Historicising the Nigerian Diaspora: Nigerian Migrants and Homeland Relations

TJP Turkish Journal of Politics Vol. 2 No. 2 Winter 2011

Sola Akinrinade and Olukoya Ogen Osun State University, [email protected]

Abstract This work provides a veritable historical platform for studying the Nigerian diaspora against the background that its study has largely been subsumed under the rubric of the broad historiography on the African diaspora. The study therefore advocates for an in depth focus on country specific diasporas in order to make room for specificity. The study concentrates on the various aspects of identity formation among the groups constituting the Nigerian diaspora and finds out that while Cohen’s (1997) ideal diaspora is a homogenous social or ethnic group, the Nigerian diaspora on the other hand reflects the diversity and ethnic divisions in the country which makes it highly fissiparous. Moreover, the paper rejects the popular Marxist-oriented poverty-induced migration thesis and argues that though poverty and inequality may induce migration, it would appear too narrow and simplistic to overstress this factor because empirical and theoretical evidence strongly suggest that higher incomes, improved education and access to media and information will give more people capabilities and aspirations to migrate. Indeed, the reality is that improvements in living standards and reductions in violence actually create the conditions for more migration. In terms of the prevailing diaspora-homeland development mantra, the study contends that the eventual impact of remittances will depend on the use to which such remittances are deployed. The paper concludes by highlighting the critical roles that the Nigerian diaspora could play in Nigeria’s quest for rapid socio-economic and political development.

Keywords Diaspora, Homeland, Hostland, Remittance, Brain Drain, Migration.

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Introduction considered in this section. The paper further articulates the connections between the The present epoch could reasonably be Nigerian diaspora and the prospects for na- referred to as the diasporan age. Globally, tional development by specifically examin- it has been estimated that some 125 mil- ing the role of the diaspora in development. lion people migrate from one country to In this respect the typologies developed by another annually (De Montclos 2005, 1). In- Mohan (2002) which centres on a develop- deed, more than ever before, diasporan his- mental tripod of development in the diaspo- toriography and discourses have grown ex- ra, through the diaspora and by the diaspora ponentially in recent times. In spite of this were found useful. The modified social re- impressive historiography, the Nigerian di- sponsibility theory of Nworah (2005) is also aspora has largely been subsumed under the adequately refined and appropriated for this general categories of studies dealing with purpose. Noting that migration can have Africans or Blacks living outside the shores both positive and negative effects on devel- of Africa. Curiously, rather than concentrat- opment, this section analyzes the impact of ing on country specific diasporas, African the Nigerian diaspora on poverty reduction, scholars are continuously being encouraged economic development, human resources to become more engaged in the African dias- development, democratic consolidation pora because this arena is believed to be cru- and socio-political engineering in Nigeria. A cial to the deepening of the understanding number of initiatives put in place by the Ni- of both African and world history (Zeleza gerian government towards the promotion 2004, 263). The few exceptions to this trend of mutual partnership between the Nigerian include (Nworah 2005; COMPAS 2004; De diaspora and the larger Nigerian nation are Haas 2006; Shettima, 1999; Odutola 2010). also examined. The last section concludes In fact, Harris’ (2006, 2) seminal study of the essay and makes salient recommenda- the Yoruba diaspora in the United Kingdom tions. As customary with most orthodox laments the fact that in the “plethora of historical works the study is more descrip- analyses ..., the Nigerian diaspora is hardly tive and interpretive rather empirical. mentioned.” Adebayo (2010, 12) argues that in spite of the fact that there have been studies of several aspects of Nigerian diaspora Defining the Nigerian Diaspora such as Nigerian religious movements in the diaspora; hometown, ethnic and old student As a matter of fact the term diaspora now associations in the diaspora; and remittan- shares meaning with dispersal, immigra- ces by members of the Nigerian diaspora to tion, expatriate, refuge, exile, ethno-nation- the home country. Yet, the history of Nigeri- al communities and so on. There is no doubt an Diaspora is yet to been written. that all these are more or less part of the in- trinsic dynamics of a diasporan community. From a historical standpoint, the first In recent times the rapid multiplications of major part of this essay accounts for the the meanings and understandings of dias- mass movement of Nigerians to other parts pora could be traced to the lightning speed of the world starting from the colonial era. at which international migrations of people It also analyzes the prospects, problems and take place given the stupendous advances in challenges confronting the Nigerian dias- information and telecommunication tech- pora. The various aspects of identity forma- nology (Viswanathan 2005, 13 – 14). Anoth- tion among the Nigerian diaspora are also er basic reason is the remarkable and wide-

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spread interest of diasporas’ engagement in ternational migration of Nigerians could be the developmental processes especially in dated back to the pre-colonial era. It effec- the vast and growing literature on migra- tively began with the Hausa transnational tion and development (Bakewell 2008a, 3). links that found its best expression in the Today, the meanings of the term, diaspora, trans-Saharan trade especially between the are as varied as the types of diaspora that fourteenth and sixteenth centuries. This have been identified. For instance, there are period also witnessed pilgrimages to Mecca references and discourses on corporate dias- and Medina. The trans-Atlantic slave trade, pora (Tololyan 1994), trade diaspora (Cur- however, marked a significant milestone in tin 1984), academic diaspora (Zeleza 2004) the forced movement of Nigerians to the cultural diaspora (Butler 2001), macro, mi- New World. The colonial era equally wit- cro or overlapping diasporas as well as cleft, nessed large scale labour migration required endo and ecto–diasporas (Riggs 1999). for plantations, mines and public administration from Nigeria to such countries as Be that as it may, membership of a con- Cameroon, Sierra Leone, Guinea, Benin Re- temporary diaspora now implies potential public and Ghana (Adepoju 2005, 2). Dur- empowerment based on the ability to exert ing this period and parallel to migration to socio-economic and political influence in other African countries, Nigerians also mi- both the homeland and the hostland (Butler grated first to the United Kingdom and later, 2001, 190). This study adopts the definition the United States also became a destination by the African Union which links member- point primarily for the pursuit of higher ship of the African Diaspora with a remark- education. Some of these migrants decided able interest for African development. to stay back even when the original idea was for them to return to Nigeria to take the po- The African Diaspora consists of sitions left by the departing British colonial peoples of African origin living out- administration (Hernandez-Coss and Bun side the continent, irrespective of their 2006, 3). citizenship or nationality and who are willing to contribute to the develop- After independence in 1960 the quest ment of the continent and the building for education and greener pastures contin- of the African Union (AU, 2005, cited in ued in earnest (de Hass 2006, 3). The eco- Bakewell 2008a, 9). nomic downturn in the country in the early 1980s due to the collapse of crude oil prices In the same vein and for the purpose of alongside sustained political repression and this paper, the Nigerian Diaspora could be violence appears to have exacerbated the referred to as those Nigerians living outside exodus of Nigerians abroad. Since the 1980s the country and who are desirous or already the waves of migration to Anglo – Saxon contributing to the development of Nigeria. countries have been complemented by the remarkable movements of Nigerians to Ger- Historicising the Nigerian many, France, Netherlands, Belgium, Spain, Diaspora Italy, Ireland and the Gulf States. Within Africa, Nigerians have increasingly immi- With a population of over 140 million grated to countries such as Gabon, Botswa- which makes it Africa’s demographic giant, na and South Africa. To Adepoju (2004), Nigeria has become increasingly involved in some highly skilled Nigerian migrants have international migration worldwide. The in- even found the booming economy of South

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Africa a convenient alternative to Europe, Ministry of External Affairs gives an esti- North America and the Gulf States. In all mate of about 20 million Nigerian residents these modern migrations there has been an in Europe and the United States. In fact, it increasing tendency by Nigerian migrants has been estimated that about 3.4 million towards permanent residency. Nigerians are currently living in the United States (Adebayo 2010, 9). Due to the dismal state of the Nigerian higher education system, universities in the In spite of the general unreliability of the United Kingdom, North America and South above figures, one fact that is very clear is Africa often embarked upon recruitment that a considerable number of Nigerians are drives for Nigerian students. Most of these currently resident abroad and that more or students when they finish their studies find less, this cadre of Nigerians constitutes the ways to renew their visas, pick up jobs and Nigerian diaspora. While the majority of Ni- become permanent residents. Various im- gerians resident in Europe and North Amer- migration “consultants” promise prospec- ica are from the southern part of Nigeria, tive migrants visa and job opportunities for those residing in the Gulf States are mainly a fee (De Haas 2006, 4) Labour migration from the northern region of Nigeria. This of from Nigeria has also become increasingly course is mainly due to the Muslim character feminine. Nigerian female nurses and doc- of the north (de Haas 2006). tors have been recruited in large numbers to work in Europe especially the United But then what could have been the funda- Kingdom, the United States and Saudi Ara- mental factors for the contemporary move- bia (Adepoju 2000, 386). The trafficking of ment of Nigerians to other major countries female Nigerian sex workers mainly to Italy, of the world? And what are the features of Spain, the Netherlands, Belgium, the Unit- identity formations among Nigerians in the ed Kingdom and Saudi Arabia has received diaspora? Akinrinade and Ajibewa (2003) re- substantial attention in recent times (Car- echoed the views earlier expressed by Harris ling 2005). It has been estimated that about (1997, 85) that migration is a function of 10,000 Nigerian prostitutes are currently the laws of uneven development and that living in Italy alone (De Haas 2006, 5). the high level of economic development at- tained by industrialized countries confer on Reliable statistics on the quantum of their people and workers in particular a high Nigerians residing abroad is generally lack- level of per-capita income which attracts ing due to poor record keeping on the part migrants from less developed countries. of the Nigerian authorities. Host countries The conclusion is that since international statistics are also incomplete because many migration is a key element of globalization, of the countries do not take into consider- the phenomenon of global demographic ation naturalized and second generation mobility has been facilitated by the nega- Nigerians in immigrants statistics. Even tive consequences of globalization as exem- more worrisome is the substantial presence plified in glaring inequalities in economic of undocumented Nigerian migrants. Her- and political power between immigration nandez-Coss etal, (2006) as cited in de Haas and emigration countries (Castles 2007, (2006, n9) claims that there are about 5 mil- 1-2). Thus, unemployment, violence, envi- lion Nigerians living abroad. Though OECD ronmental degradation, lack of an enabling statistics suggests that about 1.2million social infrastructure, political repression Nigerians are resident abroad, the Nigerian and extreme poverty have been found to in-

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duce large scale migrations of Nigerians to million Nigerians living below the poverty the developed world. The dominant media, line and earning less than a dollar per day. political and academic discourses on the demographic mobility of Nigerians sees a wave British colonial records of the mid 1920s of desperate people fleeing chronic poverty, show that 3000 out of 8000 Nigerian pil- repression and violence and trying to enter grims crossing Sudan every year never the elusive Eldorado of the developed world. reached Mecca. A large number of them stayed back in the Sudan where they were While it is partly correct that poverty known as Fellata (De Montclos 2005, 55). and inequality may induce migration, this Definitely, this type of migration cannot be study argues that it appears simplistic to poverty induced. Historically and contem- overstress this factor. Indeed, a strict adher- poraneously, migration has always been a ence to such a narrow line of thinking ne- way of life and the peopling of any country is glects the very fundamentals – history, na- always a vintage account of migrants’ mani- ture and causes – of human migration. It is fold contributions to nation building (Ogen interesting to note that majority of Nigerian 2008, 54). It would seem that the huge size migrants are not among the poorest and are of the Nigerian diaspora also has a lot to do from relatively educated and reasonably well with Nigeria’s high population figure of over off backgrounds especially if we take into 140 million inhabitants as well as the ag- consideration the high cost of the journey. gressive and resilient nature of Nigerians to Empirical and theoretical evidence strongly tap into any available opportunity anywhere suggests that higher incomes and improved in the world. education and access to media and information will give more people capabilities and aspirations to migrate (De Haas 2008, Basic Components of the 1313). Nigerian Diaspora The Marxist-oriented poverty-induced A study of the Nigerian diaspora shows migration thesis rests on the false assump- that its functions are in consonance with the tion that tackling the poverty and violence new migration networks theory. This theory that force people to move will lead to a de- underscores the efficacy of the collective cline in migration. The reality however, agency of migrants and their communities is that improvements in living standards in organizing processes of migration and and reductions in violence actually create incorporation (Castles 2008, 5). Nigerian the conditions for more migration (Castles migrants in the diaspora come together in 2008, 13). This thesis is also anchored on all sorts of formal and informal associations the perceived dangers that the migration based on faith, trade, occupation, politics of poor people to urban areas pose to urban gender, home place and ethnic group. In the dwellers. The idea is that the migration of face of racist and xenophobic hostility to poor people to rich areas is intrinsically bad. Nigerian migrants, these associations facili- Bauman (1998) as cited in Castles (2008, 13) tate the integration of the Nigerian migrant has argued that the right to be mobile is the communities in the host states. Thus, the in- badge of the elite, while the poor are meant tegration of Nigerian migrants in their host to stay at home. The bottom line is that the states is predicated on the support and pres- majority of Nigerians living abroad belongs ence of existing social networks (Akinrinade to the elite class and not the class of over 90 and Ajibewa 2003, 435).

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Given its varied ethnic affiliates, the Ni- Redeemed Christian Church of God (RCCG), gerian diaspora is as ‘disorganized’ as the Ni- has more than 25 branches in Atlanta alone gerian state, at least ethnically. Apart from (Adebayo 2010, 14). With the stupendous the proliferation of groups along the ma- growth of Pentecostalism in Nigeria, Nigeri- jor ethnic lines such as Edo, Yoruba, Igbo, an migrants have also established Pentecos- Hausa, Ogoni, Itsekiri, and so on, there are tal Churches abroad. These churches provide also sub – ethnic and hometown associa- support for their congregation and assist tions such as the Ikale World Congress in the those dealing with unfamiliar bureaucracies United States, the London based Odoziobo- and facing marginalization and loneliness do Club of Ogwashi-Uku and the Zumunta (Mercer, Page and Evans 2008, 58-60). Association, U.S.A, to mention but a few (COMPAS 2004, 10). Ethnic, sub-ethnic and The Nigerian diaspora also includes as- home place associations are central to the sociation formed for distinct political strug- integration of new migrants into the Nige- gles by the Nigerian diaspora. The first was rian diaspora network. the participation of Nigeria students in the diapora in the Pan African Movement and Faith based associations also play a cru- the struggle for decolonization. Obafemi cial role in this regard. Religions experiences Awolowo and Nnamdi Azikwe were promi- of migrant communities play a crucial role in nent during this period. The second wave their integration process. Given their men- of political struggle was the attempt by the tal orientation, it was easier for migrants Igbo ethnic group to secede from the federa- to come together to worship with people tion and the proclamation of the Republic of of perceived similar orientation, and places Biafra in 1967. Many Igbo fled the country of worship easily became major avenues for during the civil war that ensued and found contact with members of the diaspora (Akin- refuge abroad, especially in the United rinade and Ajibewa 2003, 435). Indeed, dia- States. From the US, the Igbo population sporan faith groups have been attracting a was able to mobilize international opinion lot of attention from scholars (Harris 2006; in support of their cause. The third wave of Akinrinade and Ajibewa 2003; Mercer, Page political activism came about as a result of and Evans 2008). These studies reveal that the unfortunate cancellation of the June 12 faith groups meet certain needs of migrants 1999 presidential elections. The aftermath such as spiritual, social, cultural and some- of the annulment witnessed the forma- times materials needs. The Cherubim and tion of the National Democratic Coalition Seraphim Church for instance has become a (NADECO) with a vibrant external wing major player in what is termed the African abroad. Several pro – democracy activists Independent Church Movement. Brought to and movements also moved out of Nigeria the United Kingdom by Nigerian students in during this period. In fact Shettima (1999) 1965, it is now an ubiquitous religious sect observes that during this period there were in London. The Church with its norms of no fewer than 100 Nigerian pro – democracy mutual assistance and elaborate inclusive hi- movements in the United States, 50 in the erarchy provides support for an insecure and United Kingdom and 5 in Canada. disadvantaged black immigrant group in a White society (Harris 2006, 3-4). Also the Wole Soyinka was one of the most radi- Christ Apostolic Church is reputed to have cal of the political exiles. He chaired both over 50 branches in the United Kingdom the National Liberation Council of Nigeria and an estimated 15,000 worshippers. The (NALICON) and the United Democratic

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Front of Nigeria (UDF) based in Pittsburgh, ends meet. But some professionals have the United States, and was the brain be- distinguished themselves and moved on to hind Radio Kudirat, a shortwave radio that become members of the Black middle class. continuously attacked the government (De This latter category owns shops, businesses, Montclos 2005, 11). It is important to add e.t.c. Though, Nigerians may no longer have that branches of political parties have al- to suffer stereotyping as illiterate savages ways been formed abroad by the Nigerian but they have acquired a notorious reputa- diasporic community. Political parties and tion for arrogance and fraud (Harris 2006, their candidates court the Nigerian dias- 211). This negative reputation and stigmati- pora for its influence, financial support and zation is partly responsible for the congrega- general mobilization. Thus, Nigerians in the tion of Nigerians into numerous associations diaspora have always organized themselves for mutual protection as a direct response to on the basis of radical political movements the criminalization of the migratory process (Shettima, 1999). and demographic mobility from the Global South to the northern hemisphere. It is significant to note the crucial role played by the phenomenal advances in infor- Crisp (2000) as cited in Akinrinade and mation and telecommunication technology, Ajibewa (2003, 435) identifies four impor- particularly the internet in the formation tant roles of migrant associations in the of new diasporan communities and the cre- facilitation of the migration, integration ation of new identities for Nigerians in the and incorporation of new migrant and co- diaspora. Naijanet, an internet-based dis- ethnics into the existing diasporas. First, cussion forum was instrumental to the net- existing networks act as a veritable source working and coming together of the Nige- of information to prospective migrants. This rian diaspora in the United States, Europe, body of information includes transportation the Asia – Pacific region and other regions arrangements, entry requirements, asylum of the world. Besides Naijanet are other List- procedures, social welfare benefits and the servs such as Igbo-net, Yoruba-net, THT and detention and deportation policies of des- so on (Akinrinade and Ajibewa, 2003, 437; tination countries. Second, mobilization of Shettima, 1999). The Nigerianwebradio, a resources of prospective migrants for their 24hour online radio station dedicated to the onward movement to a destination country. listening pleasure of the Nigerian diaspora These resources could be in the form of re- with its 100% Nigerian programmes has mittance sent home by members of the di- also contributed immensely to the mobiliza- aspora community to finance the overseas tion of members of the Nigerian diaspora. journeys of relatives, friends, kin, compa- Satellite and cable television station such as triots and co-ethnics. Third, the provision BENTV and a host of others are also impor- of organizational infrastructure required for tant in the coalescence of the Nigerian dias- people to move from a source country to a pora into a coherent force geared towards destination country. This is a very important national development. function especially when it becomes critical to move people in an irregular or clandes- Socially, the Nigerian diaspora is by no tine manner the way it happened during the means homogenous. There are those who pro – democracy struggles in Nigeria under struggle for basic means of survival such NADECO or during any period of persecu- as car park attendants, cleaners and other tion and political repression. Finally, mi- menial workers working long hours to make grant social networks provide new migrants

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with subsistence and support especially em- African continent into an increasingly glo- ployment opportunities when they arrived balized world. Globally, recorded remittanc- at the host countries. es are now significantly larger than overseas aid flows and comprise an annual flow of around US$240 billion into the Global South The Nigerian Diaspora and (Mercer, Page and Evans 2008, 7). Given the Homeland Relations huge population of Nigerians living abroad and the fact that Nigeria is the largest recipi- Until relatively recently the debates on ent of remittances in sub-Saharan Africa, it the effects of international migration on appears that there is no better country to as- developments in Africa have tended to be sess the nature and impact of the contribu- largely dominated by the negative impact of tions of Africans immigrants in the diaspora the loss of Africa’s skilled manpower to the to Africa’s development than Nigeria. developed world, a phenomenon popularly referred to as the brain drain syndrome. Mohan’s (2002) three-fold interdepen- However, growing evidence would seem dent but clearly different typologies on the to suggest that international migrations development roles of the diaspora is ger- from the continent have been having some mane to our understanding of the poten- positive developmental effects on socio-eco- tials of the Nigerian diaspora for national nomic and political developments in Africa. development. These are development in the Even the hitherto most vociferous African diaspora, development through the diaspora governments, international development and development by the diaspora. On the agencies and critics of the population move- one hand, development in the diaspora re- ments out of Africa are now beginning to fers to benefits that accrue to the host locali- recognize the developmental potentials of ty as a result of the presence of international the African diaspora with regard to the at- migrants. Such benefits are independent of tainment of rapid and sustainable develop- the fact that these workers are members of ment in Africa. a diaspora and relate simply to their functions as workers or professionals who propel As a matter of fact, emotional attach- economic growth within the host country. ment to the homeland is a general charac- On the other hand, development through teristic shared by all diasporas. There is no the diaspora refers to additional benefits ex- doubt that diasporas help to set-up local perienced in the host country as a result of businesses boost social infrastructure, pro- the ongoing transnational connections that mote trade and enterprise as well as the are peculiar to diasporan groups. Finally, sustenance of democratic principles (UNDP, development by the diaspora refers to ben- 2008, 6). Interestingly, members of the Ni- efits that diasporic communities bring to gerian diaspora are now heavily involved their countries of origin. Diasporas, then, in transnational activities that are capable contribute to socio-economic well-being and of effectively integrating their countries of economic growth in the host country as well origin with their host countries. They have, as their homelands thereby redefining the therefore, become not only veritable agents nature and scope of development (Mercer, of poverty reduction but a key player in the Page and Evans 2008, 53-54). process of Africa’s socio-economic transfor- mation and development, thereby playing a Also relevant to the new diaspora-devel- pivotal role in the process of integrating the opment mantra is the social responsibility

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theory of professionals as refined by Nworah health needs of the senders’ relatives; as (2005). This theory opines that profession- well as on investments in real estate, stock als have a wider social function beyond their exchange and the transport sector (Ogbu, call to duty to comment and contribute to 2008). public policy and welfare. Thus, the society naturally expects high standards of perfor- As is the case for other countries in the mance from professionals, it is, therefore, region, under-reporting of remittance flows assumed that Nigerian professionals have to Nigeria is common because of data col- been contributing to socio-economic devel- lection deficiencies and the prevalence of opment and nation building. Trager (2001, informal transfer mechanisms. Signifi- 235-65) argues that the Nigerian Diaspora cantly, the use of informal transfer mecha- engages in a range of developmental activi- nisms account for about 50 percent of total ties because hometowns among the Yoruba remittance flows to the country. The most and, indeed, virtually all Nigerians provide common method is to give a person travel- the most significant source of social identity ling to Nigeria cash to deliver to beneficia- and a web of social connections. ries. Sometimes, remittances are in kind, for example, the sending clothes or cars by migrants (Hernandez-Coss 2006, 2-3). The The Nigerian Diaspora and typical remitter is altruistic and sees remit- Remittances tances as a means of providing economic support to individual recipients at home. Remittance from international migra- The Nigerian culture in general requires the tion have increased rapidly, generating de- more fortunate family members to provide bates on both sides of the Atlantic on how for the less fortunate, and that parents in- best to channel these transfers towards vest in their children, who will in turn take economic development. Nigeria is the larg- care of them in their old age. Osili (2007, est recipient of remittances in sub-Saharan 114) is convinced that some Nigerian mi- Africa. The country receives nearly 65 per- grants, over the course of their migration cent of officially recorded remittance flows experience, do impact positively on the lives to the region and 2 percent of global flows. of their families back home. Based on exten- In fact, as far back as 1999, Nigerians living sive comparative fieldworks in Chicago and abroad remitted the sum of US$1.3 billion Nigeria, the author suggests that investing (Babawale 2008, 28 n37). Interestingly, the in housing provides migrants with an op- Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) began col- portunity to learn about investment condi- lecting data on remittances in 2002 and re- tions in the country of origin. He notices ported approximately US$2.26billion in re- that Nigerian migrants normally begin with mittances for 2004 (Hernandex-Coss 2006, housing investments before going on to pro- 3-4). In 2005 the figure stood at $6.5billion. vide initial capital for other businesses and Remittances from Nigerians abroad almost to contribute to schools, hospitals, erosion doubled in 2007, rising to $17.9billion from control, and other projects in their home- $10.5billion in 2006, and $18.2 billion was towns (Osili 2007, 114). remitted into the country in 2009 (Oboh, 2011). As rightly argued by Hernandez-Coss (2006, 3-4), Nigerian migrants in the lower Monies sent home by Nigerians living income brackets often send money more abroad are spent on food, education and frequently through migrants carrying cash

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and have more affiliations within the com- tions by the Faculty alumni members based munity. The basic reason for this, according in South Africa, the United Kingdom and to the author is that this class of migrants the United States, several junior academics are mainly involved in unskilled labour, of- were also trained abroad through the links ten live with wealthier Nigerians, do not provided by the Faculty alumni and former own houses and tend to send the bulk of academic staff of the Faculty who have mi- their money home. Many in this group are grated and are currently teaching in other women, who have left their families at home universities in Europe, the Caribbean, the because of desperate economic conditions. US and other parts of Africa. Some of these junior academics have since returned to beef The Brain Drain and up the academic staff strength of their different departments. Indeed, during this pe- Government-Diaspora Relations riod book donations through the efforts of a The concept of the brain drain first former staff of the Faculty based in Durham emerged in the 1960s when it was used to increased the acquisition of the university describe the migration of British intellectu- main library by over 20,000 volumes. als and scientists to the United States. Strat- Thus, intellectual remittances form an egies earmarked for stemming the brain integral part of social remittances. Indeed, drain could be divided into two. The first ap- the contributions of the Nigerian academic proach sees the drain as a loss and therefore diaspora to the development of Nigerian emigration must be made difficult and less higher education cannot be over-emphasi- attractive. The second strategy is the dias- sed. For instance, the Kennesaw State Uni- pora option. The diaspora option represents versity has partnership agreements with a different approach to the brain drain. It a number of Nigerian universities. This takes a fundamentally different stance to partnership has been largely facilitated by traditional perspectives on the brain drain a Nigerian intellectual at KSU, Professor in that it sees the brain drain not as a loss, Akanmu Adebayo. It is worth noting that but a potential gain to the sending country. from the University of Ibadan alone, abo- The diaspora option is driven by the net- ut ten academic staff from the Faculties of works of highly skilled expatriates who are Arts and Education have benefited from the referred to as expatriate knowledge net- KSU-UI staff exchange programme. In the works. Thus, the main feature of the diaspo- same vein, ten KSU faculty have also visited ra option is that it tries to set up connections Ibadan (Adebayo 2010, 7, 26-27). / linkages between highly skilled expatriates The setting up of expatriates networks and their countries of origin. For instance, affords expatriates the opportunity to in the area of academic linkages, a number transfer their expertise and skills to their of Nigerian universities have started link- countries of origin, without necessarily re- ing up with their alumni resident abroad turning home permanently. In this way, the in order to facilitate academic exchanges, country of origin has access not only to the manpower training, library development, knowledge and expertise of the expatriate, and so on. The experience of the Faculty of but also the knowledge networks that he / Arts, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, she belongs to in the host country (Brown between 2003 and 2007 is particularly note- 2007). There is no doubt that the relation- worthy. Apart from book and cash dona- ship between the Nigerian government and

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Nigerian diaspora in contemporary times rican countries such as South Africa, Ghana, is governed by this diaspora approach to Burkina Faso and Cote d’Ivoire. NIDO usu- development. Former President Olusegun ally organizes meetings and aims to embark Obasanjo launched a “Presidential Dialogue on development projects in collaboration with Nigerians Abroad” in 2002 and this with Nigerians resident abroad. marked a significant milestone in government-diaspora relations. The presidential For instance, it is as a result of the new dialogue was aimed at incorporating the Ni- initiative by NIDO that former US-based gerian diaspora in national development. Professor Peter Nwangwu, a world renowned clinical pharmacologist who ranks among De Haas (2006, 16-17) states that the Ni- the top ten pharmacologists in the world de- gerian Diaspora provides a substantial con- cided to relocate to Nigeria in order to assist tribution, especially by way of remittances, the Nigerian pharmaceutical industry with to the homeland, and that, in addition to his expertise and technical knowhow (Ba- these transfers, members of the Nigerian di- bawale, 2008, 44). Under NIDO, some 400 aspora contribute to poverty reduction and Nigerian professionals and businessmen ba- development in Nigeria through temporary sed abroad visited Abuja in December 2010 or permanent return programmes for highly to explore investment opportunities and skilled migrants. This new initiative enjoys help in reversing the brain drain. The Jonat- the support of the United Nations Devel- han government is also targeting over two opment Programme (UNDP)’s Transfer of billion dollar open ended instrument that Knowledge through Expatriate Networks will be issued for sale to the Diaspora for the (TOKTEN) programme. development of Nigeria (Adisa, 2010; Oboh 2011). The Nigerians in the Diaspora Also, as a direct response to the NIDO ini- Organisation (NIDO) tiative by government, a new group known as the Industry Growth, Investment and The government also established the Competitiveness in Africa (IGICA) which is Nigerians in the Diaspora Organization, more or less like an amalgam of foreign-ba- (NIDO) which has an office based at the sed Nigerian business groups has emerged. Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Abuja. The IGICA aims at providing networking oppor- government does not only focus its hope on tunities between private sector and govern- individual Nigerians abroad to invest in Ni- ments, between emerging markets and de- geria, Nigerian diasporan organizations are veloped markets, between small businesses also ascribed a role in running and sustain- and international private sector, as well as ing development projects. NIDO has set up between universities and industry and bet- a network of branches in Nigerian embassies ween parastatals and the private sector. IGI- abroad. Nigerians living abroad are officially CA is also interested in creating networking encouraged to organize themselves and to environment for Africa’s knowledge transfer link up with NIDO branches in their respec- partnerships and commercialisation of in- tive host countries. Arrangements were novation for industrial growth and invest- also made to have NIDO branches not only ment in Africa (Onuorah and Okwe 2009). in almost all European countries, but also three in Asia specifically in Singapore, Ma- Closely related to the above is the UK- laysia and Australia and in some specific Af- based organisation, AfricaRecruit launched

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in 1999. This organisation has effectively to attend the conference from 32 countries. utilised the skills, knowledge, remittances The theme of the conference was “Connect- and networks of the diaspora for the benefit ing Nigeria with Her Diaspora.” (FGN 2007). of of Nigeria and several African countries. The agency has also been facilitating inte- Thus, the Federal Government’s initia- ractions between recruitment agencies in tive to engage her diaspora which began in Europe and job seekers from Africa (UNDP 2002 was motivated by the high profile of 2008, 16). a number of distinguished Nigerians in the diaspora, the accumulation of human capital and investments by Nigerians abroad espe- The Nigerian National Volunteer cially professionals and the fact that other Services (NNVS) developing countries notably India, China, Malaysia, Ireland, and others, had and con- Another government agency, the Nige- tinue to tap the experience and resources of rian National Volunteer Services (NNVS), their diasporas to accelerate their economic an organ under the office of the Secretary growth and development (FGN 2007). India to the Government of Federation was also for instance, partly through the assistance established by the Federal Executive Council of its diaspora, has become one of the global to among others, to midwife a constructive giants in terms of information technol- engagement between Nigeria and her dias- ogy. The Irish diaspora also contributed in pora. NNVS also aims to engage the Nige- no small measure in bridging the manage- rian diaspora to create a reverse brain drain rial gap in the Republic of Ireland and this (brain gain) of their skills and knowledge. helped to transform the country to one of Furthermore, NNVS attempts to mobilize the leading countries in Europe. Invariably, Nigerians professionals living abroad for ca- there is no denying the fact the diasporas pacity building, through encouraging tem- are the most important strategic stakehold- porary visits, technical missions and sab- ers in the migration and development field. baticals to Nigerian institutions or through The UNDP even described the African dias- giving summer courses (De Haas 2006, 16- pora as the greatest offshore asset of Africa 17). (UNDP 2008, 4-5).

To underscore government’s commit- On 25 February 2010, the World Bank ment and seriousness to this new diasporan hosted some 400 members of the African initiative, July 25 every year was declared Diaspora, representatives from 19 count- the Nigerian Diaspora Day by former Presi- ries and 137 associations gathered in Was- dent Olusegun Obasanjo. This was to recog- hington D.C. and discussed ways to mobilise nize the Nigerian diaspora as an important resources in order to push development in stakeholder in the Nigerian project. It was Africa. The participants particularly empha- first celebrated in 2006 with the 2nd Science sised the need to devote sustained and ad- and Technology conference, which was initi- ditional resources to improving governance. ated a year earlier by the Nigerian Volunteer The conference also raised the need to imp- Service (NNVS). On 25 July 2008 Former rove channels for remittances. Interestingly, President Umaru Musa Yar’adua declared the World Bank estimates that African im- open the 2nd Nigerian Diaspora Day and migrants living abroad send home between the 3rd Science and Technology Conference. $32 and $40 billion annually. It has been ar- More than 400 Nigerians abroad registered gued that this figure far exceeds the money

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that is given to Africa through formalised problems behind persistence poverty. In- development aid channels (Adeleye 2010). deed, increasing remittance inflow should not reduce governments’ development and Conclusion social responsibilities. This, however, is not to underestimate the role of the diaspora in This paper examines the Nigerian dias- Nigeria’s quest for rapid socio-economic and pora against the background that its study political development. This paper, therefore, has largely been subsumed under the rubric reiterates the need for continued sustenance of the broad historiography on the African and further active engagement by the Nige- diaspora. The study therefore advocates for rian government with the Nigerian diaspo- an in depth focus on country specific diaspora. The extension of voting rights to the Ni- ras in order to make room for specificity and gerian diaspora would be a step in the right avoid broad and sweeping generalizations. direction because this move would definitely Significantly, the connections between the make them develop a stronger sense of be- Nigerian diaspora and the prospects for na- longing to their homeland. tional development received elaborate attention. The study finds out that while Co- hen’s (1997) ideal diaspora is a homogenous social or ethnic group, the Nigerian diaspora on the other hand reflects the diversity and ethnic divisions in the country which makes it highly fissiparous. It is also the view of the paper that though poverty and inequality may induce migration, it would appear too narrow and simplistic to overstress this factor because empirical and theoretical evidence strongly suggest that higher incomes, improved education and access to media and information will give more people capabilities and aspirations to migrate.

In terms of the prevailing diaspora- homeland development mantra, the study is of the view that the eventual impact of remittances will depend on the use to which such remittances are deployed (Bakewell 2008b, 11). The point is that no matter how remunerative migration might be, it cannot solve the problem of Nigeria’s underdevel- opment. Individuals and their kin may become better – off, but their places of origin will largely remain backward or underde- veloped because migration and remittances by themselves do not enable any country to escape poverty (Houngbo 2007, 1). Nigeria needs to urgently address the structural

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