColombiaColombia viiiviii)) PisamiraPisamira BrazBrazil,i ColombiaColombia ix)ix) Taiwano/EduuriaTaiwano/Eduuria Brazil,Brazi ColombiaColombia cc)) EasternEastern SouthSouth i)i) Barasano/TaiwanoBarasano/Taiwano Brazil,Brazi ColombiColombiaa ii)ii) MacunaMacuna BrazBrazil,i ColombiColombiaa APPENDIAPPENDIXBX B

TUKANOANTUKANOAN LEXICALLEXICAL COGNATESCOGNATES 9797

PORTUGUESEPORTUGUESE CUBEClJBEOO DESANDESA~OO TUCANTUCANOO WANANOWANANO TUYUCTllYUCAA SPANISHSPANISH ENGLISHENGLISH CabelosCabelos poBpoBaa puarpuarii poalpmilii poalpoalii popoaa pelopeloss hairhair PaPaii (hi)pakt(hi)paki pagpagt+ pakpakti paki(ropaki(ro)) pa'kpa'kti padrpadree fatherfather MaMaee (hi)pak(hi)pakoo pagpagad pakpakad pdko(ropako(ro)) pa'kpa'koo madremadre mothemotherr FilhFilhoo (hi)mak(hi)makti manmalJ"* MakMakt+ maki(nomakt(no)) (wT)mak1(wT)mak+ ninninoo boboyy FilhFilhaa (hi)mak(hi)makoo manmalJoo MakMakoo makd(nomaka(no)) (wT)mako(wT)makd ninninaa girgirll VelhVelhoo b+ki(k+btkt(kt)) b+gbtgti BukBukti buki(robukt(ro)) B++kBttkt+ viejviejoo ololdd MulheMulherr norrilnomioo nomenomeoo numinumiad NuminNuminoo numlnamioo mujemUJerr womawomann AguaAgua okokad ddhekoheko akakad kkad o'koo'ko aguaagua watewaterr PeixePeixe mya wawaii wa-wa-ii wa-wa-ii wa'wa'ii pescadpescadoo fisfishh MandiocMandiocaa kuikkuikaa kkil kkii kkee ? maniomamocc RemRemoo hialoyhialoyee wehabwehabtt wahapwahapii wahayorwahayoroo remoremo paddlpaddlee PretoPreto jiirrilnJ1iminoo pinJ1iri nyinsnyinsee ni-irirni-iriroo JilJ1Ttl negronegro blackblack CachorrCachorroo deyimdeyimii diaddiadti dia-idia-i di-yerdi-yeroo DiajDiajii perrperroo dodogg

BarnesBarnes (1984,(1984, 1990,1990, 1994,1994, 1996,1996,)) BarneBarness anandd MalonMalonee (2000)(2000),, BowleBowless (2007a),(2007a), GiaconeGiacone (1965)(1965),, MilleMillerr (1999),(1999), MorsMorsee anandd MaxwelMaxwelll (1999)(1999),, StenzelStenzel (2004).(2004).

o ItemsItems inin parenthesiparenthesiss maymay bebe classifiers.classifiers.

• WWANAN ANANOO andand TUCANOTUCANO datadata fromfrom GiaconeGiacone (1965)(1965) - hishis listlist waswas notnot writtenwritten inin IPA,IPA, II havhavee replacereplacedd instanceinstancess ooff "kk""kk" witwithh 1kI,/k/, "e""e" withwith It/,/+/ , andand "u""u" with with Iwl/w/ wherewhere theythey occurredoccurred.. SeSeee alsalsoo StenzelStenzel (2004(2004)) foforr WANANW ANANOO comparison.comparison.

• CUBEOCUBEO andand DESANODESANO materialmaterial waswas collectedcollected byby meme (Bowles(Bowles 2007a)2007a) andand WilsonWilson SilvaSilva iinn summersummer 20072007.. SeSeee alsalsoo MilleMillerr (1999(1999)) foforr DESANDESANOO andand MorsMorsee anandd MaxwelMaxwelll (1999)(1999) foforr CUBECUBEOO comparisons.comparisons.

• TUYUCATUYUCA datadata isis fromfrom BarnesBarnes andand MaloneMalone (2000);(2000); alsoalso BarnesBarnes (1984,(1984, 1990,1990, 1994,1994 , 1996).1996).

• SeeSee WaltzWaltz andand WheelerWheeler (1972)(1972) forfor (Proto-(Proto-)Tukanoa)Tukanoann cognatecognate sets.sets. APPENDIXCAPPENDIX C

POTENTIALPOTENTIAL NOUNOUNN CLASSIFIECLASSIFIERR COGNATESCOGNATES 9999

BarasanBarasanoo DesanDesanoo CarapanCarapanaa TuyucaTuyuca WananWananoo ShaperrypeShape/Type rope/thread/strinrope/thread/stringg bbfla ddaa 3a dada dada PatPathh bflba bbfla bllba bblla cylindricalcylindrical:: hothotii turtUrnu tudtudiiu didi straight/rolled-upstraight/rolled-up cylindrical:cylindrical: rahrahee tortoree (poro)(pdro) parparoo curved/hallowcurved/hallow RoundeRoundedd a/ga/kaa/ga/ka ru/diru/diuu gllga kkaa BunchBunch bitia/huri/tbitia/huriltoo tt6o kkii longlong,, flatflat hahaii bThbThiT papilll Ppii phpmi StackeStackedd TutTutii turturii tutituti tuttutii ththuu concave/potconcave/pot likelike ti/rti/rii soro,soro, nri to/roto/ro korkoroo Material/EssencMateriallEssencee river/streariver/streamm ya/sya/saa yyaa bbfla bblla TreTreee i/gi/ki/gi/kii gi/yukigi/yuki yukyukii ggii kkii BaskeBaskett bi/bbi/boo korkoroo pipiii Ppi« phpmi LeaLeaff hurhuroo ppiiu ppuu pRpniiu PalPalmm D06o wWQo

BarnesBarnes (1990)(1990),, BowleBowless (2007a)(2007a),, JonesJones anandd JoneJoness (1991)(1991) MetzgeMetzgerr (1998)(1998),, MilleMillerr (1999),(1999), SilvSilvaa andand BowleBowless (2007)(2007),, StenzelStenzel (2004(2004 APPENDIAPPENDIXDX D

CINQUECINQUE HIERARCHYHIERARCHY 101011

[[ M00dMoodSpspeeceechach act t >[ MoodMoodeeValuat.vvaluativee >[ MooMoodevidentiald evidential >>[[ Modep.stem.Modepistemicc >>[[ T(Past)>T(Past»[[ T(FutureT(Future)) >>[[

MoodjrrealiMoodirrealis s >>[[ ModModnecneCessitessi yty> >[ [ ModModpopoSsibilitssibiliyty > [ AsphabituaASPhabituall >>[ [ AspASPreprepetitive(Ietitive( )l) >> [[ ASPfrAspfrequentive(Iequentive(l))

>[Mod> [Modvolitionavolitional l >>[[ AspASPce|celeraterative(Iive()l ) >>[[ TT(Anterior)(Anterior) >> [[ AspterminativASPtenni nativee >>[[ AspASpconcotinuativntinuativee >>[[ Aspperfect(?ASPperfec t(?))

>[[ AspASPretrretrospectivospecti vee > [ AsppASPproroximativximati vee > [ AspdASPdurativurative ^>[ [ AspgASPengeeric/progressivneric/progressivee ^[Aspprospectiv> [ASPprospectivee > [

> AspsASPSgCompletivegCompletive((I)I) >[[ AsppiCompletivASPPICompletivee >>[[ VoicVoicee >>[[ AspASPce|ceerative(IIlerative(II)) >>[[ AspASPrepreetitive(IIpetitive(II)) >[[

> AspfrequentiveASPfrequentive((IIll)) >[ [ AspsgCompletive(IIASPSgCompleti ve( II)) > > VERBROOTROOT

(adapte(adaptedd frofromm CinquCinquee 1999:1999:106 106))

WherWheree Moodspespeecechh actt iiss farthesfarthestt frofromm ththee ververbb rooroott anandd AspsgCompieuveASPSgCompleti ve((iiII)) iiss closesclosestt ttoo thethe

ververbb root.root. APPENDIAPPENDIXEX E

DATDATAA SETSET 103103

TuyucTuyucaa datdataa herehere areare adapteadaptedd fromfrom BarnesBarnes (1994).(1994). NNoo entryentry foforr ththee seconsecondd glossgloss meansmeans thathatt ththee glossgloss wawass nonott substantiallsubstantiallyy differendifferentt frofromm ththee firsfirstt oror it dealsdeals witwithh datdataa I havehave notnot consideredconsidered.. ThThee followinfollowingg iiss onlonlyy a partiapartiall lislistt ooff allall datadata iinn BarnesBarnes (1994),(1994), whichwhich containcontainss (84(84)) examples.examples. I ususee datadata fromfrom thisthis worworkk becausbecausee itit iiss ththee publicatiopublicationn thatthat hahass ththee mosmostt detailedetailedd interlineainterlinearr glossesglosses.. TheThe numberinnumberingg herheree isis consistentconsistent witwithh thatthat foundfound inin ththee originaloriginal,, exceptexcept oorr coursecourse,, ththee secondsecond entry.entry.

ItIt shoulshouldd bbee notenotedd thathatt ththee firsfirstt entriesentries actuallyactually contaicontainn mormoree informationinformation iinn thethe interlineainterlinearr glosglosss thathann BarneBarness hahass provideprovidedd iinn heherr originaoriginall (1994(1994)) paperpaper.. ThiThiss additionaladditional informatioinformationn iiss entirelentirelyy consistentconsistent witwithh BarnesBarnes'' analysisanalysis iinn heherr (1994(1994)) papepaperr andand elsewhereelsewhere.. FoForr example,example, sheshe glosseglossess evidentialevidentialss onlonlyy aass EVEV,, bubutt ththee tabletabless sheshe providesprovides forfor evidentialsevidentials includincludee ththee typtypee oror evidential,evidential, tensetense,, anandd agreemenagreementt featurefeaturess cross-cross- referencereferencedd witwithh ththee morphememorpheme.. OnOnee hahass ttoo constantlconstantlyy refereferr bacbackk ttoo ththee tabletabless ttoo inin orderorder ttoo gegett ththee evidential,evidential, tensetense,, anandd agreemenagreementt information.information. I includincludee thisthis informationinformation;; seesee

§2.3§2.3 anandd §2.6§2.6 forfor moremore discussiondiscussion ofof Barnes'Barnes' data,data, thethe techniquestechniques useusedd here,here, anandd thethe motivatiomotivationn forfor creatincreatingg a consistenconsistentt anandd up-to-datup-to-datee datdataa sesett foforr TuyucaTuyuca.. SomeSome ooff thethe exampleexampless herheree cancan bbee foundfound iinn ththee text,text, bubutt mucmuchh ooff iitt cannot.cannot.

1.1. Ne~-bia-to-ha-yigt.Nee-bia-to-ha-yig+. grab-close-trap-EMPH-PST.EVD.sCD.3MSgrab-close-trap-EMPH-PST.Evo.sco.3MSGG 'H'Hee grabbegrabbedd (the(the fleaflea)) andand trappetrappedd itit (i(inn hihiss mouth)'mouth)'

1.1.1.1. Ne~-bia-to-ha-yig-t.Nee-bia-to-ha-yig-+. grab-close-trap-EMPH-PST.EVD.scD-3MSgrab-close-trap-EMPH-PsT.Evo.sco-3MSGG '(He'(He)) grabbegrabbedd (th(thee fleaflea)) anandd trappetrappedd iitt (in(in hihiss mouth)'mouth)'

2.2. Sai-bosa-dtga-ri-wi.SaT-bosa-d+ga-ri-wi. buy-BEN-DES-NEG-PST.EVD.VISbuy-BEN-DES-NEG-PST.EVD.VIS.3MSG.3MSG 'H'Hee diddid nonott wanwantt ttoo bubuyy it forfor another.'another.' 104104

2.12.1.. Sai-bosa-d.j.ga-ri-w-i.Saf-bosa-d+ga-ri-w-i. buy-BEN-DES-NEG-PST.EVD.VIS-3MSbuy-BEN-DES-NEG-PST.EVD.VIS-3MSGG '(He)'(He) diddid nonott wantwant toto buybuy itit forfor another.'another.'

33.. Dfayi-a-ye-make-re.Diayi-a-ye-make-re. dog-PL.AN-POSS.PL-thingS-SPEdog-PL.AN-POSS.PL-things-sPEcC 'The dogs' things (as object of the verb).' 'The dogs' things (as object of the verb).' 3.1. Dfayi-a-ye-make-re. 3.1. dog-pL.AN-GENDiayi-a-ye-make-re .PL-things-ACc.DEF. 'Thedog-PL.AN-GEN.PL-thingS-ACC.DE dogs' things (as object of theF verb).' 'The dogs' things (as object of the verb).'

44.. Pak.fPak+ yayaii sTa-yig+sia-yfgt.. fathefatherr jaguajaguarr kill-PST.EVD.SCD.3MSGkill-PST.EVD.sCD.3MSG 'Fathe'Fatherr killedkilled a jaguar.'jaguar.'

4.14.1.. PakPak.f+ yayaii sia-yfg-i.sTa-yig4. fathefatherr jaguajaguarr kill-PST.EVD.SCD-3MSGkill-PST.EVD.sCD-3MSG 'Father'Father killekilledd a jaguar.'jaguar.'

5.5. PakPak.f* yai-ryai-ree sTa-yig+sia-yfgt.. fatherfather jaguar-SPEjaguar-sPEcC kill-PST.EVID.SCD.3MSGkill-PST.EVTD.sCD.3MSG 'Fathe'Fatherr killekilledd ththee jaguajaguarr (tha(thatt hahadd beebeenn killinkillingg ththee chickens).'chickens).'

5.15.1.. PakPak.f+ yai-ryai-ree sia-yfg-i.sta-yig-+. fathefatherr jaguar-ACC.DEjaguar-ACc.DEFF kkill-PST.EVID.SCD-3MSGi 1 1-PST.EVID.SCD-3MSG 'Fathe'Fatherr killekilledd ththee jaguajaguarr (tha(thatt hahadd beebeenn killinkillingg ththee chickens).'chickens).'

6.6. Nda-rNoa-ree TrTa-rin~-riT m+Tmti?? who-SPEwhO-SPECC see-INT.PST.EVD.VIsee-INT.PST.EVD.VISS 2S2SGG 'Whom'Whom diddid yoyouu see?'see?'

6.16.1.. Nda-rNoa-ree TrTa-rina-riT m+tmti?? Who-ACC.DEWhO-ACC.DEFF see-INT.PST.EVD.VIsee-INT.PST.EVD.VISS 2S2SGG 'Who'Whomm dididd yoyouu see?'see?'

7.7. Ndd=pNoo=p.j.+ waa-hda-rwaa-hoa-rit pakt?pakt? where=LOwhere=LocC go-CMPL-lNT.PST.EVD.vigO-CMPL-INT.PST.EVD.VISS fatherfather 'Wher'Wheree dididd youyourr fatherfather go?'go?' 105105

8.8. Wese=pWese=pi+ hea-ri?hea-ri? field=LOCfield=LOC arrive-INT.PST.EVD.VISarrive-TNT.PST.EVD.vis 'Did'Did yoyouu ggoo ttoo ththee field?'field?'

9.9. M«pakM~ paki+ wimalJ+wTman? nTI-IJ+nu-rj+ wiwiff soe-yiri?soe-yiri? 2SG2SG fatherfather child-Mchild-M be-CONDlTlONCONSEQUENCE.MSbe-CoNDlTIONCONSEQUENCE.MSGG houshousee burn-INT.PST.burn-lNT.PST.EVEVD 'Whe'Whenn youryour fatherfather wawass a child,, diddid hhee burburnn dowdownn ththee house?'house?'

10.10. Sia-rf-dikaSTa-rf-dika nana-rf-dikanana-n-d+ka

illuminate-NR.PtfAN.SG-CLFsticiilluminate-NR.INAN.SG-CLFstcick be.bad-NR.INAN.SG-CLFbe.bad-NR.lNAN.SG-CLFssttiiCckk

b+k+-d*kabtkf-dika..

old.object-CLFold.object-cLFststjcickk ''AA terribleterrible,, ololdd flashlight.'flashlight.'

II.11. Wek+-ya-bWeki-ya-buu kka-bkita-buu btkf-bu.b+ki-bu. tapir-poss.SG-CLFheap excrement-cLFheap old.object-cLFheap tapir-POSS.SG-CLFheap excrement-CLFheap old.object-CLFheap 'A'Ann ololdd pilpilee of[tapir]of [tapir] excrement.'excrement.'

12.. Ti-bTi-buu k+ta-bkita-buu dmornee buse-ri-bubuse-ri-bu

that-CLFhthat-cLFheaeapp excrement-CLFheexcrement-CLFheaapp steasteamm rise-NR.INAN.SG-NCLherise-NR.lNAN.SG-NCLh, ap 'Tha'Thatt heaheapp ofof freshfresh excrement.'excrement.'

13.13. Ko6Koo-ya-gi-ya-g+ diydfyii y++-ryii-ree tutf-wi.tuti-wi. 3FSG-POSS3FSG-POSS.SG-NR.MSG.SG-NR.MSG dogdog 1lSGSG-SPEC -SPEC scold-PST.EVD.VIS.3MSGSCOld-PST.EVD.VIS.3MSG 'Her dog barked at me.' 'Her dog barked at me.' 13.1. Koo=ya-g-t dfyi yit-re tutf-w-i. 13.1. 3FSG=GKo6=yaEN.SG-CLF.AN-MSG-g4 dogdiyi Iy+t-r SG-ACC.DEFe scold-psT.EVD.VIS-3MSGtutf-w-i. 3FSG=GEN.SG-CLF.AN-MS'Her dog barked at me.' G dog 1 SG-ACC.DEF SCOld-PST.EVD.VIS-3MSG 'Her dog barked at me.'

14.14. ?m+-Im+-~a pia-rpta-r~a hea-wa.hea-wa. man-PL.ANman-PL.AN twotwo-PL.AN.QUANTITY-PL. AN. QUANTITY arrive-PSTarrive-PST.EVD.EVD.VlS.VIS.3PL.3PL 'TwoTwo memenn arrived.'arrived.'

14.1.14.1. ImIm+-~¥-a pia-rpta-r~a hea-w-a.hea-w-a. manman-PL.AN-PL.AN twotwo-PL.AN.QUANTITY-PL.AN.QUANTITY arrivearrive-PST.EVD.VIS-3PL-PST.EVD.vis-3PL 'Two'Two memenn arrived.'arrived.' 106106

15.15. Dfa=wesaDfa=wesa. river=besidriver=besidee 'Beside'Beside thethe river.'river.'

16.16. Wese=pf.Wese=p+. field=Locfield=LOC 'To'To/a/att ththee field.'field.'

1717.. K«-ya-wKff-ya-w.j.+ yukusoryukusoroo mama-w+-p+mama-wl-pi 3MSG3MSG-POSS.SG-CLF-POSS.SG-CLF.hollow.hollow canoecanoe new.object-cLF.hollow-LOCnew.object-CLF.hollow-LOC

hoo-rhoo-ree s~a-na.saa-na. bananasbananas-sP-SPEEcC put.in-TMPput.in-TMP 'Pu'Putt thethe bananabananass inin hihiss neneww canoe.'canoe.'

17.1I 7.1.. K+f=ya-w.j.K+f=ya-wi yukusoryukusoroo mama-w.f=p.j.mama-wppi

3MSG3MSG=GEN.SG-CLFholiow=GEN.SG-CLFh0iiow canoecanoe new.objectnew.object-cLFh-CLFhoiiow^LOoll ow=LOCC

hoo-rhoo-ree s~a-na.saa-na. bananasbananaS-ACc.D-ACC.DEEFF put.put.in in-IMP-lMP ''PuPutt ththee bananabananass iinn hishis neneww canoe.'canoe.'

18.18. Kff-ya-g.j.K«-ya-g+ mff-ya-g.j.m+T-ya-gi nemo-ronemo-fo pai-g.fpai-g+ 3MSG-POSS.SG-NR.MS3MSG-POSS.SG-NR.MSGG 2SG-POSS.SG-NR.MSG2SG-POSS.SG-NR.MSG more-ADVRmore-ADVR be.big-NR.MSGbe.big-NR.MSG

nTT-TnTI-i.. be-PRES.EVD.VIS.3MSbe-PRES.EVD.VIS.3MSGG 'His'His animalanimal isis biggebiggerr thanthan youyourr animal.'animal.'

18.1.18.1. K+f=ya-g-i-K++=ya-g4 m+t=ya-g-m+f=ya-g-i-+ nemo-ronemo-rd 33MSG=GEN.SG-CLF.AN-MS MSG=GEN .SG-CLF .AN-MSGG 2SG=GEN2SG=GEN.SG-CLF.AN-MS .SG-CLF .AN-MSGG more-ADVRmore-ADVR

pai-g-.fpai-g-+ nn-TnTI-i.. be.big-GER-MSbe.big-GER-MSGG be-PRbe-PRES.EVD.VIS-3MSES .EVD.VIS-3MSGG 'His'His animalanimal isis biggebiggerr thathann youryour animal.'animal.'

19.19. Ko6-ya-gKoo-ya-g.j.+ kff-ya-g.f-korokw-ya-gi-kdrd nTT-Tnit-i.. 3FSG-POSS.SG-NR.MS3FSG-POSS.SG-NR.MSGG 3MSG-PoSS.SG-NR3MSG-P0SS.SG-NR.MSG-alik.MSG-alikee be-PREs.EVD.VIS.3MSGbe-PRES.EVD.VTS.3MSG 'He'Herr animalanimal iiss ththee samesame asas hihiss animal.'animal.'

19.1.19.1. Ko6=ya-gKoo=ya-g-i-4 k+f=ya-g-i--korok«=ya-g4-kdrd 107107

33FSG-GEN.SG-CLF.AN-MS FSG-GEN. SG-CLF. AN-M SGG 3M3MSG=GEN.SG-CLF.AN-MSG-alikSG=GEN. SG-CLF .AN-MSG-al ikee

nTT-Tnii-i.. be-PRES.EVD.VIS-3MSbe-PREs.EVD. VIS-3MSGG 'Her'Her animaanimall iiss thethe samesame asas his anima!.'animal.'

2020.. K+a-menKia-memla yaa-n-yaa-ri-wowo. 3P3PL-ACCOMPANIMENL-ACCOMPANIM ENT eat-Neat-NEG-PST.EVD.VIS.3FSEG-PST.EVD.VIs.3 FSGG ''ShShee diddid notnot eaeatt witwithh them.'them.'

2121.. ATnu-rAna-roo basa-ri-ya.basa-ri-ya. ggOOd-ADVsing-NEG-PRES.EVD.VIS.3Pood-ADV sing-NEG-PR ES .EVD. VIS.3PLL 'They'They ddoo nonott singsing well.'well.'

22.22. DfaDiayyii yti-rey++-re baka-rf-ti.baka-rf-ti. dogdog 1I SG SG-SPE-SPECC bite-bite-NEG-PST.EVD.NVIS.3MSNEG-PST.EVD.NVIs.3M SGG 'Th'Thee dodogg dididd nonott bitbitee me.me.''

22.122.1.. DfayiDfayi y++-ryti-ree baka-rf-t-i.baka-rf-t-i. dogdog I1 SG SG-ACC.DE-ACC .DEFF bite-bite-NEG-PST.EVD.NVIS-3MSNEG-PST.EVD.NVIS-3M SGG 'The dodogg dididd nonott bitebite me.me.''

2323.. Nana-rjNana-I)t+ nTTnTI-ri-hii-ri-hTT kame-rf-a-kame-ri-a-yiyi. be.bad-NR.MSbe.bad-NR.MsGG be-NEG-PRES.APR.3MSbe-N EG-PR ES .APR.3MSGG reciprocate-reciprocate-NEG-REC-PST.EVD.APR.3MSNEG-REC-PST. EVD. APR .3MSGG 'Apparentl'Apparentlyy hhee iiss nonott bad,, apparentlapparentlyy hhee dididd nonott reciprocatreciprocatee (wound(wound forfor wound).'wound).'

23.123 .1.. NanaNana-I)-t-n-+ nTTnTI-ri-hi=i-ri-hin be.bad-GER-MSbe.bad-GER-MSGG be-Nbe-NEG-PRES.EVD.APR-3MSEG-PRES .EVD. APR-3MSGG

kamekame-rf-a-y-i-rf-a-y-i.. reciprocate-NEG-REC-PST.EVD.APR-3MSreciprocate-NEG-REC-PST. EVD.A PR-3MSGG 'Apparentl'Apparentlyy hhee iiss notnot bad,, apparently hhee diddid nonott reciprocatreciprocatee (wound(wound forfor wound).'wound).'

2424.. Kia-reKTa-re ina-dtga-ri-Tna-d+ga-ri-yigoyigo.. 3PL-3PL-SPESPECC see-Dsee-DES-NEG-PST.EVD.SCD.3FSES-N EG-PST. EVD.SCD.3 FSGG 'She'She dididd nonott wanwantt ttoo seesee themthem..''

24.124.1.. Kia-reKTa-re ina-dtga-ri-yig-oTna-d+ga-ri-yig-o. 33PL-ACC.DEPL-ACC. DEFF see-Dsee-DES-NEG-PST.EVD.SCD-3FSES-NEG-PST.EVD. SCD-3 FSGG 'She'She dididd nonott wanwantt ttoo seesee them.'them.' 108108

2525.. Yaa-reYaa-re katT-bosa-ri-a-hiyakuu-bosa-ri-a-htya. eateat-NR.INAN-NR.INAN place-Bplace-BEN-NEG-REC-PST.EVD.3PEN-NEG-R EC-PST.EVD .3PLL 'Apparently'Apparently thetheyy didn'tdidn't putput outout anyany foodfood (for(for us).'us).'

26.26. Bue-ruku-ri-w+Bue-ruku-ri-w+. study-HStudy-HAB-NEG-PST.EVD.VISAB-NEG-PST.EVD .Vls.. 1I1/2 'I'I dididd nonott studystudy constantlconstantlyy (T(I studiedstudied bubutt nonott constantlconstantly).y).''

27.. Bue-ri-ruku-w+.Bue-ri-ruku-wi. study-NStudy-NEG-HAB-PST.EVD.VISEG-HAB-PST.EVD.Vls..I 11/2 'I'I constantly diddid nonott sstudtudy (I(I wawass constantconstant inin nonott studstudying).ying).''

28.28. Sini-d+ga-ri-ri?STnT-d+ga-ri-ri? drink-Ddrink-DES-NEG-INT.PST.EVD.VIES-N EG-INT.PST.EVD.VISS 'Didn''Didn'tt (whoever)(whoever) wanwantt ttoo drink?'drink?'

29.. Waa-ri-ha-na!Waa-ri-ha-rTa! gO-NEG-EMPH-IMgO-NEG-EMPH-IMPP 'Don't'Don't go!'go!'

30.. Kla-reK+a-re yaa-ryaa-ree eka-rf,, kla-rek+a-re t+a-ritla-ri, 3P3PL-SPEL-SPECC eat-NReat-NR.rtfA.IN ANN givegive.food.food-N -NEEGG 3P3PL-SPEL-SPECC serve.drinkserve.drink-N-NEEGG

tii-ha-yiratii-h~-yira.. dO-do-EMPH-PST.SCD.3PEMPH-PST.SCD.3PLL 'The'Theyy diddid nonott givgivee thethemm anythinganything ttoo eateat oror drink.'drink.' OROR 'Not'Not givinggiving thethemm food,, notnot givinggiving themthem drink,, thetheyy did.'did.'

31.31. Yaa-ri-pakYaa-ri-pak+i kani-h6a-wi.kam-hda-wi. eat-Neat-NEG-CONC.MSEG-CONC.M SGG sleep-sleep-CMPL-PST.EVD.VIS.3MSc MPL-PST. EVD.VI S.3MSGG 'Althoug'Althoughh hhee diddid nonott eat,, hhee fellfell asleep.'asleep.'

32.32. Ati-ri-hTrjAtf-ri-hilJf+ mummtTmtt ne~-ri-nee-ri-yigiy ig+.. cOme-Ncome-NEGEG-since-since.M.MSSGG sweetsweet receive-Nreceive-NEG-PST.EVD.SCD.3MSEG-PST. EVD. SCD.3MSGG 'Sinc'Sincee hhee diddid notnot come,, hhee diddid notnot receivreceivee anyany candy.'candy.'

3333.. Pade-ri-a-rigoPade-ri-a-rigo YHy++ mak6makd no-yonn-yo. 109109

workwOrk-N-NEG-REC.PST-NR.PST.FSEG-REC. PST-NR.PST.FSGG 1lSSG G daughterdaughter bebe-psT.APR.3FSG-PST.APR.3FSG Th'Thee oneone whwhoo diddid nonott wanwantt iiss mmyy daughter.'daughter.'

33.1.33.1. Pade-ri-a-ri-g-oPade-ri-a-ri-g-o y+yit4 makmak6d nii-y-o.nff-y-o. workwOrk-NEG-R-NEG-REC-RSLT-PERF-FSEC-RSLT-PERF-FSGG lSI SGG daughterdaughter bebe-PST.APR-3FSG-PST.APR-3FSG 'The'The ononee whwhoo diddid nonott wantwant isis mmyy daughter.'daughter.'

34.. AnA:noo hea-ri-rigj.hea-ri-rigi Bogota=pBogota=p.j.+ waa-hoa-yigi-waa-hoa-yigi. herheree arrive-NEG-NR.PsTarrive-NEG-NR.PST.MS.MSGG Bogota=LocBogota=LOC gO-COMPL-PST.SCD.3MSGgo-COMPL-PST.SCD.3MSG 'Th'Thee oneone whwhoo diddid nonott arrivearrive herheree wenwentt ttoo Bogota.'Bogota.'

34.134. 1.. A:noAno hea-ri-ri-g-i-hea-ri-ri-g-+ Bogota=pi-.Bogota=p+. herheree arriVe-Narrive-NEG-RSLT-PERF-MSEG-RSL T-PERF-MSGG Bogota=LocBogota=LOC

waa-hoa-yigi­waa-hoa-yig+ gO-COMPL-PSTgO-COMPL-PST.SCD-3MS .sCD-3MSGG 'The'The oneone whwhoo diddid notnot arrivearrive herheree wentwent ttoo Bogota.'Bogota.'

3535.. Dokaplirara-yeDokapiirara-ye bue-ri-odbue-ri-odoo narrurjfiamil)aa hea-odako.hea-odako. Tuyuca-IanguageTuyuca-language study-NEG-NR.FUT.FSGstudy-NEG-NR.FUT.FSG tomorrotomorroww arrive-FUT.EVD.3FSGarrive-FUT.EVD.3FSG 'The'The womawomann whwhoo wilwilll nonott bebe studyingstudying ththee TuyucaTuyuca languagelanguage wilwilll arrivearrive tomorrow.'tomorrow.'

3636.. Yaa-ri-a-rigi-Yaa-ri-a-rigi nTT-a-wnii-a-wit eat-NEG-REC-NR.PST.MSGeat-NEG-REC-NR.PST.MSG bebe-R-REC-PST.VIS.3MSEc-PST.VIs.3MSGG 'Evidently'Evidently hehe dididd nonott eateat (the(the foodfood iiss stillstill here).'here).' Literally:Literally: 'Evidently'Evidently hhee wawass a non-eatinnon-eatingg one'one'

36.136.1.. Yaa-ri-a-ri-g-i-Yaa-ri-a-ri-g4 nii-a-w-inn-a-w-T eat-Neat-NEG-REC-RSLT-PERF-MSEG-REC-RSL T-PERF-MSGG bebe-REc-psT.VIS-3MSG-REC-PST.VIS-3MSG '(He'(He)) diddid nonott eat.'eat.' REFERENCESREFERENCES

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36 SeeSee footnotefootnote 33.33.