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Le Dragon De Lumière. Les Grandes Expéditions Des Ming Au Début Du Xve Siècle

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Le Dragon De Lumière. Les Grandes Expéditions Des Ming Au Début Du Xve Siècle LE DRAGON DE LUMIÈRE DOMINIQUE LELIÈVRE Le Dragon de Lumière LES GRANDES EXPÉDITIONS DES MING AU DÉBUT DU XV SIÈCLE ÉDITIONS FRANCE-EMPIRE 13, rue Le Sueur, 75116 Paris Vous intéresse-t-il d'être au courant des livres publiés par l'éditeur de cet ouvrage ? Envoyez simplement votre carte de visite aux ÉDITIONS FRANCE-EMPIRE Service « Vient de paraître » 13, rue Le Sueur, 75116 Paris Et vous recevrez régulièrement, et sans engagement de votre part, nos bulletins d'information qui présentent nos différentes collections disponibles chez votre libraire. © Éditions France-Empire, 1996. ISBN 2-7048-0787-6 Tous droits de reproduction et d'adaptation réservés pour tous les pays. IMPRIMÉ EN FRANCE REMERCIEMENTS Ma reconnaissance va d'abord à mon épouse pour son soutien quotidien. Je tiens aussi à remercier Mlle Gao Hong pour son aide précieuse, Mme Cordier pour ses judi- cieux conseils et M. Bruno Delafon pour les illustrations ainsi que tous ceux qui, à Tours et à Toulouse, ont apporté leur concours à la réalisation de cet ouvrage. TRANSCRIPTION DES NOMS CHINOIS A l'exception des mots passés dans l'usage comme Pékin, Nankin, typhon, etc., nous avons adopté pour les mots chinois la transcription officielle de la République Populaire de Chine, transcription communément dénom- mée pinyin. UNITÉS DE MESURE — Un picul vaut 100 catties, c'est-à-dire environ 60 kg. — Un shi vaut environ 60 litres. — Un zhang vaut 3,11 mètres et un chi 31,1 centi- mètres. — Un li vaut 500 à 600 mètres, selon les lieux et les époques. LES PRINCIPAUX PROTAGONISTES Les premiers Ming (1328-1398), né Zhu Yuanzhang, fils de pay- sans, fondateur de la dynastie Ming en 1368. (1360-1424), son fils, né Zhu Di, prince de Yan, porte la dynastie au faîte de son prestige, chasse du pou- voir son neveu (1377-1402). (1378- 1425), fils de Yongle, ne règne qu'un an. (1399-1434), né Zhu Zhanji, petit-fils de Yongle, est l' initiateur de la dernière grande expédition. né Zhu Qizhen (1427-1464), fils de Xuande, sera capturé et emprisonné par les Mongols en 1449. Les envoyés spéciaux et les témoins (1371-1434), eunuque musulman, comman- dant des sept Grandes Expéditions maritimes menées entre 1405 et 1433. (d.1434), eunuque, adjoint de Zheng He. eunuque, envoyé spécial au Tibet, au Népal, en Inde et à Calicut. (d.1457), lettré, ambassadeur de Yongle auprès de Shah Rukh. eunuque, émissaire de l'empereur auprès des Jürchen. interprète musulman, participe à la qua- trième, à la sixième et à la septième expédition. participe à la troisième, à la cinquième et à la septième expédition. secrétaire du commandant, est de la sep- tième expédition. Les conseillers ou Daoyan (1335- 1418), moine, confident de Yongle. (1366-1430), ministre des Finances, il s'op- posera aux dernières réalisations de Yongle. Mais aussi Jie (1369-1415), (d.1422), (d.1433), les trois « et l'eunuque (d.1449). Asie et Grandes Expéditions de Zheng He (1405-1433) INTRODUCTION Quelles sont donc ces expéditions maritimes chinoises qui, moins d'un siècle avant le début des Grandes Décou- vertes, mènent les Chinois en Afrique ? Quelle importance eurent-elles, pourquoi sont-elles si peu connues du public occidental et quelle place occupent-elles dans l'évolution comparée de l'Occident et de l'Extrême-Orient ? Cet ouvrage n'a pas l'ambition démesurée de répondre à toutes ces questions. Il veut simplement présenter les faits dans leur contexte. Début XV siècle, alors que l'Occident peine à s'extraire du Moyen Age, une Chine revigorée renoue avec une vocation maritime trop longtemps contenue. Dès 1405, les Ming lancent la première des sept Grandes Expéditions maritimes de leur histoire. Trente années durant, leurs flottes sillonnent avec assiduité les Mers de l'Ouest. Qui peut, alors, rivaliser avec une Chine si entreprenante ? D'autant que, simultanément, l'Empire du Milieu orches- tre un vaste ballet diplomatique, entraînant dans sa danse toute l'Asie. Du Tibet à la Corée, de Samarcande à Java, de Calicut à Bornéo, on se presse pour verser tribut au Fils du Ciel. Au zénith de sa gloire, celui-ci édifie une nouvelle capitale, restaure le Grand Canal et affronte en personne les turbulents Mongols. Puis, étonnante coïncidence, en 1435, au moment où les Portugais commencent l'exploration des côtes africaines, disparaît le dernier empereur « navigateur » de Chine. Fasci- nant premier tiers de siècle entre Chine et Portugal, où se joue en partie, sur mer, le destin du monde. Mais si le désenclavement européen, fils des Grandes Découvertes, est maintenant largement connu, qui, en Occident, a seulement entendu parler de cette période prestigieuse de la Chine ? Peut-on applaudir les uns et ignorer les autres ? Peut-on méconnaître indéfiniment cette Chine des premiers Ming, si fascinante par ses réalisa- tions... comme par ses renoncements ultérieurs. Y règne l'empereur Yongle (1360-1424) qui, arrivé tard au pouvoir, a une soif insatiable de prestige. Avec lui, la Chine, héritière d'une insoupçonnable richesse maritime, œuvre désormais dans le gigantisme en construisant plu- sieurs centaines de jonques aux dimensions surprenantes. Embarquant plus d'un millier hommes, longues de plus de cent mètres, elles atteignent l'Inde, l'Arabie parfumée et l'Afrique exotique. Aden, Ormuz, Mogadiscio, Calicut et d'autres, reçoivent la visite répétée des marins de l'amiral Zheng He, grand eunuque musulman. Plusieurs dizaines de monarques sont courtisés et gratifiés de somptueux présents : porcelaines, soies et laques. Parmi les nombreux passagers de ces jonques chinoises figurent certes des diplomates, des militaires et des inter- prètes mais aussi des médecins, des cartographes, des her- boristes et toute une suite d'esprits curieux et cultivés. En retour, par dizaines, des ambassadeurs de tous pays affluent à la cour des Ming. S'y coudoient Bengali, Cingha- lais, Indiens de Calicut, de Cochin et de Quilon, Malais, Siamois ainsi qu'Egyptiens, Yéménites et Africains. Tant de personnages insolites et de langues inhabituelles. La toute nouvelle école des langues de Nankin ne suffit pas à la tâche. S'active également le ministère des Rites chargé d'accueillir ces hôtes. Sept rois viennent en per- sonne rendre hommage à l'auguste Fils du Ciel et il n'est nul monarque en Asie qui ne puisse désormais ignorer l'éclat de la Chine. La Grande Flotte, qui n'a d'autre mission que d'exhiber la majesté de l'empereur, ne se prive pourtant pas d'inter- venir. Le pirate de Palembang, le roi cupide de Ceylan et l'usurpateur de Semudra en font l'amère expérience. Tan- dis que d'autres dirigeants, acceptant la souveraineté toute symbolique de l'empire, sont choyés plus que de coutume, tels le Samorin de Calicut, le Shah de Malacca et le souve- rain du Bengale. Ormuz et Aden, quant à elles, rivalisent de générosité, s'octroyant à peu de frais un regain de prestige. D'autres comme Mogadiscio et La'sa, qui osent résister, expérimen- tent avec effroi le grondement des bombardes chinoises. La Mecque, enfin, est visitée lors de la dernière expédition commanditée par Xuande, petit-fils de Yongle. Au fur et à mesure que la flotte progresse, Ma Huan « le bûcheron montagnard » et Fei Xin « le petit lettré », témoins à bord des jonques, décrivent pour nous les coutumes et les productions des pays rencontrés. Ils nous parlent des mœurs étranges des Siamois, de la richesse des villes musulmanes éparpillées le long des côtes asiatiques jus- qu'à Java, du commerce à Calicut, de la culture du poivre, de la base stratégique de Malacca et de l'accueil somp- tueux du Bengale. Les stèles racontent, quant à elles, les tempêtes en mer, les proclamations humanistes de Ceylan ou le triomphe d'une girafe à Nankin... tout un univers à découvrir. Pendant que les marins chinois parcourent les océans, des émissaires, eunuques pour la plupart, sont dépêchés en Asie Centrale, en pays Jürchen, au Tibet, au Népal, en Birmanie et bien entendu chez les voisins traditionnels de la Chine : Corée, Japon et Annam. De tout l'Orient conver- gent vers la capitale chinoise des ambassades chargées de luxueux tributs destinés à l'empereur. Elles apportent, qui des éléphants, des autruches, des perroquets, qui des étoffes, des épices, des coraux et des pierres précieuses, qui des étalons ou de jeunes vierges. Bref, tout ce que l'Asie, l'Inde et l'Afrique offrent de plus précieux, de plus chatoyant ou de plus inattendu se donne rendez-vous en Chine. L'empereur a reçu mandat du Ciel pour que règne sur terre la Paix Suprême, dans le respect des hiérarchies et des dynasties. Deux régions, pourtant, refusent l'universa- lisme « généreux » des Ming. Après les premiers succès, on verra les armées caparaçonnées de l'empereur s'essouffler derrière les insaisissables Mongols et reculer derrière les résistants annamites. En cette fin de XX siècle, quand résonnent les mots de « nouvel ordre mondial », l'odyssée diplomatique et civilisatrice de la Chine de Yongle, jalouse de son mandat « universel », n'est pas sans nous interpel- ler. La grande œuvre de Yongle sera Pékin. Dès le début de son règne, l'empereur, avide de légitimité, initiateur d'une imposante encyclopédie, décide que Pékin sera la nou- velle capitale de l'empire. Il faudra dix-huit ans avant qu'elle ne soit inaugurée. Voilà donc la Chine transformée en immense chantier. On mobilise, on réquisitionne, on réorganise le transport du grain et on achemine du bois sur des milliers de milles. Afin d'approvisionner Pékin et sa région, il s'avère vite nécessaire de reconstruire le Grand Canal. Autant de tra- vaux qui finissent par épuiser le pays et soulever des cri- tiques.
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