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Home , Colchicaceae, Gloriosa (plant), Gloriosa superba

Journal of Medicinal Research Vol. 5(26), pp. 6112-6121, 16 November, 2011 Available online at http://www.academicjournals.org/JMPR ISSN 1996-0875 ©2011 Academic Journals DOI: 10.5897/JMPR11.913

Review

Gloriosa superba L. (family ): Remedy or poison?

A. Maroyi 1* and L. J. G. van der Maesen 2

1Biodiversity Department, School of Molecular and Life Sciences, University of Limpopo, Private Bag X1106, Sovenga 0727, South . 2Netherlands Centre for Biodiversity Naturalis (Section National Herbarium of the Netherlands – Wageningen Branch) (Herbarium Vadense), Biosystematics Group, Wageningen University, Generaal Foulkesweg 37, 6703 BL Wageningen, The Netherlands.

Accepted 11 August, 2011

This article gives an overview of medicinal uses and poisonous properties of superba L., and the available literature related to these aspects drawn from studies done in areas where the species is utilized as traditional medicine or reported as poisonous. A list of 45 ethnobotanical applications practiced in 31 tropical African and Asian countries was drawn. A considerable convergence in ethnobotanical uses and practices emerged from these data. This comparative analysis strengthens the firm belief that ethnobotanical findings represent not only an important shared heritage, developed over the centuries, but also a considerable mass of data that should be exploited in order to provide new and useful knowledge of resources. Further ethnopharmacological studies are necessary to increase our understanding of the links between the documented traditional uses of G. superba , public health issues and its phytochemistry and pharmacological properties.

Key words: , , poisonous, toxicity and traditional medicine.

INTRODUCTION

Gloriosa superba L. (family Colchicaceae) is not only a 1.5 to 4 cm wide. The attractive are borne on long notorious human and livestock poison, but is also widely stalks and have six erect petals ranging in colour from used in several indigenous systems of medicine for the bright yellow to bicoloured, red and yellow or purple and treatment of various human ailments. G. superba has yellow. The fruits are capsules that split open to release caused illnesses and even fatalities to humans and several smooth red seeds with a spongy testa. animals due to both intentional and accidental poisoning. It is common in forest-savanna boundaries, locally It is a native to tropical Africa, and south-eastern common in thickets, hedges, open forest, grassland and (Bunyapraphatsara and van Valkenburg, 1999), now bush land, where it can be seen scrambling through other widely cultivated throughout the world as an ornamental shrubs (Dounias, 2006). G. superba is commonly called plant. G. superba is a tuberous plant with V or L-shaped, Glory lily, flame lily, climbing lily, creeping lily in English; finger-like that are pure white when young, Lis de Malabar, lis grimpant, lis glorieux in French; becoming brown with age. It is a climbing herb, some- Garras de tigre, aranha de emposse in Portuguese and times erect up to 6 m long, bearing pointed, dark green, Mkalamu, kimanja nouchawi in Swahili (Neuwinger, glossy , each equipped with a tendril by means of 1996). This review is aimed at compiling an up-to-date which it clings onto other plants. Leaves occur in whorls medicinal uses and poisonous properties of G. superba of 3 to 4, opposite or alternate, simple, sessile, ovate to over its distributional range. lanceolate ranging from 6 to 20 cm in length and

REVIEW PROCEDURE

*Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]. Tel: The medicinal uses and poisonous properties of G. +2715 268 2933. Fax: +2715 268 2184. Superba were collated over its distributional range.

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Available references or reports on the species were 2006; Neuwinger, 1996; Yamanda, 1999), abdominal and consulted from published articles, books and book general body pain (Dounias, 2006; Haerdi, 1964; chapters, theses and abstracts available at international Manandhar, 2002; Neuwinger, 1996). It is also used online databases such as web of science, scopus and around doors and windows to repel snakes and also used google scholar and journals’ web sites. Suitable books or as an for snake bite and scorpion sting. potential literature sources were identified in online Five different plant parts of G. superba are cited as databases of the particular libraries by searching for the important in ethnobotanical applications: leaves, seeds, terms ethno medicine, traditional medicine, folk medicine, unripe fruit, the root stock or and the whole plant. indigenous medicine, ethno botany and botanical The tuber or root stock is the plant part that is most medicine, poisonous properties, phytochemistry, pharma- frequently used (Dounias, 2006; Neuwinger, 1996). Five cological, toxicological properties of G. superba . different pharmaceutical forms were cited, comprising References were also identified by searching the paste, decoction (preparation in hot water), maceration extensive library collections of the National Herbarium (soaking in cold water), powder and using the whole plant and Botanic Gardens, Harare, ; Wageningen without specific preparation. The decoction and the University, the Netherlands; University of Limpopo and maceration are used for the majority of internal body Rhodes University, both in South Africa. ailments, like abdominal pain (Dounias, 2006; Haerdi, 1964; Manandhar, 2002; Neuwinger, 1996; Saralamp et al., 1996), coughs (Dounias, 2006; Haerdi, 1964; Medicinal uses of G. superba Neuwinger, 1996), fever and malaria (Ghani, 1998; Siddique et al., 2004), etc. Tuber paste of G. superba is G. superba is a well-known non-wood forest product that applied externally to treat venereal diseases (Dounias, has long been in regular demand amongst practitioners 2006; Neuwinger, 1996; Yamanda, 1999), wounds of traditional medicine in tropical African and Asian (Burkill, 1995; Dounias, 2006; Haerdi, 1964; Hassan and countries since antiquity. In India, it is a much used plant Roy, 2005; Katewa et al., 2004; Neuwinger, 1996), in Ayurvedic and Unani systems of medicines (Chopra et parasitic skin diseases (Dounias, 2006; Hassan and Roy, al., 1956; Watt, 1972); it is used either as a single drug or 2005; Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962) and head lice in combination with other drugs. Herbal medicine recom- (Burkill, 1995; Haerdi, 1964; Maradjo, 1977; Neuwinger, mends G. superba for the treatment of urinary and 1996; Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). G. superba is reproductive systems, respiratory, skin diseases, often used directly without any specific preparation cardiovascular troubles, and many other disorders (Table around doors and windows to repel snakes and 1). The seeds of G. superba are highly priced in the world scorpions. market as sources of colchicine (Figure 1), a chemical that has been used in the past as a remedy against gout, a disease caused by deposits of uric acid in the joints Poisonous properties of G. superba (Sivakumar and Krishnamurthy, 2002). G. superba is used for treating a wide range of human G. superba is most commonly used as a remedy for skin ailments throughout the tropics. In India, the Ayurvedic diseases, as an abortifacient, snake bite or scorpion sting Pharmacopoeia recommends G. superba as an ecbolic in antidote, murder poison, suicidal agent and culpable labour, purgative, an anthelminthic and cure against homicide, head lice killer and as a cure for wounds leprosy, colics, chronic ulcers, haemorrhoids, skin- (Figure 2). The dominance of poisoning categories e.g., parasites, head lice and tumours (Bunyapraphatsara and abortifacient, murder poisoning, head lice killer, treatment van Valkenburg, 1999; Geetha et al., 2007; Jagtap et al., of skin diseases (antiparasitic) among the major uses of 2006; Jain et al., 2004; Katewa et al., 2004; Neuwinger, G. superba is not surprising (Figure 2). The toxicity 1996; Sandhya et al., 2006; Satri, 1956; Tiwari and effects of G. superba are well documented (Aleem, 1992; Yadav, 2003). The tuberous root stock of G. superba is Bunyapraphatsara and van Valkenburg, 1999; Dasheiff boiled with Sesamum oil and applied twice a day on the and Ramirez, 1985; Jana and Shekhawat, 2011; joints as a remedy against arthritis and to reduce pain Neuwinger, 1996; Reynolds and Oakley, 1984; Sechi et (Singh, 1993). The sap from the tip is used as a al., 2003; Van Wyk et al., 2002; Verdcourt and Trump, smoothening agent for pimples and skin eruptions 1969; Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962; Wisniewski and (Hemaiswarya et al., 2009). Seeds are used for relieving Terry, 1967). The experimental use of colchicine on rats rheumatic pain and as a muscle relaxant (Nadkarni, and monkeys has been shown to induce epileptic foci in 2002). Traditionally, water extract of G. superba tuber rats, causing generalized seizures and death in both has been used as an abortifacient (Burkill, 1995; animals (Dasheiff and Ramirez, 1985; Reynolds and Dounias, 2006; Ghani, 1998; Haerdi, 1964; Jain et al., Oakley, 1984; Sechi et al., 2003; Wisniewski and Terry, 2004; Manandhar, 2002; Neuwinger, 1996; Sandhya et 1967). Its applications in folk medicine over the years al., 2006), as a cure against venereal diseases (Dounias, seem to exploit its poisonous constituents

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Table 1. Medicinal uses of G. superba in tropical Africa and Asia.

Medicinal use(s) Country practised Reference(s) (Burkill, 1995; Dounias, 2006; Manandhar, 2002; Abdominal and general pain Ivory Coast; Kenya; Nepal; Thailand Neuwinger, 1996; Saralamp et al., 1996)

(Burkill, 1995; Dounias, 2006; Fowler, 2007; Ghani, Bangladesh; India; Kenya; Nepal; Sri Abortifacient 1998; Haerdi, 1964; Jain et al., 2004; Manandhar, Lanka; Tanzania; Uganda; Zambia 2002; Maurya et al., 2004; Neuwinger, 1996)

Anthelminthic and Guinea and India; South Africa (Dounias, 2006; Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962) antiparasitic

(Burkill, 1995; Dounias, 2006; Neuwinger, 1996; Anthritis and dislocations India and ; Sri Lanka Singh, 1993)

(Burkill, 1995; Gelfand et al., 1985; Mavi, 1996; Aphrodisiac Ivory Coast; Zimbabwe Neuwinger, 1996)

(Bhargava, 1983; Burkill, 1995; Chopda and Mahajan, Applied on wounds India; Tanzania 2009; Dounias, 2006; Haerdi, 1964; Katewa et al., 2004; Neuwinger, 1996)

Ascites South Africa (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962) Asthma Bangladesh; Congo; India (Burkill, 1995; Dounias, 2006; Ghani, 1998) Baldness India (Hemaiswarya et al., 2009) Chronic ulcers India (Hassan and Roy, 2005) Colics India (Hassan and Roy, 2005; Ade and Rai, 2009) Coughs Ivory Coast; Sierra Leone (Burkill, 1995; Dounias, 2006; Neuwinger, 1996) Debility India (Hemaiswarya et al., 2009) Decongestant Burkina Faso; Ivory Coast; Sierra Leone (Burkill, 1995; Dounias, 2006; Neuwinger, 1996) (Burkill, 1995; Dounias, 2006; Haerdi, 1964; Earache Tanzania Neuwinger, 1996)

Ecbolic in labour India (Hemaiswarya et al., 2009; Prakash et al., 2008) Congo; India; Ivory Coast; South Africa; (Bryant, 1966; Burkill, 1995; Dounias, 2006; Fowler, Female sterility Zambia 2007; Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962)

(Burkill, 1995; Dounias, 2006; Ghani, 1998; Haerdi, Fever and malaria Bangladesh; India; Tanzania 1964; Neuwinger, 1996)

(Hassan and Roy, 2005; Kala et al., 2004; Saralamp Gout and tumour Ethiopia; India; Thailand et al., 1996; Yineger and Yewhalaw, 2007)

(Hassan and Roy, 2005; Kala et al., 2004; Lather et Haemorrhoids India al., 2011; Sahu et al., 2010)

Cameroon; Gabon; Ghana; Guinea; (Burkill, 1995; Dalziel, 1955; Maradjo, 1977; Head lice killer Guyana; India; Indonesia; Senegal; Neuwinger, 1996; Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962) South Africa

Hydrocele Burundi (Dounias, 2006) Hysteria Nepal Manandhar, 2002

(Burkill, 1995; Dounias, 2006; Fowler, 2007; Haerdi, India, Iran; Kenya; South Africa; Impotence 1964; Neuwinger, 1996; Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, Tanzania; Uganda; Zambia 1962)

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Table 1. Contd.

Indigestion India (Hemaiswarya et al., 2009) Inflammations India (Kala et al., 2004) Intestinal worms India (Bhargava, 1983) Dounias, 2006; Fowler, 2007; Hassan and Roy, 2005; Kala Leprosy India; Kenya and Zambia et al., 2004; Neuwinger, 1996

Leucorrhea Bangladesh Rahmatullah et al., 2009 Mental illness Burundi (Dounias, 2006) Burma; Camboidia; India; Kenya; (Bunyapraphatsara and van Valkenburg, 1999; Burkill, Murder poison, suicidal agent Nigeria; Sri Lanka; Tanzania; 1995; Dalziel, 1955; Dounias, 2006; Iwu, 1993; Neuwinger, and culpable homicide Zambia 1996)

Muscle relaxant India (Nadkarni, 2002) Neuralgia Guinea; Senegal (Burkill, 1995; Dalziel, 1955; Neuwinger, 1996 Prolapse in cattle India Jagtap et al., 2006) Purgative India; Nepal (Ade and Rai, 2010; Manandhar, 2002) Rheumatism Bangladesh; Burundi; India (Dounias, 2006; Nadkarni, 2002; Rahmatullah et al., 2009) Scorpion bites Sri Lanka and Zambia (Burkill, 1995; Fowler, 2007; Neuwinger, 1996) Scrofula India Hemaiswarya et al., 2009 (Bhargava, 1983; Burkill, 1995; Dounias, 2006; Ghani, Bangladesh; India; Kenya; Nepal; Skin diseases 1998; Haerdi, 1964; Manandhar, 2002; Neuwinger, 1996; Sri Lanka; Tanzania Rahmatullah et al., 2009)

(Bhargava, 1983; Burkill, 1995; Dounias, 2006; Fowler, India; Kenya; Nigeria; Somalia, Snake-bite antidote 2007; Jain et al., 2009; Mors et al., 2000; Neuwinger, 1996; Zambia Samy et al., 2008; Thulin, 1995)

Sprains Nigeria; Sri Lanka (Burkill, 1995; Dounias, 2006; Neuwinger, 1996) DR Congo; Kenya; Mozambique; (Dounias, 2006; Manandhar, 2002; Neuwinger, 1996; Watt Stomach-ache Nepal and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962; Yamanda, 1999)

Tonic India; Nepal (Ade and Rai, 2009, 2010; Manandhar, 2002) Toothache Zimbabwe (Gelfand et al., 1985; Mavi, 1996) Ulcers India (Kala et al., 2004) (Dounias, 2006; Fowler, 2007; Jain et al., 2009; Neuwinger, Venereal diseases DR Congo; India and Zambia 1996; Yamanda, 1999)

(Bunyapraphatsara and van Valkenburg, 1999; Verdcourt Other compounds such as colchicoside, gloriosine, and Trump, 1969). Traditional healers seem to be aware lumicolchicine, 3-demethyl-N-deformyl-N- of its toxicity as the amounts they prescribe to their deacetylcolchicine, 3-demethylcolchicine and N-formyl patients are such that the toxic symptoms are minimized. deacetylcolchcine have also been isolated from the plant Using larger dosages usually result in poisoning and (Ade and Rai, 2009; Suri et al., 2001). A new colchicine, death of the patients. Its poisonous properties are due glycoside, 3-O-demethylcolchicine-3-O-alpha-D- mainly to colchicine (Figure 1), the tropolon alkaloid glucopyranoside from G. superba seeds has recently regarded as the biological hallmark of the family been described (Suri et al., 2001). Colchicacae to which G. superba belongs (Hegnauer, The use of tubers and seeds of G. superba in 1963; Raffauf, 1970; Wildman and Pursey, 1968). traditional medicine have caused numerous human Colchicine is documented as one of the seven upavishas deaths in tropical Africa (Van Wyk et al., 2002; Verdcourt (semi-poisonous drugs) in the Indian medicine, which and Trump, 1969; Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962), cure many ailments but may prove fatal on misuse (Jana India and Sri Lanka (Aleem, 1992; Eddleston, 2000; and Shekhawat, 2011; Joshi, 1993; Malpani et al., 2011). Fernando, 2001; Fernando and Fernando, 1990).

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reported from Africa and Asia (Agunawella and Fernando, 1971; Dunuwille et al., 1968; Eddleston, 2000; Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). The tubers of G. superba have been documented as dangerous to grazing stock in tropical Africa, causing stock losses in some instances (Burkill, 1995; Dalziel, 1955; Neuwinger, 1996; Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962) and it is used in some cases to poison cattle particularly in India (Satri, 1956).

Pharmacological activities of G. superba

The traditional and clinical uses of G. superba for the treatment of Familia Mediterranean Fever (FMF), gout, tumour and as an antiparasite have been given some validation by modern pharmacological studies. For example, colchicine from the seeds and tubers of G. superba has been used for more than 3500 years against acute attacks of gout arthritis (Bruneton, 1999; Harbone et al., 1997; Hartung, 1954). The U.S. Food and Drug

Figure 1. Molecular structure of colchicine (Cerquaglia et Administration (FDA) officially approved the oral use of al., 2005). colchicine as a drug for some human disorders in 2009 (Ade and Rai, 2010). Colchicine is the only available drug for patients with FMF to prevent both acute attacks and long-term complications such as amyloidosis (Cerquaglia et al., 2005; Rigante et al., 2006). Since 1972 colchicine has become the drug of choice for prophylaxis against FMF attacks and amyloidosis FMF-associated complications (Cerquaglia et al., 2005). Colchicine is able to prevent activation of neutrophils, binding β-tubulin and making β-tubulin-colchicine complexes; this way inhibits assembly of microtubules and mitotic spindle formation (Cerquaglia et al., 2005). Colchicine dose in adults is 1 mg daily and in non-responder patients, it can be increased to 2 mg until the clinical remission is observed (Rigante et al., 2006). In children, the starting dose is adjusted according to their body weight or body surface area, the minimal dose is about 0.25 mg daily until 2 years, but the full daily dose of 1 mg can be reached at the age of 6 to 7 years (Rigante et al., 2006). In the past, it has been shown that children less than 5 years of age might need colchicine doses as high as 0.07 mg/kg/day 0 5 10 15 20 (Rigante et al., 2006).

Figure 2. Main medicinal applications of G. superba in tropical Anti-inflammatory activity Africa and Asia.

Colchicine inhibits microtubule polymerization by binding to tubulin, one of the main constituents of microtubules G. superba has also been used for centuries for (Ade and Rai, 2010). Availability of tubulin is essential to homicide, suicide and inducing abortion (Eddleston, mitosis and therefore, colchicine effectively functions as a 2000; Modi, 1988; Saravanapavananthan, 1985). In mitotic or spindle poison. Since one of the defining Nigeria, G. superba tuber is added to conventional arrow characteristics of cancer cells is a significantly increased poisons, for example, Strophanthus sarmentosus DC. rate of mitosis, this means that cancer cells are and S. hispidus DC. (Neuwinger, 1996). Both intentional significantly more vulnerable to colchicine poisoning than and accidental poisoning with G. superba has been are normal cells (Ade and Rai, 2010). Colchicine causes

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inhibition of the formation of the spindle apparatus during exhibited a broad spectrum of antibacterial activity cell division of the cell nucleus in the metaphase, against the Gram-negative bacteria as determined by interfering with cell division, for example, blood-forming both agar well and disc diffusion techniques organs, mucous membranes of the digestive organs, (Hemaiswarya et al., 2009). The Gram-positive bacteria tumour cells, etc (Ade and Rai, 2010). Tubers of G. Bacillus subtilis , Staphylococcus aureus were inhibited by superba are known to have mutagenic properties the extracts at concentrations of up to 1 mg/ml as (Agunawella and Fernando, 1971). Previous studies on determined by the minimum inhibitory concentration tubers of G. superba have shown them to possess (Hemaiswarya et al., 2009). A high inhibitory activity was mutagenic properties when the Ames Salmonella observed against Escherichia coli than the other two mutagenicity test was applied to them (Hemaiswarya et Gram-negative microorganisms (Hemaiswarya et al., al., 2009). The extracts of G. superba showed frame shift 2009). All the three extracts were significantly more (TA98) signs of mutagenic activity without exogenous active against E. coli and Proteus vulgaris (MIC 50 g/ml) metabolism. In addition, they enhanced the mutagenic than Salmonella typhi (MIC 100 g/ml) (Hemaiswarya et activity of the mutagen 2-nitrofluorene used in assays al., 2009). Similar studies also gave mild to moderate with the TA98 strain without exogenous metabolism antibacterial activities by the crude extract and (Hemaiswarya et al., 2009). subsequent fractions of G. superba (Khan et al., 2008). Leaf extracts of G. superba displayed anticoagulant Chloroform fraction displayed highest antibacterial properties by inhibiting thrombin-induced clotting with IC 50 sensitivity against Staphylococcus aureus (88%) followed values of 2.97 mg/ml (Kee et al., 2008). A by the crude extract (59%) (Khan et al., 2008). “hypercoagulable state” is often associated with cancer (Kee et al., 2008). Due to the recognized link between cancer and hypercoagulation, medications able to treat Antifungal activity cancer and having antithrombotic or anticoagulant activity would be ideal as chemotherapeutic agents (Kee et al., Methanol extract of the root tubers and leaves of G. 2008). superba have been tested for antifungal activity Alcoholic, hydroalcoholic and aqueous extracts of G. (Hemaiswarya et al., 2009). A hundred percent inhibition superba tubers have been shown to have significant anti- of Aspergillus niger was observed with all the extracts inflammatory activity in male albino rats (Singh et al., during the first 24 h of incubation whereas a significant 2007). According to these investigations, aqueous extract reduction was noted on the next 24 h of incubation of 250 mg/kg of G. superba tubers showed the best anti- (Hemaiswarya et al., 2009). The extracts also inhibited A. inflammatory activity. Oral administration of colchicine at terreus , Mucor sp. and Rhizopus oryzae tested at more 2, 4 and 6 mg/kg body weight resulted in 48.9, 68.7 and than 50% which exhibited a lower activity on the next 24 79.1% inhibition respectively, while 30.9% inhibition was h of incubation (Hemaiswarya et al., 2009). All the fungi obtained in the phenylbutazone 100mg/kg treated group were completely inhibited by the positive control, nystatin once daily for a period of 4 days (Joshi et al., 2010). (Hemaiswarya et al., 2009). The results obtained from the These results clearly indicate that colchicine is more spore germination test against A. niger (the most effective as an anti-inflammatory agent compared with sensitive organism tested by the antifungal screening phenylbutazone, the standard drug used in this particular test) revealed a complete inhibition of the fungal spores study. Aerial parts of G. superba have been found to observed at 500 g/ml concentration of the petroleum possess moderate anti-inflammatory effect that was ether extract (Hemaiswarya et al., 2009). These findings evidenced by the significant reduction in paw edema and may justify the use of G. superba in the treatment of cotton pellet granuloma methods (John et al., 2009). certain skin infections, infected wounds and also abscess Analgesic, anti-inflammatory and wound healing action as shown in Table 1. Excellent antifungal sensitivity by G. observed in these studies may be attributed to the superba have been expressed by the n-butanol fraction phytoconstituents present in G. superba . These findings against Candida albicans and C. glabrata (up to 90%) suggest that G. superba extracts have the potential to be and against Trichophyton longifusus (78%) followed by developed as chemotherapeutic agents that can be used the chloroform fraction against Microsporum canis (80%) to prevent or to inhibit the growth of tumours and (Khan et al., 2008). These findings may justify the use of cancers, and also to speed up the wound healing G. superba in the treatment of skin diseases and its process. application on infected wounds and also abscess (Joshi, 1993; Singh, 1993).

Antibacterial activity Larvicidal, anthelmintic and nematicidal activities Crude petroleum ether, methanol and aqueous extracts of the root tubers of G. superba gave fractions that methanol extract of G. superba was found to be

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Flower methanol extract of G. superba was found to be system of rat (Malpani et al., 2011). These findings toxic against the larvae of cattle tick Rhipicephalus provide justification for the use of G. superba as an microplus (LC 50 = 153.73 ppm; LC 90 = 1794.25 ppm) abortifacient and other ethnobotanical uses as shown in (Zahir et al., 2009). Flower acetone extract of G. superba Table 1. was found to be toxic against the adult sheep internal parasite Paramphistomum cervi (LC 50 = 157.61 ppm; LC 90 = 747.02 ppm) (Zahir et al., 2009). In the same Toxicity and adverse effects study, flower methanol of G. superba was found to be toxic against the fourth instar larvae of Anopheles 10 mg of colchicine has been documented as the toxic subpictus (LC 50 = 106.77 ppm; LC 90 = 471.90 ppm) (Zahir dose which may cause a lethal effect in humans (Rigante et al., 2009). Flower methanol extract of G. superba was et al., 2006). According to this research, colchicine is not found to be toxic against the larvae of Culex associated with reduced fertility rate in women or with a tritaeniorhynchus (LC 50 = 59.51 ppm; LC 90 = 278.99 ppm) higher miscarriage rate and stillbirths; on the contrary (Zahir et al., 2009). These findings suggest that the colchicine might improve female fertility and pregnancy flower methanol and acetate extract of G. superba have outcome. An observation that contradicts the findings of the potential to be used in the control of R. microplus, P. Malpani et al. (2011), who found colchicine to have cervi, A. subpictus and C. tritaeniorhynchus . Leaf oxytocic activity and early abortifacient activity on the methanol extracts of G. superba was found to be toxic reproductive system of female rats. More than 40 mg of against the adult cattle tick Haemaphysalis bispinosa colchicine in humans is invariably fatal within three days (LC 50 = 256.08 ppm) (Bagavan et al., 2009). In the same of ingestion (Bruneton, 1999). Side effects associated study, methanol extracts of G. superba were found to be with its use as a cure for FMF are listed in Table 2. Side toxic against sheep fluke Paramphistomum cervi (LC 50 = effects increases in older patients or in those affected by 60.16 ppm) (Bagavan et al., 2009). Acetone extracts of liver or kidney failure (Rigante et al., 2006). Just after G. superba were found to be toxic against the fourth ingestion of toxic levels of colchicine, the symptoms instar larvae of malaria vector, Anopheles subpictus (LC 50 develop within two hours (Table 3). The first signs of = 18.43 ppm) (Bagavan et al., 2009). These results toxicity include , numbness and severe effects on suggest that extracts of G. superba may serve to control throat as well as leading to dehydration (Table larvae of cattle tick, adult sheep internal parasite, sheep 3). Alopecia and dermatitis are the major symptoms that fluke and the larvae of malaria causing vector. develop after two to three weeks after poisoning The ethanol and water extract of G. superba showed (Cerquaglia et al., 2005; Maxwell et al., 2002; Rigante et anthelmintic activity against Indian earthworms Pheretima al., 2006). Multi-organ failure can develop 24 to 72 h after posthuma (Pawar et al., 2010). Aqueous and ethanol ingestion. These include bone marrow depression, extracts at 20 to 60 mg mL -1 produced significant activity hemolytic anemia, liver damage, renal failure, respiratory against earthworms when compared with piperazine distress syndrome, arrhythmias, neuromuscular citrate (15 mg mL -1) which is regarded as the standard disturbances, paralysis and disseminated intravascular reference and as normal saline control (Pawar et al., coagulation (Cerquaglia et al., 2005; Maxwell et al., 2002; 2010). G. superba seeds showed moderate nematicidal Rigante et al., 2006). Over dosage may frequently lead to activity against the root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne a -like syndrome associated with dehydration, incognita (Nidiry et al., 1993). The extracts of the shoots shock, acute renal failure, alopecia, hyperthermia, and of the tubers of G. superba are known to have strong hepatocellular failure, epileptic seizures, coma and death nematicidal activity which can be attributed mainly to (Rigante et al., 2006). colchicine (Bunyapraphatsara and van Valkenburg, 1999). These findings suggest that crude form of G. superba can be used to control nematodes and other CONCLUSIONS related organisms. The pharmacological studies conducted on G. superba indicate the immense potential of this plant species in the Other activities treatment of inflammatory, parasitic and bacterial ailments. Different pharmacological studies in a number Other studies have evaluated the enzyme inhibition of experiments have convincingly demonstrated the activities of G. superba extract against ability of G. superba to exhibit a wide range of lipoxygenase, actylcholinesterase, butyrycholinesterase pharmacological activities lending support to the rationale and urease in which wonderful inhibition was observed behind several of its traditional ethnobotanical uses as on lipoxygenease (Khan et al., 2007). The aqueous detailed in Table 1. These results may justify the use of G. extract of G. superba root showed oxytocic activity and superba as an anti-inflammatory and anti-microbial early abortifacient activity on the female reproductive medicine in a couple of African and Asian countries.

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Table 2. Colchicine side effects (Rigante et al., 2006).

Affected body part Side effects Abdominal pain, , vomiting, diarrhea, cholera-like gastroenteritis, abdominal distension, Gastrointestinal tube malabsorption syndrome, secondary lactose intolerance

Myopathy, proximal muscular weakness, , elevation in serum creatine kinase Muscular apparatus concentration

Peripheral nerves Axonal neuropathy, ascending polyneuritis, hyporeflexia Blood Bone marrow depression (leukopenia, thrombocytopenia, aplastic anemia) Gonads Reversible azoospermia Skin Alopecia, skin reactions Heart Arrhythmias

Table 3. Sequential and overlapping stages of colchicine toxicity (Cerquaglia et al., 2005; Maxwell et al., 2002).

Phase Symptoms Nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, abdominal pain and anorexia. Electrolyte imbalance and hypovolaemia. Peripheral 0-24 h leucocytosis.

Bone marrow hypoplasia, profound leucopenia, and thrombocytopenia. Cardiac arrythmias and cardiovascular collapse. Respiratory distress, hypoxia and pulmonary oedema. Oliguric renal failure. Rhabdomyolysis. 2-7 days Electrolyte derangements. Metabolic acidosis. Mental state changes. Seizures. Peripheral neuropathy and ascending paralysis.

7th day onwards Rebound leucocytosis. Transient alopecia.

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