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Amelie Von Zumbusch | 24 pages | 15 Jul 2013 | PowerKids Press | 9781477708934 | English | United States BBC - History - in depth: Discovering Roman Technology

And it was the , a group of highly trained specialists who were specifically employed to maintain the logistical and medical sustenance of the legions. Ranging from doctors, engineers to architects, these men were exempt from the hard labor duties of the rank-and-file soldiers, while also earning more than them — thus hinting at the presumed crucial nature of their jobs. Pertaining to the Roman medical professionals, their dedicated battlefield units were instrumental in the use of innovative contraptions like hemostatic tourniquets and arterial surgical clamps to curb blood loss. Taking all of these factors into account, combined with better diet, the Roman soldiers possibly tended to live longer than their civilian counterparts, thus alluding the efficiency of the ancient Roman doctors and surgeons. While the core mechanism was probably developed by the ancient by 5th century BC in forms like oxybeles and , there is no doubt that the Romans advanced the practical scope of such fascinating systems, along with their deployment and usage on ancient battlefields. The so-named carroballista was an extension of the similar manuballista technology, but its difference lied in its advantage of maneuverability. In essence, the weapon system was developed as a cart-mounted ballista, thus entailing a type of mobile field . ArcheoArt has described the weapon in some details, based on the reconstruction of Michael Lewis —. The caroballista: a powerful descendent of the Roman ballistae and catapultae. This two-man example is being used at some point in the Dacian War. It shoots heavy bolts, and is an extremely powerful weapon, thanks to the wide sweep of the arms, which transmit a huge amount of stored spring-energy to the ammunition. The sinew-loaded spring frames are made of , and have tough leather covers to protect them from enemy fire- and the weather. The machine is mounted on a universal joint, atop a stand, and can be pointed in any direction. To shoot, one man turns the windlass to draw back the slider and rope, while his crew-mate holds it steady, and places a bolt on the slider; he then holds the tiller and aims, while the first pulls the trigger-bar. The whole weapon is light enough for its two-man crew to move it around and load it onto a cart when the division has to move; in this way, it is the equivalent of a WW2 Bren-gun. According to Vegetius, the late adopted the carroballista as a standard mobile field artillery, with 55 carroballistae being the standard number that was distributed among each legion. Each of these war machines, having the advantage of light yet stout metal spring-frame, were transported by mules and operated by contubernium units group of ten . During the time-line of the fought between and — BC , the Carthaginians were known for their prowess in the naval field, partly due their maritime experience in trading and overseas colonies that stretched beyond centuries. On the other hand, the Romans were considered as relative newcomers to the Mediterranean sphere of influence. In spite of this, it was the sheer ingenuity of the Roman army engineers that brought victory to the Romans in what might have been the largest naval in the history of mankind. We are talking about the Battle of Cape Ecnomus in BC — that pitted around Carthaginian ships with more than , rowers and marines against Roman vessels with around , rowers and soldiers ; all the figures being according to the account of in World History. This was a sort of a boarding bridge that could be raised from a ft high sturdy wooden pillar, and then rotated in any required direction. The Roman soldiers crossed across this makeshift bridge, and directly boarded the enemy ship. This naval tactic gave the Romans the upper-hand, since they were known for their expertise in close-quarter combat, as opposed to the Carthaginians who mainly relied on mercenaries. Unfortunately, the was seemingly abandoned in the post BC era, perhaps because of its destructive effect even on Roman warships. In any case, this is how 2nd century BC Greek historian, Polybius, described the boarding maneuvers initiated by the corvus —. The leading pair protected the front by holding up their shields, and those who followed secured the two flanks by resting the rims of their shields on the top of the railing. Designed as an incendiary weapon circa 7th century AD, the is one of the very few contrivances whose gruesome effectiveness was noted by various then-contemporary sources, both Arabs and Greeks. In fact, some writers have gone on to explain how the viciously efficient Greek Fire could only be mitigated by extinguishing it with sand, strong vinegar or old urine. Suffice it to say, the weapon was perfectly tailored to naval warfare; and as such the Eastern used it in numerous marine-based encounters to secure victories — with notable examples involving the crucial successes achieved against two Arab of . However the procedures of making and subsequent deployment of Greek Fire remained a closely guarded military secret — so much so that the original ingredient has actually been lost over time. Once again while the construction and development of roads mirrored the historical evolution of urban culture and trade since Age , the ancient Romans took it up a level to complement their juggernaut of a military. In fact, highways and roads were an intrinsic part of the logistical scope maintained by the Roman Empire at its height, so much so that the massive road networks after 2nd century AD accounted for a whopping , miles, of which over 50, miles were stone paved. In fact, at the peak period of the ancient empire, around 29 great military highways radiated from the capital Rome itself, and these in turn were connected by at least great roads. Now as for the construction of the roads, building materials that were generally used encompassed a composite of dirt and gravel along with bricks made of either granite or hardened volcanic lava. The Roman engineers also gave special attention to the gradient of the roads, with accommodation for curvatures that allowed for efficient water drainage. In consideration of all these factors, suffice it to say, the Roman network of highways and roads played a major role for the inland carriage of official communications and trade goods. To that end, highways are estimated to have allowed the Roman legions to travel as fast as 25 miles or 40 km per day. And furthermore, intermittently constructed post houses allowed the armies to maintain communications and share intelligence over relatively long distances. This is how , the 4th century Roman soldier and historian, described the ancient war machine —. Two posts of oak or holm-oak are hewn out and slightly bent, so that they seem to stand forth like humps. These are fastened together like a sawing-machine and bored through on both sides with fairly large holes. Between them, through the holes, strong ropes are bound, holding the machine together, so that it may not fly apart. From the middle of these ropes a wooden arm rises obliquely, pointed upward like the pole of a , and is twined around with cords in such a way that it can be raised higher or depressed. To the top of this arm, iron hooks are fastened, from which hangs a of hemp or iron. In front of the arm is placed a great cushion of hair-cloth stuffed with fine chaff, bound on with strong cords, and placed on a heap of turf or a pile of sun-dried bricks; for a heavy machine of this kind, if placed upon a stone wall, shatters everything beneath it by its violent concussion, rather than by its weight. Then, when there is a battle, a round stone is placed in the sling and four young men on each side turn back the bar with which the ropes are connected and bend the pole almost flat. Then finally the gunner, standing above, strikes out the pole-bolt, which holds the fastenings of the whole work, with a strong hammer, thereupon the pole is set free, and flying forward with a swift stroke, and meeting the soft hair-cloth, hurls the stone, which will crush whatever it hits. And the machine is called tormentum as all the released tension is caused by twisting torquetur ; and scorpion, because it has an upraised sting; modern times have given it the new name , because when wild asses are pursued by hunters, by kicking they hurl back stones to a distance, either crushing the breasts of their pursuers, or breaking the bones of their skulls and shattering them. Interestingly enough, there are also accounts of how the Roman sometimes mixed in combustible substances with the large rocks that were used as projectiles to be hurled towards enemy fortifications. And at times, depending upon wind speeds and the terrain, onagers could even out-range dedicated archers by virtue of their sheer torsional force. Archaeological evidences mainly from site of the Roman of Numantia, in conforms to this assessment. To that end, both types of the pila were made from around 1. Anyhow, beyond their shape and thickness, the was engineered as a potent -like throwing weapon that would mostly only favor the Romans. How so? This combination made the roads immensely strong. Come rain or any harsh weather; these roads were made to take some harsh beating. They also constructed perfectly straight roads with slight banking to them. During the Roman empire, people used to store text in rock or clay slabs, which was heavy to carry and also brittle in nature. The use of or prehistoric was also limited to the problem of storing them. This was when Julius decided to build the collection of papyrus to form a . This provided a safer and more manageable way to keep the information secure. This Roman invention was then widely used by the Christians to make codices of the bible. If we trace back time, we can see that many of our laws were already part of the Roman judicial system. It was then taken into the modern system, because they proved to be efficient and most importantly, effective. It was an empire that wanted to see the whole spectrum of its citizens to live a good life. Hence the system of welfare was brought in. The first initiation was the Lex Frumentaria , and it was through such a regime that the Romans gave grains at a low price to the poor. Such an act had a profound impact on the citizens who were on the low tier of the income group. Before the introduction of a formal system in Rome, it was really hard to keep a track of time and date. Often the high officials altered the periods to make their working days seem more than what was achieved. Such a practice made introduce a new form of calendar system which relied on the solar year as opposed to the moon phases used in Rome. It was called the calendar. The was more accurate, and it was made to include a leap year every four years to correct the discrepancies. Since Roman Empire was very vast, the biggest in its time, there arose a problem. The population was on the rise and people needed housing space to construct homes. This was the time when the architects thought of a brilliant way of stacking floors atop of buildings to create separate living spaces on the same foundation. The result was or insulae islands as they were called in Rome. However, these apartments were reserved for medium to low-class citizens as the upper classes preferred their own separate housing spaces. The information transfer between the provinces became very troublesome, and a solution had to be devised. This was when Emperor established a system that could help the situation. It was a way by which messages and notices could be transferred between provinces with the help of vehicles such as the horse cart. Hence the first postal service in Europe was formed. The Roman engineers invented the Corvus to have the upper hand in naval because, at that time, Rome was a novice in regards to waterborne warfare. The Corvus is nothing but a boarding device used to attach itself to an enemy ship. When attached, the Romans and the enemy ship joined in such a way that Roman soldiers could cross the border to get to the enemy ship. Romans were known for their close combat skills, so this method proved to be very effective, particularly in the Battle of Cape Ecnomus that took place in BCE. Roman army was well-known for the various battle formations. Testudo or tortoise in is a formation that is effective against projectiles or missiles. This formation required the Roman soldiers to position their shields in such a way that it formed a roof like a barrier above their heads. The front would use their shields to form a wall-like formation. With this innovative formation, Roman soldiers were able to protect themselves from the front and top side. Controlling a vast amount of land, housing and building would have been a problem, if these were not laid out correctly. If you look at the way Romans settles were laid out, you will realize that they followed a grid-based system. Every road and path had an orderly structure. This meant that segregating areas was easy and there were no clustered points. It brought about the orderly nature of the Roman rule. They had like the ballista and the scorpion long range , which were brilliantly engineered to bring down the toughest of enemies. But what made them even more deadly was the Romans ability to innovate. They re-engineered the ballista and made a cost-effective version of it called the Onager. It was cheaper to make but deadly as its predecessor. The Roman Empire was indeed ahead of its time and has significantly contributed to building a modern world. Romans were always at the forefront of economy and aggression. 10 Innovations That Built - HISTORY

Swords were significant Roman weapons. Based on the archaeological evidence, several types of gladii have been discovered, indicating that the weapon evolved according to time. This had a blade that was about 50 cm 20 inches long, which is considerably short for a . It was a double-edged sword, and was an effective slashing weapon. It was, however, used primarily for stabbing, and its triangular point did this job perfectly. The gladius was best-used for extremely close-quarters combat, where longer or were rendered useless due to the lack of room to maneuver. Replica pseudo- gladius. Close-quarters combat, however, was dangerous, and the Roman legionaries needed suitable protection whilst approaching the enemy. Therefore, the gladius was paired with a shield known as a . This was a large curved shield that was adapted from the Italic peoples whom the Romans fought against. The scutum was made by gluing layers of wood together, which was then covered with leather. This meant that the shield was light enough for a soldier to hold it with one hand. To reinforce the shield, metal was added on its outer rim. In the center of the scutum was a metal boss, which allowed the shield to function as an auxiliary punching weapon. This shield is the only known surviving example of the examples known as a scutum. It was found at Dura Europos. Public Domain. Another weapon in the arsenal of the Roman was the pilum. This was a wooden javelin with an iron spike, the tip of which was harder and wider than its shaft. This clever design meant that if the spike of the pilum hit an enemy shield of the ground at an angle, it would bend, making it impossible to throw back at the Romans. Each Roman legionary would have two pila at his disposal, which would be thrown at the enemy before a charge. The pila was lethal enough to kill an enemy, or, if it got stuck on a shield, rendered it useless, and made the warrior more vulnerable. A Roman legionary with a pilum and scutum. The Romans also developed a number of war machines that were used on the battlefield. One of these, for instance, was the ballista, which was a giant crossbow-like weapon consisting of two with torsion springs, and a slider on which ammunition either metal darts of spherical stones was loaded. Although the ballista was a Greek invention, its design and technology was improved by the Romans. Reproduction of a Roman ballista. It is recorded that the ballista was used extensively by Julius Caesar during his campaigns in and in Britain. Another Roman war machine was the onager , which, like the ballista, relied on torsion for power. Unlike the ballista, however, this war machine was mainly used a to destroy fortifications and other enemy buildings. The onager was essentially a type of catapult, consisting of a large frame on the ground, a vertical frame on the front, and an arm in the middle. The onager was used to hurl large stones, which could be set alight to cause more damage. This siege engine was famously used by the Romans against the Greek city states, and during the siege of Carthage. Top image: Roman weapons were vital to protecting and conquering the ancient world. Guest Blogger, Ricketts, C. Roman Weapons and Armor. Roman Weapons. Roman Legionary Weapons and Equipment. I have a lifelong love of history and have been fascinated by the subject from an early age. Wikimedia Commons. A depiction of how set on fire the Roman ships before Syracuse with the help of parabolic mirrors. Greek mathematician Archimedes d. Roman was used to construct the magnificent pantheon, which has endured for two millennia. Source: BigStockPhoto. The secret ingredient is volcanic ash. An article published in by the University of California—Berkeley News Center announced that university researchers described for the first time how the extraordinarily stable compound calcium-aluminum-silicate-hydrate C-A-S-H binds the material. The process of making it would create lower carbon dioxide emissions than the process for making modern concrete. Some disadvantages of its use are, however, that it takes longer to dry, and although it lasts longer, it is weaker than modern concrete. A sword made of Damascus steel. In medieval times, swords made of a substance called Damascus steel were being produced in the Middle East out of a raw material, known as Wootz steel, from Asia. It was perplexingly strong. It was first used around B. Kris Hirst in an article written for About Education. It was a kind of alchemy. Hirst cited a study led by Peter Paufler at the University of Dresden and published in the journal Nature in Materials added during the production of Damascus steel included Cassia auriculata bark, milkweed, vanadium, chromium, manganese, cobalt, nickel, and some rare elements, traces of which presumably came from the mines in . At Ancient Origins we believe that one of Read More. However as the ships move toward or away from the focal point the heat is dissipated over a broader and broader area. Stop calling it Damascus Steel Initial outdated Western sources called it Damascus cause that was the capital of the and their elites use it in their conquests of somesort of holy land idk Stop perpetuating the antiquated use of Damascus you illiterate clown. Ancient Origins has been quoted by:. By bringing together top experts and authors, this website explores lost , examines sacred writings, tours ancient places, investigates ancient discoveries and questions mysterious happenings. Our open community is dedicated to digging into the origins of our species on planet earth, and question wherever the discoveries might take us. We seek to retell the story of our beginnings. Skip to main content. Login or Register in order to comment. Setantaclaus wrote on 10 July, - Permalink. Deus Indra wrote on 12 March, - Permalink. Malisa Wright wrote on 14 January, - Permalink. Well, it may be a good thing that Greek Fire was lost; else we might not be here right now Bonusje wrote on 17 December, - Permalink. Related Articles on Ancient-Origins. For all large capital cities in ancient and modern history, protection was one of the major survival strategies. And what historical capital was bigger than legendary Constantinople? Known as The first European records of were written in the 13th century by Roger Bacon, the English philosopher and Franciscan friar who was believed by many to have been a wizard. In , a Roman technology - Wikipedia

This Roman invention carried the same purpose of newspapers, giving the Roman citizens the information they need and the events of the day. Romans were always excellent when it came to civil . You can see their engineering excellence in the way they have laid out their sewage and sanitary . The drainage pipes were mostly connected and were flushed regularly with the water running off from streams. They also had covered gutter systems that ensured that the streets stay without any form of contamination. But Romans were the ones who actually used the properties of an to build great structures and buildings. In engineering terms, are better at load carrying than horizontal beams. The Romans made good use of their properties to build magnificent structures that leave onlookers in awe even today. Not only that, the Romans added some design elements to transform a typical arch into a piece of art. Romans were really particular about living conditions and always aimed for perfection. This is how they found the answer to curb the cold in winters. So, the Romans came up with another engineering innovation. The ancient engineers decided to circulate hot air around the building through hollow spaces in columns. Since hot air always rises, the air is supplied from a furnace that is placed beneath the house or structure. The air will then rise up through the hollow spaces in the building, heating the whole building in the process. The aqueducts were connected to a large water holding area, which would then supply it to public amenities. The whole process needed no external energy as it was achieved by the use of gravity! It may seem easy to accomplish today, but in BC, this was indeed a remarkable feat of engineering. To have a slight idea about the surgical skills of the Romans, know that the cesarean section was actually devised in Rome. They were intrigued to know that such tools could also become helpful to soldiers who have been injured in battles there and then. Hence, Roman armies had medics who were in use for any complications in the battlefield. It is something that decorates the lands of the modern world. Yes, it is concrete. Concrete was developed by the Romans to add structural integrity to their buildings. Soon this substance gained widespread usage, and it is one of the reasons why most of the Roman buildings stand tall even today. The proof of their workmanship is evident as many of the old roads in Rome are being used even today. The Romans used a combination of dirt and gravel with bricks that are made from hardened volcanic lava or granite. This combination made the roads immensely strong. Come rain or any harsh weather; these roads were made to take some harsh beating. They also constructed perfectly straight roads with slight banking to them. During the Roman empire, people used to store text in rock or clay slabs, which was heavy to carry and also brittle in nature. The use of papyrus or prehistoric paper was also limited to the problem of storing them. This was when Julius Caesar decided to build the collection of papyrus to form a codex. This provided a safer and more manageable way to keep the information secure. This Roman invention was then widely used by the Christians to make codices of the bible. If we trace back time, we can see that many of our laws were already part of the Roman judicial system. It was then taken into the modern system, because they proved to be efficient and most importantly, effective. It was an empire that wanted to see the whole spectrum of its citizens to live a good life. Hence the system of welfare was brought in. The first initiation was the Lex Frumentaria , and it was through such a regime that the Romans gave grains at a low price to the poor. Such an act had a profound impact on the citizens who were on the low tier of the income group. Before the introduction of a formal calendar system in Rome, it was really hard to keep a track of time and date. Often the high officials altered the periods to make their working days seem more than what was achieved. Such a practice made Julius Caesar introduce a new form of calendar system which relied on the solar year as opposed to the moon phases used in Rome. It was called the Julian calendar. The Julian calendar was more accurate, and it was made to include a leap year every four years to correct the discrepancies. Since Roman Empire was very vast, the biggest in its time, there arose a problem. The population was on the rise and people needed housing space to construct homes. The Romans also developed a number of war machines that were used on the battlefield. One of these, for instance, was the ballista, which was a giant crossbow-like weapon consisting of two levers with torsion springs, and a slider on which ammunition either metal darts of spherical stones was loaded. Although the ballista was a Greek invention, its design and technology was improved by the Romans. Reproduction of a Roman ballista. It is recorded that the ballista was used extensively by Julius Caesar during his campaigns in Gaul and in Britain. Another Roman war machine was the onager , which, like the ballista, relied on torsion for power. Unlike the ballista, however, this war machine was mainly used a siege engine to destroy fortifications and other enemy buildings. The onager was essentially a type of catapult, consisting of a large frame on the ground, a vertical frame on the front, and an arm in the middle. The onager was used to hurl large stones, which could be set alight to cause more damage. This siege engine was famously used by the Romans against the Greek city states, and during the siege of Carthage. Top image: Roman weapons were vital to protecting and conquering the ancient world. Guest Blogger, Ricketts, C. Roman Weapons and Armor. Roman Weapons. Roman Legionary Weapons and Equipment. I have a lifelong love of history and have been fascinated by the subject from an early age. I attended the University of Maynooth Read More. It should be noted that the picture provided to illustrate the Pilum, actually shows a legionary with a . Ancient Origins has been quoted by:. By bringing together top experts and authors, this archaeology website explores lost civilizations, examines sacred writings, tours ancient places, investigates ancient discoveries and questions mysterious happenings. Our open community is dedicated to digging into the origins of our species on planet earth, and question wherever the discoveries might take us. We seek to retell the story of our beginnings. Skip to main content. References Guest Blogger, Roman weapons. Login or Register in order to comment. Crasslee wrote on 13 January, - Permalink. Top New Stories. The medieval period saw the rise of many new inventions all around the world. Emerging out of the so-called Dark Ages, many prominent scholars and learned minds came up with new inventions to make The Tiara of Saitaphernes: Wow Antique? Fine Art? Find Out. Pelasgos and The Mysterious of the Aegean. Pelasgos was a mythical ruler of . He is said to have been the progenitor of the Pelasgians or Pelasgi , who are a mysterious people, as little is known for certain about them. Human Origins. has been thought of by many as a quintessentially African .

15 pieces of that we still don’t understand.

A Roman legionary with a pilum and scutum. The Romans also developed a number of war machines that were used on the battlefield. One of these, for instance, was the ballista, which was a giant crossbow-like weapon consisting of two levers with torsion springs, and a slider on which ammunition either metal darts of spherical stones was loaded. Although the ballista was a Greek invention, its design and technology was improved by the Romans. Reproduction of a Roman ballista. It is recorded that the ballista was used extensively by Julius Caesar during his campaigns in Gaul and in Britain. Another Roman war machine was the onager , which, like the ballista, relied on torsion for power. Unlike the ballista, however, this war machine was mainly used a siege engine to destroy fortifications and other enemy buildings. The onager was essentially a type of catapult, consisting of a large frame on the ground, a vertical frame on the front, and an arm in the middle. The onager was used to hurl large stones, which could be set alight to cause more damage. This siege engine was famously used by the Romans against the Greek city states, and during the siege of Carthage. Top image: Roman weapons were vital to protecting and conquering the ancient world. Guest Blogger, Ricketts, C. Roman Weapons and Armor. Roman Weapons. Roman Legionary Weapons and Equipment. I have a lifelong love of history and have been fascinated by the subject from an early age. I attended the University of Maynooth Read More. It should be noted that the picture provided to illustrate the Pilum, actually shows a legionary with a spear. Ancient Origins has been quoted by:. By bringing together top experts and authors, this archaeology website explores lost civilizations, examines sacred writings, tours ancient places, investigates ancient discoveries and questions mysterious happenings. Our open community is dedicated to digging into the origins of our species on planet earth, and question wherever the discoveries might take us. We seek to retell the story of our beginnings. Skip to main content. References Guest Blogger, Roman weapons. Login or Register in order to comment. Crasslee wrote on 13 January, - Permalink. Top New Stories. The medieval period saw the rise of many new inventions all around the world. Emerging out of the so-called Dark Ages, many prominent scholars and learned minds came up with new inventions to make The Tiara of Saitaphernes: Wow Antique? Fine Art? Find Out. Pelasgos and The Mysterious Pelasgians of the Aegean. Pelasgos was a mythical ruler of ancient Greece. He is said to have been the progenitor of the Pelasgians or Pelasgi , who are a mysterious people, as little is known for certain about them. Human Origins. Now as for the construction of the roads, building materials that were generally used encompassed a composite of dirt and gravel along with bricks made of either granite or hardened volcanic lava. The Roman engineers also gave special attention to the gradient of the roads, with accommodation for curvatures that allowed for efficient water drainage. In consideration of all these factors, suffice it to say, the Roman network of highways and roads played a major role for the inland carriage of official communications and trade goods. To that end, highways are estimated to have allowed the Roman legions to travel as fast as 25 miles or 40 km per day. And furthermore, intermittently constructed post houses allowed the armies to maintain communications and share intelligence over relatively long distances. This is how Ammianus Marcellinus, the 4th century Roman soldier and historian, described the ancient war machine —. Two posts of oak or holm-oak are hewn out and slightly bent, so that they seem to stand forth like humps. These are fastened together like a sawing-machine and bored through on both sides with fairly large holes. Between them, through the holes, strong ropes are bound, holding the machine together, so that it may not fly apart. From the middle of these ropes a wooden arm rises obliquely, pointed upward like the pole of a chariot, and is twined around with cords in such a way that it can be raised higher or depressed. To the top of this arm, iron hooks are fastened, from which hangs a sling of hemp or iron. In front of the arm is placed a great cushion of hair-cloth stuffed with fine chaff, bound on with strong cords, and placed on a heap of turf or a pile of sun-dried bricks; for a heavy machine of this kind, if placed upon a stone wall, shatters everything beneath it by its violent concussion, rather than by its weight. Then, when there is a battle, a round stone is placed in the sling and four young men on each side turn back the bar with which the ropes are connected and bend the pole almost flat. Then finally the gunner, standing above, strikes out the pole-bolt, which holds the fastenings of the whole work, with a strong hammer, thereupon the pole is set free, and flying forward with a swift stroke, and meeting the soft hair-cloth, hurls the stone, which will crush whatever it hits. And the machine is called tormentum as all the released tension is caused by twisting torquetur ; and scorpion, because it has an upraised sting; modern times have given it the new name onager , because when wild asses are pursued by hunters, by kicking they hurl back stones to a distance, either crushing the breasts of their pursuers, or breaking the bones of their skulls and shattering them. Interestingly enough, there are also accounts of how the Roman sometimes mixed in combustible substances with the large rocks that were used as projectiles to be hurled towards enemy fortifications. And at times, depending upon wind speeds and the terrain, onagers could even out-range dedicated archers by virtue of their sheer torsional force. Archaeological evidences mainly from site of the Roman siege of Numantia, in Spain conforms to this assessment. To that end, both types of the pila were made from around 1. Anyhow, beyond their shape and thickness, the pilum was engineered as a potent javelin-like throwing weapon that would mostly only favor the Romans. How so? Well, the design in itself was furnished so that it could carry most of the weight behind the aforementioned -point. This endowed the weapon with incredible penetrating power that could go through enemy shields and even injure the shield bearer. And then came the ingenious part — once the pilum got stuck into the shield, it became very difficult to remove the pointed javelin mostly due to its varying cross-sectional thickness. This forced the enemy to let go of his shield during the thick of battle. Moreover, the narrow-shanked varieties would twist upon impact, thus making them useless for the enemy — in case they wanted to throw these pila back towards the advancing Roman army. Image courtesy of Fectio — Dutch Roman re-enactors. One of the curious and often-overlooked weapon from the late Roman arsenal pertains to the also called martiobarbuli. Etymologically relating to plumbum or lead, the weapon was essentially crafted as a throwing with lead-weights at the anterior part , while the head part was probably made of iron. These close sections ultimately gave way to a wooden shaft with fletching. The latter mentioned modification allowed the ancient Roman soldier to throw the dart which often went beyond 30 cm of length in a streamlined manner, either over hand or under hand. The exercise of the loaded , called martiobarbuli, must not be omitted. We formerly had two legions in lllyricum, consisting of six thousand men each, which from their extraordinary dexterity and skill in the use of these weapons were distinguished by the same appellation. They supported for a long time the weight of all the wars and distinguished themselves so remarkably that the Emperors and on their accession honored them with the titles of Jovian and Herculean and preferred them before all the other legions. Every soldier carries five of these javelins in the hollow of his shield. And thus the legionary soldiers seem to supply the place of archers, for they wound both the men and horses of the enemy before they come within reach of the common missile weapons. An anonymous treatise titled , also from the late 4th century AD, describes the use of spiked plumbatae plumbata tribolata ; though archaeological evidences have still not been able to confirm its existence. And interestingly enough, martiobarbuli has also been described as a part of the arsenal of the Eastern Roman Empire, with its mention in the Strategicon , written by late 6th century emperor Maurice. However the Romans did take the advantage of its rapid deployment techniques to raid and harass the enemy, thus suggesting tactical scopes rather than strategic ambit. To that end, the great Julius Caesar was believed to have a penchant for using pontoon bridges to shock-and-awe his foes. One fascinating example would pertain to the yards m long floating bridge deployed to cross the Rhine river. This tactical trick caught two Germanic tribes off guard, who were showed the Roman force of arms. Interestingly enough, after demonstrating his superiority in arms, Caesar promptly withdrew from the Rhine territory and dismantled his hastily constructed . Building a bridge without diverting a river is notoriously difficult to do, and even more so in a military setting where construction must be guarded at all times, so engineers had to work fast. Rather than driving beams straight into the river, engineers rammed timbers into the bottom of the river at an angle against the current, lending the foundation extra strength. Protective pilings were also driven in upstream to catch or slow down any potentially destructive logs that might float down the river. Finally, the beams were lashed together, and a wooden bridge was built on top of it. In total, the construction took only ten days, used entirely local lumber and sent a firm message to local tribes about the power of Rome: if Caesar wanted to cross the Rhine, he could do it. Vegitius also mentioned the use of wood from the light boats that the late Roman army deployed in many river-dominated terrains. According to the ancient writer, these lightweight crafts could be organized and tied together with the aid of planks, nails and cables, which allowed the hasty construction of a structurally sound floating bridge. In its most simplistic scope, the maneuver entailed the positioning and raising of shields that would allow a group of soldiers to form a packed formation covered on all or most sides with those shields. In essence, it was adopted as a purely defensive tactic that allowed the usually -based Roman army to protect themselves against missiles and various projectiles from enemy archers. Suffice it to say, the was not the norm, but rather adopted in specific situations to deal with particular threats on the battlefield. Interestingly enough, according to , in consideration of the sheer discipline and synchronization required to form a Testudo, the formation in itself was actually an evolution of a nifty circus trick. A testudo formed in this way was brought up against the lowest part of the wall.

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