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Chen, Qing (2015) Mosques of the maritime Muslim community of China: a study of mosques in the south and southeast coastal regions of China. PhD thesis. SOAS University of London. http://eprints.soas.ac.uk/29805 Copyright © and Moral Rights for this thesis are retained by the author and/or other copyright owners. A copy can be downloaded for personal non‐commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the copyright holder/s. The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. When referring to this thesis, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given e.g. AUTHOR (year of submission) "Full thesis title", name of the School or Department, PhD Thesis, pagination. Mosques of the Maritime Muslim Community of China A STUDY OF THE MOSQUES IN THE SOUTH AND SOUTHEAST COASTAL REGIONS OF CHINA By Qing Chen Thesis submitted for the degree of PhD 2015 Department of History of Art and Archaeology School of Oriental and African Studies University of London Declaration for SOAS PhD thesis I have read and understood regulation 17.9 of the Regulations for students of the SOAS, University of London concerning plagiarism. I undertake that all the material presented for examination is my own work and has not been written for me, in whole or in part, by any other person. I also undertake that any quotation or paraphrase from the published or unpublished work of another person has been duly acknowledged in the work which I present for examination. Signed: ____________________________ Date: _________________ In memory of Klaus, the love of my life, who is the every reason for me to complete this research project. Acknowledgments Fieldwork carried out for this thesis has been supported by the Central Research Fund and the Barakat Trust. I am very grateful for their support. I am very grateful to Dr. Shane McCausland, Dr. Clarence Eng and Dr. George Lane for their academic advice while my supervisor Dr. Geoffrey King was sadly taken ill and eventually had to leave his work. I would like to take this opportunity to wish my supervisor making a full recovery from his illness and having much joy in his life upon his retirement. I thank my lawyer Alexander Knauss in Bonn for looking after all the legal issues with which I have, unfortunately, had to deal for all these years. Without his help I would not have been able to return to London to complete this thesis. It has been a long journey, an emotional journey for me too. It would have been impossible for me to make it through without all support from my loving family and friends. I thank my sister and especially my brother-in-law Gao Donghua for being always by my side and being always there for me, and my dear friend Stella Liu and her entire family for all their love and care. My warmest thanks to Hessah, I thank her for her friendship and the time and the thoughts we shared at the Doctoral School over last Christmas. I am deeply grateful to Sajid Rezvi for offering his help in reading part of the texts, and Dr. Liu Zhihong for checking and proof reading the Chinese scripts. I thank them for all their love and support. Last but by no means least, special thanks to my dearest friend Peter Hellyer, I am very grateful to him for going through the texts patiently and editing all texts, but mostly I thank him, being my rock for always believing in me and supporting me all these years. iv Abstract The naturally-linked south and southeast coastal regions of China are the areas where the religion of Islam first arrived in the country in the 7th century CE and where the first settlements of Muslims of Middle Eastern origins were established. These subsequently grew into a large Muslim community, called here the Maritime Muslim Community in China, which can be defined both by its origins from seafarers from the heartlands of the Muslim world and the geographic location. The thesis seeks to explore the complex process of the evolution of the Maritime Muslim Community and its material culture, within the context of prevailing political, economic and social conditions, and in a conceptual framework of cultural syncretism and regionalism with regards to the development of its religious architecture. Focussing on the mosques of the Maritime Muslim Community, the thesis examines the process whereby Islamic architecture and practice, which arrived in coastal China in the early centuries of Islam, had evolved by the time of the Ming dynasty (1368-1644) and continued to develop during the Qing dynasty (1644-1912) into a Chinese reinterpretation of Islamic forms. It also addresses contemporary trends in Islamic architectural practices in coastal China in the modern era. It commences with a historical overview of the coming of Islam to the Chinese coast and the formation of the Maritime Muslim Community. Subsequent chapters examine the present form of both early and later mosques and the textual sources, especially those referring to the early mosques. The evolution of the minaret and architectural decoration, including epigraphic traditions, are discussed in separate chapters. The evolution of mosque architecture of the Maritime Muslim Community illustrates a synthesis of Islamic and Chinese culture, and sheds light on the creation of local Muslim identity: from Muslim seafaring diaspora to Chinese Muslims. v Contents Acknowledgements iv Abstract v Maps vii Chronological Chart of the Chinese Dynasties ix List of Ground Plans xi List of Illustrations xii Introduction 1 Chapter 1 |Historical Overview: the Coming of Islam to the China Coast and Formation of the Maritime Muslim Community 14 Chapter 2 |Early Mosques: The Muslim Diaspora and the Imported Artistic Tradition of Islamic Lands 32 Chapter 3 |Mosques in the Transitional Phase of the Yuan (1271- 1368): Departure and Integration 64 Chapter 4 |Mosques of their Own: Formation of a Distinctly Chinese- Style Mosque in the Ming (1368-1644) 92 Chapter 5 | Mosques in the Qing (1644-1912): Development and Destruction 119 Chapter 6 |Emergence of a New Style in the Republican Era (1912- 1949): Colonial Style Mosques 149 Chapter 7 |Minarets: Chinese Concepts and Islamic Traditions 165 Chapter 8 |Architectural Decoration and Epigraphic Tradition 190 Conclusion 248 Appendix I Copy of Chinese Inscriptions on Stelae 251 Appendix II CD Rom Bibliography 257 vi vii Map 2 Map showing sites covered by fieldwork in China (Principal areas in the southern and southeastern coastal regions visited are underlined in purple; sites visited for comparative studies are underlined in blue) viii Timeline of Chinese Dynasties ca. 2100-1600 BCE Xia Dynasty ca. 1600-1050 BCE Shang Dynasty Capitals: near present-day Zhengzhou and Anyang ca. 1046-256 BCE Zhou Dynasty Capitals: Hao (near present-day Xi'an) and Luoyang Western Zhou (ca. 1046-771 BCE) Eastern Zhou (ca. 771-256 BCE) Spring and Autumn Period (770-ca. 475 BCE) Confucius (ca. 551-479 BCE) Warring States Period (ca. 475-221 BCE) 221-206 BCE Qin Dynasty Capital: Chang'an, present-day Xi'an Qin Shihuangdi dies, 210 BCE 206 BCE-220 CE Han Dynasty Western/Former Han (206 BCE-9 CE) Capital: Chang'an Confucianism officially established as basis for Chinese state by Han Wudi (r. 141-86 BCE) Eastern/Later Han (25-220 CE) Capital: Luoyang 220-589 CE Six Dynasties Period Period of disunity and instability following the fall of the Han; Buddhism introduced to China Three Kingdoms (220-265 CE) Cao Wei, Shu Han, Dong Wu Jin Dynasty (265-420 CE) Period of the Northern and Southern Dynasties (386-589 CE) 581-618 CE Sui Dynasty Capital: Chang'an 618-906 CE Tang Dynasty Capitals: Chang'an and Luoyang 907-960 CE Five Dynasties Period 960-1279 Song Dynasty Northern Song (960-1127) Capital: Bianjing (present-day Kaifeng) Southern Song (1127-1279) Capital: Lin'an (present-day ix Hangzhou) 1279-1368 Yuan Dynasty The reign of the Mongol Empire; Capital: Dadu (present-day Beijing) 1368-1644 Ming Dynasty Re-establishment of rule by Han ruling house; Capitals: Nanjing and Beijing 1644-1912 Qing Dynasty Reign of the Manchus; Capital: Beijing 1912-1949 Republic Period Capitals: Beijing, Wuhan, and Nanjing 1949-present People's Republic of China Capital: Beijing (From: http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/timelines/china_timeline.htm#Chinese History) | http://afe.easia.columbia.edu x List of Ground Plans Plan I. Plan of the Ashab Mosque, Quanzhou. 57 Plan II. Plan of the Muslim cemetery, Yangzhou. 73 Plan III. A section of the plan of the Tomb of Sa‟d Ibn Abi Waqqâs, Guangzhou. 75 Plan IV. Plan of the Fenghuang Mosque, Hangzhou. 83 Plan V. Plan of the Songjiang Mosque, Songjiang. 87 Plan VI. Plan of the Jingjue Mosque, Nanjing. 110 Plan VII. Plan of Luhe Nanmen Mosque, Nanjing. 112 Plan VIII. Plan of the Huaisheng Si, Guangzhou. 114 Plan IX. Plan of the Ningbo Mosque, Ningbo. 129 Plan X. Plan of the Xianhe Mosque, Yangzhou. 132 Plan XI. Plan of the Jiaxing Mosque, Jiaxing. 136 Plan XII. Plan of the Luhe Changjianglu Mosque, Nanjing. 140 Plan XIII. Plan of the Taipinglu Mosque, Nanjing. 141 Plan XIV. Plan of the Caoqia Mosque, Nanjing. 142 Plan XV. Plan of the Jizhaoying Mosque, Nanjing. 143 Plan XVI. Plan of the Fuyoulu Mosque, Shanghai. 144 Plan XVII. Plan of the Shanxiang Mosque, Zhenjiang. 147 Plan XVIII. Plan of the Xiaotaoyuan Mosque, Shanghai.
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