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Article The Influence of Political Factors on the Architecture of Ducal Castles Owned by the Griffin Dynasty

Jakub Ignacy Goł˛ebiewski Department of Architecture and Urban Planning, West Pomeranian University of Technology in Szczecin, 70-310 Szczecin, Poland; [email protected]; Tel.: +48-692-400-944



Received: 6 November 2020; Accepted: 27 November 2020; Published: 1 December 2020


Abstract: The subject of the article is an analysis of the ideological and political factors that influenced the architectural transformation of ducal residences which belonged to the Griffin dynasty during the Prussian-German and later Polish rule. The article verifies the scale of this impact and the formal effects of actions taken in the context of the entire Pomeranian Duchy. The research is based on a selected set of ducal castles from the Pomeranian region and uses analytical and comparative methods. In the course of the research, it was possible to confirm the influence of political and ideological factors on the status of the preserved heritage of the Pomeranian Dukes, both on the part of the Prussian-German and Polish authorities. In both cases, these actions were caused by the desire to take over symbolic control over the space after territorial changes. These actions were aimed either at eliminating elements foreign to a given nation and state from the cultural landscape of Pomerania or at their transformation and familiarization. In the process of transforming ducal castles, utility factors also played a significant role in the Prussian-German period, while after 1945 the important factor was the then conservation doctrine.

Keywords: architecture; West Pomerania; the Griffin dynasty; policy; cultural space; Prussian absolutism; reconstruction; conservation of monuments

1. Introduction In a broader context, this article focuses on the influence of power and political relations on the form of national heritage in the European cultural area. Throughout the centuries, Europe has been the scene of many struggles between the tribes and nations inhabiting it, and the borders of individual territories have changed many times, often with the use of military force. As a result of these conquests, the elements of the cultural heritage of the conquered peoples found in a given area were often deliberately annihilated or significantly transformed, manifesting the emergence of new authority in a given territory (Bartetzky 2012, pp. 17–32). The language of architecture was used in these activities in various ways. From Roman times, spatial solutions and forms of development characteristic of the territory of the empire were introduced into the conquered lands. They became signs of spatial belonging to the new state. This form of taking control over a given territory and introducing native architectural forms could be observed many times. Furthermore, architectural objects erected in conquered areas were often saturated with symbols and allegories, determining the allegiance to a given state (Norberg-Schulz 1999, pp. 42–43). The phenomenon can be explained by the division of space into “our own” and “strange”, a division which determines to attitude of its actual users. In case space is classified as strange, it needs to be marked and assimilated by the convergence of spatial forms in line with social relations and ideology. The process leads to the adaptation of space to the user’s expectations, values, and needs (Jałowiecki 2010, pp. 24–27). There are numerous historical examples of conversion, from rebuilding to complete demolishing. Specific buildings that were symbols of political power or religious cults

Arts 2020, 9, 124; doi:10.3390/arts9040124 www.mdpi.com/journal/arts Arts 2020, 9, 124 2 of 22 were demolished, rebuilt, or reconstructed (Basista 2009, p. 86). The goal was to achieve symbolic domination over a given space, and thus also over its inhabitants (Wallis 1967, p. 71). Castles, which also acted as centers of power, were particularly vulnerable to this type of conversion. The area of Western Pomerania, which is currently within the borders of Poland, is an interesting example of the abovementioned dependencies resulting from national and territorial changes (Labuda 1985, pp. 9–14). For centuries, this area has been the arena of struggles between Germanic, Slavic, and Nordic peoples, each of which left their mark on the land (Piskorski 1999, pp. 57–92). From the Middle Ages to modern times, the Slavic Griffin dynasty exercised sovereignty over a large part of Pomerania, a part which was repeatedly Germanized. After the dynasty ended, this area was successively under the rule of Sweden, Prussia, and Germany, and it now belongs to Poland. The main aim of this article is to show the impact of the political changes and individual governments that reigned in Pomerania after the fall of the Griffin dynasty on the material heritage. The author is interested in ducal residences which have undergone numerous transformations and also been conditioned politically and ideologically. This topic has already been studied many times, but on the sidelines of other scientific research focused on the architectural forms of Pomeranian castles (Dziurla 1959; Radacki 1976; Kroman 1992). The most comprehensive and in-depth analysis of the influence of the Prussian absolutism on Szczecin’s urban planning and architecture was presented in the publication “Szczecin barokowy” (Słomi´nskiet al. 2000), while the attitude of Polish authorities and Poles to the post-German cultural space was extensively described in “Mi˛edzyStettinem a Szczecinem. Metamorfoza miasta od 1945 do 2005” (Musekamp 2013). The issue of the reconstruction of Szczecin’s monuments has also been discussed in recent years (Fiuk 2017; Gwiazdowska 2016), which proves that the topic is still relevant and includes many aspects that have not been explored yet. In the context of the research so far, this paper attempts to verify the scale of political and ideological factors in the transformation of ducal architecture throughout history in a broad regional context. In the first part of the research, the author presents the context of political and national transformations in Pomerania during the reign of the Griffin Dynasty. At that time, relations between the Dukes and Brandenburg as well as the Kingdom of Poland to a large extent determined the future attitude of Germany and Poland to the dynasty’s heritage. Another part describes the development of ducal castle architecture during the rule of the Griffins, which is followed by the transformation of the castles during the Prussian-German and Polish periods. The discussion examines the scale of conversion and underlying motivation, while differentiating utility and political factors. The summary attempts to assess the impact of political factors on the architectural form of the ducal castles.

2. Materials and Methods In order to achieve research goals, a comparative analysis of selected examples was conducted. The objects were selected on the basis of the previously formulated classification of ducal castles in Western Pomerania (Radacki 1976, pp. 48–105). Three examples from the present-day territory of Poland (Szczecin, Słupsk, Darłowo) were selected for in-depth study, which allowed for a comparative analysis of the attitude of Prussian-German and Polish authorities towards the Griffins’ heritage. The selected buildings were located in the most prominent political centers of the former principality and they were given the most representative character. Therefore, during the German and Polish rule, these castles were subjected to the strongest formal transformation. Castles that remained in Germany after 1945 were excluded from the extensive analysis and so were the castles destroyed by Swedes and Brandenburgers, as well as those in peripheral locations. Nevertheless, in order to obtain a broader background of the phenomenon, the attitude of the German authorities to the castles in Wkryuj´scie (Ückemünde), Wołogoszcz (Wolgast), Szczecinek, and Białogard was also analyzed. The analysis of individual objects focused on various stages that shaped the form of the ducal residence during the Griffin dynasty (1046–1637), Prussian-German rule (1720–1945), and Polish rule (after 1945). The presentation of the original form of each building allowed for a later comparison of transformations during the Prussian-German period and the Polish period. Selected objects were Arts 2020, 9, 124 3 of 22 analyzed using historical-interpretative, iconological, and comparative methods. The analysis of the historical and political context was significant in assessing the influence authorities had on the architecture of ducal residences. It should be noted that, in the first phase, the period of Prussian-German rule in Pomerania coincides with the Prussian absolute monarchy (1701–1806), and in the next phase with the German Empire (1871–1918). Both periods are characterized by a significant influence of the central government on architecture (Słomi´nskiet al. 2000; Makała 2011). We can see a similar strong political influence after 1945, when the communist regime influenced the architecture and reconstruction after Poland’s recovery of Pomerania. In the above context, an analysis of selected ducal castles focuses on changes to their external form, their functions, and symbolic gestures of the new authorities, which testify to their attitude towards these buildings. This distinction is based on a list of representative architectural values, such as utility, aesthetics, and culture (Basista 2009, p. 39). Then, efforts were made to examine the influence of symbolic gestures on defining the spatial values of ducal architecture. In this case, the distinction of spatial values formulated by Alexander Wallis was used. We can distinguish here functional, existential, and situational values, where situational values are associated with the sense of identification with a given space, while existential values are associated with the sense of social and cultural awareness (Wallis 1990, pp. 28–30). In the case of the Prussian-German period, the research relied primarily on the query of iconographic and historical sources and their interpretation. In the case of the Polish period, an important source material was the documented attitude of political and conservation authorities towards the ducal heritage. On this basis, attempts were made to define the causes of the transformation. The differentiation between ideological, political, emotional, utility, and objective transformation causes made it possible to define mutual relations between them and provide the final verification and assessment of political and ideological factors and their influence on the shape of the preserved cultural heritage of the Griffins.

3. Results

3.1. The Historical Outline of the Political and National Relations in the Area of Pomerania The evaluation of the Prussian and German attitude and the post-1945 attitude of the Polish authorities towards the material heritage of the Griffin dynasty requires a short description of Pomerania’s political background (Figure1). The origins of the dynasty can be traced back to the 12th century. Although the ducal power emerged from a tribal system, it had difficulties in subordinating the local populace. The first historically confirmed duke and vassal of the Polish king Bolesław III Wrymouth was Wartislaw, who belonged to a Slavic dynasty. His duchy consisted of such areas as Szczecin, Kołobrzeg, Pyrzyce, Kamie´nPomorski, Dymin, Wołogoszcz, Wolin, and Chocków. From the very beginning, the duchy was weakened under the pressure of Danish and German raids. German influence in Pomerania intensified in the 1230s after the Danish pressure subsided. The German colonization of the cities continued, and parts of the land were given to knights and orders of German origins. These activities were supported by Barnim I and Wartislaw II of Demmin. At that time, individual lands of the duchy were also divided among rich families, and in 1248 the feudal church duchy of the bishop of Kammin was also carved out of these areas. In 1295, the duchy was separated into two districts—the Wolgast district belonging to Bogislaw IV and Otto’s Szczecin district (Sławno and Słupsk were added to the Wolgast region of the duchy in 1317). In 1318, with the end of the Ascan dynasty that ruled in Brandenburg, the threat to the duchy subsided. In 1372, the Wolgast duchy was divided into two parts: the western part, up of the Swina´ river, and the eastern Sławno/Słupsk part. In the 14th century, the threat from the Teutonic Order pressured the dukes to search for a relationship with the Kingdom of Poland. It was solidified by the marriage of Bogislaw X with Anna Jagiellon, the daughter of Casimir IV Jagiellon. Barnim X carried out effective internal and foreign policy based on friendship both with the Polish king as well as with the German emperor. He managed to unite Pomeranian and to prevent its incorporation into Brandenburg, but he had to acknowledge Arts 2020, 9, 124 4 of 22 Arts 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 22

Bogislawthe feudal X and bonded succession the future rights of the of the duchy dangerous with the neighbor. German cultural The descendants circle by adopting of Bogislaw Lutheranism X bonded andthe futureby marrying of the duchyrepresentatives with the Germanof the German cultural duca circlel families. by adopting Near the Lutheranism end of the and16th by century, marrying the dynastyrepresentatives began to of decline. the German At the ducal end families. of his life, Near Bogislaw the end XIV, of the the 16th last century,ruling duke the dynastyof Szczecin, began was to forceddecline. to At accept the end the ofprotectorate his life, Bogislaw of Sweden. XIV, theAfter last his ruling death duke in 1637, of Szczecin, the duchy was should forced have to accept become the protectoratethe property ofof Sweden.the Hohenzollern After his House, death in but 1637, it was the instead duchy shoulddivided have into becomeSwedish the and property Brandenburg of the occupationalHohenzollern zones. House, The but last it wasrepresentative instead divided of the intodynasty Swedish was Anna and Brandenburg von Croÿ, the occupational duchess of Sł zones.upsk, Thewho lastdied representative in 1660. of the dynasty was Anna von Croÿ, the duchess of Słupsk, who died in 1660.

Figure 1. LocationsLocations of of the the prince’s prince’s castles in in Pomerania, created by author.

During theirtheir reign,reign, the the Gri Griffinffin dynasty dynasty tried tried to maintainto maintain the duchy’sthe duchy’s independence independence from itsfrom strong its strongneighbors—Mecklenburg, neighbors—Mecklenburg, Brandenburg, Brandenburg, Denmark, Denmark, Sweden, Sweden, and Poland, and Poland, as well as as well the as State the of State the Teutonicof the Teutonic Order—negotiating Order—negotiating political political alliances alliances with neighboring with neighboring states depending states depending on the economic on the economicsituation. situation. Brandenburg Brandenburg was always was the always boldest the in boldest their claims in their regarding claims theregarding Duchy ofthe Pomerania, Duchy of Pomerania,and the House and of the Hohenzollern House of Hohenzollern was second. was Despite second. the Despite growing the connectiongrowing connection of the duchy of the with duchy the withGerman-speaking the German-speaking area, after area, the end after of the the end dynasty of the and dynasty after the and Swedish after the episode, Swedish Prussian episode, authorities Prussian authoritiesdid not treat did the not Pomeranian treat the landsPomeranian as a territory lands returningas a territory to its returning origins but to ratherits origins as a conqueredbut rather landas a conqueredthat enjoyed land a certain that enjoyed degree ofa certain autonomy degree which of au couldtonomy not bewhich tolerated could any not longer.be tolerated It is possible any longer. that Itthis is possible was the reasonthat this for was the the ambivalent reason for attitude the ambivalent of the Prussian attitude authorities of the Prussian towards authorities the Pomeranian towards theDukes’ Pomeranian heritage. Dukes’ After 1945,heritage. the PolishAfter authorities1945, the Polish had a authorities completely had different a completely approach different towards approachthe Pomeranian towards dynasty. the Pomeranian Their political dynasty. goal Their was political to sanction goal the was presence to sanction of the the Polish presence nation of the in Polishthe recovered nation in areas the recovered as a result areas of post-war as a result agreements of post-war of agreements the great superpowers. of the great superpowers. To achieve this, To achievea number this, of a historical number factsof historical were used, facts including were used, the including Slavic origin the Slavic of tribes origin living of tribes there living in the there early inMiddle the early Ages, Middle the Slavic Ages, origin the Slavic of the origin Griffi ofn dynasty,the Griffin the dynasty, conquests the andconquests periodic and rule periodic of the rule Polish of thePiast Polish dynasty Piast over dynasty Pomerania, over Pomerania, and the later and political the later and political family connections and family betweenconnections Polish between rulers Polishand Pomeranian rulers and dukes.Pomeranian These dukes. factors These can help factors us tocan understand help us to theunderstand approach the towards approach the materialtowards theheritage material of Pomeranian heritage of Pomeranian dukes. dukes.

3.2. The The Case Case Study of the Ducal Castle in Szczecin 3.2.1. The Ducal Castle in Szczecin during the Rule of the Griffin Dynasty and during the Swedish Rule 3.2.1. The Ducal Castle in Szczecin during the Rule of the Griffin Dynasty and during the Swedish Rule The oldest preserved relics of a ducal residence in Szczecin date back to the half of the 14th century. In 1346, Barnim III signed a pact with the city council allowing him to erect structures by the city wall, The oldest preserved relics of a ducal residence in Szczecin date back to the half of the 14th within the confines of the former gord at the top of the hill. In 1346–1347, a brick residential house and century. In 1346, Barnim III signed a pact with the city council allowing him to erect structures by the a castle chapel dedicated to St. Otto were built in the north part of the gord. In 1428–1430, duke Casimir city wall, within the confines of the former gord at the top of the hill. In 1346–1347, a brick residential VI recommended to build a “large house” in the south part of the castle hill, but its construction was house and a castle chapel dedicated to St. Otto were built in the north part of the gord. In 1428–1430, finished by Bogislaw X in 1491. This was a single-storey rectangular building with a tower situated duke Casimir VI recommended to build a “large house” in the south part of the castle hill, but its on the axis extending from the side of the courtyard. The second tower (prison tower) was placed construction was finished by Bogislaw X in 1491. This was a single-storey rectangular building with a tower situated on the axis extending from the side of the courtyard. The second tower (prison tower)

Arts 2020,, 9, x 124 FOR PEER REVIEW 55 of of 22 22 was placed by the south-west corner of the wing. Most probably Barnim XI expanded the south wing togetherby the south-west with its towers corner and of thegave wing. it late Most Gothic probably qualities Barnim with tracery XI expanded decorations the south of roof wing extensions. together Thewith works its towers finished and gavein 1538 it late (Figure Gothic 2a). qualities In 1551, with th tracerye east wing decorations probably of roofburned extensions. down entirely. The works In 1575–1577,finished in a 1538 general (Figure transformation2a). In 1551, and the expansion east wing of probably the castle burned was initiated down entirely.by John Frederick. In 1575–1577, The architectsa general transformationresponsible for andthe works expansion were of most the castleprobably was the initiated master by builder John Frederick. Wilhelm Zacharias The architects and Antonioresponsible Guglielmo for the works(Arlet 2017, were p. most 152; probably Jarzewicz the 2019, master p. 291), builder who Wilhelmdeveloped Zacharias a design andthat Antonioreferred toGuglielmo Italian Renaissance. (Arlet 2017, In p. 1573, 152; Jarzewicz the former 2019 residential, p. 291), house, who developed the chapel a designof St. Otto, that referredand the tobuilding Italian withRenaissance. the knight In hall 1573, were the formerdemolished. residential Only house,the south the wing chapel was of St.left, Otto, and andthe thereconstruction building with of the eastknight wing hall was were completed. demolished. At the Only end the of souththe north wing wing, was left,which and featured the reconstruction a new chapel, of thea new east tower wing was erected. completed. As a At result the end of the of theexpansion, north wing, a four-wing which featured residential a new complex chapel, was a new created tower with was an erected. inner trapezoidalAs a result ofcourtyard. the expansion, At the a four-wingbeginning residentialof the 17th complex century, was the created appearance with an of inner the south trapezoidal wing changedcourtyard. once At theagain. beginning Octagonal of the towers 17th century,were built the appearancewhich were oftopped the south with wing cupolas. changed In 1616, once again.duke PhilipOctagonal II began towers another were builttransforma whichtion. were He topped added with a new cupolas. wing In to 1616, the dukecastle Philip on its II west began side. another The constructiontransformation. was He finished added in a new1619 wing by Francis to the castleI. The on newly its west created side. museum The construction wing was was connected finished to in the1619 already by Francis existing I. The west newly wing created by two museum gate connec wing wastors. connected As a result to theof this already transformation, existing west a wingnew courtyardby two gate was connectors. created, previously As a result called of this the transformation, “crane” courtyard a new and courtyard later the was “mint” created, courtyard. previously The newcalled west the “crane”wing gained courtyard mansards and later and the side “mint” gables courtyard. with forms The clearly new west referring wing gained to Renaissance mansards and and Northside gables European with formsmannerism clearly (Figure referring 2b). to Renaissance and North European mannerism (Figure2b).

(a) (b)

Figure 2. 2. ((aa)) The The Pomeranian Pomeranian Dukes’ Dukes’ Castle Castle in in Szczecin Szczecin between between 1538 1538 and and 1574, 1574, source: source: fotopolska.eu; fotopolska.eu; (b) Matthäus Merian, aerial aerial view view of of the Pomerani Pomeranianan Dukes’ Castle in Szczecin, 1653, 1653, source: source: Wikimedia Commons.

InIn 1637, 1637, after after the the death death of of the the last last of ofthe the Grif Grifins—dukeffins—duke Bogislaw Bogislaw XIV—Szczecin XIV—Szczecin came came under under the rulethe ruleof Sweden, of Sweden, and andthe castle the castle became became the seat the of seat the of royal the royal governor. governor. At the At time the of time the of Swedish the Swedish rule, therule, castle the castlesuffered suff duringered during the Brandenburg the Brandenburg siege of siege the city of the in 1677. city in It 1677.is possible It is possiblethat at that that time at thatthe valuabletime the comb valuable attics comb of the attics north of wing the north were wing destroyed were destroyedtogether with together the side with gables the sideof the gables west wing, of the aswest well wing, as some as well of the as somegables of of the the gables south of wing the south. The detailed wing. The scope detailed of rebuilding scope of remains rebuilding unknown, remains butunknown, most probably but most it probablywas limited it wasto securing limited the tosecuring damaged the fragments damaged of fragmentsthe structure. of the In structure.1688, the architectIn 1688, theNicodemus architect Tessin Nicodemus the Younger Tessin thedeveloped Younger a developeddesign for athe design conversion for the of conversion the castle into of the a Baroquecastle into residence. a Baroque The residence. design assumed, The design among assumed, other among things, other the demolition things, the demolitionof the east and of the south east wingand south together wing with together the withtowers the (Paszkowska towers (Paszkowska 1992, pp. 1992 117–28)., pp. 117–28). Fortunately, Fortunately, these theseplans plans were were not implemented.not implemented. The Themost most valuable valuable souvenir souvenir of ofthe the Sw Swedishedish rule rule over over the the castle castle is is the the astronomical astronomical clock, which is is placed on the tower of the south wingwing on the side of the courtyard.courtyard. During Swedish rule,rule, the the castle was was not not fully fully utilized utilized by by the the gove governor.rnor. It It also also featured featured warehouses warehouses and and an an armory, armory, which proves that it was no longer a representative residence.residence.

Arts 2020, 9, 124x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 22

3.2.2. The Attitude of Prussian and German Authorities towards the Castle until 1945 3.2.2. The Attitude of Prussian and German Authorities towards the Castle until 1945 After the peace treaty signed in Stockholm in 1720, Szczecin and the part of Pomerania occupied by SwedenAfter the were peace sold treaty to Prussia. signed At in the Stockholm beginning in of 1720, their Szczecin rule in andthe city, the partPrussian of Pomerania authorities occupied had to faceby Sweden the enormous were sold devastation to Prussia. caused At the beginningby the sieg ofe their of Szczecin rule in the in city,1713. Prussian Following authorities the words had of to Henrykface the enormousDziurla, “The devastation demolition caused of partially by the siege destroyed of Szczecin old inbuildings 1713. Following and monuments the words began, of Henryk and newDziurla, houses “The were demolition erected ofin partiallytheir place. destroyed The transforma old buildingstion of and the monuments castle also started began, at and that new time. houses The biggestwere erected changes in theirconcerned place. the The south transformation wing. It seems of thethat castle the traditional also started forms at that of native time. architecture The biggest andchanges the coats concerned of arms the of south Sweden wing. on the It seems face of that the the clock traditional greatly irritated forms of the native Prussian architecture king” (Dziurla and the 1959,coats p. of 73). arms Therefore, of Sweden the on author the face suspects of the that clock the greatly transformation irritated thedid Prussiannot result king” only from (Dziurla aesthetic 1959, reasons,p. 73). Therefore, but also thefrom author ideological suspects conditions. that the transformation The Prussian takeover did not result of the only castle from was aesthetic associated reasons, not onlybut also with from the ideologicalchange in its conditions. external Theform, Prussian but ma takeoverinly with of the the introduction castle was associated of new functions. not only withThe ducalthe change castle in was its externalgiven military, form, but administrative, mainly with the and introduction residential of functions, new functions. and occasionally The ducal castle fulfilled was agiven representative military, administrative, role. In 1723, the and seat residential of state functions,governance and was occasionally established fulfilled here—the a representative Regency and role.the Camera—andIn 1723, the seat in of1738 state the governance offices of the was General established Superintendent, here—the Regency the Royal and Court, the Camera—and and the Consistory. in 1738 Thethe oeastffices and of the west General wings Superintendent, were given to theadminist Royalration. Court, andThe thesouth Consistory. wing was The transformed east and west into wings the arsenal,were given whereas to administration. the north wing The preserved south wing its religi wasous transformed function and into held the apar arsenal,tments whereas for court the needs. north Ofwing all preservedthe transformations, its religious the function changes and to the held south apartments wing were for courtthe most needs. controversial. Of all the transformations, The decorative latethe changesGothic tops to the of souththe wing wing were were replaced the most with controversial. a mansard roof, The and decorative the tracery late Gothicdecorations tops of the elevationswing were were replaced plastered with a (Figure mansard 3a). roof, The and towers the tracery gained decorations new Baroque of thefinishing elevations with were royal plastered initials. During(Figure 3thea). transformation, The towers gained the newcloister Baroque was demolish finishinged with from royal the initials.side of the During large thecourtyard transformation, together withthe cloister a Renaissance was demolished gate on the from south the sideside. ofThe the latter large was courtyard replaced together by panoplies with a Renaissancebased on pillars. gate Followingon the south the side. words The of Krystyna latter was Kroman—“Most replaced by panoplies probably, based the onbad pillars. condition Following of the tops the and words parts of ofKrystyna the roof Kroman—“Mostcombined with different probably, aesthetic the bad valu conditiones of patrons of the and tops builders and parts contributed of the roof to combinedthe wings appearancewith different of aestheticthe simple, values raw ofFrederic patrons Baroque. and builders The king’s contributed efforts toto the erase wings traces appearance of Pomeranian of the separatenesssimple, raw Frederic probably Baroque. also played The king’sa role einff ortsthis tocase” erase (Kroman traces of 1992, Pomeranian p. 92). The separateness transformation probably of thisalso time played also a covered role in this the case”museum (Kroman wing. 1992In the, p. area 92). of The the transformationmint courtyard, of4.5 this × 26.5 time m also avant-corps covered wasthe museumcreated, designed wing. In thein the area spirit of the of Prussian mint courtyard, Baroque, 4.5 for the26.5 purpose m avant-corps of the stables was created, and coach designed house × ofin the garrison’s spirit of Prussian commander Baroque, (Figure for 3b). the purposeIn the words of the of stables Henryk and Dziurla, coach “These house oftransformations the garrison’s broughtcommander little (Figure benefit.3b). They In the should words actually of Henryk be cons Dziurla,idered “These as losses” transformations (Dziurla 1959, brought p. 75). little Functional benefit. transformationsThey should actually were bealso considered conducted as in losses” the castle (Dziurla. Various 1959 economic, p. 75). Functional and residential transformations functions were establishedalso conducted in the inthe former castle. museum Various wing, economic and and in 1752 residential Frederick functions the Great were created established a mint in the there. former In 1769–1840,museum wing, duchess and inElisabeth 1752 Frederick of Brunswick—the the Great created divorc aed mint wife there. of the In Prussian 1769–1840, duke—resided duchess Elisabeth in the apartmentsof Brunswick—the of the west divorced wing. wife of the Prussian duke—resided in the apartments of the west wing.

(a) (b)

Figure 3. ((aa)) The The main main courtyard courtyard of of the castle after the re reconstructionconstruction of the sout southernhern wing (left) and the demolition of the cloisters in the northern wing, source: fotopolska.eu; ( (bb)) mint courtyard and a view of the new avant-corps in the museum wing, source: sedina.pl.

In terms of the appearance of the castle, less beneficial transformations were introduced in the 19th century. At that time, the works resulted mainly from the growing need for offices for the many

Arts 2020, 9, 124 7 of 22

Arts 2020In, terms9, x FOR of PEER the REVIEW appearance of the castle, less beneficial transformations were introduced in7 of the 22 19th century. At that time, the works resulted mainly from the growing need for offices for the many governmentgovernment bodiesbodies establishedestablished in in the the castle. castle. The The government government employees employees constantly constantly lacked lacked office office space spaceand places and places that would that would serve themserve asthem archives. as archives. In the In 1820s, the 1820s, a gable a roofgable was roof added was added to the eastto the corner east cornerof the northof thewing, north andwing, the and north the cloister north cloister of the large of the courtyard large courtyard was dismantled was dismantled due to its due bad to technical its bad technicalstate. In 1832,state. theIn 1832, east wingthe east vaults wing were vaults demolished were demolished to the ground to the level ground and level a new and division a new ofdivision rooms ofwas rooms introduced. was introduced. The ground The floorground and floor the secondand the floorsecond became floor thebecame office the space, office whereas space, whereas the first thefloor first featured floor featured apartments apartments of the President of the Presiden of the Provincet of the Province of Pomerania. of Pomerania. In 1733, aIn summer 1733, a summer pavilion pavilionwas added was outside added ofoutsid the northe of the wing. north In wing. 1840, kingIn 1840, Frederick king Frederick William IVWilliam agreed IV to agreed the proposed to the proposedtransformation transformation and expansion and expansion of the north of the and nort westh wings.and west The wings. works The began works in 1842.began In in the 1842. north In thewing, north the wing, wall of the the wall attic of was the removed attic was and removed replaced and throughout replaced throughout its entire length its entire by a length fourth by floor a fourthestablished floor asestablished an archive as (Figure an archive4a). In(Figure the north-east 4a). In the corner, north-east a polygonal corner, neo-Gothica polygonal observation neo-Gothic observationtower topped tower with topped battlements with wasbattlements constructed, was constr and aucted, loggia and with a aloggia staircase with was a staircase built in thewas central built inpart the of central this wing part (Figure of this4 b).wing The (Figure forms 4b). of new The elements forms of featured new elements Classicist featured and neo-Gothic Classicist detailing,and neo- Gothicreferring detailing, to Romantic referring architecture to Romantic (Kroman architectu 1992,re p. (Kroman 95). The designer1992, p. of95). the The new designer elements of wasthe new Karl elementsFriedrich was Schinkel, Karl whoFriedrich created Schinkel, his design who based created on thehis ideadesign of duke based Frederic on the Williamidea of (dukeGwiazdowska Frederic William2006, p. (Gwiazdowska 16). 2006, p. 16).

(a) (b)

FigureFigure 4. 4. ((aa)) Northern Northern wing wing after after expansion, expansion, source: source: sedina.pl; sedina.pl; ( (bb)) Neo-Gothic Neo-Gothic tower tower on on the the northeast northeast corner,corner, source: source: sedina.pl. sedina.pl.

ManyMany parts parts of of the the west west wing wing were were demolished demolished and and some some of of the the interiors interiors were were functionally functionally transformedtransformed to to become become office office spaces. spaces. The The cloister cloister on on the the west west side side of of the the wing wing was was also also demolished. demolished. TheThe transformation transformation resulted resulted in in a a new new appearance appearance of of the the wings wings from from the the side side of of the the courtyard—they courtyard—they becamebecame more more ascetic ascetic with with a a barr barracks-likeacks-like character, character, which which was was very very different different from from the the previous previous RenaissanceRenaissance design design (Kroman (Kroman 1992, 1992 p., p. 98) 98) (Figure (Figure 5a).5a). In 1862, In 1862, the thecastle castle chapel chapel was wastransformed, transformed, and inand 1872–1874 in 1872–1874 the south the south wing wing was dismantled was dismantled to ground-level to ground-level perimeter perimeter walls. walls. A new A structure new structure was placedwas placed in that in thatarea, area, with with remarkably remarkably simplified simplified elevations elevations and and additional additional rooms rooms for for administrative administrative purposespurposes (Figure (Figure 55b).b). The Regency’sRegency’s constructionconstruction counselor—Homann—tried to save the valuablevaluable medievalmedieval wingwing withwith the the Renaissance Renaissance wooden wooden ceiling ceiling in the inground the ground floor hall.floor He hall. proposed He proposed to renovate to renovatethe interior the andinterior establish and establish a court dininga court hall. dining The hall. arguments The arguments presented presented by the counselor,by the counselor, and his andpropositions his propositions were not were supported not supported by king by Frederic king Frederic William William IV. Eventually, IV. Eventually, a new level a new was level built was to builtpreserve to preserve the ceiling. the ceiling. It was used It was to used present to pres art collections.ent art collections. Despite Despite the preservation the preservation of both originalof both originaltowers duringtowers theduring transformation, the transformation, the brick the staircase brick staircase in the clock in the tower clock was tower replaced was replaced by an iron by one. an ironFrom one. the From southern the southern side, the wingside, the also wing received also anreceived avant-corps an avant-corps with a staircase. with a staircase.

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(a) (b)

FigureFigure 5. ((aa)) Main Main courtyard courtyard after after cloister demolition, demolition, source: source: sedina.pl; sedina.pl; ( (bb)) the the southern southern wing wing after after secondsecond reconstruction, reconstruction, source: source: sedina.pl. sedina.pl.

TheThe 20th 20th century century did did not not bring bring many many changes changes in in th thee established form of the castle. The The seats seats of of numerousnumerous government government offices offices whose needs contribute contributedd to to the the significant significant degradation degradation of of the the structure structure graduallygradually becamebecame more more empty. empty. These These institutions institutions were moved were tomoved the newly to constructed,the newly representativeconstructed, representativebuildings in other buildings parts of in the other city. parts This of situation the city. led This to thesituation first, modest led to renovationthe first, modest and conservation, renovation andas well conservation, as the rediscovery as well as of the lostrediscovery historical of and the artisticlost historical value of and this artistic precious value monument. of this precious In 1926, monument.the mistakes In of 1926, former the yearsmistakes were of notedformer down years bywere Franz noted H. down Viergutz, by Franz a historian H. Viergutz, who stated a historian that it whowould stated be good that toit restorewould thebe good past gloryto restore of the the castle past (Kroman glory of 1992 the ,castle p. 101). (Kroman The castle 1992, was p. destroyed101). The castleduring was the destroyed Allied bombardment during the Al oflied the bombardment city on 17 August of the 1944. city on The 17 onlyAugust remains 1944. The were only the remains external werewalls, the whereas external the walls, rest of whereas the structure the rest burned of the down.structure burned down.

3.2.3.3.2.3. The The Attitude Attitude of of Polish Polish Authorities Authorities towa towardsrds the the Castle Castle and and Its Its Reconstruction Reconstruction after 1945 TheThe enormous damagedamage inflictedinflicted upon upon Szczecin Szczecin during during World World War War II virtually II virtually erased erased the old the town old townarea fromarea thefrom map the and map led and to the led destruction to the destruct of theion oldest of the and oldest most valuableand most monuments valuable monuments (Figure6a). (FigureAs a result 6a). ofAs valorization, a result of valorization, the post-war the conservators post-war conservators selected only selected 18 monuments only 18 monuments of medieval of or medievalmodern originor modern (Fiuk 2017origin, p. (Fiuk 123; Gwiazdowska2017, p. 123; Gwiazdowska 2016, p. 185). 2016, Nineteenth p. 185). century Nineteenth buildings century that buildingshad been that destroyed had been were destroyed considered were worthless, considered culturally worthless, alien, culturally and not deservingalien, and reconstruction.not deserving reconstruction.When considering When which considering buildings which to restore, buildings the argument to restore, of nationalthe argument origin of was national frequently origin used was to frequentlyhighlightthe used importance to highlight of structuresthe importance that proved of stru thectures Slavic that origin proved of thethe citySlavic (Gwiazdowska origin of the 2016 city , (Gwiazdowskap. 186). The search 2016, for p. Slavic 186). themes The search and the for elements Slavic themes of Polish and culture the inelements monuments of Polish also determinedculture in monumentsthe form of thealso architectural determined restoration. the form Theof the castle—which architectural was restoration. considered The as the castle—which former seat ofwas the consideredGriffin dynasty, as the the former Slavic seat rulers of ofthe Pomerania—was Griffin dynasty, amongthe Slavic monuments rulers of scheduledPomerania—was for restoration among monuments(Dziurla 2008 scheduled, p. 75). The for reconstruction restoration (Dziurla of the castle2008, becamep. 75). The a symbol reconstruction both for the of the political castle authorities became a symbolof that timeboth asfor well the aspolitical the conservators. authorities of that time as well as the conservators. The reconstruction started with necessary inventory works, followed by unavoidable demolitions and strengthening of the structure. At the same time, the first restoration concept designs were made in parallel to archeological studies (1848–1854). Preserved archived documents were analyzed in terms of the previous form of the structure. In the 1950s, the community of conservators held a number of discussions and arguments regarding the final form of the reconstruction. The reconstruction of the most damaged south wing was particularly controversial (Nekanda-Trepka 2008, pp. 99–112). Eventually, the return to the pre-war and modernized neo-Gothic forms was rejected in favor of the original historical concept (Figure 6b).

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(a) (b)

Figure 6. ((aa)) The The castle castle after after the the war war damage, damage, source: source: sedina.pl; sedina.pl; ( (bb)) reconstruction reconstruction of of the the south south wing, wing, source: sedina.pl. sedina.pl.

The reconstructionmain recommendation started with for necessarythe entire inventorystructure works,was to followedrestore its by representative unavoidable demolitions character, establishedand strengthening near the of end the of structure. the reign At of thethe sameducal time, dynasty. the firstThe restorationreconstruction concept of the designs castle began were made after thein parallel decision to archeologicalof the Presidium studies of the (1848–1854). Provincial Preserved National archived Council documents in 1958. It werestarted analyzed from the in termsleast damagedof the previous north formwing. of The the design structure. was In developed the 1950s, by the a community Szczecin design of conservators office—PP held PKZ—led a number by Professorof discussions Stanis andław arguments Latour. The regarding first step thewas final to remove form of th thee unoriginal reconstruction. 19th century. The reconstruction elements that of survivedthe most the damaged war. During south the wing course was particularlyof the activiti controversiales, the additional (Nekanda-Trepka storey, the octagonal 2008, pp. tower, 99–112). and theEventually, loggia were the returnremoved. to the The pre-war Renaissance and modernized attics of the neo-Gothicwing were restored forms was together rejected with in favorthe cloister of the onoriginal the side historical of the courtyard, concept (Figure and the6b). vaults were reconstructed in their original forms. After the work was finished,The main a recommendationconcert hall was established for the entire in the structure former waschapel, to restoreand theits former representative residential character, interiors wereestablished transformed near the into end exhibition of the reign halls. of In the 1973, ducal a decision dynasty. was The made reconstruction regarding the of final the castle form beganof the reconstructionafter the decision of the of thesouth Presidium and west of wings, the Provincial and their National purpose Councilwas determined. in 1958. ItA starteddiscovery from made the theleast same damaged year by north Zbigniew wing. TheRadacki design in wasthe Swedish developed archives by a Szczecin influenced design the o decisionffice—PP regarding PKZ—led the by designProfessor of the Stanisław south wing Latour. elevatio The firstn. Discovered step was todrawings remove from the unoriginal 1673 by Jan 19th Joachim century. Zeuner elements showing that thesurvived castle thein its war. late DuringGothic and the courseearly Renaissance of the activities, forms the constituted additional convincing storey, the iconographic octagonal tower, material and thatthe loggiaallowed were for removed. a relatively The faithful Renaissance reconstruction attics of theof the wing original were restoredtracery tops together of this with wing the (Figure cloister 7a,b).on the The side newly of the courtyard,acquired images and the were vaults collated were reconstructed with previous in their representations original forms. and After architectural the work analyseswas finished, of the a wing concert continued. hall was This established provided in thea so formerlid basis chapel, for the and development the former of residential a detailed interiors design. Thewere remains transformed of the into walls exhibition of the wing—which halls. In 1973, dated a decision back to was the made 19th regardingcentury—were the final demolished form of the to groundreconstruction level and of thereplaced south andby the west reconstructed, wings, and their late purposeGothic wing, was determined. which was connected A discovery to madethe west the wingsame yearusing by a Zbigniewmodern connector. Radacki in The the structure’s Swedish archives form followed influenced the the arrangement decision regarding at the time the designof the Pomeranianof the south Dukes. wing elevation. New tented Discovered roofs with drawings Renaissance from 1673forms by were Jan Joachimbuilt atop Zeuner castleshowing towers, the cloisterscastle in itsand late attics Gothic were and restored early Renaissance in east and formswest wings, constituted and the convincing modest iconographicBaroque form material of the mint that wingallowed was for reconstructed. a relatively faithful The works reconstruction finished in of1978 the, originaland a music tracery theatre tops took of this over wing east, (Figure south,7 a,b).and westThe newly wings. acquired Office space images was were established collated in with parts previous of the east representations wing and in andthe mint architectural wing (Figure analyses 8a,b). of the wing continued. This provided a solid basis for the development of a detailed design. The remains of the walls of the wing—which dated back to the 19th century—were demolished to ground level and replaced by the reconstructed, late Gothic wing, which was connected to the west wing using a modern connector. The structure’s form followed the arrangement at the time of the Pomeranian Dukes. New tented roofs with Renaissance forms were built atop castle towers, the cloisters and attics were restored in east and west wings, and the modest Baroque form of the mint wing was reconstructed. The works finished in 1978, and a music theatre took over east, south, and west wings. Office space was established in parts of the east wing and in the mint wing (Figure8a,b).

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(a(a) ) (b(b) )

FigureFigure 7. 7.7. ( (aa()a) Jan) JanJan Joachim JoachimJoachim Zeuner, Zeuner,Zeuner, main mainmain courtyard courtyardcourtyard in 1673, inin 1673, source:1673, source:source: fotopolska.eu; fotopolska.eu;fotopolska.eu; (b) Jan ( Joachimb(b) ) JanJan JoachimJoachim Zeuner, Zeuner,mainZeuner, courtyard main main courtyard courtyard in 1673, source:in in 1673, 1673, fotopolska.eu.source: source: fotopolska.eu. fotopolska.eu.

(a(a) ) (b(b) )

FigureFigure 8.8. ( a(a) )The The current current shape shape of of the the south south wing, wing, public public domain; domain; ( b(b) )the the current current shape shape of of the the north north wing,wing, photo: photo: Mateusz Mateusz War., War., source:source: source: Wikimedia Wikimedia Commons.Commons. Commons.

3.3.3.3. The TheThe Case CaseCase Study StudyStudy of of the the Ducal Ducal Residence Residence in in S SłupskSłupskłupsk 3.3.1. The Historical Background of the Creation of the Ducal Residence in Słupsk 3.3.1.3.3.1. The The Historical Historical Background Background of of th thee Creation Creation of of the the Ducal Ducal Residence Residence in in S Słupskłupsk The Sławno-Słupsk area was annexed by Poland in 1119. In the 12th century, the area of Słupsk TheThe S Sławno-Sławno-Słupskłupsk area area was was annexed annexed by by Poland Poland in in 1119. 1119. In In the the 12th 12th century, century, the the area area of of S Słupskłupsk belonged to the Sławno-Słupsk Duchy. In the second half of the 12th century, Ratiborides originating belongedbelonged to to the the S Sławno-Sławno-Słupskłupsk Duchy. Duchy. In In the the second second half half of of th thee 12th 12th century, century, Ratiborides Ratiborides originating originating from local tribal rulers governed in the Duchy. Around 1210, Danish king Valdemar II conquered fromfrom local local tribal tribal rulers rulers governed governed in in the the Duchy. Duchy. Around Around 1210, 1210, Danish Danish king king Valdemar Valdemar II II conquered conquered this part of Pomerania, but in 1217 duke Swi˛etopełkof´ the dukes of Gda´nskreclaimed the land. thisthis partpart ofof Pomerania,Pomerania, butbut inin 12171217 dukeduke ŚŚwiwięętopetopełkłk ofof thethe dukesdukes ofof GdaGdańńsksk reclaimedreclaimed thethe land.land. During his rule, Swi˛etopełkmade´ a very important political decision that connected this land with DuringDuring his his rule, rule, Ś Świwięętopetopełkłk made made a a very very important important political political decision decision that that connected connected this this land land with with Poland. He transferred the diocese jurisdiction to the archbishopric of Gniezno. At the time, the first Poland.Poland. He He transferred transferred the the diocese diocese jurisdiction jurisdiction to to th thee archbishopric archbishopric of of Gniezno. Gniezno. At At the the time, time, the the first first ducal residence in Słupsk was a gord located on the right side of the main course of the Słupia river ducalducal residence residence in in S Słupskłupsk was was a a gord gord located located on on the the right right side side of of the the main main course course of of the the S Słupiałupia river river (the first information about the gord dates back to 1248). In 1282 in K˛epno,Mestwin—the Duke of (the(the first first information information about about the the gord gord dates dates back back to to 1248). 1248). In In 1282 1282 in in K Kęępno,pno, Mestwin—the Mestwin—the Duke Duke of of Gda´nsk—madea pact with Przemysł II, the duke of Greater Poland. On the basis of this pact, Przemysł GdaGdańńsk—madesk—made aa pactpact withwith PrzemysPrzemysł ł II,II, thethe dukeduke ofof GreaterGreater Poland.Poland. OnOn thethe basisbasis ofof thisthis pact,pact, gained the inheritance of all of Mestwin’s wealth. Five years later in Słupsk, there was a meeting PrzemysPrzemysł łgained gained the the inheritance inheritance of of all all of of Mestwin’s Mestwin’s wealth. wealth. Five Five years years later later in in S Słupsk,łupsk, there there was was a a of three dukes: Mestwin II, Przemysł II, and Bogislaw IV—the duke of West Pomerania. The dukes meetingmeeting of of three three dukes: dukes: Mestwin Mestwin II, II, Przemys Przemysł łII, II, and and Bogislaw Bogislaw IV—the IV—the duke duke of of West West Pomerania. Pomerania. The The signed a treaty of unity and peace, which was a manifest against the partitioning tendencies of the dukesdukes signed signed a a treaty treaty of of unity unity and and peace, peace, which which was was a a manifest manifest against against the the partitioning partitioning tendencies tendencies neighboring Brandenburg. After the death of Mestwin in 1294, Przemysł took over his duchy and ofof the the neighboring neighboring Brandenburg. Brandenburg. After After the the death death of of Mestwin Mestwin in in 1294, 1294, Przemys Przemysł łtook took over over his his duchy duchy one year later he also became the king of Poland. His tragic death in 1296 made Władysław Łokietek andand oneone yearyear laterlater hehe alsoalso becamebecame thethe kingking ofof Poland.Poland. HisHis tragictragic deathdeath inin 12961296 mademade WWładysładysławław ŁŁokietekokietek the the successor successor of of this this pa partrt of of Pomerania. Pomerania. As As a a result result of of the the treason treason of of the the rich rich Ś Świwięęcc family family in in

Arts 2020, 9, 124 11 of 22 the successor of this part of Pomerania. As a result of the treason of the rich Swi˛ecfamily´ in 1307, the land of Słupsk was taken over by the Brandenburg margraves Waldemar and John. To strengthen their power, they colonized Słupsk in 1310 on the basis of the Lübeck law. However, the rule of the Brandenburg over the area of Słupsk did not last long. In 1317, Słupsk was taken over by duke Wartislaw IV of the Griffin dynasty, who united the entire Pomerania under the rule of his own dynasty. This way, the second rule of the Griffins over this part of Pomerania began, which was associated with the formation of a new ducal residence in Słupsk, within the ducal domain located in the southern part of the city near the mill and the Dominican monastery.

3.3.2. The Ducal Castle in Słupsk during the Rule of the Griffin Dynasty The first attempt to erect a castle was made in 1339 by duke Bogislaw V. His son Casimir continued his effort, however unsuccessfully. Another attempt to build a castle was made by Bogislaw VIII, who managed to finish one level of the fortress. However, the construction worried the townspeople of Słupsk, who thought that the project would strengthen the duke’s rule over the city. In exchange for a loan, the townspeople managed to persuade the duke to stop the construction. The duke agreed to construct only the court. Eventually, Bogislaw X built the castle in 1505–1507. The structure had a rectangular 16.5 m 35 m envelope, with an octagonal tower added on the north-west side. × The construction of the building used fragments of earlier structures dating back to the times of Bogislaw V and VIII. From the north side, the building was adjacent to defense walls of the city, so it was situated in the former moat. It was a building with a basement, with two levels above the ground. The castle was erected using erratic boulders and bricks, giving it a late Gothic style. At the time, the fortress had a defensive and residential function. In 1580–1587, duke John Frederick decided to transform the castle into a residence for his wife, Duchess Erdmuthe. The design and supervision were handed over to the architect Wilhelm Zacharias. The transformation was supposed to give the castle the form of a Renaissance ducal residence. The construction works began by disassembling the upper floor in order to build two new levels. A loggia was added to the elevation on the east side of the tower, as well as two small avant-corpses from the south, and bay windows in the west and east elevations. The elevations were plastered highlighting the corners with bossage. The entire structure was covered with a hipped roof. Vaults and ceiling were placed inside the castle, while a staircase was built inside the tower. The castle interiors received a rich decor. A report prepared in 1682 by captain von Podewils stated that the castle complex included 7 buildings (main building, kitchen building, mast, covered passage to the church, “new room” at the gate, office building, and new house). The main building consisted of 89 rooms, including four great halls with a representative knight hall on the second floor. The castle was richly equipped. The chamber of the duchess featured a fireplace made of black and red marble, a black and white marble floor, and walls upholstered with white satin and decorated with black figurines. Works of art included tapestries, paintings, arts and crafts elements, as well as a valuable collection of books. The end of the glorious days of the castle came in 1684 with the death of Ernst Bogislaw von Croÿ, the last duke of the Griffins of Słupsk. At that moment, the castle and everything in it became the property of the Brandenburg.

3.3.3. The Attitude of Brandenburg, Prussian, and German Authorities towards the Castle until 1945 After the death of duke Ernst Bogislaw von Croÿ, most of the precious movable equipment was given to his heirs. Following the order of Frederick William I of Prussia in 1731, the remaining equipment and interior decor were dismantled, moved to Berlin and—to a large extent—sold at an auction. Zdzisław Machura wrote: “It seems that the attitude of authorities aimed at erasing the memory about Pomeranians from everything that was connected to the Griffin dynasty. For this reason, the castle in Słupsk—as one of the symbols of this family’s rule—was brought to such a state” (Machura 2004, p. 63). The auctioned items included portraits of Barnim I, Bogislaw X, and his wife Anna Jagiellon and Ernst Bogislaw von Croÿ. All of the portraits were sold for a symbolic (at that time) price of about 5 thalers. Taking into account how invaluable these works of art were for the Arts 2020, 9, 124 12 of 22 history of Pomerania, the intentions of the Prussian ruler were clear. In 1815–1821, the castle was Arts 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 22 devastated entirely as a result of the transformation. After lightning damaged the tower of the castle inin 1815, 1815, Prussian Prussian authorities authorities decided decided to to demolish demolish the the tower tower to to the the level level of of the the main main body body of of the structure, and and to to cover cover the the building building with with a shed a shed roof roof (Figure (Figure 9).9 ).In In1821, 1821, the thecastle castle was was given given the role the ofrole a ofmilitary a military warehouse. warehouse. Ceilings Ceilings and and roofs roofs were were demolished demolished and and an an additional additional low low storey storey was added. The The number number of of levels levels inside inside the the structure structure increased, increased, and and two two new new wooden wooden ceilings ceilings were were built, built, supported by by wooden wooden pillars. pillars. Moreover, Moreover, the the window window openings openings were were bricked bricked up up and and made made smaller. smaller. InIn 1866,1866, thethe remaining remaining utility utility buildings buildings were were disassembled. disassembled. Previously, Previously, they formed they formed the castle the complex castle complexaround the around main the courtyard. main courtyard. Before the Before outbreak the ofoutbreak World Warof World II, the War building II, the served building as a served warehouse as a warehousefor theater decorations,for theater decorations, and its technical and its state technical had been state steadily had been deteriorating, steadily deteriorating, which did not which add did any notglory add to any the glory city. Into thethe 1920s,city. In therethe 1920s, was athere debate wa abouts a debate using about the castleusing the for culturalcastle for and cultural museum and museumpurposes. purposes. At that time, At plansthat andtime, drawings plans and of thedrawings castle and of itsthe surroundings castle and wereits surroundings prepared, showing were prepared,further transformation showing further of its transformation original shape andof its context. original The shape plans and were context. reviewed The plans in the were 1930s, reviewed but they inwere the not 1930s, implemented but they were before not the implemented war. In 1939, before only minor the war. repairs In 1939, were only made minor for the repairs buttresses were onmade the forsouth the side. buttresses The behavior on the south of Brandenburg side. The behavior Margraves, of Brandenburg Prussian kings, Margraves, and then Prussian German authoritieskings, and thenindicated German a well-defined authorities policyindicated towards a well-defined the heritage policy of the towards Pomeranian the heritage Dukes. Theof the policy Pomeranian aimed at Dukes.erasing The the imagepolicy ofaimed the castle at erasing as a ducal the image residence, of the acknowledging castle as a ducal only residence, its utility acknowledging role. The castle only was itsstripped utility of role. any The representative castle was attributes, stripped andof any valuable representative equipment attributes, disappeared. and As valuable Zdzisław equipment Machura disappeared.points out: “The As castleZdzisł wentaw Machura through points all kinds out: of “The times, castle from we richnessnt through and splendorall kinds toof ruin times, brought from richnessupon by and Prussia splendor and Brandenburg, to ruin brought the upon political by Prussia adversaries and Brandenburg, of the first rulers the ofpolitical the castle” adversaries (Machura of the2004 first, p. rulers 7). of the castle” (Machura 2004, p. 7).

Figure 9. TheThe Pomeranian Pomeranian Dukes’ Dukes’ Castle in the interwar period, source: fotopolska.eu. fotopolska.eu.

3.3.4. The The Attitude Attitude of of the the Polish Polish Authorities Authorities towards towards the Castle after 1945 The castlecastle waswas destroyed destroyed in in 1945, 1945, but but the perimeterthe perimeter walls walls of the of main the body main and body the towerand the survived. tower survived.In 1947, the In 1947, castle the was castle secured was bysecured placing by aplacing temporary a temporary roof over roof the over walls. the Onewalls. year One later, year it later, was itleased was leased to the Westto the Pomeranian West Pomeranian rope and rope mesh and factory mesh tofactory prevent to theprevent further the deterioration further deterioration of the place. of theIn 1958, place. following In 1958, following the initiative the ofinitiative Maria Zaborowska, of Maria Zaborowska, the head of the the head Municipal of the Municipal Museum inMuseum Słupsk; inJan S St˛epie´n,thełupsk; Jan St headępień of, the the head Municipal of the National Municipal Council; National and Council; Feliks Ptaszy´nski,the and Feliks Ptaszy Voivodeshipński, the VoivodeshipConservator ofConservator Monuments, of funds Monume werents, raised funds to reconstruct were raised the castleto reconstruct with the intentionthe castle to createwith the the intentionheadquarters to create of the the Regional headquarte Museum.rs of the In 1959,Regional Adam Museum. Stefanowicz In 1959, developed Adam Stefanowicz the initial architectural developed thereconstruction initial architectural design forreconstruction the castle’s shelldesign and for the the interiors castle’s andshell land and aroundthe interiors it. Despite and land the around radical it.change Despite in function, the radical the change adaptation in function, design preserved the adapta thetion historical design divisionpreserved of roomsthe historical into five division transverse of roomsbays. Theinto reconstruction five transverse was bays. completed The reconstruction in 1965, restoring was completed the building in 1965, to itsrestoring Renaissance the building character to its Renaissance character dating back to the times of the Pomeranian Dukes (Figure 10). During the reconstruction, an attempt was made to save a few original construction elements, such as parts of the ceiling or window recesses, as well as the elements of architectural detail, such as profiled window frames. Unfortunately, only two vaulted rooms on the ground floor and the spiral staircase

Arts 2020, 9, 124 13 of 22 dating back to the times of the Pomeranian Dukes (Figure 10). During the reconstruction, an attempt was made to save a few original construction elements, such as parts of the ceiling or window recesses, Arts 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 22 as well as the elements of architectural detail, such as profiled window frames. Unfortunately, only two vaultedof the tower—so rooms on characteristic the ground floor of ducal and the castle spiral ar staircasechitecture—survived of the tower—so from characteristic the original ofarrangement. ducal castle architecture—survivedArchitectural site studies from helped the original to recreate arrangement. the original Architectural arrangement site studies of Renaissance helped to recreate window the originalopenings arrangement and determine of Renaissance the location window and dimensions openings andof the determine former Knight the location hall with anddimensions the orchestra of thebalcony former and Knight the basket hall with vault. the orchestraThe reconstruction balcony and adjusted the basket the vault.remaining The reconstructionrooms to cater adjusted for the themodern remaining museum, rooms and to an cater additional for the modernstaircase museum, was built. and In anthe additional museum staircasehall on the was ground built. Infloor, the museumarchitects hallexposed on the a ground fragment floor, of architectsthe original exposed wall with a fragment its monk of the bonding original method, wall with which its monk was bondingsupposed method, to confirm which the wasSlavic supposed origins of to the confirm building. the Slavic origins of the building.

Figure 10. The Pomeranian Dukes’Dukes’ CastleCastle after after the the postwar postwar reconstruction, reconstruction, National National Heritage Heritage Board Board of Poland,of Poland, source: source: Wikimedia Wikimedia Commons. Commons.

When itit comes comes to theto formthe form of the exterior,of the exterior, the most importantthe most interventionimportant intervention was the reconstruction was the ofreconstruction the tower together of the tower with together the Renaissance with the Renaissance cupola, and cupola, the reconstruction and the reconstruction of the loggia of the and loggia bay windowsand bay inwindows the elevation. in the Inelevation. subsequent In years,subsequent renovation years, focused renovation on the focused immediate on surroundingsthe immediate of thesurroundings castle with of the the reconstruction castle with the of reconstruction the old mill (1965–1968) of the old mill and (1965–1968) the manor (1972–1979), and the manor as well(1972– as renovation1979), as well and as adaptationrenovation ofand the adaptation mill gate, of which the mill was gate, finished which in was 1979. finished An important in 1979. An moment important was themoment transfer was of the the transfer sarcophagi of the and sarcophagi clothes of and duchess clothes Anna of duchess von Croÿ Anna and von duke Croÿ Ernst and Bogislaw duke Ernst von CroÿBogislaw to the von Museum Croÿ to of the Central Museum Pomerania of Central in 1982. Pomera Thenia artefacts in 1982. enriched The artefacts the regional enriched collection the regional after thecollection many yearsafter the of conservation.many years of Theconservation. post-war reconstructionThe post-war reconstruction of the castle and of the the castle new and function the new for thefunction building for the indicate building the diindicatefferent the attitude different of Polish attitu authoritiesde of Polish towards authorities the towards heritage the of the heritage Griffins, of onethe Griffins, that is a starkone that contrast is a stark to the contrast approach to ofthe the appr Germanoach of authorities. the German The authorities. essence of The the reconstructionessence of the wasreconstruction to restorethe was form to restore of the ducal the form residence of the and du setcal upresidence an important and set center up an of remembranceimportant center of the of Griremembranceffin dynasty, of a dynastythe Griffin which dynasty, once ruleda dynasty in Słupsk. which Though once ruled the intention in Słupsk. behind Though the reconstruction the intention maybehind not the be asreconstruction vivid as in the may case not of thebe Pomeranianas vivid as Dukesin the Castlecase of in the Szczecin, Pomeranian the idea Dukes seems Castle obvious. in SimilarlySzczecin, tothe the idea authorities seems obvious. of Szczecin, Similarly the local to the government authorities of Słupskof Szczecin, wanted the to local highlight government the Slavic of andSłupsk native wanted origins to ofhighlight the land the by Slavic reconstructing and native the orig symbolins of of the ducal land power. by recons Thetructing castle was the to symbol become of a solidducal proofpower. that The this castle land was belonged to become to a “Slavic”a solid proof dynasty. that Thisthis shouldland belonged confirm to the a rightful“Slavic” ruledynasty. over theseThis should territories confirm in the the new rightful political rule reality—the over these territories reality of Polandin the new which political “extended” reality—the westward reality after of WorldPoland War which II. “extended” westward after World War II.

3.4. The Case Study of the Ducal Castle in Darłowo

3.4.1. The Ducal Castle in Darłowo during the Times of the Griffin Dynasty The Darłowo castle is one of the seven castles funded by the Griffins in Pomerania. The remaining ducal residences were adapted or temporarily taken over by the ruling dynasty. The castle dates back to the 2nd half of the 14th century, the reign of Bogislaw V, who purchased the mill island in Darłowo. The envelope of the castle was rectangular (32 m × 34 m). The windowless perimeter walls were erected to the height of 15 m (Nekanda-Trepka 1990, pp. 63–74). The tower in front of the

Arts 2020, 9, 124 14 of 22

3.4. The Case Study of the Ducal Castle in Darłowo

3.4.1. The Ducal Castle in Darłowo during the Times of the Griffin Dynasty The Darłowo castle is one of the seven castles funded by the Griffins in Pomerania. The remaining ducal residences were adapted or temporarily taken over by the ruling dynasty. The castle dates back to the 2nd half of the 14th century, the reign of Bogislaw V, who purchased the mill island in Darłowo. The envelope of the castle was rectangular (32 m 34 m). The windowless perimeter Arts 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW × 14 of 22 walls were erected to the height of 15 m (Nekanda-Trepka 1990, pp. 63–74). The tower in front of the walls included an entrance gate. Ground-level residential and utility buildings with basements were constructed on the south-west side of the gate tower inside the curtail walls, in the south-east corner and in the north corner.corner. At that time, the castle was mainlymainly usedused forfor defense.defense. During the reign of Bogislaw VIII (and(and probablyprobably afterafter 1403), 1403), the the castle castle expanded, expanded, and and the th easte east wing wing was was erected erected and and set set to tobecome become the the ducal ducal knight knight hall hall covered covered by by a a stellar stellar vault vault ( Nekanda-Trepka(Nekanda-Trepka 1990 1990,, pp. pp. 63–74;63–74; Radacki 19761976,, pp. 87–104). In In 1449, 1449, duke duke Eric Eric started started residi residingng in the castle and strengthened the defensive capability ofof thethe fortress, fortress, but but the the only only thorough thorough transformation transformation featured featured the additionthe addition of a modestof a modest west wing.west wing. Around Around 1538, 1538, the castle the castle was modernizedwas modernized using using late Gothiclate Gothic forms forms and and the eastthe east and and south-east south- wingseast wings were were expanded. expanded. At thatAt that time, time, the the west west wing—which wing—which was was erected erected by by Eric Eric andand whichwhich greatly narrowed the courtyard—was demolished.demolished. In subsequentsubsequent years, a new wing was erected on the outer side of the west perimeter wall, the southern forgateforgate was transformed, and a new north gate was constructed onon thethe sideside of of the the city. city Most. Most probably, probably, the the castle castle deteriorated deteriorated during during the Thirtythe Thirty Years’ Years’ War. War.However, However, near the near end the of theend Duchy of the of Pomerania,Duchy of Pomerania, the castle underwent the castle some underwent minor modernization some minor modernizationand transformation. and transformation.

3.4.2. The Attitude of Prussian and Polish Authorities towards the Castle After the fall of the Duchy, thethe castlecastle inin DarłowoDarłowo became the property of the Prussian domain and played a commercial role. It It also also served served as as a a prison and and a a court. At At the the end end of of the the 18th 18th century, century, the west wing was deserted and bega begann to deteriorate. The technical technical stat statee of the the entire entire castle castle gradually gradually deteriorated. In 1833,1833, aa decision decision was was made made to to dismantle dismantle the the west west wing wing to the to ground,the ground, and aand prison a prison yard wasyard set was up. set Partial up. Partial transformation transformation and demolishing and demo alishingffected theaffected east wing. the east King wing. Frederick KingWilliam Frederick IV Williamhalted the IV final halted demolishing the final demolishing of the castle. of Thethe castle better. The years better for the years castle for didthe castle not come did untilnot come the 1920s until (Figurethe 1920s 11 ).(Figure In 1925, 11). the In regional 1925, the museum regional was museum organized was there. organized However, there. the However, 1934–1935 the restoration 1934–1935 is restorationstill controversial is still today,controversial as it was today, not based as it was on any not architecturalbased on any studies. architectural studies.

Figure 11. The Pomeranian Dukes’ Castle in Dar Darłowołowo in the interwar period, source: fotopolska.eu.

The castlecastle survived survived the the war war and and after after 1945 1945 became beca theme headquarters the headquarters of the Polish of the regional Polish museum.regional museum.Polish conservators Polish conservators conducted archeologicalconducted archeolo studiesgical in 1958, studies 1961–1966, in 1958, and 1961–1966, 1971–1972. and Architectural 1971–1972. Architectural studies were conducted in the years 1982–1985. Design and construction works associated with the post-war restoration of the castle were supervised by Janusz Nekanda-Trepka. The activity of Polish conservators referring to the monument were based on in-depth analyses of historical sources and in situ architectural studies. The restoration and reconstruction efforts focused only on the fragments of the castle whose appearance was known (Figure 12). Unsuitable elements, added during works conducted in the 1930s, were removed. The restoration of the castle concentrated mainly on interiors. One of its most visible effects was the reconstruction of a stellar vault at the ground floor hall in the east wing. The transformation of the Darłowo castle was slightly different than in the case of those in Szczecin and Słupsk, mainly due to restoration works in the 1930s and the little damage inflicted upon the structure during World War II. However, it should be noted that in

Arts 2020, 9, 124 15 of 22 studies were conducted in the years 1982–1985. Design and construction works associated with the post-war restoration of the castle were supervised by Janusz Nekanda-Trepka. The activity of Polish conservators referring to the monument were based on in-depth analyses of historical sources and in situ architectural studies. The restoration and reconstruction efforts focused only on the fragments of the castle whose appearance was known (Figure 12). Unsuitable elements, added during works conducted in the 1930s, were removed. The restoration of the castle concentrated mainly on interiors. One of its most visible effects was the reconstruction of a stellar vault at the ground floor hall in the east wing. The transformation of the Darłowo castle was slightly different than in the case of those in Szczecin and Słupsk, mainly due to restoration works in the 1930s and the little damage inflicted Arts 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 22 upon the structure during World War II. However, it should be noted that in the initial period after the initial fall of period the Duchy after of the Pomerania, fall of the Duchy the attitude of Pome of Prussianrania, the authorities attitude of towardsPrussian the authorities structure towards was no thediff erentstructure than was in the no casedifferent of the than other in Gritheffi casen Dynasty of the other castles. Griffin The Dynasty transformation castles. into The a transformation prison and the intodemolishing a prison ofand parts the ofdemolishing the building ofto parts develop of the a building prison yard to develop are proof a ofprison a very yard negligent are proof treatment of a very of negligentthe monument treatment and theof the effort monument to erase its and earlier the effort importance. to erase Theits earlier technical importance. and functional The technical degradation and functionalnearly led todegradation the total destruction nearly led ofto thisthe to valuabletal destruction castle. of this valuable castle.

Figure 12. TheThe Pomeranian Pomeranian Dukes’ Dukes’ Castle Castle in in Dar Darłowołowo today, photo: Jerzy Jerzy Strzelecki, source: source: Wikimedia Commons.

3.5. Transformations Transformations in the Case of the Remaining Ducal Residences Like thethe structures structures in Szczecin,in Szczecin, Słupsk, Słupsk, and Darłowo,and Dar thełowo, remaining the remaining ducal residences ducal residences in Pomerania in Pomeraniaunderwent underwent numerous transformationsnumerous transformations throughout thro theughout ages and the were ages sometimes and were sometimes entirely destroyed. entirely destroyed.The destruction The ofdestruction the prominent of the residence prominent in Wolgast—west residence in Wolgast—west of the Oder river—was of the Oder largely river—was due to the largelyBrandenburg due to rulethe Brandenburg in 1675. From rule that in moment,1675. From the that castle moment, gradually the castle deteriorated gradually and deteriorated was gradually and wasdemolished gradually until demolished the year 1843. until The the ducal year residence 1843. The in Grabowoducal residence near Szczecin in Grabowo (currently near a districtSzczecin of (currentlythe city) deteriorated a district of largely the city) due deteriorated to the Swedish largely negligence. due to the It wasSwedish finally negligence. ruined and It demolishedwas finally ruinedcompletely and indemolished 1677. The majoritycompletely of the in castle1677. inThe Ückemünde—which majority of the castle was in entirely Ückemünde—which transformed around was 1546entirely by thetransformed Wolgast duke around Philip 1546 I into by athe representative Wolgast duke seat Philip in the I lateintoGothic a representative style—was seat demolished in the late in 1720Gothic following style—was the demolished order of the in Prussian 1720 following king. Only the theorder south of the wing Prussian and the king. tower Only still the remain south today.wing andIt is the worth tower to examinestill remain the today. history It ofis twoworth ducal to ex castlesamine onthe the history east sideof two of ducal the Oder castles river. on Athe small east castle in Białogard (envelope of 20.5 m 11.5 m) was erected at the site of a former early medieval side of the Oder river. A small castle in Bia× łogard (envelope of 20.5 m × 11.5 m) was erected at the site ofgord a former by Wartislaw early medieval IV of Wolgast gord by in Wartislaw 1315. Following IV of Wolgast the order in 1315. of Frederic Following II in the 1780, order this of castle Frederic was IIalso in demolished1780, this castle and was replaced also demolished by a new structure and replaced to cater by for a thenew needs structure of the to king’s cater civicfor the employees. needs of theThe king’s castle incivic Szczecinek employees. was The also castle subject in to Szczecin numerousek was transformations also subject (Figureto numerous 13). After transformations the takeover (Figureof the building 13). After by the Brandenburg takeover of in the 1650, building the north by Brandenburg wing was used in 16 as50, a warehouse, the north wing whereas was theused south as a warehouse,wing was the whereas seat of thethe town south court. wing In was subsequent the seat years, of the the town individual court. fragmentsIn subsequent of the years, structure the individualwere either fragments demolished of orthe redeveloped structure were and either the building demolished had or various redeveloped functions. and The the structurebuilding washad various functions. The structure was twice a prison and a granary; a corset manufacturing plant; a social care and work facility; a hospital; and, finally, an employment office. The structure was not badly damaged during World War II. After 1945, it was turned into barracks and, after the appropriate adaptation, it was an administration unit, a school, and a hotel. The examples above show the determined policy of Prussian authorities towards the ducal castles. They were often adapted to fulfill functions that were hardly representative—e.g., prisons or warehouses—or they were associated with the new rule, such as courts and civic offices. Unfortunately, when a structure was in a bad technical state or when it was impossible to adapt it to a new function, it was demolished and replaced with a new building.

Arts 2020, 9, 124 16 of 22 twice a prison and a granary; a corset manufacturing plant; a social care and work facility; a hospital; and, finally, an employment office. The structure was not badly damaged during World War II. After 1945, it was turned into barracks and, after the appropriate adaptation, it was an administration unit, a school, and a hotel. The examples above show the determined policy of Prussian authorities towards the ducal castles. They were often adapted to fulfill functions that were hardly representative—e.g., prisons or warehouses—or they were associated with the new rule, such as courts and civic offices. Unfortunately, when a structure was in a bad technical state or when it was impossible to adapt it to a new function, it was demolished and replaced with a new building. Arts 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 22

Figure 13. The Pomeranian Dukes’ Castle in Szczecinek, source: Wikimedia Commons.

4. Discussion

4.1. An Attempt toto EvaluateEvaluate AttitudeAttitude of of the the Prussian Prussian Authorities Authorities to to the the Material Material Heritage Heritage of Pomeranianof Pomeranian Dukes DukesTransformations of and damage to the castles of Pomeranian dukes by Prussian and German authoritiesTransformations do not provide of and us damage with a full to the answer castles regarding of Pomeranian the extent dukes to which by Prussian these activities and German were deliberate,authorities resultingdo not provide from the us ambivalentwith a full answer attitude re ofgarding the authorities, the extent or to whether which theythese were activities caused were by thedeliberate, social and resulting economic from situation the ambivalent of that time.attitude Although of the authorities, all of these or factors whether contributed they were to caused the scale by ofthe the social degradation and economic of ducal situation residences of that in Pomerania,time. Although the impactall of these of the factors individual contributed factors to di theffered scale in variousof the degradation periods and of regions ducal residences of the former in Pomerania, duchy. The the analysis impact of of the the scale individual of the transformation factors differed and in destructionvarious periods gives and us regions a broader of perspectivethe former duchy. of the processesThe analysis than of anthe analysis scale of ofthe a transformation single case. One and of thedestruction factors that gives contributed us a broader the perspe degradationctive of of the ducal processes castle architecturethan an analysis was theof a collapse single case. of the One then of administrativethe factors thatsystem. contributed The Pomeranianthe degradation Duchy of underwentducal castle numerous architecture divisions was the into collapse districts of resultingthe then inadministrative an increased numbersystem. ofThe ducal Pomeranian castles that Duchy served underwent individual numerous dukes. During divisions the times into whendistricts the duchyresulting was in united, an increased the castles number did notof ducal fulfill castles the role that of a served ducal residenceindividual and dukes. instead During they servedthe times as administrativewhen the duchy centers was united, and were the readycastles to did accommodate not fulfill the the role royal of a court ducal if residence needed. At and the instead time of they the Swedishserved as rule, administrative some castles centers were still and periodically were ready used to accommodate as royal residences the royal (castles court in Szczecin,if needed. Wolgast At the andtime Grabowo),of the Swedish while, rule, during some the castles Prussian were times, still onlyperiodically the castle used in Szczecinas royal residences fulfilled a residential(castles in role.Szczecin, At that Wolgast point, otherand Grabowo), castles lost while, their main during function. the Prussian This is particularlytimes, only true the incastle the casein Szczecin of small provincialfulfilled a residential castles in Słupsk, role. At Białogard, that point, Szczecinek other castles and lost Ückemünde. their main Thesefunction. fortresses This is wereparticularly not needed true anymorein the case from of thesmall point provincial of viewof castles the royal in courtSłupsk, so Bia theyłogard, were eitherSzczecinek adapted and to fulfillÜckemünde. new functions These orfortresses demolished. were not Recovered needed anymore materials from were the used point for of di ffviewerent of purposes. the royal However,court so they in thiswere context, either oneadapted cannot to neglectfulfill new the symbolic functions character or demolished. of this type Recovered of actions, materials especially were considering used for their different scale andpurposes. determination. However, Thein this demolition context, one of entire cannot structures neglect the or theirsymbolic fragments, character as of well this as type the numerousof actions, especially considering their scale and determination. The demolition of entire structures or their fragments, as well as the numerous transformations that aimed at erasing their former residential character undoubtedly contributed to the destruction of the memory about the independence of Pomerania which might have been the aim of the new rulers. In this symbolic context, the function assigned to ducal structures by the Prussian authorities is also not without significance. Many of these buildings were partially or entirely adapted to become warehouses, granaries, arsenals, prisons or— at best—civic offices and courts. Therefore, it can be stated that the choice was between an absolute functional degradation of a structure and the highlighting of the presence of the new rule in the area.1

1 The issue was also raised by A. Bartetzky while referring to the reconstruction of the Malbork Castle, which was converted by the Prussian government into a granary and abandoned, despite the fact that it was a

Arts 2020, 9, 124 17 of 22 transformations that aimed at erasing their former residential character undoubtedly contributed to the destruction of the memory about the independence of Pomerania which might have been the aim of the new rulers. In this symbolic context, the function assigned to ducal structures by the Prussian authorities is also not without significance. Many of these buildings were partially or entirely adapted to become warehouses, granaries, arsenals, prisons or—at best—civic offices and courts. Therefore, it can be stated that the choice was between an absolute functional degradation of a structure and the highlighting of the presence of the new rule in the area.1 An example that stands out in this context is the castle in Szczecin as the main ducal residence in the capital of Pomerania. While the abovementioned castles in Słupsk, Szczecinek, Białogard, and Ückemünde are examples of natural destruction, the transformation of the castle in Szczecin is a clear attempt to erase the character of the former ducal residence and give it some qualities of Prussian architecture of that time. In particular, the changes during the first phase of the transformation could have been motivated by ideological reasons. The transformation of the south wing in 1734 in the spirit of the Frederic Baroque and the establishment of the arsenal was most probably part of a plan to show the local populace that a new rule was present. Another aspect of these activities might have been the new residents’ attempt to accommodate the castle space. In a broader context, it is worth highlighting that the transformation of the castle was a part of the bigger Prussian plan to transform the city. Firstly, a good example of the above is the construction of two new city gates, character of which referred to the triumphal arches erected during Baroque. These gates were the proof of the absolute power of the ruler and his sovereignty over the newly acquired Pomerania (Słomi´nskiet al. 2000, p. 140). Despite the fact that the residential function of the castle officially remained, the king also decided to erect a new palace in Szczecin for himself. The building located at the Parades’ White Square (new, representative urban space) was supposed to combine functions of a king’s residence and headquarters of the Parliament of Pomeranian States. Both functions were moved from the castle. The hierarchy of new political relations was also expressed in the architecture of the building, which followed the Potsdam style. The frontage of the palace featured the Pomeranian coat of arms which was somewhat hidden under the balcony over the main entrance, whereas the king’s coat of arms was put on the tympanum of the main avant-corps in a very exposed place. The external form of the structure combined the qualities of residential and military architecture. The aim was to remind the residents of the city about the absolute character of the new rule and the strength of its military (Słomi´nskiet al. 2000, pp. 91–96; Goł˛ebiewski 2008, pp. 141–42). Therefore, the construction of the palace was partially associated with the degradation of the role and the significance of Szczecin’s castle. Suffice to say that even before the palace’s construction, Frederic William did not stay at the former ducal residence, but used the hospitality of general von Borcke, the fortress commander (Słomi´nskiet al. 2000, p. 91). Therefore, the policy of Prussian authorities towards the ducal residence during the first stage of the rule consisted of numerous symbolic gestures that revealed their true intentions. This policy was clear from the very beginning, when the king accepted the tribute from Szczecin’s townspeople in the castle courtyard in 1921. Other similar gestures with reference to the castle include the creation of an arsenal and the headquarters of main royal offices, the relocation of the Parliament of Pomeranian States, which used to be a symbol of Pomerania’s independence. Moreover, the king placed royal monograms in the towers and removed ducal armor and banners from the castle chapel and transported them to Berlin. All of these activities manifested the attitude of the new ruler towards Pomerania during the initial lack of support to the new rule from the townspeople (Wi´sniewski 1963). This was the manifestation of a colonial policy towards the conquered Pomerania region. According to Ewa

1 The issue was also raised by A. Bartetzky while referring to the reconstruction of the Malbork Castle, which was converted by the Prussian government into a granary and abandoned, despite the fact that it was a symbol of Germanic culture. Conrad Steinbrecht, the castle reconstruction manager, referred to the process as a functional degradation counterproductive for the “German cause” and contradictory to the German national interest (Bartetzky 2012). The activity driven by utility goals diminished existential and situational values. Arts 2020, 9, 124 18 of 22

Rewers, this kind of policy helps justify nationalistic ambitions and strengthens hegemony of a single culture (Rewers 2005, p. 294). Undoubtedly, one of policy goals was to eliminate the previous local identity of Pomeranian citizens and impose a new Prussian one. The new identity was expressed through new social, political, and economic relations but also in the new shape of space. A different evaluation would have to be made for the transformation of the castle in the 19th century. First of all, the changes were utility-driven and resulted from the necessity to solve accommodation problems or counteract technical wear of the individual parts of the building. However, in this period we can also highlight some symbolic activities that aimed at giving the castle a more German appearance. In this context, an example is the expansion of the north wing conducted using neo-Gothic Arts 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 22 and Classicist forms so characteristic of the national style present in Germany at that time. Another factthat worthtime. Another mentioning fact worth is that mentioning the bust of is the that Grand the bust Elector of the Frederic Grand Elector William, Frederic who conquered William, who the cityconquered in 1677, the was city placed in 1677, in was the castleplaced courtyard in the castle in 1833courtyard (Figure in 183314). The(Figure memorial 14). The was memorial ordered was by kingordered Frederic by king William Frederic III. It Willia was supposedm III. It towas legitimize supposed the to rule legitimi of theze dynasty the rule of Hohenzollernof the dynasty over of SzczecinHohenzollern and was over to Szczecin become and a new was patriotic to become accent a new (Gwiazdowska patriotic accent 2006 (Gwiazdowska, p. 16). 2006, p. 16).

Figure 14. The bust of the Grand Elector Fr Fredericederic William in the castle courtyard, source:source: sedina.pl.

To summarize,summarize, the Prussian and German rule overover Pomerania brought either a negative or ambivalent attitude towards the preserved heritageheritage of Pomeranian dukes and contributed to the significantsignificant decreasedecrease inin the the number number of of ducal ducal residences, residences, as as well well as toas deteriorationto deterioration of their of their aesthetic aesthetic and functionaland functional value. value. The The fact wasfact was also also recognized recognized before before the outbreak the outbreak of World of World War IIWar by GermanII by German local governmentlocal government and conservators, and conservators, who began who anbegan initial an restoration initial restoration of the castles of the in castles Szczecin in andSzczecin Darłowo. and Darłowo. 4.2. An Attempt to Evaluate Activity by Polish Authorities with Reference to the Material Heritage of Pomeranian4.2. An Attempt Dukes to Evaluate Activity by Polish Authorities with Reference to the Material Heritage of PomeranianThe attitude Dukes of Polish authorities regarding the preserved heritage of Pomeranian Dukes was completelyThe attitude different of toPolish the actions authorities of the regarding Prussian andthe Germanpreserved rulers. heritage In contrast of Pomeranian to the previous Dukes hosts was ofcompletely these lands, different Poles wanted to the toactions expose of the the ducal Prussian past ofand the German castles built rulers. by theIn contrast Slavic dynasty, to the aprevious dynasty 2 whichhosts of was these inaccurately lands, Poles referred wanted to asto expose the Piast the dynasty ducal past (Piskorski of the 1946castles) . built Ducal by residences—restored the Slavic dynasty, toa dynasty their original which state—were was inaccurately expected referred to prove to the as ethnic the pastPiast of dynasty these lands, (Piskorski their association 1946) 2 . Ducal with Poland,residences—restored and the “historical to their justice”—the original state—were idea that expe Pomeraniacted to prove returned the toethnic its origins past of afterthese several lands, their association with Poland, and the “historical justice”—the idea that Pomerania returned to its origins after several hundred years of unjust Germanization (Zachwatowicz 1948, pp. 244–54). 2AlthoughAlthough the the attitude family link of between Polish theand first German Griffins andauthorities the Polish towards Piast dynasty the hasheritage never been of the proven, Griffins the Pomeranian differed, dynasty was described as having a direct connection with the dynasty of the first Polish kings. It was a part of propaganda theirdesigned actions to were reassure based Poles displacedon the same to Pomerania intentions. about For the PolishPrussia, roots it of was the ducalimportant dynasty. to erase the ducal past of the Szczecin’s castle, whereas for Poland the basis for further activities was to eradicate Prussian past. This resulted in the lack of acceptance of the parts of the castle that were preserved from this period. In both instances, it was an attempt to mark and accommodate the ducal heritage which, on its takeover, had negative connotations. The important objective conditions that differentiate the context for German and Polish activities include the different degrees of degradation and conservation ideology in both periods. It should be pointed out that the restoration of the ducal form of residences in Szczecin and Słupsk depended on

2 Although the family link between the first Griffins and the Polish Piast dynasty has never been proven, the Pomeranian dynasty was described as having a direct connection with the dynasty of the first Polish kings. It was a part of propaganda designed to reassure Poles displaced to Pomerania about the Polish roots of the ducal dynasty.

Arts 2020, 9, 124 19 of 22 hundred years of unjust Germanization (Zachwatowicz 1948, pp. 244–54). Although the attitude of Polish and German authorities towards the heritage of the Griffins differed, their actions were based on the same intentions. For Prussia, it was important to erase the ducal past of the Szczecin’s castle, whereas for Poland the basis for further activities was to eradicate Prussian past. This resulted in the lack of acceptance of the parts of the castle that were preserved from this period. In both instances, it was an attempt to mark and accommodate the ducal heritage which, on its takeover, had negative connotations. The important objective conditions that differentiate the context for German and Polish activities include the different degrees of degradation and conservation ideology in both periods. It should be pointed out that the restoration of the ducal form of residences in Szczecin and Słupsk depended on the enormous scale of their destruction. Nowadays, it is difficult to speculate on how these transformations would have progressed, provided the monuments had survived the war without any damage. Polish conservators often highlighted that the damage inflicted upon monuments during wars open up space to remove neo-historical and worthless 19th century layers and promote the “extraction of their most valuable artistic qualities” (Zachwatowicz 1965, p. 46). Therefore, political intentions conform to the post-war conservation doctrine, which is clear in the statements by conservators who based their opinions on both substantial and ideological grounds (Dziurla 1959, pp. 91–97; Latour 2008, pp. 51–72; Zachwatowicz 1948, pp. 244–54). Jan Zachwatowicz - the lead national conservator wrote that, in the face of the enormous wartime destruction, conservation supported the preservation of the original appearance of the castles, whereas their later transformations lose their significance when compared with the necessity to present the society with a complete image of the destroyed culture. In this context, the reconstruction of ducal castles in Szczecin and Słupsk in their original forms seems to be a natural course of action. These objective factors were also accompanied by political and symbolic intentions. Piotr Zaremba, the first president of Szczecin, frequently highlighted the significance of the reconstructed Castle of Pomeranian Dukes for the acknowledgment of Polish rule in Pomerania (Zaremba and Orli´nska 1965, p. 96). At the same time, spatial development aimed to create a proper exposition and a dignified site for the castle in the city’s panorama (Goł˛ebiewski 2018, p. 213). Thanks to these efforts, it could become a proper counterbalance for civic buildings on the Hakenterasse embankment overlooking the river, buildings which were erected in the spirit of the William’s German architecture. The determination of political and conservation authorities of that time aimed at the restoration of the dignity of the castle in the city space and of the appropriate form related to the Polish cultural circle—resulting largely from the eagerness to create a spatial symbol of the “roots” for the immigrant population that came to the post-German city (Ochendowska-Grzelak 2018, pp. 2–6; Latour 2008, p. 66). The sole separation from the pre-war form manifested the rejection of the German cultural heritage and its replacement with the Polish one (Fiuk 2017, pp. 63–64). Therefore, the reconstruction of the castle in its late Gothic and Renaissance forms was a symbolic colonization and the adaptation of the post-German city (Musekamp 2013, p. 160; Praczyk 2015, pp. 125–26). Thus, the castle, which embodied artistic, material, and symbolic values characteristic of the Polish culture, was to promote the identification and integration of the new community with a foreign territory (Wallis 1990, pp. 13–16). Although these activities were overt and clear mostly in Szczecin, they should also be noticed with reference to the remaining ducal castles in West Pomerania. The reconstruction of the castle in Słupsk as well as the conservation of castles in Darłowo and Szczecinek were a product of the same process. It is also worth mentioning that, apart from the castle in Szczecinek, all other restored castles were converted into museums presenting the history of the Duchy of Pomerania and the Pomeranian dynasty. The ducal castles became both a material and living (due to their educational role) monument of the Griffin dynasty and began to fulfill the role of old border stones that marked the land as a part of Poland. Importantly, the narration created after the war remains valid today, despite the political transformation of 1989, and the ducal buildings today are an important part of the local identity of West Pomerania residents. Arts 2020, 9, 124 20 of 22

5. Conclusions Summarizing, we need to notice that the utility, aesthetic, and cultural values of the dual architecture in Pomerania remained under a strong influence of authorities and political factors during the Prussian-German and Polish periods. The influence intensified shortly after the takeover of Pomerania. In the case of Prussia, it was 1720–1806 (enlightened absolutism in Prussia), whereas in the case of Polish supremacy 1945–1958 (period during which concepts developed for the rebuilding of castles in Szczecin and Słupsk, a period of communist dictatorship until 1956). A characteristic feature of both periods was the strong centralized state power extending its influence to all spheres of social life. Political factors, however, were not the only ones that determined the form of ducal architecture. During the Prussian period, a major role was also played by utility factors, which finally contributed to the destruction and diminished cultural values in a similar fashion to political factors (Table1).

Table 1. Factors that contributed to the transformation of ducal castles in the Prussian-German period.

Architectural and Cause/Motives: Factors: Symbolic Action: Spatial Intervention Loss of previous Demolishing Blurred memory Utility factors: → → function Interior rebuilding Functional degradation → → Demolishing Blurred memory → → Interior rebuilding Functional degradation → → Diminished role of Domination of new ducal castle as authorities (architectural Exterior conversion symbol of Political factors: → → forms associated with new Pomerania’s authority) independence Removal of symbols Blurred memory and remnants of Weakening of previous → → Griffin Dynasty local identity

The table above shows that activity driven by political factors focused on achieving symbolic effects and hitting existential and emotional values directly linked with social and cultural identity, as well as situational values connected with the attachment of a society to a given space. In this particular case, Prussian pragmatism and politically driven interest in spatial domination were subordinated to the same goal. A similar relationship could be found in the case of the post-war activity of Polish authorities. Utility-driven conservation interventions fitted into the political motivation and became symbolic (Table2).

Table 2. Factors that contributed to the transformation of ducal castles in the Polish period.

Architectural and Cause/Motives: Factors: Symbolic Action: Spatial Intervention Removal of secondary Removal of rebuilding layers considered traces—burred memory of → → Restoring utility, Conservation valueless its German past aesthetic and factors: historical values Rebuilding and restoring Restoring form of castle the most valuable artistic dating back to the rule of → → form Griffin Dynasty Rebuilding and Creating a symbol of “being highlighting the place of rooted” in the Recovered → the castle in urban → Restoration of Territory landscape historical values, Political factors: Development of cultural Strengthening of Polish creation of new role of the castle culture in recovered land cultural values → → Displaying artefacts Highlighting the affiliation related to the Griffin of the land to Polish culture → → Dynasty and politics Arts 2020, 9, 124 21 of 22

The rebuilding of the destroyed Griffin heritage, which as Polish authorities believed was previously “distorted”, was an important act of national self-affirmation of the recovered territory. New utility and aesthetic values and a new form were designed to create new existential and symbolic values of ducal castles. This was meant to contribute to the integration of Poles with the area of Pomerania. While the Prussian activity aimed to strengthen the power over the territory and its local population, the Polish intervention involved the complete replacement of population and concentrated primarily on the integration of new settlers. Therefore, apart from the above-mentioned historical factors, the situation stimulated a negative attitude to the ducal heritage on the part of Prussian authorities and a positive attitude of the Polish administration.

Funding: This research received no external funding. Acknowledgments: All images used in the article are public domain. Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.

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