Stories and Lives 21St Century Tribal Peoples Stories and Lives 21St Century Tribal Peoples

STORIES AND LIVES 21ST CENTURY TRIBAL PEOPLES STORIES AND LIVES 21ST CENTURY TRIBAL PEOPLES

SURVIVAL IS A WORLDWIDE ORGANISATION SUPPORTING CONTENTS TRIBAL PEOPLES. IT STANDS FOR THEIR RIGHT TO DECIDE THEIR OWN FUTURE AND HELPS THEM PROTECT THEIR LIVES, LANDS AND HUMAN RIGHTS.

There are more than 150 million tribal INDIA people worldwide in more than 60 JARAWA 3 countries – but all too often their voice is not heard. Survival is working to help BRAZIL tribal peoples – about 80 tribes at any one GUARANI-KAIOWÁ 7 time – see that their legal rights over their

ancestral homes are upheld. Without this, AUSTRALIA their destruction is inevitable. In some MARTU ABORIGINES 11 cases their fight is against the forces of economic ‘progress’ and the ensuing PARAGUAY invasions of, to name only a few, AYOREO 15 ranchers, loggers or mining multinationals. In others, they are fighting governments INDONESIA which brand them as ‘primitive’people TRIBES OF PAPUA 19 because they live in harmony with the land, in a way which has been CANADA ‘sustainable’for thousands of years INNU 23 and long before the notion became fashionable. In yet others, their struggle BOTSWANA is against guerrilla armies, banks, the diseases of the ‘developed’world or the GANA AND GWI BUSHMEN 27 aggressive cultural homogenisation of the West. What these tribes have in common BRAZIL is that they are small, disregarded, and YANOMAMI 33 often isolated communities battling for their survival against the might of overweening giants. But in many, many cases they are winning and thanks to the thousands of individuals around the world who support Survival, there will be many more successes to come. JARAWA COURT RULES FOR SURVIVAL OF 60,000 YEAR-OLD FOREST TRIBE

first time, they have started to emerge Jarawa reserve FOR TENS OF North from their forests. Andaman THOUSANDS OF Nobody was quite sure what the YEARS THE woman wanted. No one among Middle JARAWA PEOPLE Andaman the Indian community speaks her language. And only one or two Jarawa HAVE LIVED IN South speak Hindi. But she held out her Andaman ISOLATION IN hands as if requesting something. North INDIAN OCEAN THE RAINFOREST Sentinel The Jarawa are ethnically distinct OF THE from the Indians who run their island. Anthropologists suggest they are ANDAMAN Andaman Islands, India descended from the first humans to ISLANDS, come out of Africa – DNAtests suggest The woman came out from the forest REMOTE IN THE their closest relatives may be the at the side of the road. She was stark ‘Bushmen’ of the Kalahari. It is possible INDIAN OCEAN. naked apart from a thong of braided they have lived in the Andamans for as red around her loins. She waved to long as 60,000 years. stop the bus. As it slowed the passengers could see that delicately Throughout that time these nomadic drawn patterns in white clay adorned hunter-gatherers have survived in her face and body. bands of 40 to 50, hunting pig and monitor lizard, fishing with arrows, and Those in the bus were fascinated gathering seeds, berries and honey. and wary. For tens of thousands of They use the plants of the islands to years the Jarawa people have lived make bows, spears, ropes, huts, The Andaman Trunk in isolation in the rainforest of the Road, which cuts through ornaments and even bee-repellent. Andaman Islands, remote in the Indian the interior of South Andaman and Middle Ocean. Their reputation is of a hostile It is only in the past 150 years that the Andaman islands, poses tribe ready to keep strangers at bay islands have been settled, first by the the biggest danger of all with bows and arrows. But now, for the British, who set up a penal colony, and to the Jarawa. 2 3 one Jarawa youth, named Enmei, was alcoholism, suicide and despair – was found immobilised with a broken leg decisive in two ways. The Indian and taken to hospital where, during five government, after receiving some 200 months treatment, he learnt Hindi and letters a day from Survival supporters, returned with the news that the settlers two years ago dropped its plans to were friendly. resettle the Jarawa.

Either way the Jarawa began to Survival then presented evidence to surface, some in parties with Enmei, the Indian Supreme Court, citing the others just appearing by the trunk road example of the Great Andamanese or in villages. Local people assumed tribe, of whom only 28 people now Enmei is the only they were starving and organised food. remain in government ‘breeding Jarawa person to have When the settlers did not offer food or centres’. Today three of the Andaman come out of the forest clothes the Jarawa would arrive, with tribes are virtually extinct. Only the and learnt to speak their bows and arrows, and take things. Jarawa and the Sentinelese, who live Hindi. No one outside Police advised locals not to protest. on an island uninvaded by settlers, the tribe speaks the from which they fire arrows at And despite the ‘Beware of Jarawa’ Jarawa language. approaching boats, remain. signs, and the posters announcing Survival is working to ‘Do not allow the Jarawa to get into Last year the Supreme Court ruled ensure that when they any vehicles’and ‘Do not give any in favour of the Jarawa. It ordered that do tell their story to eatable items to the Jarawa’, the the trunk road be closed, that logging the outside world it is interaction with the island’s original and poaching in the area be banned, not one of destruction inhabitants has become a source of and that some settlements be removed. and invasion. entertainment. It was one of the biggest successes in Survival’s history. ‘Now the challenge is The negative consequences of this to see that the order is implemented’, are becoming clear. New diseases are said Survival’s director, Stephen Corry. sweeping through the native people. ‘The Jarawa are a people whose lives In 1999 a measles and pneumonia are synchronised with their epidemic affected up to half of the environment. More they do not need. native population. Young Jarawa have Only recognition of their right to own begun bartering for alien goods, such their land and to make their own as chewing tobacco and the narcotic choices about how they live.’ THE INDIAN betel leaf. And an Indian lawyer filed GOVERNMENT, a case demanding that the Jarawa be As for Enmei, he is back in the settled, stating that it was ‘high time to rainforest, coming out only when he AFTER RECEIVING This Jarawa woman is then by the Indians. Slowly the settlers More recently the authorities built a seeing a camera for the make them acquainted with modern needs medical treatment, as he did last have cleared the forest. The Indian trunk road through the reserve, and the SOME 200 first time. civilisation’. month. ‘Even if I have to stay outside tribal people fled deeper into the forest. government set aside an area of for a few days, I like to return,’ he said. LETTERS A DAY Survival International has been rainforest for the Jarawa but it saw ‘The jungle is better.’ FROM SURVIVAL But five years ago, they began to instrumental in helping the Jarawa put them as ‘primitive’. Its officials took emerge. Perhaps because settlers their case to the Indian authorities. SUPPORTERS, gifts of food and cloth to the edge of were poaching too much of the Evidence it presented – showing that DROPPED ITS the forest: the Jarawa accepted them, reserve’s game. Perhaps because forced resettlement was fatal for other PLANS TO but mocked the officials by urinating loggers were clearing trees in quantities tribes, introducing diseases, destroying on their feet and squirting breast milk which altered the environment on which self-sufficiency, undermining self- © Paul Vallely, The Independent RESETTLE THE esteem and leaving them vulnerable to originally published as, ‘Under threat: an ancient tribe at them. they depend. Perhaps because in 1996 emerging from the forest.’ JARAWA.

4 5 GUARANI-KAIOWÁ A BLOOD-STAINED STRUGGLE FOR ANCESTRAL LANDS

contacted after the Europeans Guarani-Kaiowá area arrived in South America, but the last 500 years have not been favourable for them. Recife BRAZIL Two hundred years ago the Guarani Kaiowá occupied about eight million hectares of land in what is now known Rio de Janeiro as Mato Grosso do Sul. Today 30,000 of them occupy just 1 per cent of this land. All too often, this figure accounts for pitiful encampments hemmed in Panambizinho, Brazil between the road and the barbed-wire fences that keep them off the land. The earth in Mato Grosso do Sul is a distinctive terracotta red. It is the colour As you drive past, you see dozens of labour and old blood and it clings of families hunched under roofs made stubbornly to the flesh. Against the from refuse bags. They are condemned coppery tones of the Guarani Kaiowá to misery and hunger; without land they indians, it is hard to see where earth are unable to sustain themselves ends and skin begins. through their traditional methods of hunting, fishing and planting. Mato Grosso do Sul, a state in the south-west of Brazil which borders Occasionally, they are hired by the on Bolivia and Paraguay, means ‘thick farms as badly-paid labourers, or forest’ in Portuguese. The Guarani may be temporarily employed to work Kaiowá were here long before the trees 13-hour shifts in the nearby alcohol were cleared for the cattle ranches distilleries. But that often leads to Survival is working for the return of the and soya plantations that now stretch depression and alcoholism, which in Guarani-Kaiowá’s land. endlessly towards the horizon. These turn leads to conflict with the tribe and With their land secure, people were among the first to be to suicide; 320 Guarani-Kaiowá they will survive.

6 7 committed suicide between 1986 and agency working with the Guarani which pigs and deer with snares, rather the ancestral lands and to learn to 2000. The youngest was aged nine. is also supported by Survival than firearms, to avoid being caught pray and sing. International. by farmers. A nearby lake provides One reason why expulsion from their The village has a state-built school them with fish. traditional lands can lead to such a All members of the community are that provides a traditional Guarani desperate act is the profound spiritual involved: from the first meetings in Yet there is some semblance of education for students up to the age link that these people have to the land. which the religious chief identifies the traditional Kaiowá life here. Apart of 11, but the children then go on to For the Guarani, land is the origin of all territory to be reclaimed, to the moment from the few dozen mud huts, there attend a Protestant school in Dourados. life, and is considered to be a gift from they decide to occupy it. The is the typical communal prayer house, Some say they should stay in the the ‘great father’, Ñande Ru. community usually decides to stage the which resembles a large hangar. There village for their entire education. walk-in early in the the morning, which are small plantations of corn, sweet Marcos Veron, Their religion also states that death Yet there is an obvious taste for some typically summons the Federal Police. potato, bananas and pumpkin. Hens aspects of modern life in the village. Brazilian Indian should occur on the same land where cluck amongst the skinny legs of Anthropologists are then consulted on shaman and a leader a person was born. ‘Then we know it One community member who lobbies the location of ancient cemeteries, and children running about. The capitao for the village’s rights with local of the Guarani-Kaiowá is pure land. We know that it will give continues to give counsel to families the testimonies of village elders are people, was brutally us good food,’ explained Nelson, a government gets dropped off from town heard in debate. and settle disputes, but the community in a car, a mobile phone protruding killed in 2003. capitao, or chief counsel, of the tribe no longer has a cacique or religious in the small village of Panambizinho, The process can last for years and is from his top pocket and a video player leader to lead the songs that are Marcos was an old home to 325 Guarani. sometimes violent. Last January, one tucked under his arm. The capitao said designed to halt the rains, or shake friend of Survival. He that the village will accept government of the most important Guarani leaders, his sacred rattle. But there are also pragmatic reasons visited Europe in 2000 Marcos Veron, whose work was funding for brick houses so that they behind the epidemic of suicides. to speak about his supported by Survival, was shot and Balbina Aquino, the 102-year-old can replace the mud huts. Amilton Lopes, a Guarani man in Mato widow of the village’s last cacique, fight for land rights killed as he staged a walk-in on As I leave under an amber sky, a man Grosso do Sul, said: ‘Suicides occur said: ‘Before the landowners came, and to launch traditional land used by cattle ranchers. is singing to the setting sun in Guarani, among young people because they are this whole area was covered with Survival’s ground- shaking his rattle in time to his prayers. nostalgic for the past. Young people are Panambizinho is one such arduous forest. There was much more hunting breaking book, But his song is soon drowned out. nostalgic for the beautiful forests, they reclamation. Off a dirt track that runs back in those days. All the teenage ‘Disinherited’ – the Brazil’s most popular nightly soap want to eat fruits, go out and find from the main road between Campo boys had the traditional lip piercing first major publication opera is starting, its maddeningly honey, and use natural remedies from Grande and Dourados, the village has then.’ ever to challenge kitsch overture wafting from the mud the forest. One young person told me been recognised as indigenous land Brazil’s refusal to For the elder members of the hut next door. ‘ONE YOUNG he just didn’t want to live anymore since 1995. Yet, despite official recognise Indian land community, the lack of land has led because there was no reason, in his recognition from the Ministry of Justice, ownership. PERSON JUST to an irreplaceable loss of indigenous opinion, to carry on living – there is no the community is only able to access culture and has bred a new generation DIDN’T WANT TO hunting, no fishing, and the water is 75 hectares of the 1,250 recognised of people who aren’t interested in the LIVE ANYMORE polluted.’ as belonging to it, because the current old stories and customs. landowners are still awaiting BECAUSE THERE The Brazilian constitution recognises compensation. ‘Now the mobile phone has replaced the Indians’ rights to their ‘social WAS NO REASON, the rattle,’ Nelson said. ‘The suicides organisation, customs, languages, Such a proportion of land cannot bring IN HIS OPINION, happen when there is not enough land, beliefs and traditions’. The government self-sustainability and, once a month, but they also happen when there is TO CARRY ON acknowledges its responsibility to the village receives government food not enough spiritual guidance. Where demarcate the Indians’ traditional lands. parcels containing basic items such as LIVING – THERE IS tradition is strongest, suicides are less.’ oil, sugar, rice, beans and milk. ‘If we NO HUNTING, NO However, taking back such lands from Nelson recalls a time when there were had enough land, we would plant the farmers who have moved onto it is 250 caciques in the area. Now there FISHING, AND THE everything,’Nelson said. a laborious and painstaking process, are none. Asked what they want for WATER IS said Michael Feeney of the Technical At night, the men sneak into a nearby their children, the elders reply that they want the young people to stay on POLLUTED.’ Juridical Educational Institute, an forest reserve, where they hunt small © Louise Rimmer, The Independent

8 9 MARTU ABORIGINES THE ‘STOLEN GENERATION’ RETURN TO THE LAND OF THEIR BIRTH

of our ancestors were welcoming me Martu land back. It felt like a special place for me, the earth itself. I took my shoes off Broome • Port Hedland and stood on it, my birthing place.’ • The connection with the land described AUSTRALIA so eloquently by Doris in an interview

Perth at her home in Perth is the core of

Melbourne Aboriginal tradition, spirituality and beliefs. So the appropriation of their ancient lands was an especially cruel blow for Australia’s indigenous people, who were subjected to a government Perth, Australia policy of removing mixed-race children Fifty years after Doris Pilkington was from their parents and assimilating forcibly separated from her family, she them into the white community. persuaded her mother, Molly Craig, to take her back to the place where she Doris, 66, is a member of the ‘stolen was born; under a mulga tree on a generation’, as is her mother, whose cattle station in Western Australia’s story inspired the internationally ‘We are painting, as we have always done, remote Pilbara region. acclaimed feature film, Rabbit Proof to demonstrate our Fence. Molly and two other girls, all As mother and daughter drove through continuing link with our taken from their families, escaped from country and the rights Balfour Downs Station, Doris caught an institution in 1931 and walked 1,600 and responsibilities we sight of one tree and was struck by a km back home by following a fence that have to it. We paint to peculiar sensation. ‘I said, “That’s the ran the length of Western Australia. show the rest of the world one.” We stopped, and she said, “Yes, that we own this country that’s it.” We sat under the tree and Doris’s father belonged to the and the country owns us. Our painting is a talked. There were feelings of warmth Martudjara people, who were evicted in political act.’ all around me, and a breeze was the 1950s and resettled in government Galarrwuy Yunupingu, leader passing through. It was like the spirits camps on the fringes of the Great of the Gumatj people. 10 11 up in Christian-run missions and to be ashamed of our own people. orphanages, cut off from their language They tried to deprive us of our identity.’ and culture. ‘The first step in the In 1962, she was reunited with her journey of healing is to reconnect with parents and has since written three the land,’Doris said. ‘The land books about her family’s experiences, symbolises so much to us: it’s our including one on which Rabbit Proof family, our parents, our grandparents. Fence was based. She is relearning It’s the umbilical cord, the bond her native language and plans to use between mother and children.’ it to write children’s books. She is close Molly was taken – abducted, in effect – to her mother*, who is 87 and living in ‘Hello, I’m Doris from Jigalong, a remote township on Jigalong, but Annabelle – taken from Pilkington Garimara. the edge of the Western Desert, under Molly again at five and brought up in The feature film a policy introduced early last century a children’s home – is estranged from Rabbit Proof Fence, and not abandoned until 1965. the family. based on my book, Conceived in response to the perceived But the two communities established tells how my mother threat to ‘White Australia’ from the by the Martudjara, about 1,000 people Molly, my aunt Daisy intermingling of Aborigines and who speak 12 different languages, are and their cousin Europeans, its aim was to integrate thriving. Many lead traditional lives, Grace – and dozens mixed-race children into white society hunting local game and participating of Aboriginal children and ‘breed out’their colour. The ‘full- in ancient rituals. like them – wer e blood’Aborigines, it was believed, taken from their were becoming extinct. It is a spectacle that thrills Doris. ‘It has families by the been amazing for them to re-establish Molly was taken to Moore River, government and themselves on their traditional lands,’ a mission north of Perth. Aged 14, sent to live hundreds she said. ‘They are reconnecting the she ran away with her sister, Daisy of miles away . umbilical cord. They’re very strong Kadibil, and her cousin, Gracie Fields. communities. They’re protecting cultural After their mammoth trek, she moved ‘Survival helped my sites, rediscovering their language, to a cattle station, married an Aboriginal father’s people, the reviving their Creation stories. Martudjara of the Aborigine children Sandy Desert. The area was later used It was the largest victory for Aborigines, stockman, Toby Kelly, and had two Western Desert region drinking from a river, by the British to test ballistic missiles. who have lodged a series of similar daughters, Doris and Annabelle. ‘My father’s land is not desolate land using a traditional of Western Australia claims since a watershed High Court now. There are the sounds of children’s technique which does But when she went to Perth for medical In the early 1980s, the Martudjara laughter, of arguments, of everyday when they returned to not disturb the water. ruling in 1992 that indigenous people treatment, the authorities took the two began moving back to their desert living. The life is there. The spirits of their traditional land owned the land before European girls. So in 1941 Molly absconded homelands, setting up two new my grandparents are there and will in the 1980s.’ colonisation. Survival’s International again, managing to take Annabelle communities, Parnngurr and Punmu, always be.’ campaign is thought to have helped with her, and returned to Jigalong, with the help of Survival International. sway public opinion. again walking most of the way. Doris, * Since this article was written, Doris then aged three, grew up in Moore Pilkington’s mother has died. Survival funded water boreholes for the For Aborigines, afflicted by chronic River, believing she had been two communities. It also supported the health and social problems, the abandoned by her mother. In the Martudjara in a lengthy battle to reclaim restoration of native title rights is mission, she was beaten for speaking ownership of their ancestral lands, mitigating the historic effects of her native language. ‘They taught us which culminated in a High Court dispossession and alienation. It is Aboriginal culture was evil, that decision last year recognising their also assisting the psychological Aborigines were pagans and devil ‘native title’ rights to 136,000sq km, recovery of those belonging to the By Kathy Marks © The Independent worshippers,’she said. ‘They taught us Originally published as, ‘Areturn to the land of their an area the size of England. stolen generation, who were brought birth for ‘Stolen Generation.’

12 13 AYOREO BULLDOZERS THREATEN DEATH FOR FOREST TRIBE

The bulldozer is a defining moment HUNDREDS in Parojnai’s fugitive, fragmented life. OF LETTERS BRAZIL Although there are thought to be up to 5,000 members of his tribe, the Ayoreo, FROM SURVIVAL living in Paraguay and Bolivia, his SUPPORTERS family had been isolated from their PARAGUAY GALVANISED people for years. Intensive missionary ARGENTINA activity and the invasion of farmers THE ATTORNEY- Asunción on their traditional lands had forced Totobiegosode GENERAL’S land claim hundreds of them to abandon their OFFICE INTO Totobiegosode huts and live rough in the forest. territory TAKING ACTION. Eventually Parojnai and Ibore, who belong to one of the most isolated The burring noise came closer and Ayoreo sub-groups, the Totobiegosode, closer, then a roaring, then the aching became tired of their lonely existence sound of falling trees. It was the dry and anxious to find partners for their season, and the forest garden was in children. But they knew little of the full bloom: melon, beans, pumpkin cojñone, or ‘weird people’, the Ayoreo and corn. Surely the big, yellow word for whites, who awaited them bulldozer had come to eat the fruit, beyond the forest. The first contact and then eat the family who had was in 1998. As another bulldozer’s planted it. jaws closed in on the family, Parojnai Ibore dropped the carob fruit she summoned his elder sons to decide had just picked and ran. Her husband who would accompany him on The Ayoreo live in the vast Parojnai, dropped his tools, bow and his mission. scrub forest south of the rope in the scramble. Seeking shelter Amazon basin known as On the edge of the forest they came in the dark foliage, the family were the Chaco. Some across a white man. The forest- members of the tribe are scattered. One relative was not dwellers approached, gesturing with still uncontacted – the seen again. their hands, their strange sounds of last totally isolated Indians outside the Amazon. 14 15 We, the Ayoreo of Arocojnadi, have gathered to write this letter to the outside world.

Gabide (above): ‘W e don’t want to lose our traditional land because our forefathers lived here, we are still reassurance lost on the frightened was working with the cojñoi as a Ibore, an Ayoreo woman, I am a woman I still had to hunt for Injunctions against landowners that living here and, when Spanish speaker. ‘I kept saying don’t be farmhand. acts out the story of her anteaters. I got so tired. Now life is prevent them selling the land to first encounter with white we die, our children scared, cojñoi, although he was scared easier. We have our house; we have developers have little effect. As Their new friend took the family to people. Her family spent of us,’Parojnai says. ‘It was in his face, our things stored in our house.’ recently as last September one firm must live here.’ a tribe of several hundred Ayoreo years isolated in the forest he was always moving his head looking as ranchers’ bulldozers sent bulldozers into the heart of in a camp run by the American The couple are desperately concerned Eduejai: ‘I don’t want around in fear.’ carved up their territor y, Ayoreo land. The tracks of another fundamentalist group New Tribes for their relatives, living uncontacted in the whites to have before they were forced company penetrate the core of the But then began a ritual of trust: water Mission. But the family could not the forest. Footprints and deserted huts our land because it out in 1998. In March Totobiegosode-Ayoreo forest; only was offered to the Indians, who offered flourish away from the woods and 2004 another group of suggest there may be hundreds of is my homeland. W e hundreds of letters sent by Survival their bees’honey. ‘He brought white, their traditional sources of food, and, 17 uncontacted Ayoreo Ayoreo living a precarious life. But there want your help, we supporters galvanised the attorney- strange biscuits. And other things like many fellow tribespeople, became emerged, and issued a is cause for hope. Thanks to a 20-year don’t want the whites plea for the bulldozers general’s office into halting 300 men which we now know were empañadas desperately ill. Survival International campaign by Survival International, the to have our land, to stop destroying about to start logging operations there. (pastries).’As conversation between likened conditions in the camp to their forest. New Tribes Mission has abandoned its because if we give the two was fruitless, Parojnai offered ‘semi-slavery’. practice of using contacted Ayoreans to Verena Regehr, a Swiss anthropologist them the land they a necklace made of purugode (black hunt isolated relatives and bring them who works for the Totobiegosode won’t look after it, But due to the work of one of Survival’s seeds). A red-striped football shirt into camps. Support Group, fears the invasions they will destroy it partners, a Paraguayan organisation was given which Ibore still wears. could result in deaths by violent clashes all, but we look after called the Totobiegosode Support The question of land ownership for the or disease transmission. ‘These people the land.’ After this first fearful, yet friendly Group, Parojnai and Ibore are now Ayoreo people is more slippery. are still hunter-gatherers who exist on contact, the family returned to the living in a community of 12 Ayorean Although the government is required by the land. If these companies invade forest. Months later, they found families in an area the Paraguayan international law, and its constitution, to their gardens and woods, extinction is themselves at the boundary of a cattle government bought for them from buy and hand over traditional Ayoreo a real danger.’ ranch, and decided to approach the landowners. ‘Life on the run from the lands to the tribes, so far, only a quarter whites again. This time their words bulldozers was very hard for me,’Ibore of the traditional territory is back in were not incomprehensible. They had says. ‘We moved with all our things Ayoreo hands. Louise Rimmer © The Independent Originally published as, ‘Roar of the bulldozers could stumbled upon a fellow Ayoreo, who from one place to another. Even though sound the death knell for tribe of forest-dwellers.’

16 17 TRIBES OF PAPUA TRIBES STILL LIVING IN FEAR OF INDONESIA

to some of the most remote tribes in THE INDONESIAN Biak PAPUA NEW GUINEA the world except for Brazil. Jayapura MILITARY’S The tribal leader says that West Papua, PAPUA TACTICS TO Timika formerly Irian Jaya, is in, ‘a life or death SUPPRESS situation’. Rumbiak, now teaching at Columbia, is the head of an indigenous INDEPENDENCE human rights coalition in West Papua HAVE TAKEN NO called the Institute for Human Rights Study and Advocacy (ELSHAM). FEWER THAN AUSTRALIA 100,000 CIVILIAN Its mission is peace for the province, which has been fighting for freedom LIVES. New York, USA since 1962 when its former colonial masters the Netherlands ceded it to Sitting in the Deluxe Café on Indonesian control. Broadway, just south of Columbia University on the Upper West Side Human rights observers calculate that of Manhattan, John Rumbiak is far the Indonesian military’s tactics to from his native land. suppress independence have taken no fewer than 100,000 civilian lives. It has Home is Papua, a province of been compounded by the avarice of Indonesia the size of France foreign firms for lumber and minerals. which has suffered violence for West Papua occupies the western half nearly forty years. And it seems of New Guinea, the eastern end is set to become worse. independent Papua New Guinea. With Rumbiak belongs to one of the only 0.01 per cent of the world’s ‘You can kill me, cut off indigenous groups who inhabited population, it is home to 15 per cent of the planet’s known languages. my head if you will, but Papua before the Indonesians arrived. my body will walk back to His people are from Biak, an island just It also has an abundance of lumber, that land. It is ours.’ off the coast of Papua, which is home copper and gold. When the Dutch Papuan man imprisoned over a land dispute. 18 19 surrendered West Papua to Indonesia of President Megawati Sukarnoputri The tribal peoples it was on the understanding that has changed direction. It is moving to of Papua are calling there would be a referendum on divide West Papua into three provinces, increasingly loudly for their right to decide independence. But the vote in 1969 apparently to weaken the pro- their own future, to was fixed by the Indonesian authorities. independence movement. The fact be independent from The result left West Papua in that East Timor finally did break away Indonesia and to live Indonesian hands. Frustration spawned after bloodshed and international on their own lands an armed independence group called intervention in 1999 does not bode in peace. the Organisasi Papua Merdeka (OPM, well for West Papua. or the Free Papua Movement). ‘The independence of East Timor ‘Any negotiations, The Indonesian military was brutal in has produced a fear...,’Rumbiak which are linked its response. Meanwhile, Jakarta, with explains. ‘They are not going to let to our land and support from the World Bank, set up any other parts of the country follow which are being a transmigration policy, encouraging East Timor.’It is the violent precursor held between the different ethnic groups from other to independence in East Timor that government and islands in the Indonesian archipelago concerns him. Indonesian as well to settle in West Papua. The aim was This year has seen Timbul Silaen as foreign companies, to rob the indigenous peoples of become West Papua’s new police always occur without political and economic control. chief – the same job that he held in the consultation or Meanwhile, foreign companies were East Timor during its bloody the consent of the invited to draw wealth from the land. independence drive. (Silaen has indigenous people Most infamous has been the American recently sued Rumbiak and ELSHAM of West Papua. So we mining company, Freeport McMoRan for allegations it made about recent conclude that foreign and Rio Tinto which extracts gold killings and police involvement.) and copper. people see us, not as human beings, but as More alarming are reports by ELSHAM A recent study by Yale University creatures that are still of the recent arrival in West Papua of alleged that the ‘Indonesian in the evolution stage Eurico Guterres, the leader of anti- government has shown a callous to becoming human independence militia in East Timor disregard for the basic human dignity beings. Consequently , blamed for much bloodshed. of the people of West Papua’. these peoples – ‘With the biggest Muslim population in especially the Human rights group Survival the world, they need Indonesia as a International assisted local people companies and friend,’he says. Rumbiak knows he WITH ONLY 0.01 in blocking plans for a Scott Paper the Indonesian must return to West Papua. But in pulp mill. It threatened serious PER CENT OF government – treat recent months, he has faced another environmental harm. Survival was us like animals.’ challenge: threats against his life. THE WORLD’S also among the groups that managed Tom Beanal, Amungme chief POPULATION, talking at the United Nations to persuade the World Bank to stop human rights commission. funding transmigration. WEST PAPUA

Tensions eased somewhat after IS HOME TO 15 Indonesia’s President Suharto was PER CENT OF ousted from power in 1998. In 2001, THE PLANET’S West Papua was offered political autonomy and an increased share of © David Usborne, The Independent KNOWN mining revenues. But the government Originally published as, ‘Papua’s tribes live in fear of death and extortion by invaders.’ LANGUAGES.

20 21 INNU IN CANADA, DESPAIR CLAIMS EVEN THE LIVES OF CHILDREN

Nitassinan dollars into settling them. But the Innu are not giving thanks. CANADA Something seems to have gone terribly wrong in the process of assimilating the Quebec Innu, who number 20,000 and whose Labrador homeland, known to them as Nitassinan, is a massive and remote territory of sub-arctic spruce, lakes, Newfoundland rivers and rocky barrens in Labrador and Quebec. Theirs is a community racked by violence, addiction to alcohol and glue-sniffing and one of the worst Life is surely as comfortable as it suicide rates in the world. has ever been for the Innu Indians of Labrador province in eastern Only in the past few years has the Canada. Only a few decades ago, plight of the Innu, who are unrelated to they were still living in tents and the Inuit Eskimos farther north, come to roaming their lands year-round the attention of the international living off caribou and fish. Today, community. In 1999, the UN Human they have houses with running water Rights Committee described their plight and there are toys for their children as the ‘most pressing issue facing at Christmas. Canadians’. The same year, Survival In the tundra of the International, published a scathing Labrador peninsula, a Thanks for this change in circumstance tragedy is being played report called Canada’s Tibet – the are due to Catholic missionaries who, out. The Innu suffer the Killing of the Innu. in the fifties and sixties, concluded that highest suicide rate on earth as one of the world’s the Innu should join the mainstream of ‘In the tundra of the Labrador most powerful nations society, and to the Canadian peninsula, a tragedy is being played occupies their land, takes government which has pumped out,’ the report said. ‘These indigenous their resources and seems hundreds of millions of people suffer the highest suicide rate hell-bent on transforming them into Euro-Canadians. 22 23 people from their way of living. They for high-spending travellers and hunters had a feeling of purpose in their lives eager to experience the loneliness of that is radically absent now.’ the Labrador wilderness. If it works, the lodge will offer jobs to young and old Even on the day we talked, the Innu Innu alike. It will also generate income. were learning of yet another suicide, a young woman in Natuashish. Details With that money, the two men hope to were sparse, but it appeared to be a begin the education programmes, story of marital infidelity and of a young which, with luck, will begin to reconnect husband living hundreds of miles away younger generations of Innu with their working in a nickel mine and living in a cultural past. ‘We are rapidly losing our ‘I’m very happy to camp. Another suicide had happened own culture, because young people are tell you my own stor y. just two weeks earlier. This was not a alienated from who they really are,’ Mr My name is Mar y happy Christmas season for the Innu. Ashini says. Georgette Mistenapeo. Mr Ashini, who lived with his family in It will be in the hope of raising money I wasn’t born in a the tundra for seven years until 1990, for the foundation, and for the hospital. I was bor n knows who to blame. ‘Since the completion of the lodge, that Mr Ashini in the countr y. Innu holding a religious on Earth as one of the world’s most has lived among the Innu for more than service in the country. government agencies and the will fly to London next month. Despite powerful nations occupies their land, 25 years. Mr Jenkinson, who is We all know that the missionaries became involved, trying the suicide of his son, he still manages takes their resources and seems hell- married to an Innu, reaches a similarly white government to solve our problems for us, they have to retain some sense of humour. While bent on transforming them into Euro- distressing conclusion. Things have just created more destruction for us.’ in England, he says, he will be looking wants us to lose our Canadians.’ not improved. Instead, he says: for ‘contributions from all my millionaire way of life. They think ‘I think things are likely to get ‘I am scared for my children and my we should live like Survival’s report noted that between friends’. He chuckles quietly. Just one considerably worse.’ nephews and nieces. People are dying white people, but that 1990 and 1998, the Innu suffered a millionaire friend interested in helping every two weeks. We are wondering will not happen suicide rate of 178 per 100,000, nearly Both men offer similar diagnoses for the Innu would be enough. who will be next all the time.’ because we have our 13 times the rate for the rest of Canada. what ails these people. True, they have own culture, traditions Their despair was tragically dramatised been moved into new homes with roads Mr Ashini and Mr Jenkinson are not idly and values. When I go when Napes Ashini, one of the Innu and all the conveniences. Indeed, a watching the catastrophe. Together for a walk somewher e leaders who flew to London to help community of Innu that used to live on they set up the Tshikapisk Foundation in the countr y, I look launch the report, learnt during his an island at Davis Inlet, close to Goose several years ago to explore ways to at the flowers. They visit that his teenage son, Andrew, Bay, has just been shifted to a new preserve Innu culture and the Innu way are very special had killed himself. Today, Mr Ashini, inland settlement called Natuashish, of life before it drains away. On a site flowers because I use 43, is preparing to return to London with new houses and a shiny new more than 200 miles from Natuashish them when I’m sick. I to see again if, with Survival’s help, hockey stadium. But, with few jobs on the shores of Lake Kamistastin, in deep caribou territory, they set about use my land in a ver y he can remind outsiders of the Innu available, they are mostly without building a lodge. special way. When I struggle. He is doing so for one purpose. Once nomadic hunters, they ‘PEOPLE ARE go to meetings in big compelling reason: since the publication are now a trapped people, relying on DYING EVERY Visit the lake today and you will see the cities, I don’t see that of the 1999 report, little has happened government handouts. lodge, in pristine fresh timber, standing many trees like TWO WEEKS. to improve the prospects of his people. in the snows as if ready for use. But it ‘They are stunned by the changes willows, or flowers.’ ‘I am beginning to think that we don’t is only a shell and the two men are WE ARE and they are caught up in a process Innu elder have any future at all,’he says. ‘That desperately looking for funds to build WONDERING of change that has left their heads we are just stuck here.’ its interior. WHO WILL spinning,’ Mr Jenkinson says. ‘And the His close friend and a partner in trying process is helped along by alcohol and When it is done, it will hopefully David Usborne © The Independent BE NEXT ALL to find solutions for the tribe is an other mind-altering substances. It is all serve as a base for eco-tourism, with Originally published as, ‘Move to modern life has brought death and despair to a once-proud people who THE TIME.’ Englishman, Anthony Jenkinson, who traceable to the separation of these adventure holiday companies using it used to roam the frozen wastes.’

24 25 GANA AND GWI ‘BUSHMEN’ DESPISED PEOPLES FORCED OUT OF THEIR KALAHARI HOME

A few yards away, four Bushmen from ZIMBABWE the nearby village of Molapo lolled in BOTSWANA the grass, laughing and talking. One man rolled tobacco in what looked like a twist of newspaper, took an enormous pull and then passed it to New Xade his neighbour who did the same until they had all had a turn. Bushmen share everything; sharing is the key SOUTH AFRICA to survival in one of the harshest Central Kalahari Game Reserve environments on the planet.

Naked except for their loin cloths, if you It was a day that promised heat but did not count the odd pouch made from for the present it was still cool in the the skin of a steenbok, they carried shade. Over breakfast, I had been only the tools of their trade, a bow, watching some springbok ‘pronking’ a arrows and hunting spears. They few hundred yards away in the dried-up were going to show us how they bed of the Okwa river; what they call a hunted springbok, in the way the fossil river in the Kalahari. Pronking is Bushmen had always hunted, long a display of sexual vigour by male before the white men, and even the springboks, in which they race one black men came, when the Bushmen another across the sand and leap with their rock art, click languages, seven or eight feet in the air on ramrod- tracking skills and complex spirit world ‘If I thought you were stiff legs, bouncing like mechanical inhabited most of Africa. Then, they primitive would I visit toys. It is a wonderful sight, all done were indeed, ‘lords of the desert’. you in London and to impress the females, although they destroy your home, expel your wife and remained supremely uninterested, My companions were well aware we were tourists and that the Bushmen, children and leave them grazing on the succulent plants of without food or a roof although they still hunted regularly, the Kalahari, greener and lusher than over their heads?’ were putting on a show for us. But I had expected. Bushman

26 27 when they moved off, the bowman in in the sky and a few seconds later a ‘IF YOU MOVE thatching grass of Bushman huts and in her about a newspaper report saying front, the others close behind, in step large, noisy lorry broke the skyline and THE BUSHMEN each a group of bemused-looking people who refused to leave the CKGR and in single file, and began their stalk came roaring and clattering towards us, Bushmen peered at us disconsolately. were threatened with the army. ‘For a across the shallow depression which closely followed by a second lorry. FROM THEIR long time they have said if you don’t Although I did not know the full story was the Okwa valley, I felt a sense ORIGINAL PLACE move then the army will come in to yet, they were being evicted from their of mounting excitement. Yes, the Immediately, the headman of the move you. But we haven’t seen the AND MAKE THEM homes in the Central Kalahari Game Bushmen had become part of the village, Mathambo Sesana, who was army. They also say they will drop a Reserve (CKGR), created for the modern world, yet we were watching acting as our guide, ran towards the DEPENDENT bomb on us if we don’t move.’ Bushmen and the game they lived on a ritual which had been re-enacted in track which lay between the hunters ON THE by the liberal British administration of Ganema, a handsome woman, ended the heart of the Kalahari for 20,000 and the springbok herd, waving at the GOVERNMENT, what was then Bechuanaland, in 1961. on a passionate note. ‘I was born here, years or more. driver to stop. Mathambo, gesticulating Mogetse Kaboikanyo urgently, was clearly trying to persuade my mother suckled me here, so I will was a charismatic YOU ARE KILLING It was the latest move in the long, All our eyes were on the slim brown the first driver to stop until the hunt was not move. Men, women and children, leader for the THEIR MINDS.’ drawn-out campaign to force the bodies, moving now in a half-crouch over. But he paid scant attention, nobody wants to move. I want to die Bushmen and Bushman Bushmen out of their ancestral as the springbok herd, which had revving his engine noisily. Finally, he here.’ That was nearly six years ago, Kgalagadi peoples territories and into resettlement seemed oblivious of the hunters’ let in his clutch with a crash and went in early 1998. The most brutal physical and a powerful voice locations, where they can neither attempt to drive the Bushmen out of the approach, began to divide and drift roaring off down the road. in their fight for their hunt nor gather bush foods and which away. We were close to le moment CKGR came in 2000 when a posse of land. His unshakeable The spell broke. The springbok they call, significantly, ‘places of death’. critique, when the Bushmen would Botswana wildlife officials and police convictions, however , The Botswana government had drove into Molapo and arrested 13 either have to drop flat and crawl to stampeded and the hunters were left could not save him. trumpeted long and loud that it was Bushmen for alleged illegal hunting. within striking range, despite the choking in the dust. Before the lorries In 2002, the police only ‘persuading’the Bushmen to leave They were held in a bush camp where, almost total lack of cover, or try to disappeared, I noticed two things. First, destroyed his the reserve for their own good, not an official Survival investigation found, rush the herd and cut off a straggler, that they belonged to the Ghanzi community, poured forcing them. This bare-faced lie took they were beaten and tortured for three or perhaps even split-up. It was an district council, which controls that part ‘How can anyone argue away their precious in successive British and other days. Mathambo, the Molapo headman, absorbing dilemma, unresolved as we of the Kalahari; they even bore a logo that it’s better to live in water, and threatened the wilderness with governments over the years but it was also arrested and later died of a waited under the great bowl of the which showed a Bushman hunter with to burn them all if animals than be here [the never fooled the Bushmen, as I heart attack. African sky. Suddenly, we heard what drawn bow, flanked by an eland and an they did not get out. relocation site]?’ discovered next day when I talked I at first thought was an aeroplane. But oryx. The second, that both lorries were Mogetse was trucked James Kilo, government to Ganema, the wife of the Molapo The final expulsion came in 2002, when it was too loud and close to be anything piled high with the long poles and representative to the resettlement medicine man. She explained how the Botswana government, which had site at New Xade; a the government’s ‘persuasion’ worked. already shut down the CKGR’s mobile clinic and other amenities, cut off the few weeks later his ‘They say we come to pour money water supply to the six Bushman heart just stopped. over you,’ she began. ‘We will take villages and ordered the last remaining His community, wher e down your houses and help you to inhabitants out. Despite protests from a his ancestors had move towards the sunset, but I don't few British parliamentarians and one or been buried for want to move towards the sunset, two voices in the European Parliament, countless generations, because that is where you die.’That is the deportation of the Bushmen and the now lies empty . a familiar Bushman belief. ‘They say almost inevitable destruction of their to us you must discourage any visitors culture, among the oldest and most from staying and camping here. No one fascinating in the world, were met with can camp here. You just want visitor’s almost deafening silence. The British tea (meaning money or handouts). Government, the European Union, This is not your land, you stole this above all, the United Nations, made land. You are finishing the game, you not a murmur. The forced removal of have stolen the land and killed the the Bushmen, in violation of game.’None of this was true. I asked Botswana’s own constitution, and the

28 29 genocidal treatment of the country’s indigenous population, has been almost completely ignored. What happened to New Labour’s much-vaunted ‘ethical’ foreign policy?

Only one major international has taken up the Bushman cause. It has done so with a courage and conviction that puts everyone else to shame, except, that is, the Bushmen’s own organisation, First People of the Kalahari, led by Mathambo’s brother, Roy Sesana.

Survival has launched a postcard campaign criticising the diamond giant, De Beers, for supporting the Botswana government’s policy of ‘kicking Bushmen out of their ancestral lands’. De Beers, which has a major stake in Botswana’s diamond production, the biggest in the world, is using the model, Iman*, to help them sell more diamonds, the postcard adds. ‘Should people who support indigenous peoples boycott Iman and De Beers? We think they should, until the Bushmen are back on their territory and their rights to it are recognised by both the Botswana government and De Beers.’

Stephen Corry, Survival’s director, who recalls that it took 20 years to ‘Gugama, the creator, persuade Brazil to respect the made us a long, long time Amazonian Indians’ rights, says: ago – so long ago, I don’t ‘Mounting international outrage is know when. Our children’s future is rooted in us making them [the Botswana teaching them our culture, government] realise that the world hunting the animals and will not stand by as 20,000 years of gathering the fruits and Bushman culture is casually destroyed’. roots... When we hunt, Today you too can do something to we dance. And when help the Bushmen’s stand. the rain comes, we are filled with joy. God made * Since this article was written, Iman has the Bushman and this is ended her contract with DeBeers. our place, where everything follows nature

Sandy Gall © The Independent and gives life.’ Originally published as, ‘The long walk to obscurity.’ Mogetse Kaboikanyo 30 31 YANOMAMI FOREST SHAMAN’S GLOBAL ODYSSEY FOR HIS PEOPLE

Yanomami people. Their home is the northern territory VENEZUELA Amazon, deep in the hills that lie between Brazil and Venezuela. After their land is secured from the interests of gold-prospectors and cattle-ranchers, • the Yanomami are able to thrive as their ancestors did for thousands • of years.

gold mining claims Life for the Yanomami is communal; BRAZIL tribal groups of up to 400 can share the same house, although there are hearths for individual families around Rio de Janeiro, Brazil a central area cleared for rituals and When Davi Yanomami jets in and out dancing. The communities live by of international conferences, he wears hunting and gathering, cultivating his traditional feathers rather than a crops and growing medicines in large suit, although few hotels can offer him gardens. Hunting is reciprocal, with his preferred hammock. Yet this is a meat being shared with family and minor discomfort. For, through his friends. ‘There is always enough food engagement with the modern world, in the forest,’ Davi says. the charismatic spokesman for the The Yanomami are also deeply spiritual Yanomami, one of South America’s people, who summon shamanic spirits most numerous forest-dwelling tribal using an hallucinogenic snuff called people, has helped secure their rights yakoana. These spirits are said to live One of the Yanomami’s over ancestral land and preserve a in the mountains, wind, thunder and staples is manioc. This is lifestyle that has nature at its core. darkness and help cure forest illnesses, just one of the 500 species of plant they use Davi represents an estimated 27,000 control the weather and generally keep for food, medicine, Yanomami, the continent’s last an eye on the world, which can be a making objects and substantial group of isolated indigenous perilous place for the Yanomami. building houses. 32 33 But not all experience with the non- on the worst type of white man, the indigenous ‘white man’, or the nape, yoasi, ‘men with white skin, who are as Yanomami call them, is negative. bald with glasses and go around in In recent years, the Yanomami have cars and swim in swimming pools. accepted funding from international What I really mean is men who look organisations, including Survival, to to the forest, and all they see is money.’ set up their own school, with the aim Davi’s stereotypes are much less of writing down their language and damaging than those of a leading history for the first time. American anthropologist, Napoleon ‘It is important for us to become Chagnon, who once pronounced the Speaking in Italy to a educated, to be able to write about our Yanomami as ‘sly, aggressive and TV studio audience, culture to pass onto future generations,’ intimidating’ people who lived in a Davi Yanomami said, Davi says. He learnt Portuguese to state of ‘chronic warfare’. The ‘I am returning today translate the advice of white doctors anthropologist’s views, which have to Brazil, and after I after an epidemic of malaria in his been denounced as racist and will go back to my community. ‘I also want white people sensationalist, are still current in some community and I will to be able to read our language, just universities. But Davi is dismissive. ‘We tell them that you as it is important for us to speak theirs.’ get violent only when the white man interviewed me and messes with us,’he says. ‘It is the rest The Yanomami are also learning to are doing something of the world which is violent. You see it read a microscope slide to study the to preserve our Earth. in the big cities, in Iraq, in the United impact of malaria. ‘The meeting of You treated me well States. We don’t have bombs or guns. white and Yanomami healing gives and I’m happy and I When we have conflict, we just fight us the strength to get rid of disease,’ among ourselves. That’s normal.’ want to say this to The future of the During the 1970s and 1980s, they sure that the law is being implemented,’ he says. ‘Our shamanic spirits can everyone, all the Yanomami rests with the suffered hugely from Brazilian gold- Davi says. cure only the diseases they know, the But the Yanomami’s real battle, he children and women young, whom they hope miners invading their land. Villages diseases of the forest. The white doctor knows, is a different one. It is against will maintain their ‘The miners are still coming in, and and men. I want to were destroyed, the Yanomami were ancestors’ traditions. cures tuberculosis, malaria, pneumonia the corrosive homogenisation of leave the words of a shot at, and ravaged by diseases to bringing disease with them. The and worms.’These diseases were Western culture. Yanomami in all your which they had no immunity. Twenty farmers are chopping down the trees brought in by the white man. hearts. Thank you.’ per cent of the population were wiped and destroying the forest. The land ‘We will keep on fighting,’he says. out in seven years. Finally, after a 20- gives us life, and if we keep the land, The Yanomami are reluctant to ‘We Indian people from different tribes BUT THE year international campaign led by we give life back to it, because no encourage further integration, preferring are getting together and getting one can destroy it when it remains to fight for the right to be different. ‘We stronger. We have learnt a lot; we are YANOMAMI’S Survival International, the miners were expelled and the land was demarcated in our hands.’ don’t know about commerce,’Davi learning to speak Portuguese so that REAL BATTLE, as the Yanomami Park by the Brazilian says. ‘We use our forest without paying. we can complain and demand. Don’t The vulnerability of the Yanomami HE KNOWS, IS government in 1992. The whites come and take our earth to you worry, we will keep on fighting. was brutally exposed in 1993, when make things to put in shops, where they Fighting for our rights.’ A DIFFERENT But the Yanomami do not have 16 of them were killed by gold-miners wait for the price to go up so they can ONE. IT IS ownership rights over their land. in what became known as the Haximu gain more at our expense. We Cattle-ranchers and miners continue massacre. And there are threats of a AGAINST indigenous people use the earth to to threaten them, and the Indians (to more insidious kind. The increased plant and then we divide food up THE CORROSIVE use the term they prefer) wish to own militarisation of the area has brought between our relatives and our friends.’ HOMOGENISATION the land, rather than simply feel they barracks full of soldiers who bring are renting it from the government. sexually transmitted diseases with Misconceptions about Indians and non- OF WESTERN The Independent ‘By law it is forbidden to invade them, infecting Indian women who indigenous abound. It is hard to tell if © Louise Rimmer, Davi is joking when he speaks solemnly Originally published as, ‘The threatened forest people CULTURE. Yanomami land, but nobody is making sell sex for food and coffee. who are learning the language of survival.’

34 35 These articles were first published in The Independent, December 4, 2003 – January 6, 2004. With our thanks to Sandy Gall, Kathy Marks, Louise Rimmer, David Usborne, Paul Vallely and The Independent for kindly allowing us to reproduce these articles.

Picture credits: cover © Kate Eshelby/Survival; inside cover © Claudia Andujar/Survival; pp2 and 3 © Salomé/Survival; p5 © Sophie Grigg/Survival; pp6 and 9 © João Ripper/Survival; pp10 and 21 © John Miles/Survival; p12 © Penny Tweedie/Panos; pp14, 16 and 17 © Jonathan Mazower/Survival; p18 © Jerry Callow/Survival; p21 © Survival; p22, 24 & 25 © Adam Hinton/Survival; p27, 28 & 29 © Stephen Corry/Survival; p31 & 35 © Fiona Watson/Survival; p32, 34 Victor Englebert/Survival; facing page © Claudia Andujar/Survival; back cover © João Ripper/Survival.

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