Cultural DiversityReligion, and Safeguarding Australia A Partnership under the Australian Government’s Living In Harmony initiative

by Desmond Cahill, Gary Bouma, Hass Dellal and Michael Leahy

DEPARTMENT OF IMMIGRATION AND MULTICULTURAL AND INDIGENOUS AFFAIRS and AUSTRALIAN MULTICULTURAL FOUNDATION in association with the WORLD CONFERENCE OF RELIGIONS FOR PEACE, RMIT UNIVERSITY and MONASH UNIVERSITY (c) Copyright Commonwealth of Australia 2004

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Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 3 contents

Chapter One

Introduction ...... 6 Religion in a Globalising World ...... 6 Religion and Social Capital ...... 9 Aim and Objectives of the Project ...... 11 Project Strategy ...... 13

Chapter Two

Historical Perspectives: Till World War II ...... 21 The Beginnings of Aboriginal Spirituality ...... 21 Initial Muslim Contact ...... 22 The Australian Foundations of Christianity ...... 23 The Catholic Church and Australian Fermentation ...... 26 The Nonconformist Presence in Australia ...... 28 The Lutherans in Australia ...... 30 The Orthodox Churches in Australia ...... 32 Other World Faiths in Colonial and Federated Australia ...... 34

Chapter Three

Post-war Historical And Demographic Profile Of Religious Australia ...... 41 Moving away from Protestant Australia ...... 44 The Movement to Multi-Faith Australia ...... 45 The Rise of the Pentecostal, Charismatic and New Age Movements . . . . . 48

Chapter Four

Religious Practice At Local Level Across Multi-faith Australia ...... 51 The Increasing Diversification of Religious Australia ...... 52 From Mainstream Christianity to Immigrant and Evangelical and Pentecostal Religiosity ...... 57 Positioning and Repositioning Faith Communities: the Precarious Nature of Faith and Community ...... 60 Local Religious Leadership and Provision of Religious Personnel ...... 65 Faith Communities and Social Capital ...... 67

Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 3 contents continued

Chapter Five

Racist and Religious Violence, Ancient Hatreds, Intercommunal Relationships and September 11th ...... 75 Inter-Faith Relationships: the Local Level ...... 75 Inter-Faith Relationships: Views of Australia’s Religious Leaders ...... 83 Inter-Faith Co-operation and its Limitations ...... 85 Conclusions ...... 90 Australia and September 11th Ecumenical and Inter-Faith Co-operation High Level Dialogue and Awareness Religious Leadership and Hostility Defusion The Special Situation of the Australian Muslim Communities Knowledge about and Attitudes towards Other Faiths Reluctance for Inter-Faith and Social Participation Inter-Faith Marriages

Chapter Six

Religion, Cultural Diversity and Social Cohesion: National and International Perspectives ...... 96 Shift from a Christian to a Paradoxically Multi-Faith and Secular Society 97 Signs, Symbols and Sacred Places Education in and for a Multi-Faith Society Faith Communities and the Media The Repositioning of the Relationship between Religion and State . . . . . 104 Organizational Ethos and Employment Practices Marriage Celebrants for a Multi-Faith Society Advisability of an Inter-Faith Advisory Council Construction of an Electronic Network The International Dimension: Interface with the Formation of Religious and Linguistic Diaspora and the New Technologies ...... 112 Authority, Jurisdiction and Representativity Websites and Web Links

4 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 5 Chapter Seven

Safeguarding a Multi-faith Australia: Conclusions and Recommendations 116 Conclusions ...... 116 Recommendations ...... 119 Formation of an Advisory Council Establishing an Electronic Network Quality Religious Leadership: Orientation and Preparation of Religious Personnel Constructing a Multi-Faith Australia Educating in and for a Multi-Faith Australia In Conclusion ...... 127

List of References ...... 128

Appendix One

Consultations with religious, government and community leaders ...... 134

Appendix Two

Public Consultation: Religion, Diversity and Social Cohesion in Contemporary Australia . . . .138

4 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 5 Chapter one Introduction

his report aims to map the After October 12th, it has been Religion in a interrelationship between said that Australia’s multicultural Globalising World religion and cultural innocence was lost at Kuta Beach T The events of September 11th were diversity in the context of Australia’s on the island paradise of Bali. symptomatic of and brought to social cohesion and internal security, Australians can no longer wander the surface long-term trends that especially in the aftermath of the around tourist resorts in thongs can be neatly summed up in two terrorist attacks of September 11th, and shorts with quite the same very complex words, ‘religion’ and 2001 upon New York and Washington relaxed, carefree Aussie spirit. It was ‘globalisation’. The terrorist attacks and in the broader context of the a Hindu island paradise carefully also brought home to us that religion, relationships between religion and chosen by the extremist Islamic whether transcendent religion or the state, on the one hand, and terrorists to show their white-hot religion corrupted for political between religion and globalisation on hatred not just for Hindus allegedly or economic purposes, is at the the other. Data collection occurred persecuting their co-religionists in centre of world stage. The anti- after those attacks, but the report India but more specifically against religion ideologies of Communism itself has been written in the shadow Westerners, particularly Americans and Nazism have been consigned of the bombing in Bali of October and including Australians. Speaking to the dustbin of history though 12th., 2002 when 88 Australians, through the Al-Jazeera TV network, Marx himself retains his attraction, mostly young, were killed. After Osama bin Laden explicitly referred including his notion that “religion is September 11th, we can never again to Australia, “Australia was warned the opiate of the masses”; however, gaze upwards at skyscrapers in the about its participation in Afghanistan it is very apparent, certainly for the same way as before - those steel and its ignoble contribution to the several decades ahead, that religion and concrete cathedrals, those tall separation of East Timor. It ignored and faith are not going to drift away minarets reaching upwards to the this warning until it was awakened into a privatised world as many sky, are now symbols of the risk and by the echoes of explosions in Bali. atheists and agnostics had predicted. unpredictability of the future. And As you assassinate, so will you be In fact, one of the major features of for Australia, both internally and assassinated; and as you bomb, so twentieth century history was the externally, there are implications will you be bombed”. Australia’s enduring stability of religion and for its political and social leaders, response to these chilling words its institutions - 86 per cent of the which need to be reflected upon, in and to safeguarding itself against world’s population claim a religious safeguarding Australia. For more than terrorist extremism cannot merely faith (2 billion are Christian, 1.2 a decade, theorists have been writing be in military and security terms, billion are Muslim and .8 billion of a backlash against the West; they important though these be, but must are Hindu) and in Australia, the have written about the link between encompass cultural, commercial and comparable figure is about risk, responsibility and trust, and educational realities in a global world. 75 percent. of ‘organized irresponsibility’ and This includes religion and faith the ‘limited controllability’ of the communities playing their role in Australia thus exists in a very dangers to be faced, the dangers from safeguarding Australia against ethnic religious world even though Australia disorganized or corrupt commercial and religious terrorism and against itself is a strongly secular nation. operations, from a polluted religion perverted by those with environment, from fanatical terrorist political objectives. groups or from the destruction of tradition, scholarship and wisdom (Beck 1999).

6 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 7 However, as we shall see, secularism to be extended across the world Religiosity and religious is only one aspect of Australian through the movements of peoples. organizations, and ultimately the society, albeit important. The recent In this generation we have come spiritualities that underpin the great Pew Global Attitudes Project (Pew to understand that secularity does global and local religious traditions, Research Center 2002) in a survey not necessarily mean unspiritual or are interacting with globalisation of 44 countries late in 2002, not even irreligious, but that a society’s which can be understood both including Australia, measured the religious life is no longer dominated as the intensification of global importance of religion in people’s by churches, synagogues and temples. consciousness and the compression lives. In Africa, no fewer than eight- Since World War II, Christianity has of space and time through the in-ten in any country saw religion as moved in its population base from revolutions in transportation and very important personally. Majorities the countries of the rich North to the the information technologies. Its in every Latin American country countries of the poor South, and this major features include (1) the also subscribe to the same view with trend will never be reversed. The next triumph of global capitalism which the exception of Argentina (only Pope will most likely come from a talks up the notions of free trade, 39%). In Muslim countries such country in the South. In the Anglican convertible currencies as the engines as Indonesia, Pakistan, Mali and Communion, the majority of active of growth and ignores the plight of Senegal, more than nine-in-ten also believers are now black (Kaye 2002). impoverished countries and their consider religion as very important In London, each Sunday, the majority monstrous debt burdens, (2) the in their lives though less so in Turkey of church-goers are black, not white rise of the global city as nodes in the (65%) and particularly Uzbekistan (Bartchy 2002). Both Islam and world-wide network where most of (35%). In Europe, religion is not Hinduism perceive in Europe a great the inter-religious encounters are considered very important with spiritual vacuum which they have taking place in the neighbourhoods the lowest scores of 11 per cent in longterm designs to fill. Religion and the schools, the factories and the the Czech Republic and France. In could well be replacing ideology shops, (3) the formation of global the United Kingdom, 39 per cent in a world without boundaries as ethnic and religious diasporas as a considered religion as very important, more people in a less predictable result of the movements of people just behind the European leaders world seek stability in faith in God and networked across time and space (Poland 39% and the Ukraine 35%). or the Great Beyond; citizens in (4) the emergence of a complex Religion is very important in all Asian functioning democracies such as linguistic pasticchio dominated by countries surveyed (Indonesia 95%, India and Turkey place their future several variants of global English but India 92%, the Philippines 88% and in faith-based political parties, while layered underneath by other world Bangladesh 88%) with the exception secular Arab nationalism has failed languages such as Arabic and Spanish of Korea (25%), Viet Nam (24%) to be replaced by either a moderate and by national and local languages and Japan (12%). Thus, secularism or extremist Islam. Part of the success (5) the rise of the so-called politics is present in all the wealthy countries of Christian pentecostalism and of identity, the politics of memory with one very major exception - the evangelical groups has been due to and the politics of retribution United States of America where 59 the negative effects of globalisation resulting in many more localised per cent of the population consider - the response of many believers to conflicts as well as the emergence of that religion is very important in economic globalisation has been local and international warlords and their lives. to rely on their religious faith to (6) the rise in risk and the need for reinforce a defensive, “circle-the- new forms of regional and global It is now less possible to speak of wagons” mentality, increasing their governance. “Christendom” or “the Islamic world” fear of those perceived to be ‘other’ as religious diasporas continue (Bartchy 2002).

6 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 7 This report is written in the context that the future is not one There will also be of increasing secularism, and there will be increasing competition and conflict between the major increasing co-operation religions (Bartchy 2002; Bouma 2003). There will also be increasing though this is not co-operation though this is not necessarily automatic. The varying kinds of interrelationships between necessarily automatic. religion, culture and nationalism imply that the emerging new order or disorder may bring greater levels of In Australia, typifying all these Whilst it is commonplace to think, ethnic and religious conflict. Whilst developments, as measured by this sometimes rightly, that religion is a the experience of inter-faith and report through the consultations negative and divisive force, not least intercultural contact may generate with religious leaders and through among some ethnic community warm, fuzzy and altruistic feelings, we our public consultation with the leaders who suffer from a unhealthy need to warn against the naivete that Australian people conducted dose of anti-clericalism or think that is often found in the inter-ethnic and electronically, there has been a rise religion is either irrelevant or even inter-faith area which is full of hidden in the feeling, even amongst faith- dangerous, some sociologists have complexities, subtleties and vexed committed people, that, firstly, come to the conclusion that faith historical legacies. The aftermath recent overseas conflicts such as in builds community (Appleby 2001); events of the USA and Bali tragedies the Gulf, the Balkans, Sri Lanka and the psychologists and psychiatrists, have highlighted this point. Religious Central Asia have put Australia’s aware of the occasionally destructive extremism is increasingly seen in social harmony at serious risk and, nature of religious phobias and the major religious groupings where secondly, that religious extremism scruples, have realised that, other the religious framework is aligned has the potential to destroy the things being equal, faith is more with a Biblical, Qu’ranic or other fabric of Australia’s civil, pluralist related to emotional stability than to fundamentalism or revivalism or with and democratic society. Both these instability. In China after 50 years of an introverted nationalism which concerns, as expressed through the official atheism, there is a profound does not accept the universalism that data, reflect the feeling that perhaps spiritual thirst. In the West, the youth is at the authentic core of all major Australia’s diversity has become too suicide and youth drug addiction world religions. It may align itself extended for the common good of an studies suggest that young people with a highly politicized, corrupted aspiring civil society, and that ethnic need not just a stable family life faith that is prepared to go beyond and ethnoreligious leaders, especially unmessed by divorce and separation the previous limits of violence - the Muslim leaders and probably all but a belief in something beyond antidote is not more secularism of religious leaders, need to be called to themselves instead of the gnawing, the 1960s and 1970s type against greater accountability and scrutiny. superficial nihilism of pop culture which the extremists are usually with its fattening fast food, decibel reacting but rather a strengthening of music, and drugged-up pop stars. religious moderation.

8 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 9 Religious traditions have an inherent The report is written from a Religion and Social Capital tendency to be handcuffed to the religiously pluralist perspective that Religion can remind us that life can past and to tradition even if they aims to ensure peaceful co-existence be more than sitting in front of a are also fundamentally oriented to a and avoids any evangelical and computer screen, sitting in front of this-world or beyond-world future. forced missionisation but allowing a poker machine or hushly around In the creation of civil societies, conversion and reciprocity. Ninian a black-jack table. As our computers religion cannot be left to one side. Smart (1996) has developed the twin become more and more clogged There cannot be peace and harmony notions of “soft non-relativism” and up with emails, religion reminds unless there is peace and harmony “infederated complementarity” to us that print is not necessarily between the religions. They may be inform a religious pluralist view communication, information is handcuffed to an imagined, if not based on the three propositions (a) not necessarily wisdom, and lack imaginary, past that is often based on no religious or philosophic world- of noise is not necessarily monastic poor history. As Flaubert remarked, view or revelation is susceptible of silence. Religion also reminds us that “our ignorance of history makes proof, so certitude is not possible transcendent values are at the core us slander our own times”. There is - even an atheist cannot be absolutely of national integrity, and central to ‘good’ religion, there is ‘bad’ religion; certain of his position (b) not all Australia’s current situation is a crisis there are extremes in each religious world-views teach compatible theses over values. tradition that become locked into so there exists a rivalry even if there their enclosed world-view. Every is considerable overlap; given the This research project was based on religion has its cancers and potential uncertainty, the only possible stance the notion of social capital. Social cancers; “what our world needs is is soft non-relativism and (c) a capital which is built around bonds, men and women whose religious multicultural stance implies a positive bridges, links and acceptance of the commitments are both clear and stance towards the different religions other refers to the processes that ambiguous, rooted and adaptive, and world-views which complement facilitate individual and social well- particular and pluralistic, yet this each other and have something to being and positive communal and would not be sufficient: in addition, teach each other whilst they co- societal outcomes within a nation or we must probe our traditions so that exist in a world-wide federation. a group. A nation’s social capital is we can identify and eradicate the But the report is not written from built on an accurate understanding pathologies that have contributed a religiously neutral perspective of its past through, firstly, solid but to inquisitions, holy wars, because the state may need to take flexible social institutions that are obscurantisms and exclusivisms” action against any faith community resistant to corruption, fanaticism (Boys, Lee & Bass 1995: 256). that has allowed itself to be perverted and zealotry, are able to manage by supporting or encouraging conflict and deeply felt value clash terrorist violence, extreme and are able to deal constructively ethnocentrism or whose structures, with the multilayered national and programs or dogmas encourage international flows of ideas, finances, serious sexual misdemeanours or peoples, technologies and media misguided family formation. images.

8 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 9 ... social capital “is not displayed in almanacs, stock market reports or tourist advertisements; its presence has to be discovered through intuition or diligent rationalism.

Secondly, it is further constructed As John Montgomery has justice by improving distributive through facilitative modes of commented, social capital “is not justice; it can foster and facilitate communication and association displayed in almanacs, stock market grassroots change and initiatives. between and across individuals, reports or tourist advertisements; At its best, religion can facilitate the organizations and collective its presence has to be discovered creation of social capital. But like institutions, all underpinned by (I) through intuition or diligent the two-edged sword, religion can, positive psychosocial characteristics rationalism. Yet it is ubiquitous; it is at its worst, destroy all these things. such as openness to new challenges so often invoked to enhance desired Religious leaders, like educational and ambiguities, the tendency to behaviour in the present or to bring and all other community leaders, modernity and long-sightedness, about purposeful change for the can enlarge the stock of social capital the propensity for care, nurturance future” (Montgomery 2001: 1). It is and help choreograph social and and honesty and the readiness to reflected in the stability and solidity ethnic cohesion in complex societies trust people and institutions and (II) of institutions; it highlights trust and across the world. However, in positive cultural and religious values, and its maximization in public life; our consultations with religious norms and behaviours that produce it underpins and influences the flows leaders across Australia, the research success in economic, political, of communicating and associating team found that religious leaders military, recreational and other between individuals and collective had difficulty grappling with the endeavours (Inkeles 2001). entities like religious communities notion of social capital, focussing and ethnic groups and between instead on the schools, hospitals, nations; it gives nations competitive welfare agencies etc. rather than the advantages in the international underlying values and processes that economic race or in responding to allow these institutions to come into international crises and national being and flourish down the decades. disasters; it can help to achieve social

10 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 11 Aim and Objectives This is one of the living-in-harmony In the revised 2001 landmark of the Project projects funded by the Australian encyclopedia on The Australian Government’s Department of People to mark the Centenary of Religious faith has been at the core Immigration and Multicultural Federation, Professor James Jupp or close to the core of Australian and Indigenous Affairs. Under included in his select bibliography social and political life since the the auspices of the Council for only 46 entries under the heading arrival of the Europeans (Carey Multicultural Australia, it was of ‘religion’. They were mainly 1996; Thompson 2002). Even before planned before the terrorist attacks. historical studies of the 19th century that, during the Aboriginal phase It was felt that the multi-faith or conventional studies of the history of the history of the peopling of the element of multiculturalism had been of particular churches. However, Australian continent, spirituality neglected despite its importance. some important work had been was at the core of the traditional This neglect may have stemmed from done, initially by Hans Mol followed lifestyle before it was changed with the controversial nature of religion by Frank Lewins’ doctoral study of the arrival of the Europeans. They are itself and from academic reluctance migrants and the Roman Catholic now in need of Government support to research faith communities, either Church, in which he concluded for their physical infrastructure because of a personal animus against that “culture unites, religion needs and their needs in health and any religious ideology or because divides” and Adrian Pittarello’s education. Reconciliation remains a of a feeling that a privatised faith 1980 attempt to move Australian contested challenge. Faith traditions had largely become an irrelevance Catholicism away from a heavily with their focus on the ultimate in a secular world. Within ethnic assimilationist stance and help it and the absolute as well as the communities themselves, the idea understand the world of popular local and the universal have been that religion was close to the core religion of the Italian migrant, key elements in the formation of of culture was hotly contested and pietistic and often superstitious, but Australia’s culturally diverse society. resisted, particularly by secularists deeply felt and held. This has been Religious groupings have been who were busy fighting for cultural recently augmented by several well- formative of core social and moral and linguistic maintenance, but documented accounts, available only Australian values and of public only on the condition that it did not in Italian, Stefano Girola’s I Tre Santi: service, welfare and philanthropic include religious maintenance. Fede, Storia, Tradizione; Dalla Sicilia traditions. With their localised al Queensland (2000) and Anthony presence, their community ethic Paganoni and Desmond O’Connor’s and their universalist outlook, most Se La Processione Va Bene…Religiosita religious groups have made positive Popolare Italiana nel Sud Australia contributions to the construction of a (1999). multicultural society in Australia that is now recognized world-wide as a model and exemplar notwithstanding the various issues and problems that periodically arise with changing national and global circumstances, most recently and most emphatically, following the attacks in the USA, in Bali and elsewhere.

10 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 11 An important early contribution was This project on religion and David Cox’s important 1982 study on cultural diversity included and religion and welfare and Abe Ata, in was supplemented by two other This report a unique contribution, edited three projects, namely, the preparation milestone volumes on religion and of educational materials on Islam, has aimed to ethnicity at the end of the 1980s. At the Islamic diaspora and the the same time, Croucher published history, role and contribution of his history of Australian Buddhism Muslim Australians by Associate examine the in 1989, followed in the same year by Professor Abdullah Saeed from the Bilimoria’s monograph on Australian University of Melbourne, and a Hinduism. The flourish at the end of kit to assist inter-faith interaction place and the 1980s was augmented by specific and co-operation in the Australian articles in Jupp’s first edition in 1988 context prepared by Professor function of of The Australian People. The 1990s Desmond Cahill of RMIT University saw the emergence of the work of and Dr Michael Leahy of Deakin Gary Bouma, and the volume edited University. The research team was faith traditions by Norm Habel (1992). The Bureau also helped by an academic RMIT- of Immigration, Multicultural and UCLA colloquium on religion and and religious Population Research at the behest globalisation held in Melbourne of Dr. Trevor Batrouney published in September, 2002 which brought its Religious Community Profile together Australian and USA scholars. groups in an series edited by Philip Hughes - these This report has aimed to examine small monographs basing themselves the place and function of faith increasingly on an analysis of the 1991 census traditions and religious groups in an data not only drew attention to the increasingly multicultural Australia smaller faith communities other than operating in a world that is also multicultural Christian such as the Hindu and the increasingly globalised. It aims to Sikh but showed how the mainstream identify current and emerging issues churches were becoming more Australia... as a basis for policy recommendations culturally diverse. However, all these to government, and provide a basis articles and monographs have tended for informed debate and concrete to be particularised rather than action in different sectors of the taking a more integrated approach Australian community. It will also to religion, spirituality and cultural indicate areas for further research diversity (see Bouma 2003). and exploration.

12 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 13 The aims of the project were: » to suggest policy and program Project Strategy initiatives that foster a healthy, » to profile the current religious The project strategy interactive religious diversity and diversity context in Australia involved five elements: that utilizes religion as an asset within a brief historical framework, and resource for Australia’s social, 1 Consultations with religious and map the extent of inter-faith political and economic well-being leaders. dialogue and co-operation in a globalising world 2 Consultations with government » to examine the contribution that » to investigate the feasibility of officials and appropriate NGOs. religious frameworks and religious Australian inter-faith bodies and groups are currently making and 3 Two commissioned papers. structures to advise the Council for can make to the development of Multicultural Australia and other 4 Research studies of faith the four civic values of civic duty, government and non-government communities at local levels. cultural respect, social equity and bodies productive diversity 5 Public consultation with the » to investigate data sources for Australian people conducted » to identify current and emerging the construction of an electronic electronically. issues, challenges and possibilities network for the transmission of regarding the interface of religious information to religious groups at groups with Australian society local, regional and national levels and each other, including areas for further research and exploration

» to document and analyse recent occurrences of racist and bigoted attacks, both verbal and physical, on faith communities and their members, including post- September 11th

12 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 13 1 A series of consultations In the smaller states and the two hence were represented only in one or with religious leaders territories, many of these faith two locations. In several cases, there in each capital city communities are very small, or barely was a reluctance to participate or a existent, hence they were not able to suspicion of government objectives. Consultations were held with be represented at the consultations. The number of states and territories religious leaders in each State In other cases, communities wanted at which each faith community was and Territory through the co- only to be represented nationally, and represented is as follows: operation of bodies such as the World Conference of Religions for Table 1 Peace, state Councils of Churches Faith Community Number of states/territories and Heads of Faith Committees. Catholic 6 For the consultations, the State/ Anglican 4 Territory leaders of the twenty- Uniting Church of Australia 6 eight largest religious communities, Presbyterian 1 as defined by the census, having 10,000 adherents across Australia, Greek Orthodox 3 were approached. The groups were Baptist 4 the Catholic, Anglican, Uniting Lutheran 3 Church of Australia, Presbyterian, Buddhist 5 Greek Orthodox, Baptist, Lutheran, Islamic 5 Buddhist, Islamic, Jewish, Hindu, Jewish 5 Jehovah’s Witnesses, Australian Hindu 3 Christian Church, Salvation Army, Jehovah’s Witnesses 2 Church of Christ, Assembly of Australian Christian Churches 1 God, Macedonian Orthodox, Seventh-Day Adventist, Church Salvation Army 4 of Jesus Christ of the Latter-Day Church of Christ 4 Saints, Serbian Orthodox, Christian Macedonian Orthodox 0 Brethren, Russian Orthodox, Coptic Seventh-Day Adventists 2 Orthodox, Sikh, Christian Outreach, Church of Jesus Christ of the Latter Day Saints 5 Christadelphians, the Reformed Serbian Orthodox 1 and Baha’i faith communities. Christian Brethren 0 Collectively, this represents over 97 Russian Orthodox 0 per cent of those in Australia who Coptic Orthodox 1 have a religious affiliation. Sikh 4 Christian Outreach 0 Christadelphians 0 Reformed Christian 0 Baha’i 2

14 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 15 The consultations were conducted 2 A series of consultations 3 Commissioned papers over a two-hour period, using a with relevant Australian prepared by experts discussion brief specially developed Government departments in selected aspects for the exercise (Appendix One). The in Canberra and other A paper on the demographic analysis size of the discussion groups varied key agencies of Australia’s religious groups was from 3 to 10. Discussion was always Consultations were held with relevant commissioned. During the life of cordial, led by one of the research government departments such as the project, the 2001 census material team, and, for most participants, it the Department of Immigration and became available and it was analysed became a genuine learning experience Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs, by Professor Gary Bouma for as they shared views with leaders they the Department of Foreign Affairs inclusion into the final report. It has had never previously met. and Trade, the Department of Health been incorporated into chapter three. and Community Services and the An Information Kit on Muslims in Department of Education, Training Australia was commissioned, and and Youth Affairs and agencies such these materials were prepared by as the Human Rights Commission. Associate Professor Abdullah Saeed of In every State and Territory, the University of Melbourne. consultations were conducted with It was hoped that a paper on the role their government multicultural or of religion in trade and commerce community relations commissions, across the world and in relation to ethnic communities’ councils and Australia could be commissioned. with the members of the Council for While much is known about a few a Multicultural Australia chaired by selected aspects e.g. the live sheep Mr. Benjamin Chow. trade to the Middle East, the area needs to be researched in much more depth than was possible given the constraints on this project.

14 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 15 4 Research studies of Bunreba Green Valley local faith or groups Bunreba is a poor, long-established, Green Valley is a proud and of religious personnel now heavily Asian area located prosperous provincial city far distant This element of the research in an outer-suburban area. This from any major city. Its focus is on focussed on the local level, and on research focussed on a Baptist a small Presbyterian community the 20 religious groups with at least church which operated as three operating in a strongly Anglo- 20,000 members across Australia linguistic faith communities, namely, Australian environment. The study as identified by the 1996 census. a multicultural, English-speaking also contains input from the local Fourteen religious communities community together with Lao and Anglican vicar. were selected on the mixed criteria Vietnamese Baptist communities. The Jackaranda of (1) religious grouping, both research also describes the work of mainstream and ethnoreligious two other Christian churches, located Jackaranda is a small, remote (2) suburban/rural location, in the same street opposite a park, provincial town, holding its own including satellite areas (3) state of the Uniting Church and the Roman in its struggle for survival and the Commonwealth and (4) types Catholic, serving a multitude of containing sizeable Aboriginal of immigrant communities in the immigrant and refugee communities. and Muslim populations. The local area. Pseudonyms have been The work of the primary Catholic focus was upon the local Uniting given to disguise their locations and school was also researched. Church community and a Wesleyan details have been deliberately left Methodist Church community, but Glenara vague to maintain the anonymity of data were collected on most of the the community. The studies were as The research in Glenara focussed on Christian churches as well as on the follows: an inner-suburban Anglican with a Muslim community worshipping in small Anglo-Australian community their mosque on the periphery of Bendall Plains that was struggling to survive. town. The research in Bendall Plains The parish also hosted two Maori Marbeline focussed on a recently-built Hindu congregations which raised the issue temple and its community located on of transnational jurisdiction. Input This research focussed on one the periphery of a large metropolis. was also gained from the Roman Islamic mosque located in an Catholic priest whose community Australian capital city; it examines Meringle was the only other Christian faith its community dynamics as well as The research in Meringle focussed on group still operating in the area. its relationships with other religious a well-established Serbian Orthodox communities in its locality. Heptonstall Church which served its community drawn from a large part of the This research focussed on an metropolitan area. Orthodox Jewish community located in a middle-class area of a Braddock major metropolis, together with The research in Braddock focussed two adjacent Jewish communities, on the Lutheran community in a all three with their own synagogue; sizeable provincial city, especially on it also contains input from local its parish church located near the Christian leaders. centre of the city and on the Lutheran primary school.

16 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 17 Midmet Tamarena The research strategy was to focus on the initially selected faith The focus of this research element The research centred on a Greek community, and then, after an initial was upon Catholic migrant chaplains Orthodox church serving its reconnaissance, was developed serving their immigrant communities community in a middle-class to further to include other locally in a large metropolitan city. It aimed upper middle-class area in a major based communities. In this sense, to ascertain the contribution the metropolis. it was opportunistic. The research Catholic Church, as Australia’s largest Wattleton team used traditional ethnographic religious grouping, has made through techniques utilizing case study its migrant chaplaincy strategy to In Wattleton, the research centred methodology which since the late facilitate the settlement of Catholic on a Chinese Buddhist temple 1970s has been accorded considerable immigrants and create a harmonious whose grounds also contain a large respectability. The research team society. In particular, it explored Taoist shrine. However its focus was drew heavily on the methodologies the impact of imported hatreds and broadened to examine a remarkable described by Stake and Easley overseas conflicts on immigrant square mile of multi-faith Australia (1978), Hamilton et al. (1977) and communities and the role of religion which included another three House (1980), and later by Miles in exacerbating or defusing these Buddhist temples, all recently built, and Huberman (1984), Guba and impacts. namely Cambodian, Laotian and Lincoln (1989) and Yin (1990). These Vietnamese, this becoming a study Salamander localised studies rely heavily on of four ethnic strands of Buddhism qualitative data gathered on site by Salamander is located in a major in Australia. The study also includes interview and observation but also metropolis, and focusses on a a description of the work of the incorporate appropriate population Jehovah’s Witness Hall serving local Catholic parish and its primary and historical data when necessary. English-, Greek- and Spanish- school, an Anglican Church which Because of the wide disparity in the speaking communities in a huge also hosted an evangelical Vietnamese types of faith communities studied medium- to high-migrant density community, a multicultural and the considerable constraints on area that contains both middle-class Baptist community and a Chinese resources, the research approach was and working class pockets. It also Presbyterian Church as well as a the only feasible method in gathering contains details about Salvation Army Turkish mosque. data and drawing conclusions. The and Mormon communities located chief researcher had successfully nearby. on two previous occasions used Shelbourne the methodology when reviewing for the Australian Government the Shelbourne focussed on the presence response by primary and secondary and work of several Assemblies of schools, both public and private, God congregations in a provincial to the presence of culturally and city with the spotlight on a linguistically diverse students (Cahill community located in a very low 1984, 1996). migrant density area and served by married couples as pastors.

16 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 17 In gathering research data, This part of the overall research There were, as well, five in anthropological or ethnographic strategy was conducted in five all, meetings with a police procedures and journalistic devices mainland states, and the research superintendent, shire president and can prove effective in gathering team is confident that they represent secretary and local government and recording evidence. These a reasonably accurate snapshot of social and community development ‘naturalistic’ methodologies may lead multi-faith Australia in the Year officers. One attempted meeting with to more sensitive, relevant and easily 2002 and, thus, are an important a business leader failed. The religious communicable understandings about social document. During the affiliations of these interviewees or faith communities, their religious course of these studies of faith groups of interviewees were Catholic framework, their activities and their communities in many different (11), Anglican (8), Baptist (5), outreach programs. The findings are parts of Australia, 64 interviews and Uniting Church (4), Lutheran (4), best presented as ‘relatively informal meetings were conducted. Altogether, Islam (4), Buddhist (4), Jewish (4), narrative, often employing quotes, over 100 people participated in Presbyterian (3), Greek Orthodox illustrations, allusion and metaphor’. these interviews and meetings, and (2), Jehovah’s Witness (2), Hindu This places considerable demands thousands of the faithful would have (2), Assemblies of God (2), Serbian on the sensitivity, observation and been observed in their attendance Orthodox (1), Churches of Christ (1), writing skills of the researcher. It at religious liturgies, prayer services Wesley Methodist (1), and Aboriginal requires the researcher to use his or personal devotions to their Gods. Christian (1). Faith communities or her initiative in utilising all the The interviews were with individual whose services were observed but presented opportunities when pastors or community leaders or where no interview took place were gathering data. Direct dialogue in religious school principals while the the Salvation Army, the Foursquare the interviews provided the bulk of meetings were with vestry members, church and the Church of Jesus the data. It is important to realise church regional boards, synagogue Christ of the Latter-Day Saints. in localised studies of religious boards of management or with communities that ‘such qualitative groups of pastors. research enterprise depends on the researcher’s ability to make himself a sensitive research instrument’ (Stake & Easley 1978: 25).

18 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 19 5 A public consultation Table 1.1: Issues of serious concern (111 responses) conducted electronically with the Australian people Issue Percentage (%) Religious education in mainstream public 12.6 On February 8th 2002 very early and private schools in the life of the project, in the mainstream quality press in all states, The definition of religion in a multi-faith context 9.9 an advertisement asked for electronic Aboriginal reconciliation 9.9 or hard copy submissions in response The education of faith community leaders 9.0 to a structured questionnaire. Ninety submissions were received, including Employment practices and religious expression, 8.1 from New South Wales (17), Victoria including religious holidays (20), Queensland (9), Western Religion and the role of women 7.2 Australia (9), South Australia (24), The place of Aboriginal spiritualities 7.2 Tasmania (2), Northern Territory (2) in a multi-faith context and the Australian Capital Territory (7). The instrument is contained in The media and the reporting 5.4 Appendix Two. of faith community activities Inter-faith marriages and their religious 4.5 implications for families Success or failure in inter-faith initiatives 4.5 Job discrimination and religious affiliation 4.5 Other 4.5 The religious dimensions of emergency situations 3.6 The construction and management 2.7 of special sacred and religious sites Faith, religious liberty and legal issues 1.8 Religion and the Australian identity 1.8 Multi-faith chaplaincy in the Australian armed forces 0.9 Full-time and part-time religious and 0.9 ethnoreligious schools Religion and environmental protection 0.9 Representativity of faith communities in local, 0.0 state and national forums Tourism and the visitation of religious sites 0.0 The state and confessional universities 0.0 TOTAL 100.0

18 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 19 As part of this consultation, respondents were given a list of As part of this consultation, 21 issues through which they were asked to nominate those of most serious concern (Table 1.1). The issue respondents were given a list of giving most serious concern was religious education in mainstream 21 issues through which they public and private schools (12.6%), followed by Aboriginal reconciliation (9.9%) and the definition of religion were asked to nominate those of in a multi-faith context (9.9%), followed closely by the issue of most serious concern... educating faith community leaders (9.0%) and employment practices and religious expression (8.1%). The role of women in religion also rated fairly highly (7.2%) and the place of Aboriginal spiritualities in a multi-faith context (7.2%). Issues which elicited no concern were faith community representativity, tourism and the visitation of religious sites and confessional universities.

20 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 21 chapter two Historical Perspectives: Till World War II

The Beginnings of All their rich mythologies were Each clan and family belonged to the Aboriginal Spirituality expressed in their ceremonial life land which was theirs by derivation and the artistic traditions have through descent from the creation n integrated history of recorded and continue to record ancestors. “Certain people had the religion in the Australian their spiritual beliefs. In the so-called duty of guarding sacred sites, visiting multi-faith context that takes A ‘original affluent society’, Indigenous and retouching art, conducting account of ethnic diversification Australians had much time for their ceremonies at special places or and the recent rise of the spirituality artistic and ceremonial activities, and clearing unwanted vegetation from movements is yet to be written were not pressured by the demands sacred rocks and trees. Intellectual life though the work of Ian Breward of time and over-work. revolved around recalling complex (1993), Hilary Carey (1996) and and extensive genealogies and Roger Thompson (2002) is to be In creation time, the creation ceremonial songs. The ceremonies noted. Much of the following account ancestors entered Australia as a enacted the song cycles that described draws on the conventional ethnic partly formed landscape (Isaacs the travels, movements and actions and religious group histories as well 1980, 1984). Some such as the giant of the ancestral beings at different as articles from Jupp’s encyclopedia, serpents came from beneath the places, and recalling genealogical mainly the 2001 edition. Such a ground while others came from and information enabled all Aboriginal history begins in the mists of time returned to the blue sky. Some came people to trace their relationship with the Aborigines and their various from across the seas but all fashioned with sometimes distant tribes” spiritualities which were centred and moulded the landscape; they (Isaacs 1984: 10). on the land, the waters and the changed the seasons, the wet and the sky. Aboriginal oral traditions are dry, the hot and the cold, and they Like all authentic religions, permeated by the belief they have brought the wetness of the rains and Aboriginal spirituality has a strong lived here since the act of creation in the flash of the thunderous lightning. sense of place and of time. Central the infinite past of the Dreamtime The creation ancestors such as was the re-enactment of the though there are other versions which the Rainbow Serpent began their constant connecting of the life of suggest it resulted from migration, journeys across the land, clashing the people with the Dreaming, and presumably from Asia (Flood 2001) with each other, sculptoring the earth this religious process was expressed during the time of Sahul or Greater into valleys and mountains, ridges in music, ceremonial dance, bodily Australia before the end of the Last and plains, rivers and lakes. Men and decoration and ornament and Ice Age. women metamorphosed themselves paintings on rock and bark. The into stone or rock formations common theme in Aboriginal (Isaacs 1984). spiritualities is their varying relationships as hunter-gatherers to the land and each other, and to the oneness of the universe; they reject the taming and destruction of the Creator’s handiwork. In other words, everything is sacred in a non- hierarchical whole.

20 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 21 Just as there are many world Initial Muslim Contact A later map, that of Abu-Farisi spiritualities, there are many Istakhari 934 CE, also includes With the coming of the Europeans, Aboriginal spiritualities that continue an outline of the northern coast Christianity was introduced to the to resonate and develop in the minds of Australia” (Cleland 2002: 4). Australian continent though it is of Aborigines. Aboriginal theologians Christianity had reached southern likely Islam was practised for at least and philosophers need to develop India in the first century in the figure some decades, if not longer, before these further and, as much as they of Thomas the Apostle but it was Governor Arthur Phillips’ First Fleet are able, to share them with other to be many centuries before Marco arrived. Extensive trade was already Australians. They are a key part of Polo and, later on, Francis Xavier occurring between China and Arabia Australia’s multi-faith mosaic. reached beyond India. Portuguese when Muhammed (pbuh) died in 632 and Spanish navigators later reached CE. His uncle, Abu Waqqas, had fled the area and, as colonizers, settled in to Ethiopia during the persecution, places such as Macau, Timor and the and then to Guangzhou in China in Philippines. In the meantime, trading about 616 CE. According to Chinese camps had been established on Muslim annals, after going back to Australia’s northern coasts, perhaps as Arabia, he returned to Guangzhou in long ago as 800 years (see Macknight 637 CE, bringing with him a copy of 1976) by Macassan fishermen such the Quran. He founded the Mosque as Pobasso seeking trepang which of Remembrance and was eventually they caught, cooked and dried for buried in the Muslim cemetery in transportation back home. However, Guangzhou (Cleland 2002). Macknight accepts that the trade Historians are not agreed when could not, with historical certainty, Islam arrived in South East Asia, be earlier than about 1650 though and further research remains to be he prefers the period 1751 - 1754 as done. A small Muslim trade colony the best documented (Macknight had appeared on Sumatra by 674 CE. 1976; Cleland 2002). Whatever the Gradually but slowly, the area was date, the Macassans, according to Islamicized, certainly by the end of the oral traditions of the Aborigines the twelfth century. It would seem of Arnhem Land (Isaacs 1980), that Islamic navigators had explored practised their Islamic prayer rituals the coastline of northern Australia. during their 3 - 4 months’ stay in “The map of the Sea of Java of Australia each year. Here, we have the Muhammed ibn Musa al- Khwarizmi likely first inter-faith contact on the 820 CE shows Cape Yorke Peninsula, Australian continent but, given the a “V” shaped Gulf of Carpentaria and intermittancy and localization of the a curved Arnhem Land. contact, Aboriginal religious culture was not impacted as would be the case with the arrival of the British Fleet in 1788.

22 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 23 The Australian The first Christian leader to work Christianity in Australia was brought Foundations of in Australia was Richard Johnston into being by an act of the British Christianity who acted as chaplain to Phillip’s state with the formal appointment First Fleet until his return to of Johnston as chaplain to the penal With the exception of Manning Clark England in 1800 together with colony. It was assumed that religion who developed his view of Australian Samuel Marsden, “the flogging and civil order went in unison, and history somewhat narrowly around parson”, who arrived in 1794. For that religion had the capability the twin poles of the Enlightenment each and every faith community, to rid convicts of their criminal and Catholicism, religion has not the process of transplantation tendencies and inculcate in them been a central feature in Australian would be, and remains even today, the traits necessary for becoming historical accounts. The Anglican challenging and difficult for the founding citizens of this new, historian, Bruce Kaye, comments recently arrived communities trying faraway colony. It did not occur to that “Australian historiography has to establish themselves (Bouma the British authorities that Anglican been assiduous in ignoring religion, 1995, 1997a). Johnston and Marsden convicts were very much a minority and Anglicanism in particular, as a began transplanting an Evangelical as convicts were drawn more from recurrent factor in Australian life” Anglicanism from a United Kingdom the urban than the rural areas. All (Kaye 2002: xv). The history of where the base of the Church of colonial governors were expected to religion in Australia revolves around England had been strongly rural be Anglican worshippers though their the themes of (1) the transplanting and sedentary. The Church had practice varied. It took five years to of the faith from the source achieved little penetration into the build the first wooden church, but countries and the initial difficulties mining and urban areas - there were as the number of convicts grew, so implanting it on Australian soil (2) relatively few Anglicans who lived in did the number of churches. Sunday the positioning and repositioning London at the end of the eighteenth attendance was obligatory, and the of the relationship between religion century (Jupp 2001). In Australia unresponsive convicts identified the and state (3) the establishment during the chaplaincy period from parsons with the civil authorities. of organizational and leadership 1788 up until the 1830s, the Church Religion in colonial Australia did not structures (4) the continuance of of England, like Roman Catholicism have an auspicious start. transnational links with the religious a little later, had its origins in the source centres overseas (5) the inter- British penal system, and yet at the religious tensions and squabblings (6) same time was part of the broader the interface of the faith communities process of religious globalisation with the Aboriginal population (7) (Fletcher 2002a) which had started faith communities and the impact with the Roman Catholic Church of migration and (8) religiosity and and the influence of the Salamanca popular religion. The complete and school of theology upon Spanish and total separation of religion and state Portuguese colonization (Strenski may have always been a secularist 2002). aspiration. But it has always been a myth as the different phases of Australian history have seen a succession of repositionings.

22 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 23 In Australia, the temptation for Historians have been in some From the beginning, it had been Anglicanism to be aligned with agreement that the chaplains were presumed that the Anglican Church the administrational and financial ineffectual in their work with the was the established church, but the elite was overwhelming but the unresponsive convicts though there arrival of convicts from Ireland in alliance in fact was not to be intense are dissenters to this historical view. 1791, the large increase in Scottish or prolonged as might have been In any case, in their subsequent quest Presbyterian settlement in the 1820s anticipated (Kaye 2002). All the for respectability as emancipees, and in Cornish settlement in the early Anglican chaplains were the released convicts often became 1830s challenged this presumed Evangelicals which was very useful in staunch church members and ascendency situation in a way that developing good relations with their members of the emerging middle would have been impossible in Nonconformist counterparts later class (Fletcher 2002a). But “the early the mother country. Prohibition on, but it resulted in an Anglicanism Anglican chaplains were products of against the entry of Roman Catholic infused with a far more democratic the Evangelical revival. They differed chaplains was rigorously policed spirit than its English parent. It in personality but were united by a because it was feared they might developed a more collaborative strong sense of mission and an inner foment discontent and rebellion model of leadership which in later strength that made them determined among the Irish convicts. However, decades would be resisted by more to succeed. This was particularly true in the lead-up to the emancipation authoritarian bishops. It was the of Richard Johnston, first in a line of of Catholics in Great Britain in 1832, first Anglican Church in the world dedicated men…such men may have Roman Catholic chaplains were to develop synods in each diocese, come to despair of making much officially allowed in after 1820 though resulting in a less centralized impact upon on the convicts. Yet, some priests had spent short periods structure with ‘a loose confederation they persevered, partly from a sense in Australia before that. Very quickly of dioceses’ (Kaye 2002). of duty, partly because they retained Rome appointed William Ullathorne a residual hope of achieving good” as vicar-general in 1832, and two (Fletcher 2002a: 12). However, the years later, John Bede Polding early alliance between the governors was appointed as the first bishop, and the Anglican chaplains could not beginning the tradition that Rome endure because other denominational has always till this point in time groups were always represented appointed its bishops and making amongst the convicts and free settlers. the Australian Catholic Church the most externally controlled of all the Australian faith communities, both past and present.

24 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 25 A Methodist minister arrived in first and only Anglican bishop of The educational needs of the 36 1815 immediately setting up a house Australia, argued for the retention of children on the First Fleet were not church in the Rocks area of Sydney; Anglican privileges (Fletcher 2002a) initially met, but soon there were the first Presbyterian minister, Dr. against the other churches in the schools for the children of military John Dunmore Lang, disembarked first of many inter-denominational officers and schools for the children in 1824 and in 1834 the first Baptist squabbles that would last up until the of convicts, beginning a tradition that minister arrived. Like their Roman late 1950s. The Anglican ascendancy the children of the rich and powerful Catholic counterparts, none received was already in decline, and in the would be educated in one type of any government help with stipend important Church Act of 1832 school, and the children of the poor subsidy or financial assistance enacted by the New South Wales and disadvantaged in another type in building churches. Historians Legislative Council, financial aid of school that largely endures to disagree on the fact of ‘Establishment’, was made available to the Anglicans, the present day with the emergence some suggesting the status of the Catholics, Scottish Presbyterians of government residual schools in Church of England as being ‘official’, and, later on, to the Methodists and poorer, suburban areas (Cahill 1996). but not ‘established’. Establishment, Baptists. The Congregationalists The Anglican Church soon began according to the Act of Settlement of refused such aid because of their organizing schools. By 1829, it had 1701 in the United Kingdom, implies belief in the separation of church and sponsored 25 ‘free schools’ as well as that all those holding public offices, state. schools for male and female orphans including the monarchy, are to be (Fletcher 2002a). A consequence The Church Act allowed for the Anglican communicants, that church of the Church Act was, within a recruitment of clergy from overseas, appointments and legislation must be short time, a smorgasbord of small assistance in the payment of clergy approved by the British government, denominational schools. On cost stipends and the building of churches bishops can sit in the House of grounds, Governor Gipps proposed up to a cost of £1,000. This ended any Lords, that church property gained in geographic areas only one school Anglican attempt at Establishment from the Roman Catholics during for the Protestants, and one for the status, and was interpreted as an the Reformation was bequeathed in Roman Catholics. The Protestant expression of the state’s religious perpetuity to the Church of England opposition was so trenchant that the neutrality (Curthoys 2002). Roman and that private property was to proposal was withdrawn but financial Catholics were determined about be tithed by a church tax (Jupp allocations were so reduced that achieving these developments 2001). In Australia, the situation was soon half the colony’s children were because they did not want Australia very different, and the alliance was not receiving a proper education. to be a replica of England. But the unsustainable. Eventually non-church national Anglicans were upset because, in schools, the forerunners of today’s During the 1820s, as the colonial their view, aid should be given to the government schools, were established press freed up, scrutiny of the Church only ‘true’ church. Broughton also though church opposition was of England became more intense objected to Polding’s title as bishop overcome only by allowing religious in the belief, strongly propounded of Sydney. The introduction of instruction to occur in them - they alike by the liberals and the government aid facilitated the growth were never meant to be secular or Nonconformists, that all churches of all churches, especially in urban areligious schools. should be equal in status and treated and closely settled areas, in a religious accordingly. Archbishop Broughton, climate that fostered conflict, brought up in an Irish Anglican competition and co-operation in a gentry family and who had arrived multi-layered process of interaction in 1829 soon to become in 1836 the (Curthoys 2002).

24 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 25 The Catholic Church and Once in Australia, the Catholic Irish The Irish Catholic movement to Australian Fermentation were not prepared to reject their Australia was essentially triggered by identity or their religion. “losing the social and political conditions of There is the temptation to identify the faith” was seen as a betrayal. For Ireland. As members of an English Irishness and Catholicism. In fact, them, as underdogs and outcasts, dominion, if not colony, Catholics in Australian Catholicism had other Ireland was both an inspiration Ireland were excluded from wealth, tributaries - one quarter of Irish and a warning that Australia must power and education, from public immigrants were not Catholic and not become ‘the little Britain of office and from land ownership as one quarter of Catholics were not the South’. And they would not were Irish Presbyterians though the from Ireland (Fitzpatrick 2001). accept subordination, however constraints were far less rigorously However, as O’Farrell (1987) has nicely delivered, nor exclusion. In applied than to the Catholics. “In emphasised, the Irish in Australia O’Farrell’s view, the Irish were the general, Irish Catholicism was came from very different Irelands, galvanising force at the centre of synonymous with Irish poverty, namely the Gaelic Catholic, Australian history until quite recent which was both widespread and the Anglo-Irish and the Ulster times. And the battle was as much severe even by the standards of the Protestants, a situation made more political as religious. There would 1770s” (Macdonagh 2001: 443). complicated by the fact that some be much cultural and religious After some policy modifications, of the Irish-born or those of Irish conflict, but essentially it would be the period in Ireland from 1795 descent did not consider themselves a situation of cultural fermentation to 1829 was to essentially preserve Irish. The Protestant Irish considered in which core Australian values Protestant supremacy in Ireland their Irishness as a dimension of would be forged rather than be a which led to increasing Irish Britishness, and they were militant maelstrom of religious conflict. And ethnoreligious nationalism and about, firstly, the virtues of British he explicitly rejected other historical resentment of British rule. According imperialism, the English crown and paradigms, “The real history of to Macdonagh (2001), the second the Protestant religion. But they were Australia, monstrously neglected, is major transformation of the Irish even shriller in their opposition to the history of the gradual growth and condition was a prodigious growth and denunciation of the Catholic development, through confrontation in population, and the situation was Irish (O’Farrell 1987). and compromise, of a people of exacerbated by Britain’s undercutting distinctive quality and character, of Irish manufacturers. All this derived and produced by cultures resulted in a tremendous jump in - majority and minority - in conflict. the number of landless agricultural The story is not a narrow one of man labourers. After 1830, there was versus the land or nature, or of class a rapid and dangerous decline in versus class, or the solitary individual living standards, leading gradually against flaws and limitations in the and inexorably to the Great Potato self; no, the broad outlines in which Famine in the late 1840s, a symptom all these things are contained, their of the underlying factors of policy context, is that of culture conflict, mismanagement as much as a cause. interaction, ferment. The basic Crop failures occurred over seven premise of this view of Australian successive seasons from potato blight. history is that it is not substantially Approximately one million died, and derived from and supported by the one million emigrated, though only a outside” (O’Farrell 1987: 10). few came to Australia.

26 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 27 Allied with this in light of subsequent The first wave of Irish emigrants To the Irish faithful, English events in Australia was a slow were, of course, the almost 50,000 Benedictines were not fully increase in Ireland throughout Irish convicts, about a quarter of the acceptable. From 1859, Irish bishops the first half of the nineteenth overall total. Among their number were appointed, “the bishops came century in popular education were three priests transported as from the Ireland of Cardinal Cullen with the development of hedge political prisoners for their part in and were determined to ensure the schools alongside the Protestant the 1798 rebellion (Reece 2001). triumph of Irishness in the Australian schools. Gradually, especially after For a long period until the 1820s, Catholic Church” (Kiernan 2001: 1850, Catholic educational schools the Catholic laity took care of 461). They were determined to emerged sponsored by religious themselves. The first permanent engender a strong sense of Catholic orders. The State, particularly after Catholic school was opened in 1820, identity that mitigated against out- 1831, set up national schools which and from that time, Catholic priests, marriage and conversion to other were condemned as a godless form led by Fr. Therry, were allowed in. denominations. They would lead of education by both Catholic and Both Ullathorne and Polding, as the or support Irish Australians in the Church of England bishops who, in initial Catholic leaders were English divisive and long-running issues: the turn, established their own schools. Benedictine monks, the Vatican debate over immigration from the These accomplished much but even doubtlessly thinking it more politic 1830s, the role of religion in politics by 1851 illiteracy was at 45 per cent, to appoint Englishmen rather than beginning in the 1840s, the sectarian and much higher in the younger age Irishmen. From the beginning, battle between Protestants, Catholics groups (Macdonagh 2001). No Irish Catholics leaders took a socially and secularists, freer access to land, culture or history was taught in their activist stance begun by Ullathorne the conscription issue much later own schools, and nor was it to be in his campaign against convict and, of course, the longest and most taught in Australian Catholic schools. transportation (Kiernan 2001). divisive issue of all, that of Catholic The faith was more important. schools (O’Farrell 1987). As the second major migration However, this limited British wave, free emigration from Ireland educational antidote could not stem began in the 1850s and peaked in the the anti-British sentiments infecting 1860s though continuing in a major home and parish in Ireland. But way until the end of the century. It they did learn about British values originated from the less distressed regarding justice and democracy areas because emigration to Australia, even if they were not practised on more so than to the Americas, was the Catholic Irish. And it did lead a more thoughtful and organized in the U.K. to the 1829 Catholic affair because the ship journey was Emancipation Act whose impact was so much longer (O’Farrell 1987; arguably quicker and stronger in Macdonagh 2001). Australia.

26 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 27 Catholic leadership was incarnated in Irish dominance of the Australian The Nonconformist the figures of Polding and Vaughan Catholic Church did not go Presence in Australia in Sydney and Gould and Carr in unchallenged. Cecilia (1985) and The Nonconformists had their Melbourne until the two great leaders Bosi (1989) have documented how origins in the United Kingdom of Australian Catholicism took over, Italian religious worked alongside in various groups such as the Moran in Sydney and, later on, their Irish male and female religious Congregationalists and Baptists Mannix in Melbourne together with and religious from many other parts that arose in the 17th century and his compatriot, Duhig in Brisbane. of Europe such as France, Spain and to be greatly strengthened by the Whilst opposed to socialism and Germany to lay the foundations rise of Methodism whose adherents radicalism of any kind, Moran, the for a Church that was always emigrated in the desire of the first Australian cardinal, created links multicultural. Cecilia records how British working-classes for a more with the Labor party in its formative some Italian priests were so unable prosperous future (Mol 2001). They years during the Great Depression to cope with the stress, the isolation were always more participatory in of the early 1890s. He followed a and the autocratic rule of some Irish their leadership structures. Early on strongly integrationist policy and bishops that they quickly departed in colonial Australia, their numbers supported Federation. Mannix in Australian shores, never to return. were comparatively small, and the his long tenure as archbishop from Part of the Italian legacy was the groups were occasionally ministered 1917 to 1963 to die at the age of 99, work of the little-known Blessed to by “young, hard-pressed, poorly- followed a more ethnic separatist, Giovanni Mazzucconi, known in paid ordained missionaries’ from if not ghettoish, line but always Italy as ‘the martyr of Oceania’, the mother country. However, the within an Australian framework. who worked in 1855 in Sydney as numbers of Methodists, in particular, “If Cardinal Moran represented the a priest whilst recuperating before grew from the 1840s as a result of church triumphant, Mannix stood returning to a New Guinea island troubles in the mining industry in for the church militant. It was he who where he was immediately killed Cornwall, and they were attracted led the successful campaign for State upon arriving back. Two Italians to mining districts in NSW and to funding of private schools. Mannix were appointed bishops in the latter the Victorian goldfields. They were recognized that State funding could part of the nineteenth century to especially attracted to South Australia only be achieved politically, and he the consternation of the Irish clergy because the Anglican Church received encouraged Catholics to take political who felt that Rome was hatching a no special privileges there (Mol action” (Kiernan 2001: 463). But it plot against them. There were not 2001). As staunch members of the was not till after Mannix’s death in only Italians but Catholics from working class, they were stereotyped, 1963 that Robert Menzies was able other parts of the world, including not unsympathetically, as ‘workaday to convince his Cabinet to again Germany (Harmstorf & Cigler 1985), people’, ‘skilled tradesmen’ and begin giving government funding to France (Stuer 1982), Poland (Kaluski ‘thrifty shopkeepers’. They were private schools, not least because it 1985), Czechoslovakia (Cigler 1985), also avid church-goers, and an 1881 was cheaper to prop up the private Hungary (Kunz 1985) and the census in Victoria showed that 79 schools than to build and staff new Lebanon (Batrouney & Batrouney per cent of Methodists were church- state schools. 1985). Also neglected in the history goers, compared to 59 per cent of Australian Catholicism is the for the Presbyterians, 34 per cent influence of religious orders from for Catholics and 16 per cent for France, Germany and Spain. Anglicans (Mol 2001).

28 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 29 In the U.K., many splits had occurred Like the Congregationalists, the The Welsh settled, initially in the with the formation of breakaway Baptists place emphasis on the local copper mining areas of South groups such as the Primitive community of believers, eschewing Australia and then especially in Methodists, the Bible Christians and episcopal governance. Their clusters in Victoria close to the the Wesleyan Methodists. These were differentiating characteristic has goldfields, bringing with them their partly, and only partly, reflected in been the practice of adult baptism. Nonconformism. Whilst initially Australia but it took until the turn The Baptists began arriving in many of the Welsh churches were of the century for Methodism in sizeable numbers only in the 1830s, interdenominational, they soon Australia to be united. It was in 1904 and the convict element is not part divided into Calvinistic Methodist, that the first General Conference of their history. They arrived from Congregationalist and Baptist though took place. As time passed, its Scotland in the main but there were the Welsh quickly merged with the well-schooled members graduated also some from Gloucestershire, mainstream Baptist churches. The into higher social echelons. But Sussex and Cambridgeshire. Their same happened eventually to the Methodism with its social activism settlement focus was Victoria and other denominations. There were always remained. Also it pushed for South Australia, and, as other also some Welsh Anglicans and inter-denominational unity after churches learned similarly to their Catholics (Hughes 2001). The Welsh 1904 but nothing would be achieved cost, they became suspicious of story, however, as happened also until 1977 when the Uniting Church British-trained ministers who had with the Lutherans and other groups, was formed (Mol 2001). been unsuccessful prior to embarking highlighted the tensions between to Australia. The Australian Baptists language, eisteddfords and religion The Congregationalists had led the have never had the success of their in an English-speaking society. The Nonconformist spearhead back USA counterparts. Like the other Welsh settlement dispersion and in England, and so too into NSW Nonconformist churches, they have their small numbers always made as early as 1798. This presence always been heavily Anglo-Australian language maintenance difficult but was, however, shortlived before its in demographic profile, though this it was what held the early Welsh permanent establishment later in the has changed very significantly in the congregations together. Gradually, early 1830s. After a small peak in the last decades of the twentieth century language shift occurred during 1870s, they gradually dwindled in (Mol 2001). the latter part of the 19th. century numbers though their influence was when most Welsh congregations always significant. They formed less Whilst there were always some Welsh had introduced English into their than 0.5 per cent of the population from the earliest days of European services with sermons alternating in when they became incorporated into settlement, the Welsh began to arrive either language. In the clash between the Uniting Church in 1977 (Mol from the 1840s and 1850s onwards language maintenance and faith 2001). as did many other groups when gold retention, faith would inevitably fever gripped Australia and news win because there were eternal spread across the world. realities at stake. Hughes concludes, “of the many Welsh churches that flourished in the nineteenth century, few remain. The Welsh church in La Trobe Street, Melbourne and the Welsh Presbyterian church in Chalmers Street are two that still offer periodic services in the Welsh language” (Hughes 2001: 743).

28 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 29 The Lutherans in Australia But, as more Germans arrived, Opening up Australia for various Lutheran unity could not be agricultural and other primary Similar issues were at stake in the maintained. “In 1846 the Old industries to flourish was never history of the Lutheran churches Lutherans in Australia split into two an easy task. The bush and the in Australia though their historical groups, one led by Pastor August outback are always full of challenges. fate would be different. Prior to the Kavel and the other by Pastor Daniel Harmstorf draws our attention to Second World War, the German Fritzsche. The Kavel group was the power of faith in the case of group were the largest non-English known as the United Evangelical the Lutheran farmers, but could group in Australia, and their Lutheran Church and was to look be applied to other faith-filled settlement was focussed on South mainly to Germany for spiritual pioneer farmers. “The Germans Australia and certain select areas inspiration and sustenance. The had no experience of the Australian in the three eastern mainland Fritzsche group were known as the heat or the droughts and floods states. The first Lutherans to arrive Evangelical Lutheran Church and that periodically ravaged the land. were Old Lutherans who refused later looked mainly to the Missouri Unlike the British settlers, they were to vary their liturgical practices synod in the United States. The strangers in a strange land, often which Frederick William III was Fritzsche group tended to be more cut off from mainstream society endeavouring to enforce in an evangelical and conservative in their by language and religion. However, attempt to unify Lutherans. Fleeing approach. Both groups spawned they were strengthened in their this religious totalitarianism, an Old further breakaway synods none of determination to continue by two Lutheran pastor, Augustus Kavel, which however reached the size of beliefs: first, that the land was given arranged for his village congregation the power of the two original synods” to them in trust from God and it was to settle in 1836 in South Australia (Harmstorf 2001: 362). The former theirs to use only insofar as it was through the help of a Baptist group believed that ‘language saves nurtured and loved and passed down philanthropist, George Angas, who the faith’, whereas by the 1890s as from father to son; and second, that was also motivated by the need for more English-speaking pastors like the children of Israel they had cheaper, reliable labour as part of the arrived, their church language been led by God to the promised Wakefield Land Settlement project. became English - saving young land in South Australia, where they They settled in Klemzig, Hahndorf people from eternal perdition was had freedom of worship” (Harmstorf and, a little later, the Barossa Valley more important than the German 2001: 362). (Harmstorf 2001). With the gold language. However, wherever it rushes and their aftermath, German A group of Moravian missionaries occurred, language preservation settlements were established in under the auspices of Rev. Dunmore meant that the German Lutheran different parts of Australia. Lang whose motives were often to communities kept to themselves withstand Catholic penetration of which, during the First World War, the new colonies settled around resulted in their coming under the shores of Moreton Bay in 1938, intense suspicion and hostility as making several failed attempts to did their many schools which taught Christianise the local Aborigines. In in German in the morning and in 1854, German settlers moved into English in the afternoon (Clyne 1982; the Darling Downs region with the Cahill 1988). establishment of Lutheran churches and some German Baptist churches (Corkhill 2001).

30 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 31 The First World War and the inter- The suppression of the German Martin concludes, “Nevertheless, the war aftermath were difficult times language continued and the German tendency throughout Australia has for the German Lutheran churches. Lutheran schools were closed. been for Danish settlers to associate The pastors, because of their home Some continued to hold services in with Protestant churches of British country experience, had for decades German but this led to an exodus, origin and not Australian Lutheran followed an apolitical strategy often to the Anglican Church. On congregations, which many Danes although many German Australians the other hand, Lutheran numbers regard as being German. However, became involved in politics. In any were partly boosted, as an offset, by both in Denmark and later in case, the Lutheran factions were Anglo-Australians and Scandinavian Australia, many Danes were not preoccupied with their own disputes Australians. Danish settlement had regular church-goers” (Martin 2001a: on dogmatic and administrative initially focussed on Victoria and its 253). issues. But government reports gold rushes with the emigration of The slightly smaller Swedish and accused the German communities of young Danes, mostly males, following much smaller Norwegian groups of being closed and exclusionist. “In an the disbanding of the Danish army migrants followed similar settlement anti-German climate, these strategies in Schleswing-Holstein after the and religiosity patterns (Martin found expression in the deportation war of 1849 - 1851 and the loss of 2001b; Martin 2001c). They tended of German nationals and other the two duchies to Prussia in 1864. to join Scandinavian organizations; ‘undesired elements’, the refusal to In Melbourne, a Danish preacher, the first Scandinavian Lutheran grant entry permits, the restriction Henrik Hansen, led a joint Danish- service was held at Heathcote in of immigration, trade barriers, the German Lutheran community, Victoria in 1856 by a Church of prohibition of the German language using each language on alternate Sweden minister. The Scandinavian in public meetings and in schools, the Sundays. “However, the bitterness immigrants became widely surveillance of the German churches aroused among the Danes by the dispersed but a united Scandinavian and the intention to discourage war of 1864 meant co-operation was congregation was later formed in the congregation of aliens in self- virtually impossible” (Martin 2001a: Melbourne. In 1896 the appointment enclosed communities’’ (Kwiet 253). Later on, the Queensland and of a Swedish minister who alienated 2001: 372). The recommendation Tasmanian governments canvassed the Norwegians resulted in the to disperse the communities was, for migrants in Denmark and congregation becoming Swedish, however, not implemented, but many Sweden. By 1880, six congregations especially after the dissolution of the were interned during World War I. had been formed in Queensland. union between the two countries in Attempts at a united German and 1905. The Swedish church, now in Scandinavian synod failed because of Toorak, continues its work, having a lack of co-operation between the been served by various Swedish and different groups. Tasmania gave rise Norwegian pastors, and both in to Pastor Carl George Bjelke-Petersen Melbourne and Sydney Norwegian who worked for the Lutheran Church and Swedish congregations did much in Australia - his own son much later valuable work for their seafarers until became a long-serving Queensland recent times (Martin 2001b; Martin Premier. 2001c).

30 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 31 As in so many communities, the The Orthodox Churches in A Melkite church was opened in formation and functioning of a Australia Waterloo in Sydney in 1895, and, congregation depended on the two years later, a Maronite church The entry of the Orthodox churches personal attributes, community was opened in Redfern. It was not and the Eastern-rite Catholic skills and religious attitudes of the till 1921 that an Antiochian church churches can be dated back to the pastor. Martin relates how in 1887 was built also in Redfern and, in arrival in small numbers of both the United Scandinavian Evangelical 1931, in East Melbourne. Yet the Lebanese and Greek immigrants. Lutheran Church “obtained the differences remained and there were Lebanese emigration which pushed services of a dynamic and puritanical few intermarriages though this would the envelope of interpretation of the preacher from Christiana, Pastor later change. “Despite the fact that White Australian policy (Yarwood Soren Pedersen. He polarised both the Melkites and Maronites are & Knowling 1982) was caused by the Scandinavian community in in communion with Rome, they too economic hardship triggered by the Melbourne and decimated the have maintained considerable social opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 Scandinavian social clubs. To guard distance from each other because which altered traditional trade routes, his flock against the perils of worldly of theological differences. All three by the inflow of imported European Melbourne, he set up a network of churches were continually beset by goods and by a land shortage. The organizations which could satisfy all factional struggles between people early Lebanese immigrants were the family and social needs of the from different villages and even predominantly Christian who had Scandinavian community. Pedersen between different families from the suffered under Ottoman domination was forced to return to Norway same hamlet. At the official level, (McKay & Batrouney 2001). The because the community could not relations among the three sects migration flow began in the late afford his modest stipend” (Martin ranged from cordiality to suspicion, 1880s, mostly illiterate peasants, who 2001c: 608 - 609). often as a result of the different were more bound to their village and personalities and dogmatic beliefs religious affiliation than to country. of the respective priests and church In Australia, half went to rural areas elders. Although open conflict was while the remaining half remained rare and there were occasions of in the cities, especially Sydney. genuine co-operation between and Many became hawkers. There were within communities, religion did internal differences which divided more to divide the Lebanese than to the three Christian groups (Maronite unite them” (McKay & Batrouney Catholics, Melkite Catholics and 2001: 556). Antiochian Orthodox); there were few factors to promote religious and It was not till the end of the nineteenth ethnic solidarity, and many were century that the third great strand absorbed by the Latin-rite Catholic of Christianity became implanted in and Protestant churches. Australia though culturally, historically and theologically Orthodoxy differs from Roman Catholicism and Protestantism even if the doctrinal differences with Roman Catholicism relate mostly to the Petrine office.

32 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 33 Eastern Orthodoxy, gathered together In the contemporary world where the The Melbourne community shed its under the primacy of honour of the politics of identity has again emerged, Arabic-speaking membership and Ecumenical Patriarch in modern-day “the ethnic input of religion can in 1903 controversially approached Istanbul where he must have Turkish harden and absolutise boundaries the Archbishop of Athens for a citizenship, did not develop a legalistic of ethnic identities sometimes with priest, thus recognizing him as spirit (Kokosalakis 1993). Orthodoxy disastrous consequences” (Kokosalakis their principal authority though was also not directly impacted by the 1993: 127), and Orthodoxy operates normally jurisdictional matters in three great intellectual and artistic largely within its own ethnic world. non-Orthodox countries belong movements of the Renaissance, the to the Ecumenical Patriarchate The Orthodox Church does not Reformation or the Enlightenment. (Gilchrist 2001). Ethnic and linguistic see itself as a missionising church Of course, Orthodox countries were differentiation had over-ridden unity (Godley & Hughes 1996), and indirectly or obliquely affected, but the of faith. In 1908, this arrangement resents, especially in the post-Cold differences with the Western churches was approved by Constantinople, War era, any efforts by other religious were further compounded by the probably with much reluctance. groups to seek converts in Orthodox tardy arrival of industrialization. In countries. Nor is it participatory in Chryssavgis (2001) suggests the fact, the founder of sociology, Max its decision-making processes. These two pioneer Greek priests served Weber, in proposing the Protestant and other factors were to affect the the needs of the Greek, Lebanese, ethic as the incubator of the spirit of entry into and the development Syrian, Russian and other Orthodox capitalism, argued that the Orthodox of the Greek Orthodox Church in groups in that very early period. In Churches were too mystically oriented Australia and the split which still 1924, jurisdictional responsibility and too other-worldly to motivate exists today, probably the most for the Church in Australia was pursuit of capitalist enterprises (see serious split in any faith community taken over by the Ecumenical Buss 1989). Orthodoxy has thus in Australia. Greek Australian Patriarch in Constantinople with the always had an ambivalence to Western Orthodox history is a contested appointment of the first Orthodox rationalism and modernity generally. entity, not least in the articles in bishop, Christopher Knitis, in But this has allowed it to be more Jupp’s encyclopedia. Greeks have 1926, and immediately a church- flexible in the co-option of popular been in Australia in sizeable numbers community split developed. The nub religious practices, and the individual since the 1870s though Church of the dispute focussed on ownership does not have to fully participate leadership initially took little notice and control, not only of the churches in the organized church to be fully of developments in far-off Australia. but of the part-time Greek ethnic Orthodox. In Greece, as an example, At the end of the nineteenth century, schools. The Church with its self- the church practice of the rites de there was a close relationship with the perception as the protector and passage are continued on an almost Syrian Orthodox community with defender of Greek culture came 100 per cent basis. whom it shared two resident Greek into a context where many Greek Within Orthodoxy, there is a strong priests in Melbourne and Sydney immigrants had developed a different sense of universalism in its tradition sent, not by the Church in Greece view on church-state relationships though currently mitigated by the nor the Ecumenical Patriarchate, in contrast to a theocratic view political and religious strictures of its but by the Patriarch of Jerusalem. which viewed the Archbishop as centration in Istanbul. Religion and Soon, churches in Sydney (1898) and the automatic community leader ethnicity have always been closely in Melbourne (1902) were opened (Kringas 2001). aligned (Vrcan 1993). (Gilchrist 2001).

32 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 33 The dispute reached new heights Regarding other Eastern Orthodox Other World Faiths in the post-WWII period, and churches, the first Orthodox service in Colonial and Anagnostou suggests that the Greek in Australia had been conducted Federated Australia Orthodox Community in South by the chaplain of a Russian ship Australia (GOCSA) led ‘the world- in 1820 off Kirribilli Point. The Judaism wide rebellion’ against the ‘autocratic community grew with the arrival Except for the commuting Chinese, rule’ by the Constantinople-headed in Australia of the defeated White adherents of faiths other than archdiocese. A new bishop was Russians which peaked in 1925. But Christianity were not numerous appointed in 1959 and, as in other significant numbers of Russians only in colonial Australia except that parts of Australia, he insisted GOCSA began arriving both before and after the influence and status of the hand over the ownership titles of its the 1917 revolution, including after Jewish community belied their substantial property portfolio to him the Russian-Japanese war of 1908. smallness as a community. There and that the archdiocese take over the A Russian priest from the United were possibly 14 Jews on Phillip’s building of new churches. GOCSA States ministered for a short time in First Fleet (Rubenstein 1995) - after resisted, and its churches joined in 1916, but the first permanent Russian 1790, impoverished Jews had fled communion with the breakaway Orthodox priest did not arrive till to England from the ghettoes and Autocephalic Greek Orthodox 1922 (Godley & Hughes 1996). The restrictions of the continental Church of America and Australia. first church was built in Brisbane in European countries; many, including Both groups established parallel 1935 (Christa 2001). Like the Greeks, their children and grandchildren, institutions with churches, after- the Russians also had jurisdictional were unsuccessful, resorting to petty hours schools and aged care facilities problems because of a split between criminality. Once in Australia, while (Anagnostou 2001). A final split, still the Russian Synod Abroad and the some again resorted to criminal unresolved, occurred in 1974 between Patriarchate of Moscow - most activities, most successfully reformed the archdiocesan churches and the Russian Orthodox churches in themselves. “Most of the Jewish community churches. Archdiocesan Australia belong to the former convicts were young illiterate, pressure was to whittle down the jurisdiction (Godley & Hughes 1996; English-born London paupers who number of community churches Christa 2001). would not have been connected because of the serious implications with the synagogue life in England. - the priests were regarded as It is unlikely that they would have uncanonical and marriages in these possessed Jewish prayer books or churches are regarded as illegal by the other religious objects. Also, all Greek government which, in turn, convicts were compelled to attend has an impact for their children in the services of the established church, regard to inheritance (Kringas 2001). facing punishment if they failed to The dispute affected Sydney more do so” (Rutland 2001a). It would be than Melbourne, and it impacted several decades before the synagogues very much on welfare service delivery became the focal point of Australian to arriving immigrants and on Jewry. As was to happen in the other the credibility of Sydney’s Greek colonies, the first form of Jewish community as government officials organization was the formation of did not understand the bitter conflict a Jewish burial society in Sydney in nor know to which group to allocate 1817. funds (Mistilis 2001).

34 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 35 In 1830, Rabbi Aaron Levi arrived An attempt was made in the 1880s to This wave of Jewry also brought for a short visit to finalise a Jewish set up a reform, liberal congregation the secular movements of Zionism divorce. He unified a community but this failed, and one would not be to create a Jewish state and the divided between the emancipated established until the 1930s (Rutland Bundism movement to develop convicts and free settlers, and brought 2001a). socialism through the medium of the first Sepher Torah (Scrolls of the Yiddish. Australian rabbinical leaders The latter part of the nineteenth Torah) and Hebrew prayer books. A were strongly opposed to secular century saw an influx of Eastern congregation was soon formalized Zionism, “they believed that Jews European Jews following the and eventually the first synagogue were held together by religious and assassination of Tsar Alexander was constructed in 1844 in York St., ethical ties, and were concerned II and the promulgation of anti- Sydney (Rutland 2001a) though that Zionism might be seen as Semitic laws. The well-integrated there were difficulties caused by the compromising their allegiance to Anglo-Jewish community perceived lack of properly qualified religious their country of residence” (Rutland the newly-arrived devotees as leaders. In the same decades, Jewish 2001b: 529). Behind this was a fanatical and uncouth while the congregations were formed in desire of non-distinctiveness as a latter were critical of the former Hobart (1842), Melbourne (1842), strategy to deal with anti-Semitic for their lax and liberal ways. Launceston (1846), Adelaide (1848) sentiments that were always lurking The former were entrenched in and, much later, in Brisbane (1865). in colonial Australia’s psyche the Great Synagogue of Sydney, though Australian Jews were well- From the very beginning, “in each consecrated in 1878, and the Eastern accepted and highly regarded. Many colony Australian Jews enjoyed Europeans developed congregations became parliamentarians and the full civic and political rights, held at Newtown, Bankstown and Surry intermarriage rate was high even to government offices, voted at elections Hills, promoting a Yiddish culture. the extent of endangering a separate and received grants of Crown land for Similarly, some went to Melbourne, Jewish identity. Religious leaders, as cemeteries and synagogues” (Rutland settling mainly around Carlton always, remained concerned about 2001a: 526) though the last benefice, and promoting Yiddish even more intermarriage. Jewish schools had together with payment for their strongly (Rutland 2001b). been established in the 1850s and religious personnel, was something 1860s but had closed for lack of they had to struggle for in extending support - Jewish education would the statutes of the 1832 Church Act remain the weak link until Jewish life to themselves as non-Christians. was transformed beginning in the late Religious pluralism thus enjoyed a 1930s (Rutland 2001b). further victory. Religious observance was not particularly high, and strictly orthodox practice was not adhered to. The gold rush brought in Jews of German background, and they quickly made Melbourne the centre of Australian Jewry with religious communities also in Ballarat, Bendigo and Geelong though the issue of proselytism soon divided the Melbourne community.

34 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 35 The Holocaust still casts its long The arrival of many thousands of The community was renewed by the and evil shadow over Australian Jews led to the establishment of many Soviet wave from the early 1970s Jewry. In the late 1930s, German synagogues across Melbourne and when the Soviet government in Jewish refugees in the aftermath Sydney, together with Jewish schools, Moscow changed its containment of Kristallnacht were allowed to all representing the different strands policy. Goldlust (2001) estimates enter Australia by the Australian of Jewish religious and linguistic between 18 –20,000 arrived but, of Government, albeit grudgingly. diversity, namely, secular, orthodox, this group, he comments, “there is a As Australia’s representative at the liberal, Hasidic, Yiddish and Hebrew. strong residue of areligious and even 1938 Evian refugee conference Now there are 18 schools (Rutland anti-religious feeling that many have said, “Australia does not have a 2001c). The introduction of liberal absorbed through their socialization racial problem and is not desirous synagogues in the 1930s led to within the aggressively secular of importing one”. Anti-Semitism still smouldering tensions with Soviet system” (Goldlust 2001: 544) has always been an undercurrent Orthodox rabbis over such issues as – similar attitudes have been found in Australia, and remains so even the observance of dietary rules and amongst other groups fleeing atheist though its level is probably lower Sabbath laws, the introduction of communist regimes. Glezer (2001) than in most other countries women rabbis and the segregation suggests that secular Jewishness is (Rubenstein 2001). The Jewish of men and women in synagogues. on the wane, and some Soviet Jews community put in place a highly Language has always been an issue, have become religious. Between 1996 efficient reception and welfare even now when Yiddish is in terminal and 2001, the total Jewish population system, and this was underpinned decline. in Australia, as defined by religion, by a more communal, democratic increased by approximately 5 per cent leadership structure. Political maze from 79,805 in 1996. Growth is thus games were played in the late 1940s steady, and throughout the 1990s, to restrict the number of Jewish the exogamy rate was about 14 – 15 refugees, but by the time of the per cent, much lower than the USA Hungarian revolution in 1956, all rate (Rutland 2001c). The question, such restrictions had been lifted. “who is a Jew?” remains unresolved both in Israel itself and throughout the diaspora. Glezer summarizes, “The shift towards more traditional forms of Jewish expression has led to a narrowing of previously accepted conceptions of Jewishness, a constriction that has been more evident in the Australian community than elsewhere. In part, it appears that the decline in the cultural distinctiveness of the Australian- born has been counter-balanced by an intensified form of religious commitment” (Glezer 2001: 541).

36 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 37 The Religions of the Chinese The strangeness of their clothing and The Chinese coolie labourers and customs and public reaction to visible gold seekers arrived with their The largest non-European group to and audible differences were also Sinitic amalgam of Confucianism, come to Australia in the 19th, century motivating factors for the legislative Taoism and Buddhism but their were, of course, the Chinese who acts that were enacted, beginning temples or joss houses (‘joss’ being were sometimes called ‘celestials’, with the Victorian government in a corruption of the Portuguese an ancient name for China, the 1852, restricting the entry of Chinese word, ‘deos’, meaning God) bore heavenly dynasty, in recognition of (Choi 1975). The other issues were few traces of Buddhism (Croucher the belief that heaven covered only cost of labour, wage undercutting 1989). The history of Buddhism the land under the control of the and job protection. The anti-Chinese in Australia probably begins with emperor (Rolls 1992). They were sentiment is expressed in the ditty the first Singhalese and Japanese also to be known as ‘coolies’ from chanted by the European miners as immigrant workers in such areas as either a Gujurat or Tamil word (Rolls they wrecked the Chinese camp at Broome, Darwin, Thursday Island 1992). The religious aspect of their Lambing Flat in 1860 (Rolls 1992): and on the Queensland sugar- early presence remains to be fully cane plantations. But few of these researched. The movement began Rule, Britannia three groups remained and hence in the late 1840s when they arrived Britannia rules the waves. Buddhism made little impression as indentured labourers just as No more Chinese on Australian life (Croucher 1989; convict labour began drying up. This In New South Wales. Bucknell 1992). Small numbers was followed by the huge numbers The Chinese were not accustomed of British colonists and Anglo- who came during the various gold nor attracted to organized religion Australians were attracted to rushes to the New Gold Mountain (Yuan 2001). But wherever they Buddhism, particularly its Theravada in the 1850s and subsequently, went, they constructed their Chinese variety, because of their contact arriving almost wholly from the temples in order to receive the with it in British colonies, especially thirteen counties in the two southern blessing of the Gods not just in the Burma and Sri Lanka, and because provinces of Guangdong and Fujian finding of gold but in their passionate it was felt that Theravada (‘the Great (Choi 1975; Rolls 1992). It was a pursuit of gambling. Nineteen, in Vehicle’) Buddhism best preserved commuter-type migration, made fact, were to be built around Australia the original teaching of Gautama with no intention of permanent and they were dedicated to Taoist Siddartha. Bucknell suggests that settlement, and thus was almost Gods such as Guan Di, Cai Shen, non-Asians were attracted because wholly male. The sentiment was, Guan Yin, Tian Hou and to their it is perceived as “an essentially “Come home with honour and deceased family members (Wang atheistic doctrine of self-help with a wealth” (Rolls 1992) - some did, 2001). strongly psychological concern which many did not. The rapidity of their focussed squarely on the problem of arrival in very significant numbers attaining individual enlightenment generated great fear and antipathy, and liberation from the practices of triggering the ‘yellow peril’ fear morality, concentration and insight that lies still well-entrenched in the meditation” (Bucknell 1992: 217). Australian psyche. Their approach was much more rationalistic, and as a consequence they had little in common with its Asian devotees when they began arriving in the 1970s.

36 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 37 Almost from the beginning, Christian Islam The cameleers were always outsiders, groups showed an interest in the and were seen as part of the colour After the initial Macassan contacts, Chinese. The Methodists were the problem. The present evidence there were very few Muslims in first, beginning in Castlemaine. suggests the first Muslim settlement Australia until the arrival of the The number of conversions was and the first mosque was developed Afghan and Indian cameleers small, and one of the first was James at Beltana station in the Flinders beginning with the two cameleers, Moy Ling, one of the first Chinese Ranges (Stevens 1989) though Dost Mahomet and Esan Khan, preachers who later helped build the nothing remains today except with the ill-fated Burke and Wills Chinese Church which still remains for six Afghani graves. The Ghan expedition which departed from in Melbourne’s Little Bourke Street towns were very simple, consisting Melbourne in 1860 (Cleland 2002). (Wang 2001). The Presbyterians of small, corrugated iron huts and These cameleers are the real founders have also had a long association with bush mosques which were nothing of Islam in Australia. They arrived Chinese immigrants that remains more than four poles and a thatched in Australia up until 1910 when the up until the present day. They grass roof. In Broken Hill, built in use of the camel was at its peak as a were operating special missions 1891, the mosque was of corrugated beast of burden in outback Australia in Ballarat and at Turon River in iron. A substantial mosque had been for cartage and transport, especially 1860, and the son of one of the first constructed in Adelaide in 1888 and for the construction of the overland converts eventually was ordained then in Perth in 1905. The isolated telegraph in 1871 - 1873. They were in 1888 for the Church of England Muslim communities were serviced from the north-west frontier, and in Melbourne. Rev. William Young, by itinerant Islamic preachers rather were generally Durranis, Ghilzais, a Eurasian of Scots-Chinese Malay than permanent imams (Cleland Afridis and Pashtuns. The camels background, worked in Ballarat, and, 2002) though documentation is were generally shipped to Karachi, like so many clergyman after him, very sparse. The other pioneering and gradually so-called ‘Ghan’ towns acted as an interpreter and translator. Muslim group were the Malaysian developed near railway heads deep In Sydney, nothing happened and Indonesian pearl divers specially in the interior or at isolated ports until the 1880s when two Chinese recruited for this dangerous work (Stevens 1989). Maree, then known Presbyterian churches were built in until it was taken over by the as Hergott Springs, and Coolgardie the inner area. However, it was the Japanese. It was very much centred were important as were Oodnadatta, Church of England who were the on Broome though it would not be Cloncurry and Broken Hill. Most most successful, especially after they until 1930 that a mosque was built cameleers returned home because ordained in 1886 a Chinese Christian at Broome. Hence, unlike any other essentially they were commuters like from San Francisco, Rev. George faith group, Australian Islam was the Chinese, particularly after their Soo Hoo Tan (Wang 2001). After born in the interior before it moved industry was destroyed by the arrival Federation, these Chinese Christian into the cities although its existence of the truck. They came without communities continued slowly to would be precarious until well after women, but some married women in build their congregations amongst the Second World War. Australia, including Aboriginal, and the small number that were able to these women, who usually converted remain after the implementation of to Islam, became marginalized, if not the White Australia policy, born on despised (Stevens 1989). the gold fields and continued with the infamous dictation test of 1901 (Yuan 2001).

38 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 39 is mediated through figures such Unlike the Irish, the Muslims as Saidi Nursi, Suleyman Tarikat and Fethullah Gulen. Saeed and Akbarzedah (2001) also defer on the have had the facilitating policy issue of identity, “it may be premature to talk of an Australian Muslim of multiculturalism to assist in identity as the exact contours of this identity are still evolving. The ethnic diversity of Muslims is a detracting their inclusion and participation, factor in terms of the development of a unified Islamic grouping but this project of integration (Australian or otherwise)” (Saeed & Akbarzedah 2001: 5). Unlike the Irish, the Muslims have had the facilitating will take several decades of the policy of multiculturalism to assist in their inclusion and participation, but this project of integration will take 21st century to achieve. several decades of the 21st century to achieve.

By 1921, there were fewer than diversified so much so that Saeed and 3000 Muslims in Australia, and Akbarzedah (2001) refuse to speak of the community was in decline, a single Muslim community, entitling victims of Australia’s history of their book, Muslim Communities in racial and religious intolerance. Australia, because of the wide range However, a resurgence occurred of ethnicities. As an impoverished, with the coming of the Albanians struggling and maligned community, in the 1920s and 1930s to settle there are many similarities between in far north Queensland on sugar the Muslim community at the turn cane and tobacco farms and on of the 21st century and the Irish fruit blocks around Shepparton. Catholic community in the latter part A mosque was built at Shepparton of the 19th century. But there is an in 1960, and the first permanent important difference. Even within the mosque in Melbourne in Victoria one ethnic community, there can be was built much later in 1969 by much diversity e.g. within the Turkish the Albanians in Carlton. In the community, there are not only the post-WWII period, beginning with mosques staffed by imams sponsored the Turkish Cypriots, the Muslim by the Turkish government but other presence has greatly increased and mosques whose allegiance to Islam

38 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 39 Hinduism Sikhism

Small numbers of Indians, including Sikhism, derived from the Sanskrit Religious diversity, even if Anglo-Indian Christians, arrived in word, shisya, meaning disciple, was originating from the British Australia, probably on the first fleets, founded by Guru Nanak (1469 Isles, has always been a feature of and throughout the 19th. century - 1539) in the northern Indian state Australian history and, until recent into an atmosphere of hostility. of Punjab. Its followers arrived in times, would be dominated by the They gained work as agricultural the very late 1800s to form small hostile competitiveness between labourers and hawkers. They tended settlements near the Murray River the Protestants and the Catholics. to be Sikhs and Muslims rather and especially at Woolgoolga and Catholicism would be the most than Hindus. The White Australia Coffs Harbour, working as unskilled ethnically diverse, but also dominated policy had its negative impact upon labourers in the banana, sugar and by the Irish in terms of adherents and their numbers and the 1911 census other fruit cultivation. However, by the Italianised Vatican in terms of identified 3,698 ‘Hindoos’ (an it would not be until 1968 at jurisdiction. Protestant ascendency archaic term for all Indian nationals, Woolgoolga on the NSW north coast would remain as the dominant Hindu and otherwise), and this that the first gurudwara or temple religious influence until the 1960s but subsequently decreased (Bilimoria was built - there are now 12 across be essentially formative in association 1989). Bilimoria suggests that ‘in Australia serving the 12,000 Sikhs with Enlightenment thinking of the a rather diffused way’ Hinduism living in Australia (Dhani 2001). majority of Australia’s core values arrived in the form of vague and that underpin its institutional Eastern-inspired movements with structure. Neither Protestants nor both universalist and occultist strains Catholics stoutly resisted the racism such as theosophy and spiritualism. of the White Australia policy until The first Hindu religious leader quite late in its life, and the policy to visit, Keshub Chunder Sen, was led to the decline of the other world invited by the Unitarian Church in faiths except for Judaism. Its demise 1876 followed by Anne Besant in finally in the early 1970s over the 1984, a theosophist from India, who past three decades has allowed for the enchanted followers with her lectures rejuvenation of the other world faiths on karma, reincarnation and the over the past three decades. communications from the masters. In 1925 to great public acclaim, Jiddhu Krishnamurti arrived in the first of a longish line of Indian teachers to visit Australia. But because their dispersed settlement generated no community cohesion nor commonly felt identity, Hinduism made virtually no impression upon Australia up until quite recent times, and the first traditional Hindu temple did not open until 1985 in Sydney (Bilimoria & Voigt-Graf 2001). Hinduism is now in its major growth phase.

40 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 41 chapter three Post-war historical and demographic profile of religious Australia

ustralia has the best-kept Religious identification or affiliation From the 1860s to 1947, the religious statistics of any nation tells us very little about a person’s profile of Australia had remained Aregarding religious actual religious belief or their relatively stable, and the Anglicans, affiliation, dating back to 1851. religious practice though religious Presbyterians and Methodists, The focus of this chapter will be identification has been shown to together comprising just over 60 per to examine the changing religious correlate with many other variables cent of the population, dominated profile since 1947 within the broader (Bouma and Dixon 1986; Bouma this period of Australian religious cultural diversity context. It is 1992). Religious identification life. In the same year of 1947, partly based on the paper prepared does provide an indication of the Roman Catholics comprised 20.7 by Professor Gary Bouma entitled religio-moral culture of a person and per cent of the population at 1.57 The Implications for Harmony of perhaps of a geographic area. million compared to 2.96 million Globalisation and Recent Changes Anglicans and 1.68 million belonging In 1947, Australia embarked upon in the Demography of Australian to the Methodist, Presbyterian, its immigration program to the Religious Groups 1947 – 2001. In Congregational and Reformed sound of the ‘populate or perish’ the past two decades across the Churches. Buddhists, Muslims drum. It was done for security world, the religious profiles of and Hindus did not rate on the reasons after the Japanese incursions many countries have undergone demographic map though in that into the islands to the north of major transformations as the global year there were 32,000 followers of Australia and the bomb attacks movements of people, ideas, the the Judaic faith. upon Darwin. This threat recently new technologies and media images reappeared with the concept of have reshaped their religious and Greater Indonesia advanced by spiritual profiles. Harvard’s Diane its religious extremists who have Eck, with census findings unavailable included northern Australia into their to her since it is prevented by designs though this aspiration holds an interpretation of the USA no truck with mainstream Indonesia. Constitution, suggests that the USA is The associated fear, born on the the most religiously diverse country goldfields, was that Australia needed in the world. Muslims, numbered to to populate its empty spaces to offset be between 3 – 6 million, outnumber envious Asian eyes. A third reason both Presbyterians and Episcopalians was that the Australian birthrate had combined, and Los Angeles is fallen during the depression years of the most complex Buddhist city the 1930s, and by the late 1940s those in the world (Kimball 2002). A leaving the labour force was greater similar diversity is no less true of than those entering as Australia Australia (Bouma 1995, 1997b, 2002, embarked on its aim to populate 2003c). The census data allow us empty rural space and develop to focus on small geographic units secondary manufacturing. The Labor such as local government areas, government had the confidence in and to conclude that nowhere in its own administrative abilities to Australia is there anything closely maintain full employment and a resembling a religious ghetto migration program. though there are zones of ethnic and religious concentrations.

40 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 41 By the latter decades of the The period from the 1920s to the nineteenth century after the late 1940s were the periods of least population explosion from the gold migration in Australia’s European By the latter rushes, the religious profile of the history, and these were the formative Australian colonies had settled. As years of Australian leaders in the decades of the the major church with its intellectual two decades following WWII when and psychological base still firmly assimilationism was at its height. in the UK, the Church of England The original intention was for the nineteenth in Australia helped generate the immigration program to be 90 sentiment of Australian nationalism per cent British and to be rurally that would underpin the formation century after oriented – on both accounts, it was of a federated commonwealth in 1901 a spectacular failure, beginning with and that Australia would be a nation the arrival of the 160,000 displaced the population within the family of the British persons, the so-called DPs with Empire, committed to Great Britain its high Jewish component. As the and its welfare. “Anglicanism still explosion from years have gone by, the immigration purported to be the spiritual cement program has increasingly diversified of the British Empire that needed as the British component has the gold rushes, to be protected against the allegedly gradually declined. The late 1960s, disruptive creeds and claims of other the high point of intakes, saw denominations” (Frame 2002: 5). For the religious diversification shift beyond the far too long it was tied to its English eastern, northern and southern parent with no authority to act European groups to the Balkans and profile of the independently; it was not until 1962 the choice of Turkey in preference that a constitution for the Anglican to Mexico as the next sources of Church came into operation, and immigrants (Keceli 1998). The Australian it was not until 1981 that it began White Australia policy had begun calling itself the Anglican Church breaking down by the mid-1960s; of Australia. The other net effect colonies had after its dissolution in 1973, the up until 1947 was a profoundly diversification in immigrant intake English Protestant establishment has been extremely broad as it has settled. characterised by rational teaching become partly Asianised. These and preaching-focussed worship changes have reflected themselves laced with occasional revival in Australia’s religious profile since activities. Catholics were a substantial 1947. minority but less respected for being Irish and accused of being irrational and superstitious with their focus on the seven sacraments and their greater use of visual imagery as perceived by the dry rationalist English Protestant elite.

42 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 43 Table 3.1: The size and proportion of selected Australian religious groups in the 1947, 1991, 1996 and 2001 Censuses

1947 1991 1996 2001 Religious Identification ’000s % ’000s % ’000s % ’000s % CHRISTIAN Anglican 2,957 39 3,953 31 3,903 22 3,881 20.7 Baptist 114 1.5 176 1.4 295 1.7 309 1.7 Catholic 1,570 20.7 3,443 27 4,799 27 5,002 26.7 Lutheran 67 0.9 197 1.5 250 1.4 250 1.3 MPCRU* 1,678 22.1 2,199 17.2 2,011 11.3 1,887 10.1 Orthodox 17 0.2 339 2.7 497 2.8 529 2.8 Pentecostal ------175 1 195 1 Other Christian 270 3.8 683 5.4 653 4.4 711 3.7 Total Christian 6,673 88 10,990 86.2 12,583 70.6 12,764 68 BUDDHISTS ------200 1.1 358 1.9 HINDUS ------67 0.4 95 0.5 JEWS 32 0.4 62 0.5 80 0.5 84 0.4 MUSLIMS -- -- 22 0.2 201 1.1 282 1.5 OTHER 4 0.1 14 0.1 69 0.4 92 0.5 Sub-total 36 0.5 99 0.8 617 3.5 911 4.8 NOT ADEQUATELY DESCRIBED 19 0.2 29 0.2 54 0.3 352 1.9 NO RELIGION 26 0.3 856 6.7 2,949 16.5 2,905 15.5 NOT STATED 825 10.9 781 6.1 1,551 8.7 1,836 9.8 Total Population 7,579 12,756 17,753 18,769

Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics

*note: MPCRU combines the data for the Methodist, Presbyterian, Congregational and Uniting Churches. The Uniting Church was formed in 1977 in a merger of Congregational, Methodist and about half of the Presbyterians. Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics. For further analyses see Bouma (1995, 1997b).

Table 3.1 presents the demographic data, showing how the profile has changed in selected censuses from 1947 to 2001. It illustrates the rise in religious diversity and the decline in the hegemonic power of English Protestantism. Since 1996, there has been a significant increase towards multi-faith diversity. As of 2001, there are more Scientologists than Quakers, more Muslims (1.5%) than Lutherans (1.33%), more Buddhists (1.9%) than Baptists (1.7%), more Hindus (0.5%) than Salvationists (0.4%), and more witches (0.05%) than Reformed (0.05%). There are about the same number of Jehovah’s Witnesses as Jews and about the same number of Mormons as Seventh Day Adventists. Atheism also grew, rising from 7,469 in 1996 to 24,464 in 2001, representing a growth rate of 228 per cent.

42 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 43 The diversification of mainstream Moving Away from decline of the English Protestant Australia Christianity is illustrated Protestant Australia hegemony has been the rise of by the Uniting Church of Australia. Pentecostal Christians from virtual Since 1947, three primary factors Given its Methodist, Presbyterian and non-existence in 1947 to over one per have changed Australia’s religious Congregational origins, it is perhaps cent in 2001. This growth represents profile. The first is the decline in surprising to learn that in 2002 in part a backlash against the dry the Protestant denominations in this Church had 117 ethno-specific rationality characteristic of mid- proportional terms by essentially 50 congregations, 23 ethnic fellowship 20th century English Protestant per cent to their present situation groups and two faith communities. Christianity and the growing demand where they constitute 33 per cent. The largest number were Korean for experiential spiritualities and This is part of a global shift away (33 congregations, fellowships and religious expression. Thus, the global from a rational and verbal form of communities), followed by Tongan rise of secularism, on the one hand, Christianity to a more experiential (29), Fijian (11), Indonesian (12), and of the demand for experiential and feeling-oriented form (Bouma Samoan (8), Tamil (7), Hindi (5), forms of religious life have 2003b). It also results from the Cook Islander (5), Chinese (4), undermined the former hegemony global impact of secularisation in Sudanese (4), Dutch (3), Vietnamese and appeal of the Presbyterian, the developed world. Whilst actual (3), Nieuan (3), International Methodist, Uniting and Anglican Protestant numbers have increased (2), Pacific Islander (2), Rotuman churches. from 4.716 million to 6.327 million (2), Filipino (2), Armenian (1), at a time when Australia’s population The religious climate changed in Cambodian (1), Farsi (1), Taiwanese has increased by almost 250 per the three decades following WWII (1), Macedonian (1), Melanesian (1), cent, the proportional decline after the stable maintenance period Nauran (1) and Tokelauan (1). in mainstream Protestantism is for the first half of the twentieth greater than it first appears. In century. Thompson sums up that 2001, Anglicans were much more in those decades, “Australia was sacramentally oriented and less transformed into a post-Christian ‘protestant’ than they were in 1947. society. Protestant churches lost their Moreover, those who have retained previous political power, and in many a ‘protestant’ orientation do not cases the will which had imposed express it in the ways commonly the quiet Sunday on cities such as found back in 1947 but in ways Melbourne and Adelaide into the that are often well-laced with 1960s; which also until that decade charismatic influences. Moreover, banned pictures of naked bodies on many Australians who once would film screens and kept hotels closed have written ‘C of E’ or some other after 6 o’clock and on Sundays. Protestant group on their census The Catholic Church completed form now tick the ‘no religion’ box, its divorce with the Labor party. A resulting in a rise in this response majority of Australians had ceased category from 0.3 per cent in 1947 entering churches. Many weddings to over 16.5 per cent in 1996. This were being conducted outside decline has been attributed to the church buildings by secular marriage rise of secularisation since the 1960s celebrants. Even funerals were though this is more complex as we deserting churches for crematorium shall see. Also contributing to the chapels, although, usually, for this

44 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 45 older Australian generation, clergy The Movement to The Greeks, Macedonians and officiated. Religion was no longer Multi-Faith Australia Serbs were followed by the Turks, part of the political rhetoric as in the Egyptians and Lebanese who began Other religious groups have increased Menzies era. Politicians, particularly the significant expansion of Islam in in strength, including some of of the New Right, were appealing to Australia. From the late 1970s, the which have grown substantially. The the cult of selfishness. The collapse Vietnamese arrived to begin building immediate post-WWII migration of the religious moral order was their Buddhist temples. In fact, these saw an increase in the numbers of observable in rising crime rates and religious groups were comprised of Jews and the arrival of the Dutch declining standards of business and a much wider range of immigrants. some of whom strengthened and public probity” (Thompson 2002: Between 1996 and 2001, there was a diversified Catholic parishes while 137 – 138). 79 per cent increase in the number others founded the Reformed of Buddhists who now are the largest The second factor changing Churches in Australia. In the 1950s non-Christian religion in Australia Australia’s religious profile has been and 1960s, Greek immigrants with 358,000 followers, representing the global movement of religious massively expanded the presence of nearly 2 per cent of the population. groups to Australia through Orthodox churches together with Clearly, recent migration from Asia migration with the effect of reducing other migrants who consolidated or was a major factor but this enormous the English hegemony and increasing established their ethnic Orthodox rise may have been due to the Dalai religious diversity. The initial waves or Oriental Churches. Carey notes, Lama who made a highly publicized of post-WWII migration with their “although all churches experienced visit to Australia immediately before high British component fed growth difficulties in adjusting to the needs the 2001 census was taken. It was also in the English Protestant groups of post-war society, the Orthodox the first census to provide a tick box as well as strengthening Catholic seem to have faced a more intensive on the census form for Buddhists and representation and bringing groups challenge in creating an Australian Muslims, and this may partly explain to Australia not previously present rather than a purely ethnic identity. the rise, especially for those from in substantial numbers such as the Unlike Islam or Judaism, most Confucian heritage countries where Orthodox. The growth in English Orthodox churches were created in their religion amalgam people are Protestant groups due to migration in response to national rather not too sure whether they adhere to had peaked by 1960 from which than international needs. An Buddhism, Confucianism or Taoism. time, following some fluctuation in autocephalous Australian Orthodox numbers, their proportion of the church seems a long way off” (Carey Australian population declined as 1996: 160). their growth rates fell below that of the population. Since then, they have very gradually declined in absolute numbers. The major losses from those who might have been expected to identify with an English Protestant group was to those declaring ‘no religion’ – a group which displays a similar ethnic profile but more youthful.

44 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 45 Table 3.2: Changes in Australia’s Religious Profile 1996-2001

Religious Identification* 1996 1996 2001 2001 96-01 000s % 000s % growth rate CHRISTIAN Anglican 3,903 21.99 3,881 20.68 -0.57 Baptist 295 1.66 309 1.65 4.75 Brethren 22 0.12 19 0.10 -12.28 Catholic 4,799 27.03 5,002 26.65 4.22 Churches of Christ 75 0.42 61 0.33 -18.25 Jehovah’s Witnesses 83 0.47 81 0.43 -2.81 Latter Day Saints 45 0.25 50 0.27 10.65 Lutheran 250 1.41 250 1.33 0.15 Oriental Christian 31 0.18 36 0.19 15.90 Orthodox 497 2.80 529 2.82 6.52 Pentecostal 175 0.98 195 1.04 11.37 Presbyterian/Reformed 676 3.81 638 3.40 -5.57 Salvation Army 74 0.42 71 0.38 -3.67 Seventh Day Adventist 53 0.30 54 0.29 2.26 Uniting 1,335 7.52 1,249 6.65 -6.46 Other Christian 253 1.43 324 1.72 27.95 Total 12,583 70.55 12,764 68.00 1.44 BUDDHISTS 200 1.13 358 1.91 79.07 HINDUS 67 0.38 95 0.51 41.91 JEWS 80 0.45 84 0.45 5.25 MUSLIMS 201 1.13 282 1.50 40.17 OTHER 69 0.39 92 0.50 33.33 NO RELIGION 2,949 16.48 2,905 15.48 -1.5 NOT STATED 1,551 8.67 1,836 9.78 18.4 INADEQUATE DESCRIPTION 54 0.31 352 1.88 551.9 (JEDI) (71) (0.4) National Population 17,753 18,769 5.7

Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics

46 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 47 The Buddhist community is multi- population), reflecting the high representing 33.4 per cent of the ethnic and young, the largest non- birthrate within this community and total Hindu population, followed Christian group in Australia. It is its youthful profile with 50 per cent by Fiji (20.7%), the Australian-born drawn from a wide range of countries under the age of 24. Other countries (17.3%), Sri Lanka (10.7%), South with the Australian-born as the are Lebanon (29,321; 10.4%), Turkey Africa (2.4%), Malaysia (2.3%), largest group representing 26 per (23,479; 8.3%), Afghanistan (9,923; Singapore (1.4%), the U.K. (1.3%) cent of the total Buddhist population, 3.5%), Bosnia and Herzogovina and New Zealand (1.1%). It is, followed by Viet Nam (25.3%) as (9,892; 3.5%), Pakistan (9,238; thus, a more recently arrived group. the two largest birthplace groups 3.3%), Indonesia (8,087; 2.9%), Iraq Bilimoria, writing in 1989, has constituting half of the total group. (7,749; 2.8%), Bangladesh (7,596; provided a useful profile of Hinduism Other birthplace groups are China 2.7%), Iran (6,353; 2.3%), Fiji (5,772; in Australia. After the initial small (7.8%), Malaysia (5.6%), Cambodia 2.0%) and Cyprus (3,708; 1.3%). waves during the 19th century, the (5.0%), Thailand (4.9%), Taiwan The Muslim figures also highlight second wave in the 1960s and 1970s (2.7%), Japan (2.1%), Hong Kong another trend that applies beyond has been associated with the neo- (2.1%), Indonesia (1.6%) and the the Muslim communities, namely, Hindu movement which was, like United Kingdom (1.5%). Bucknell the lack of even a close congruence the earlier wave, universalist in spirit (1992) comments that Buddhism in between a country’s religious profile with gurus, yogis, babas, swamis and Australia has exhibited ‘a haphazard and its community’s profile in tantric practitioners who moved from historical development’ after the Australia. This is most obvious in the city to city dispensing their spiritual earlier pre-WWII made little case of countries such as Lebanon wisdom and seeking converts. This permanent impression. As well as (where 41.1% of the birthplace led to the Ramakrishna-Vivekananda the Anglo-Australian converts, the group in Australia are Muslim), (Vedanta) Mission and Order Lao and Cambodian followed the Indonesia (17.2%), Iraq (31.2%), beginning in 1964 and at much Theravada form of Buddhism which Iran (33.8%), Egypt (9.2%), Malaysia the same time the Transcendental did not mesh with the Mahayana (3.8%) and India (3.0%). 53 per Meditation movement. In 1969, the Vietnamese. Another group to form, cent of Australia’s Muslims are Hare Krsna (Krishna), sponsored inspired by the regular visits of male, and the majority are working from the United States, arrived which the Dalai Lama, were the Tibetan class. The overwhelming majority with its street missionisation became Buddhists who follow a Vajrajana lives in Sydney in particular and in very familiar to ordinary Australians, form of Buddhism. The entry of the Melbourne. In Sydney, their zones of and followed a year later by the more different forms of ethnic Buddhism concentration are Auburn, Greenacre, introverted Siddha Yoga movement has made unity difficult, and Bankstown, Lakemba and Punchbowl which established ashrams around Bucknell concludes that “there is while in Melbourne they are living in Australia and by the Divine Light little likelihood of any strong move Meadow Heights, Reservoir, Dallas, Mission started by a teenage guru. towards genuine unity among the Noble Park and Coburg (Saeed 2003). Since then, there have been other various types of Buddhist groups” Some live in provincial and rural gurus in Australia as well as the ((Bucknell 1992: 222). areas such as Shepparton and Divine Life Society and the Brahma Saeed (2003) has documented the Cobram in Victoria, Young in New Kumaris Raja Yoga group run by diversity of Australia’s 281,572 South Wales, and Broome and some female gurus. Since the late Muslims who now come from over Katanning in Western Australia. 1970s there have been arriving 70 countries. The major birthplace swamis in the classical Vedanta The Hindu community is much more group of Australia’s Muslims is tradition. On the fringe have been focussed on particular birthplace Australia (with 102,566 representing near cultish sects with various groups with the Indian-born 36.4 per cent of the total Muslim esoteric doctrines, including the

46 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 47 Ananda Marga, the Rajneeshis and The Rise of the Pentecostal, In addition to the rise of Pentecostal the guru Da Free-John, leader of Charismatic and Christianity, the adoption by the Laughing Man Institute with his New Age Movements Australians of other largely imported doctrine of free love as the path to religious teachings and practices The third factor transforming enlightenment. Bilimoria concludes has led to the rise of New Age, Australia’s religious and spiritual that “neo-Hinduism (along with Earth-based religious groups such profile has been the emergence the other Eastern wave presently in as Gaia, Goddess religions and of new religious groups and vogue, neo-Buddhism) has become Witchcraft. Those affiliating with spiritualities, largely through a respectable part of a diffused Paganism have once again grown conversion or through the adoption community that seeks to provide vigorously from 1996 to 2001. The of teachings and practices brought to an alternative to the favourite numbers identifying with Wicca/ Australia, not through immigration, image of the ‘macho’, more usually Witchcraft grew from 1,829 to 8,755, but through the globalisation of masculine hero from ‘Downunder’. representing a growth rate of 374 per religious and spiritual practices. The alternative, spiritually grounded cent while Paganism showed a growth These changes can be clearly seen in image cultivates the characteristics rate of 144 per cent from 4,353 to Table Two. of quietitude, disciplinarianism, 10,632. Spiritualism increased from possibly anti-intellectualism and One of the most influential of 8,141 to 9,279. If the New Age cluster orderliness in dress and performance” these conversion-based changes of religious groups is added together, (Bilimoria 1989: 38). has been the growth of pentecostal a total of over 40,000 (or 0.22%) is and charismatic movements within reached. While the growth of these The migration of Indians over the Christianity. Not only have they groups has been impressive, they still past two decades constitutes the third risen to be just over one per cent of remain small minorities but their wave together with those from other the population but they also figure power to attract interest can be seen countries as the statistics suggest. in the rapidly growing category of in the religion section of mainstream It has been this group which has ‘other Christian’, which grew by a bookstores. given a more organized expression very significant 28 per cent in the five to Hinduism. The construction of years from 1996 to 2001, attracting temples has been central as till this the identification of 1.72 per cent of point in time Hindus had worshipped Australians. Moreover, no Christian in the privacy of their home shrines denomination has been untouched supported by volunteer priests. The by this experiential, enthusiastic and first temple was in an old church in musically energetic force which has Auburn in Sydney in 1979, and at the been adopted wholeheartedly by same time the University of NSW some, resisted by others but which had made a small room available has exerted an influence on all. for a granite image of Ganesha. But the Nyagrodhan or banyan tree of Hinduism did not take real root in Australia until the opening of the first authentic Hindu temple at Helensburgh south of Sydney in 1985 (Bilimoria 1989; Lahiri 1992).

48 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 49 This pattern is further attested Perhaps it was an anti-religious joke by other census facts. The rapid propagated by a shock-jock or two. expansion of Buddhism cannot be Jedists are now nearly as numerous as accounted for by migration and those who identify with the Churches birthrate alone, and the number of Christ. All this resonates with declaring that they have no religion the understanding that a secular, has decreased, both in absolute postmodern society is not anti- numbers and as a population religious or even irreligious (Fenn percentage, for the first time in 2000), but one where the religious Australian history. There has been and the spiritual are less under the a rise in responses not readily control of religious organizations. categorized but which are reported This reflects the postmodern under the category of ‘inadequately sentiment, “I believe but do not described. These facts constitute belong” (Davie 1994). important evidence that Australia In analysing the census data, it is remains a spiritual society, but that important to note that it is incorrect Australian spirituality is less likely to combine those who declare that to find its expression in formally they have no religion (15.48%) organized Christian groups (Tacey with those who, in exercising their 2003). Indeed, the appearance of freedom to privacy on this issue, do 71,000 Australians indicating that not respond (9.78%). Doing so gives their religious identification is Jedi a false reading of 25 per cent with – from the series of Star Wars movies no religious affiliation. Other studies featuring an epic struggle between indicate that many of those who good and evil in which ‘The Force’ will not answer the question have sustains the Jedi warriors fighting higher than average participation in for good – suggests not so much religious and spiritual activities. They that people do not take the census are simply not saying what they are. seriously as that they are responding in some way to the category of religious identification.

48 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 49 In conclusion, responses to the religion question in the 2001 These changes indicate clearly Australian census provide further evidence of the continued decline in English Protestant groups and further that the management of increases in Australia’s religious diversification with the growth to well religious diversity will continue over one per cent for both Buddhists and Muslims along with significant increases in the number of Hindus. to be a serious policy issue for Moreover, the enormous increase in the numbers offering a wide range of Australia at Federal, State responses that indicate some form of spirituality as a personal orientation to the numinous, the environment, and local levels. the inner being or some other form of transempirical power is precisely in keeping with what would be expected in a postmodern society as part of the broader transformation of Australian from a Christian to a paradoxically secular and multi-faith society. These changes indicate clearly that the management of religious diversity will continue to be a serious policy issue for Australia at Federal, State and local levels.

50 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 51 chapter FOUR Religious practice at local level across multi-faith Australia

n this chapter, we wish to Some faith communities with From the data collected, six overall present an overview of faith more than 10,000 adherents did themes emerged around which our Icommunity practice across not come within our purview (e.g. findings and observations can be multi-faith Australia at the beginning Seventh Day Adventist, Sikhism, gathered. Where appropriate, data of the 21st century. Local religious some ethnic Orthodox Churches, from other elements of the research community sites were chosen the Christadelphians), but, given our study have been drawn into this according to selected scientific methodology and the bewildering narrative to enlarge and elucidate. criteria with a skewing towards faith variety of Australia’s faith life, this The six themes are: communities that reflect the realities was always inevitable. Also inevitable 1. The Increasing Diversification of Australia’s population diversity. was the fact that the research of Religious Australia. As such, the research is a snapshot may be perceived as having been at a particular point in time of local written from an overly Christian 2. From Mainstream Christianity faith communities. Our conclusions perspective. Whilst one member to Immigrant, Evangelical and are therefore indicative but provide a of the research team (Dellal) has a Pentecostal Religiosity. sufficiently solid data base for policy Turkish Cypriot Muslim affiliation, 3. Building and Repositioning Faith: and program recommendations. The the three researchers who collected the Precarious Nature of Local research team, all highly experienced most of the data have practising Faith Communities. researchers and longtime observers Christian backgrounds (Catholic of the Australian religious and/or (Cahill, Leahy) and ex-Presbyterian, 4. Local Religious Leadership and migration scene, are confident that now Anglican (Bouma)). This is Provision of Religious Personnel. the snapshot is a reasonably accurate acknowledged, and the reader needs 5. Faith Communities and picture of multi-faith Australia in to be aware of these affiliations in Social Capital. 2002. the interests of objective and critical appraisal. However, the research A separate chapter will be given The focus was upon local faith team has attempted to collect data to the sixth theme of racism, communities rather than personal as social scientists with specialist bigotry and inter-faith relationships, spiritualities, and upon faith knowledge of the area of religion and especially in the aftermath of communities with more than cultural diversity. They endeavoured September 11th. 10,000 adherents across Australia to make themselves sensitive research though, in the construction of the instruments. All are well-versed research, we did observe the activities in multi-faith issues; except for of smaller churches such as the those of Dellal, the perceptions are Wesleyan Methodist Church and the mainstream Christianity and this is Foursquare Gospel Church. reflected in some of the accounts as when they endeavoured to document the beliefs and practices of the smaller Christian and other faith communities.

50 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 51 1. The Increasing However, with the cessation of the But not all those who tick the “no Diversification of White Australia policy by the early religion’ box on the census form Religious Australia 1970s and the subsequent far greater are atheists or aggressive secularists diversification in the immigrant – only a small but increasing Multicultural Diversity intake away from the European percentage declare themselves to be In the early 1950s, Australia’s to the Middle Eastern and Asian atheists. Hence, since the 1970s, we religious landscape contained mainly source countries, new ways of being have seen the emergence of a multi- Christian churches from a variety of religious have been introduced faith Australia - Australia is now, theological and doctrinal traditions, into Australia as well as new ways paradoxically, a secular and a multi- together with well-supported Jewish of exercising religious leadership. faith society with a far greater range synagogues in capital cities, a few The sight of Buddhist temple roofs of religious offerings. mosques scattered across Australia soaring uneasily amongst a clump Migrants, as in previous decades whose communities were in decline of tall gum trees has become less of the nineteenth century, whether and some Chinese temples, or incongruous. Australia has become they were Welsh or Irish or German, ‘joss houses’ as they were known, a microcosm of the global market found spiritual consolation in their which were often more tourist place of religious ideas and practices. credal beliefs which generated the sites than places of worship. Up Religious faiths are heavily, though need to build their own religious until the early 1980s, this picture subtlely, into competition with each edifices. And so history is repeating changed only somewhat as the other. Because of the new faiths, itself. Studies of the local faith number of Christian, especially new ways of measuring religiosity communities included those of the Catholic, communities grew when will have to be developed since Buddhist, Confucian, Hindu, Islamic, the population expanded through weekly religious service attendance, Jewish and Taoist faiths. In Bendall the post-War baby boom and as an example, does not fit with Plains, a Hindu community had through immigration. There was an Taoist, Hindu or Buddhist practice. purchased land on the outskirts of a increase in the numbers of Orthodox Accordingly, Australia is significantly major metropolitan city. The Hindu churches, sometimes taking over more religious than it has been if the society of this State had been formed former Protestant churches, and growth of temples and mosques is for the primary purpose of building of Kingdom Halls of the Jehovah’s included in a new measuring index. a temple. The Society now included Witnesses and other such smallish It is true that secularism as measured Hindus of many national and ethnic religious communities as they laid by those without any denominational origins not only from India but from down their religious roots more adherence but who place their faith Sri Lanka, Fiji and so on. securely. Many faith communities in an aggressive atheism or a clear or such as the Lutheran were renewed. confused agnosticism has increased as we have seen.

52 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 53 Its aspiration was: But it was in Wattleton, a new Building these communal centres dormitory suburb close to the and places of worship had required To all of you wanting to periphery of a metropolitan area, the sustained effort of the faith harmonise the Earth, that multi-faith Australia was best community. Originally, religious Searching for wisdom in your represented. Aligned right beside worship had begun in house life; each other in a short street of 100 temples and house mosques and, Be open to the truth of all metres was a Vietnamese monastery then, after a massive fund-raising teachings and temple, a Turkish mosque campaign, the temple or mosque Be on your own path. catering also for Muslims from had been constructed, often in the China, Pakistan, India and Indonesia, last decade. Whilst mainstream May you find balance and and, right next door, a new Chinese churches, certainly during the 19th harmony in your life. Presbyterian Church. Within a stone’s century and the early 20th century, throw were a multicultural Baptist were generally built in or close to centre, a Lao Buddhist temple and a the centres of cities, suburbs and Harmony and balance would be Khmer Buddhist temple. And within towns, this is no longer possible. found by the Hindu community in a a remarkable square kilometre was a Cost and the availability of land temple on Australian soil where they huge Chinese Buddhist complex with are the key constraining factors. In could reflect and meditate upon life’s not only a major temple dedicated the consultations, leaders of faith, mysteries and vagaries. Initially a to the Buddha but other temples especially those other than Christian, temporary temple had been used but dedicated to Lao Tse and other Gods. reported that council applications more recently an ornate temple with More conventionally, in the same area to construct their places of worship altars honouring beautifully carved was an Anglican church which also invariably were opposed by resident statues of Hindu Gods and Goddesses hosted an evangelical Vietnamese groups. Almost invariably, the had been completed. It had become a Christian community and a large appeal process was won but at very site of local tourism. And there were multicultural Roman Catholic parish. significant cost for communities well-advanced plans to construct a Whilst the concentration of so many already struggling for funds. The cultural and educational complex religious places of worship in one trend is that places of worship are to enable the temple community to small area of suburbia is unusual, the constructed in former factories and provide education in Hindu culture, trend is not. Not in areas where there former churches but usually only as including Hindu philosophy and the are significant numbers of recently a temporary measure; otherwise they Sanskrit language. arrived immigrants and refugees. are being constructed on industrial Even in Jackaranda, a small town in parks where the land is cheaper for remote Australia, the local Muslim the provision of a large religious community had constructed a edifice and large car parks, especially mosque right on the town perimeter. for festival days, and in greenfields, semi-rural areas right on the periphery of metropolitan areas.

52 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 53 The following description is based In the construction of temples Ethnic and linguistic diversification upon the research in Wattleton, and mosques, one significant is occurring in most Christian and it also highlights the role of key issue emerged. The issue must be churches with the exception of the women in Buddhist projects and the understood in the context that most ethnic Orthodox churches for whom role of religious experience in the religious buildings constructed in the issue is whether there should be achievement of key religious projects. suburban and rural Australia are a shift to English-language liturgies. In front of the temple designed by built with small to large amounts of Many, but not all, Anglo-Australian an architect from Cambodia who volunteer labour as was the case in pentecostal and charismatic churches worked alongside an Australian the building of a Jehovah’s Witness are becoming more diversified. builder supplemented by much complex in Salamander. Architects The research at Midmet examined voluntary labour were two lions and and religious artisans are often how the Catholic Church in one a Boddha Tree of Enlightenment. brought from overseas. At a Chinese metropolis has responded in the On the banisters of the stairs up to Buddhist temple, religious artisans church most impacted by diversity. the temple door were five-headed were being awaited from China to Thirty migrant communities across dragons in green. Inside, a golden construct the huge temple gate. One this diocese were identified as having Buddha statue disseminated peace Buddhist community who wanted chaplains celebrating 130+ Masses and contentment with a disciple on to bring in some religious artisans each Sunday. Several (e.g. Czech) each side and a small black Buddha to paint the inside of their temple in had the whole of Australia as their which was said to represent the the appropriately religious manner pastorate, requiring much interstate Buddha prior to his enlightenment. could not afford to pay the award travel. Several migrant Catholic The building of the complex was rate of approximately $34,000 per communities were identified as not driven by a middle-aged successful year, wishing only to pay a religious having a chaplain (e.g. Latvian and business woman whose petiteness stipend. Lithuanian) where people from these masked a determination to succeed communities will most probably die However, not only has there been and an iron will. and be buried without the religious the increasing diversification across ministrations of a Catholic priest The temple was born, and a Buddhist faiths, equally important has been speaking the language - in fact, society was formed. In building an the increasing diversity within faith Latvian Catholics had begun to use initial temple followed by the present communities. The previous section the services of a Latvian Lutheran ornate pagoda, several million dollars has detailed how the Chinese, Khmer, pastor for their funerals. Glenara had been raised by this relatively Lao and Vietnamese communities demonstrated the difficulties the small community. For the official have constructed their own temples. Anglican church was having with its opening, fifty monks had come To the outsider, there is an element Maori congregations. from different parts of the world. of competition amongst the ethnic A small monastic community had Buddhists in building the grandest been formed, residing in a normal temple complex, reminiscent of the suburban house beside the pagoda. competitiveness that existed amongst It was believed that the monks bring rival Christian churches in their peacefulness and educate the people church-building efforts up until the in right living – where there are Second World War. monks, the people will come; where there are no monks, the people will not come.

54 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 55 More than 80 per cent of Anglicans Other groups having to deal with Decisions of Affiliation and are Australian-born with another cultural diversity include the Change of Affiliation 12 per cent born in the U.K. but it Jehovah’s Witnesses who have 770 Upon arrival in Australia, many has significant minorities born in congregations across Australia of individuals and at times, whole faith New Zealand, South Africa, India, which just over 100 are ethnically communities are required to make a Germany, Northern Ireland, Malaysia, based using a language other than decision as to which religious group Canada, Papua New Guinea, the English such as Italian, Greek to join. In a small isolated town, a Netherlands, Singapore, Hong and Spanish. The last decades group of South African professionals Kong, Zimbabwe, Kenya, Tanzania, have also seen a diversification with a Dutch Reformed background Pakistan, Burma and Mauritius; in Baptist congregations. In the had to decide which church to join Scandinavian countries and north- Bunreba congregation, the English- - some joined the Baptists, others eastern European countries also have speaking Baptist congregation the Wesleyan Methodist community. significant percentages who give included Chinese, Chileans, Indians, Another example is of the Korean their religious affiliation as Anglican, Malaysians and Ukrainians together Presbyterians - upon arrival they perhaps because they cannot find with two self-contained language had to make a decision whether a suitable Lutheran church in their communities, namely the Vietnamese to join the Australian Presbyterian locality; in fact, urban Anglican and the Laotians, who operated out Church or to join the Uniting congregations are now drawn from of the same church. Further up the Church. The decision was to opt for an array of countries. road was the Uniting Church which the latter, and, within several years, had a Vietnamese minister who was the Uniting Church was having to serving a young congregation of cope with a large new branch. One some Anglo-Australians but they of its responses has been to establish were mainly Vietnamese and Pacific a national directorate of cross- Islanders. cultural ministry located in Canberra. Cook Islanders, who belonged previously to the Congregationalist church at home, have tended to join Presbyterian groups in Australia.

54 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 55 Conversion or the switching of The practice of religious door- A law requiring a permit to engage religious affiliation is a sensitive knocking has never been legally in such speech constitutes a dramatic and challenging topic though it did challenged in Australia on privacy departure from our national heritage not emerge as a major issue except or other grounds. In June 2002, the and constitutional tradition”. in regard to assertive evangelical USA Supreme Court addressed a case Conversion occasionally draws press Christian attempts to make Jewish from Ohio where a local ordinance attention though it is rarely analysed. converts. There was criticism by had been instituted regarding The only systematic study of some consultees of the targetting uninvited peddling and solicitation immigrants changing their religious of migrant hostels and migrant upon private property. It required affiliation showed that, in the mid- flats by some religious groups. anyone wishing to engage in door- 1970s, about ten per cent of Latin Missionisation was of particular to-door activity to obtain municipal American immigrants had changed concern to Pentecostal Christians and permission. Two lower courts upheld their religious affiliation away from religious groups such as the Jehovah’s the constitutionality of the ordinance. Roman Catholicism within the first Witnesses and the Church of Jesus The Court was asked to decide, two years of arrival (Cahill 1986). Christ of the Latter Day Saints “are religious ministers engaged This study has highlighted the point whose strategies revolve around in a Scripturally based centuries- that many immigrants affiliate with door-knocking in a house-to-house old practice of communicating faith groups not associated with their ministry. their religious beliefs from door to home countries, especially evangelical door constitutionally equivalent to and pentecostal groups. It is clear peddlers of merchandise, subject that significant numbers of Anglo- to the prior restraint of obtaining Australians have been attracted to municipal permission to speak Buddhism in the last two decades, about the Bible or offer Bible-based and there is a very small stream of literature at no cost?” In an 8 - 1 converts to Islam that seems not decision, the Court decided in the to be reciprocated in the opposite negative on the basis that “this form direction. All this is part of the of religious activity occupies the broader quest for new and engaging same high estate under the First spiritualities. This observation Amendment as do worship in the meshes with the empirical evidence churches and preaching from the of both Croucher (1989) and Adam pulpits. It has the same claim to (1991) that ex-Catholics are very protection as the more orthodox and much over-represented in Buddhist conventional exercises of religion”. communities. Adam’s research The Decision went on to say that the (quoted in Bucknell 1992) found ordinance “is offensive - not only the reasons for conversion were a to the values protected by the First failure to provide adequate answers Amendment, but to the very notion to life questions, the Catholic of a free society - that in the context dogmatic attitude which discourages of everyday public discourse a citizen individual thinking together with its must first inform the government of hierarchical structure and internal her desire to speak to her neighbours divisions. Croucher (1989) has and then obtain a permit to do so… noted an affinity between Buddhism and Roman Catholicism that was

56 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 57 greater than between Buddhism 2. From Mainstream » In Braddock, a large provincial and Protestantism some of whose Christianity to Immigrant city, the Lutherans had slightly more extreme members were in the and Evangelical and declining numbers, most with vanguard of opposing the building of Pentecostal Religiosity grey hair but with a good temples. sprinkling of young people, From across Australia, there were while, across the road, the Trends from this study can only be many and consistent signs that Catholic congregation, while still indicative but there were several mainstream Christianity is struggling having healthy numbers, had instances of ex-Catholics taking and in trouble. Successive surveys more grey hair than the Lutheran. leadership roles in other churches have indicated this. The signs were e.g. the man in charge of Jesus’ Tent that mainstream Anglo-Australian » In the very high migrant of Miracles in a large provincial Christianity is in retreat, and that density suburb of Bunreba, town offering healing and spiritual the main growth signs were in the all the Christian churches were comfort, and the young, intense immigrant populations, whether in good shape as immigrants, Chinese man preparing for the as followers of Christianity or both recently arrived and long Anglican ministry who had been a of other faiths. Religious growth established, filled the pews Catholic. Some of the AoG pastors was occurring in the other world - each of the three churches had previously been Baptists, one faiths, especially Buddhism, (Baptist, Catholic, Uniting preferring the Assemblies of God Islam and Hinduism as the Church) were following successful because of their stress on angels. The census data have shown. ethno-specific strategies with Jehovah’s Witnesses had converts religious services in a variety In the research in suburbs and from most faiths, but especially Greek of languages led by native- towns across Australia, the trend Orthodox and Catholic communities. speaking ministers and priests becomes clear: In overall terms, the study suggested - perhaps, unique to suburban that switching religious allegiance » In Bendall Plains, on the outskirts Australia, the Catholic parish is occurring more commonly than of a metropolis area, the Uniting had an extraordinary ten Masses is realised though not amongst all Church was withdrawing in five languages every Saturday groups. from the area, and the Roman evening and all day Sunday. Catholic Church had not begun » In inner-suburban, affluent to construct its normal parish Glenara, the local Uniting plant with church, school and Church had become extinct, presbytery because of its lack of leaving, it was said, the personnel. The Hindu community ceremonies of the rites de was flourishing with ambitious passage to the Anglicans and the expansion plans based on a solid Catholics; the Catholic parish, funding base. still very viable, had survived » In Meringle, the Serbian only because three parishes had Orthodox church, attracting been collapsed into one and the both young and old, was in Anglican parish had survived maintenance, encapsulated mode. because it had incorporated the Maori sub-communities into its operation and because the priests volunteered their services as non- stipendiary clergy.

56 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 57 » In Heptonstall, a middle-ring, » In Marbleline, a small Muslim » In Shelbourne, the Assemblies middle-class suburban area, the community has established itself of God exemplified the success Orthodox Jewish community was in a capital city, and it had now of the biblical churches that in a healthy state of maintenance sponsored its own full-time believe in the literal inerrancy of though a nearby more liberal school. It was in maintenance the Bible - they had strong core synagogue in a more upper-class mode, and its growth depended congregations, were reaching area was struggling. The nearby on more immigrant networks. out into the life of the city and Anglican parish with a surfeit of had sufficient confidence to » In Midmet, the many Catholic clergy was in good shape while begin planning a multifunction chaplains had worked tirelessly in the Church of Christ was in religious centre costing several this metropolis, usually for many better shape, able to attract more million dollars. years; they covered a wide range than 300 members to its Sunday of cultural and language groups » Tamarena, an upper-class, service. belonging to the Catholic Church, expensive piece of recent » In Green Valley, a flourishing retaining the link between culture suburbia, was notable for its provincial town, both the Uniting and religion and working, over lack of church buildings. But the and Anglican Churches were in the long term, to integrate the Greek Orthodox community maintenance mode though the immigrants into the mainstream. had bought into the area many Presbyterian community had had decades ago; it was a living » In Salamander, a lower-class to regenerate itself from virtually congregation, composed of suburban area, the Jehovah’s nothing after the formation of the both young and old. It was in Witnesses were in slow growth Uniting Church and was slowly maintenance mode but its life mode as they followed a growing. would extend well beyond the first multicultural strategy for those generation of Greek immigrants. » In Jackaranda, a small provincial able to understand English and town just holding its head an ethno-specific strategy for above water because of its its Greek and Spanish speakers; dependence on one industry, the Salvation Army had its loyal the Anglicans were in dire straits congregation, while the Church while all the other churches of Jesus Christ of the Latter Day were in maintenance mode, if Saints was integrating a large not contracting, except for the group of Samoan immigrant dynamic Baptists who, with families into their Australian strong leadership and very sound structures. finances, were the religious power-house of the town. The Uniting Church community had lost the younger half of its community to the Wesleyans.

58 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 59 » Lastly, in Wattleton, a new, high Accordingly, in terms of religious migrant density, dormitory organizational life, the results from suburb almost on the perimeter our research and from the census of a metropolis, the Buddhists suggest that the future of the had divided into their ethnic mainstream Churches with their strands to construct, at great futures dependent as much upon risk and much cost, their own their culturally and linguistically national temples; the Turkish diverse members as upon their mosque attracted more than 100 traditional Anglo-Australian support men for its Friday service while base. The evangelical and pentecostal all the Christian churches were Churches are making progress with a flourishing except that each of less rationalistic, more populist style the three Christian churches had of religious practice that may not personnel problems: the Chinese appeal to the purists and which seems Presbyterian Church was being to lack the mystery and mystique of serviced by trainee Anglican other traditions. Younger Anglicans ministers; the Anglican church and Catholics may have attended was not yet a parish and was their own church schools but they being cared for by a minister in rarely attend their parish churches training, and the huge Catholic and seem no longer to care whether parish with 2,000 families had just their Churches become extinct or lost its second curate. not. Some Churches have committed themselves to social justice and welfare work but this recipe does not necessarily result in larger congregations. The Salvation Army through its welfare and emergency support agencies has had an enviable reputation but it has not increased the number of Salvationists.

58 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 59 3. Positioning and In most cases, there is much In contemporary, multi-faith Repositioning Faith voluntary labour in establishing Australia, thousands upon thousands Communities: and maintaining a community. of vicars and priests and ministers the Precarious Nature of In Salamander, the new Jehovah’s and rabbis and monks and imams Faith and Community Witness building had been are financially supported by local accomplished by volunteers from communities. Most are well, if Historical evidence suggests other congregations across the not highly, educated, and they the many difficulties that face a city. Much voluntary labour had are remunerated well below their faith community in establishing gone into the building of the four educational level. A rough financial themselves in a country such as Buddhist temples in Wattleton. In estimate suggested that, on a per Australia, and institutionalising the case of the Buddhist, Hindu and capita churchgoer basis, the most themselves in terms of buildings, Islamic centres, the communities generous givers were from the personnel, structures etc.. The had wanted, first of all, a place evangelical and pentecostal churches, separation of religion and state where their traditional spiritual the Catholics the least generous. For implies there will be no help from needs could be met, where their example, in Jackaranda, the Baptist the Australian government for faith traditions could be passed community had an annual income building and maintaining worship on to the coming generations and six times that of the local Catholic facilities, nor for paying the salaries where they could project to greater community. The Assemblies of God and stipends of religious personnel. Australia the richness of their community in Shelbourne could Some overseas governments and theological, philosophical and artistic support several pastor couples as well agencies have helped and continue traditions as manifested through as a range of welfare services. to help. In 1974, the Saudi Arabian the architecture of the building and government gave $1.2million for the However, local communities are its sacred artefacts, the classrooms, construction of mosques and Islamic always dependent on their leadership schools and libraries and through the centres and schools (Cleland 2002), for the continuance and regeneration various religious rituals and liturgies while the Turkish government pays of faith communities. In Shelbourne, practised within their holy spaces. for the expenses of its Australian an assembly close to extinction had They have constructed their own imams and their families. There is a been ‘repioneered’ by a minister sacred sites on Australian soil just long tradition of Catholic religious who had remained there for close as generations of other immigrant orders bringing in overseas funds for on two decades. In Green Valley, groups have done so previously. And establishment purposes before they the Presbyterian church had been the Australian architectural landscape achieve self-sufficiency. almost destroyed by the wholesale has been changed forever. Muslims movement of the community across However, whatever the circumstances, would have wanted to have had the to the Uniting Church. Since that establishing a faith community in call to prayer broadcast across the time, the local Presbyterian Church any locality remains difficult and rooftops of suburbia, but had been had grown into a substantial, thriving arduous, yet it continues to happen prevented by local noise limitations. worshipping community. all over Australia as new faith The same limitations have prevented communities are set up. Localizing some Christian churches from themselves depends upon a leader ringing their church bells to call or a leadership group and a core people to their spiritual obligations. group of committed people who are prepared to donate time and money.

60 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 61 Among the biggest and most Anglo-Australian Baptist The atmosphere was very friendly successful congregations were the congregation in Jackaranda: and casual built around hymns that Baptist congregation in the small stressed a simple attachment to The Baptists had been long country town of Jackaranda, the Jesus. A band comprised of organ, established in this struggling town. large multicultural Catholic parish of piano, drums and violin provided The number of Sunday attendees at Wattleton and the Assembly of God the music with two gospellers the different churches were Anglican congregation in Shelbourne. Let us leading the singing. Members of the (16 churchgoers), Baptist (117), look at each specific case, looking congregation all knew each other, Foursquare Gospel (32), Lutheran at why they had achieved relative and there existed a real esprit de (42), One in Christ (Aboriginal) pastoral success. corps as most remained afterwards Family (20), Roman Catholic (80), for a cup of tea. The service finished Salvation Army (10) and Wesleyan off with a sermon by the faith Methodist (48) for a total of 355 community leader reflecting on - there were another two churches chapter six of the Book of Joshua in town, another Aboriginal and a which tells of the fall of Jericho. He Seventh Day Adventist congregation. began by asking a question: “What The research showed that the best is the most recognized symbol in attended and the most vibrant the world?” It was not the cross, faith community in town was the and, after some answers from the Baptist with a popular religion mix congregation, he declared the Coca of preaching and devotional hymns Cola and McDonalds logos were the of the variety, “Open our eyes, Lord, best known, more or less on level we want to see Jesus”. The 10:00am pegging. This led to the central theme service was attended by a broad of obedience to God, which was easily mix of young and old with many interpretable as blind obedience. families having four or five young He told the story of General Patton children; they sat on moveable telling a group of soldiers to go and chairs and it was led by the youth dig a hole behind the barracks for minister, a strong, young man in his no useful purpose as a way of testing mid-twenties who communicated their obedience and leadership. easily and informally, if not in a well-polished manner, with the large The Baptists had been present in the congregation which filled the simple, town since its beginnings, and its unadorned chapel of the former annual turnover was easily more than girls’ college. After the service, this double any other congregation. Their minister met all the high school facilities were opened and used by the students because it was clear that community for playgroups, young because school had restarted after mothers, craft groups and youth the summer vacation the theme of activities. There was also a seniors the previous week has focussed on program and a parenting program. transitions in life. The principal event was a youth music festival where participation went beyond the Baptist circle.

60 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 61 The Baptists were successful because This was a successful multicultural If this local faith community was of their emphasis on youth and their parish built in an area in which there built on education and ethnic longterm presence in the area. had been located Italian farms and diversity, its other plank was welfare. market gardens in the several decades Nearby was a very large St. Vincent Multicultural Catholic after WWII. The church itself, de Paul Centre which served not just parish of Wattleton: completed in 1991, was very large, this parish but beyond. The need was Wattleton, a new working-class/lower shaped like a rhombus and replacing demonstrated in the statistic that a middle class but upwardly mobile an older but still quite modern one large percentage of the families were dormitory suburb, is a unique part of completed in 1961 which now served single parent families and about 10 multifaith Australia which included as the parish hall. Next door was the per cent of the families in the school the Catholic parish of St. Brendan’s. parish primary school which was could not afford to pay school fees. This parish was said to be one of the educating 840 Catholic children; just largest in the archdiocese, serving over half the school population were 15,000 Catholics and standing as from Anglo-Australian families and an example of the Church’s latest of the rest, the biggest group were strategy of dealing with the shortage second and third generation Italian of celibate clergy by building fewer, Australians, the next biggest group larger and more dispersed parish were the Vietnamese, followed by the churches in the newer areas of Filipinos, Croatians and Spaniards. suburbia. Altogether there were 33 nationalities in the school. Even though the school received many enquiries from non-Catholic parents, it could not at this point in time take their children because there was simply no room. School education was at the centre of this parish’s response for in the parish there was a very large Catholic secondary college with 1,500 students, including many students from other faiths. As well, there were large numbers of Catholic students in the local government schools and the parish had in place a highly developed organization of catechists, numbering about 50 – 60, to provide religious education to these students.

62 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 63 The pastoral strategies were built Instead of the sermon, a Chinese Much emphasis was placed on the around the Mass - every Saturday Filipino woman gave an outstanding AoG’s increased practice of pastor evening and Sunday, there were virtuoso performance in asking for couples because there was a real six Masses, attended by about financial pledges. She spoke without ‘wholeness’ in ministering together 2,000 people, four English Masses, notes, wandering across the altar, spiritually and pastorally as husband- one Italian Mass and a recently telling small jokes and arguing that and-wife, often both employed full- introduced Vietnamese Mass at ‘our priests need all the support they time on one salary. 4:00pm on Sunday afternoon. can get’. She was rightly applauded. The Piper’s Lane community, The two priests were supported by Later on, three young people were drawing on a large body of two Italian priests able to speak both prayed over – they were on the road volunteers, had formed a welfare Italian and Spanish, who worked to becoming baptised Catholics at organization with a van at its across many parishes and by a group Easter. They symbolized the fact that disposal, and it had developed a food of Vietnamese chaplains who likewise this parish had a secure future in an bank for people in need. They had operated as a team ministry across a area characterised by a supermarket a drug and alcohol referral service very large region. Even so, the priests of faiths. as well as a half-way house as part needed the support of their laypeople, Anglo-Australian Assembly of God of their Christian care ministry. and, in this parish, the parish priest congregation in Shelbourne: They worked closely with the local had garnered his migrant flock to government high school, including assist him. This was exemplified The various Assemblies of God of organizing one day a week a ‘brekky’ on the day the researchers visited Shelbourne, a large provincial city, club for students not having had when the parish was in the midst of had aggressive and imaginative breakfast before coming to school. a three-week, so-called ‘sacrificial programs of Christian ministry, and One target was the local business giving’ campaign based around the Piper’s Lane community was one community where the strategy the three themes of time, talent of several AoGs in this prosperous revolved around regular prayer and treasure. In the Italian Mass, part of Australia. The central church meetings together with grander a layman, coached by the priest, had recently purchased a larger occasions in a local luxury hotel. appealed to the congregation of 150 complex because the community had to contribute their talents as well as outgrown its current 400-seat facility. their money to the parish’s extensive The project, perceived as ‘an amazing activities. The 10:30am service was miracle’, is to convert the complex the major liturgical event of the into a worship centre with a much week with almost 500 worshippers in larger auditorium with Sunday school attendance, led by the parish priest facilities to cater for many children, a with four young altar-servers (2 boys, spacious creche, a lounge/counselling 2 girls) and a teenage all-Asian choir. area, a café, corporate offices for the This clearly was an alive parish with growing ministeries and facilities for a family audience, and it was very large scale religious productions. multicultural with lots of teenagers.

62 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 63 Its beliefs were focussed around the The importance of relevant preaching The Muslim community in infallibility of the Bible. The service was underlined by the successful Marbleline had established a consisted of hymns and a long 45 minister of the multicultural Baptist school, and in provincial Green minute address on the goodness of church in Wattleton who was Valley, some of the Presbyterians God delivered in a polished style by a confident of his preaching talents. sent their children to the local visiting pastor who roved across the A former Catholic, he had a vision Lutheran primary school. In Green whole platform. The congregation of many nationalities worshipping Valley, a separate religious school was of all age groups except for together though there was a strong was seen as ‘a key to the future’, university age students - there was a assimilarism to his strategies. His and the Anglicans, Lutherans and Sunday evening service for them. The followers came from many different Presbyterians had plans to open a four piece band with its light teenage churches because it was felt mainline joint Christian secondary school sound led the hymns together with churches and their preaching were no in addition to the city’s Catholic the associate pastor who crooned into longer relevant. He was completing secondary college. The strong moves the microphone, his pop star style studies in counselling so as the to construct their own schools by more than emphasized by his marine, practical advice contained in his the non-Catholic Christian groups almost Mohawk-like hair style. It sermons would be based on best and the Muslim communities are seemed to be the Anglo-Australian practice. Pastoral success was related now widespread across Australia, version of popular religion, and very much to quality grassroots generated in part by the antipathetic there was no doubting its success. leadership and the provision of attitude of government schools The Assembly of God had been religious personnel. towards faith education and the successful in attracting followers for reluctance to provide prayer rooms in Another key element in maintaining the following reasons: the case of Muslim students though and regenerating communities the universities have provided such » the church was very committed to is faith education, especially for rooms for their international Muslim being contemporary and relevant younger members. The Catholic students. But this proliferation raises to its members as seen in the style communities had their schools as did practical issues about the atomisation of upbeat music that was used in the Assemblies of God in Shelbourne of local school populations and, the church with a large and well-regarded perhaps, the cost factor. However, less secondary college and the Lutheran » the church was determined in its Government funds, when Australian community with its primary school preaching to address real-world Government and State sources are in the city of Braddock - the research issues such as marriage, hope and combined, are required to educate a team was made aware that Lutheran depression rather than dogmatic student in a private school. schools have recently been built in or exegetical presentations other communities across Australia, » the senior pastors had a strong and in Braddock there was a vague commitment to leadership and plan to build a Lutheran secondary team ministry, including married college. In its primary school, couple ministry. about 30 per cent of the students were Lutheran and the school was frequented by children from other faiths and by the unchurched - the attitude of these parents was, “we didn’t send them to church but we send them to a Christian school”.

64 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 65 The Buddhist committees of 4. Local Religious Leadership The Vedic scriptures give equal management showed no inclination and Provision importance to male and female. to establish schools - their religious of Religious Personnel Caring for the needy, counselling instruction methods are different and other such pastoral and Religious leadership at all levels as manifested in the case of the administrational work was not has become a more complex and Laotians who expressed concern to normally done by a Hindu priest, challenging task because, firstly, the research team that government but by other community members. the local leaders must deal with a school teachers seemed not to take In Buddhism, the celibate monk situation where people are less likely responsibility for the children’s moral sacralizes the temple, thereby to be overtly religious with a general education. Dharma classes were attracting the people. As a Buddhist denigration of religion across society, regularly taught by the monks, and lay community leader expressed it, especially in the media, and, secondly, during the previous school holidays, ‘when there are many monks, people they are now required, in many some boys, aged between 7 and 15, come to the temple; without the cases, to deal with cultural diversity decided to become temporary novices monks, people will not come. The requiring the selection of appropriate for seven days of intense training in monk represents peacefulness and pastoral models. The research inner maturity at the temple, living right living. They teach the people highlighted leadership capability, the life of the monks. The word, to train themselves’. The Buddhist interpersonal strengths, vision and ‘ordination’, was used to describe the Chinese lay leader expressed it strength of purpose and innovation. process. The program was led by the similarly, ‘with the monk, the people However, leadership roles are abbot, the heads of the boys were feel safe’. In contrast, in Christianity, conceptualised differently from faith shaved and they wore the traditional whilst the religious leader may be to faith, and this is a reality in the saffron robes. They arose at 5:00am helped by lay leaders, he or she has new multi-faith society. In Hinduism for their chanting sessions followed ultimate responsibility for all matters, and Buddhism, the monks are by breakfast, and then lunch at both material and spiritual - this is concerned solely with the spiritual, 11:00am after which they did not eat more so, the more hierarchical the moral and ritual realities whereas for the rest of the day. The aim was particular church. their lay leaders have responsibility for the young boys to learn, firstly, for the mundane realities of building self-respect and then respect for and maintaining facilities and raising others as well as the five precepts (no funds. In Hinduism, the priests are stealing, no lying, no killing, no illicit required to be married because he sexual activities and no intoxicating is required to be ‘complete’, and drink) and the other teachings of the completeness requires the female Buddha. as seen in the different gods who Every local faith community is in a combine male and female forms. continuing cycle of generation and regeneration, seemingly dependent on strong and committed local religious leadership. Faith and community are, by their nature, precarious, and this point highlights the importance of quality leadership.

64 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 65 Provision of religious personnel as seen in the Anglican church in The underlying question raised by was a problem for all faith Glenara and the Assemblies of God the study with regard to religious communities, not least the non- in Shelbourne. These conclusions personnel was the following: what are Christian communities without have been recently supported by the required attributes for religious training facilities within Australia. the Christian Research Association personnel called to give spiritual and/ The mainstream churches seemed (Hughes 2003) in a study of Christian or pastoral leadership in ministering stretched in providing personnel, clergy numbers. It was found that in a multi-faith society with all its and months might go by before a the Catholic priest ratio to numbers complexities and sensitivities? The departing minister was replaced, of those identifying as Catholics was question is heightened when the particularly in less attractive parishes. one priest per 2,986 parishioners, the religious leader has been educated The Catholics seemed very stretched highest for any group. The equivalent and trained overseas in a country very though it still had most areas covered, figures for the other main churches different from Australia where there however thinly, constructing huge were Anglican (1,606), Uniting may be a very different positioning parishes in recently-built suburbia on Church (792), Baptist (203) and for of religion and state and where there the perimeters of metropolitan areas, the Pentecostal Churches, a very low may not be a democratic system of amalgamating two, or even three, ratio of 89 church members for every government and where there may inner suburban parishes, closing church pastor. be much animosity between faith down or decreasing services in small communities. Within the Australian Whilst the monks from the faiths rural churches and not having priests immigration categories, there has other than Christian had entered able to speak the language for some been and continues to be a category fulltime religious service as young of the long-established immigrant for the entry of religious personnel, men, what was also striking about communities. The research showed whether on a temporary or the Christian leaders, apart from the to some extent, the shortage of parish permanent basis. Whilst the granting Catholic and the Orthodox, was that personnel had been offset, but only of visas always takes time, the they had had previous occupations partially, by the arrival of priests from Australian immigration department or had retained their occupations, at overseas. Vietnamese Catholic priests has always been generous in allowing least on a part-time basis, including now represent approximately 3 - 4 faith communities to bring in their as a secondary teacher, carpenter, per cent of active Catholic clergy. religious leaders. Some instances were sales manager and a company The Uniting Church had completely drawn to the attention of the research executive. One Anglican priest had withdrawn from several areas, both team where faith communities had been a salesman before his conversion urban and rural; the evangelical and demonstrated some fickleness in to Christianity. In Jackaranda, pentecostal churches seemed not accepting a leader e.g. not able to the Uniting Church lay minister to lack personnel, according to our speak the required dialect, personality had experienced his call to the lay data, and it was instructive that in clashes with some committee pastorate as a religious experience Shelbourne there were more than members, different ethnocultural after working in finance. 100 taking part in training programs. group etc. Also, most, when in The scenario in the coming years Australia, are given upon application is that in some parts of Australia the statutory power by the Australian Christianity will die out for all Government to celebrate marriages, intents and purposes unless there is even if resident on a temporary visa a regeneration by the mainstream for 2 or 3 years and even if they do churches. A positive sign was the not speak English. emergence of women pastors and

the emergence of pastor couples

66 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 67 The level of English language 5. Faith Communities The conventional histories of religion proficiency of many recently arrived and Social Capital published in Australia since the and some not so recently arrived early 1990s (Breward (1993); Carey The unifying idea of this study religious personnel was poor, if not (1996); Thompson (2002)) have has been the interrelationship negligible. These personnel often included the relationship between between faith communities and the step immediately into religious religion and society in their purviews, construction of social capital within leadership positions, giving sermons yet the lack of a unifying concept Australian society. The contribution and homilies and addresses on such as social capital have partially of Christianity and other world topics that require a deep knowledge hindered their attempts to explore faiths to the cultural capital of of the surrounding society and/or fully the contribution that religion humankind does not need to be giving advice in spiritual direction or has made to the construction of an documented here. Australia has been counselling sessions that may require Australian civil society. In their own much influenced by the Christian knowledge of how a pluralist society various ways, faiths have contributed patrimony in areas such as art and operates on matters pertaining to to such construction but it has music with the loftly sublimity of marriage and divorce, inheritance been insufficiently operationalised Pergolesi’s Stabat Mater, Handel’s matters, abuse and assault matters, in current academic and general Hallelujah chorus, Holman Hunt’s gender equality etc. or in writing thinking. Light of the World and Michelangelo’s articles for their community Pieta. Nor do we need to document It is widely accepted and undeniable magazines or bulletins. Some the contribution of cathedrals and that Christianity has been a central faith leaders, though reasonably other worship sites to cityscapes and defining strand in Australian proficient in English, would have and town and ruralscapes. Cultural society since 1788, yet there remains struggled in a media interview or a capital is related to social capital. the failure to fully operationalise this panel discussion. Others needed an What has been and continues to be contribution in relation to: interpreter for anything beyond very the contribution of local and national simple English. On the other hand, » The building and maintenance faith communities to national social it was brought to the attention of of the national character, its capital? the research team that many faith identity and spirit and to an groups went to considerable expense understanding, interpretation and to ensure their personnel were fluent re-interpretation of the national in English. As well, the lack of English past. fluency was causing problems in » The construction of the communicating with the second- nation’s governance structures generation faith groups who were and processes, and to its basic more fluent in English than their institutions. family heritage language. » The communicative links and professional and social lubricants that enable complex societies to function effectively.

» The capacity to react positively and creatively to national and international processes and events.

66 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 67 » The underlying values, norms In evaluating Anglicanism, Fletcher Whilst the decision-making and ethical behaviours that are (2000b) has made a notable attempt structures of Anglicanism excluded difficult to identify yet remain to link Anglicanism’s contribution women and the poor, they were critical in challenging disvalues to the nation’s social capital. relatively open, modelling a encompassed in corruption, Noting the advantage of the aura democratic process at a time when cronyism, nepotism, patronage, of establishment and the sense that other, more authoritarian Churches fanaticism, promiscuity etc. the British have been bestowed during the 1850s and 1860s were by God with divinely-ordained condemning such participatory » The associated psychosocial responsibilities, Australian Anglicans structures. In fact, the lay voice was characteristics that help a nation from the beginning saw themselves crucial, and the Australian Anglican on its journey into the future as possessors and transmitters of a Church was well ahead of its English such as respect for the dignity glorious inheritance which needed parent in its appreciation of liberal of the individual, mateship implanting in colonial society. Their democracy even if it continued for far collectiveness, nurturance of aim was to Christianise colonial too long to appoint English bishops. the young, care of the old and society, including the Aborigines Anglicanism wished to act as a moral disadvantaged, commitment (Harris 2002) away from their leaven in society, especially through to the family unit, the spirit of perceived paganism. They were well- support of the family as the main volunteerism, the preparedness connected and influential in elite pillar of society and marriage as an for risk, hospitality and colonial circles. They were protective unbreakable contract. In fact, all faith friendliness towards the other and of the sanctity of Sunday and the communities have been solicitious the stranger, love for the beach need for recreational repose. They and committed to the well-being of and the outdoors etc. ensured attachment to Britain and its the family. Research would probably Documenting fully this contribution Empire which was seen to embody show an historical correlation down is beyond the scope of this study, yet Christian values and, of course, the decades between religiosity and indications from the literature and they instilled veneration for the family stability. The churches have from our own data provide a platform monarch and the need for a symbolic pioneered the area of pre-marriage to a conclusion that, on balance, centralizing authority. Building on education which is increasingly religion in all its diversity has been John Locke’s philosophy (Yarwood recognized, through empirical and remains a constructive force. & Knowling 1982), they generated research, as assisting marriage Religion makes a contribution that affection for the land and its stability and is now government- is core and continuing. As one major cultivation amongst Australia’s bush supported. Anglicans and their example, the Protestant ascendency farmers in imitation of the ‘sturdy Nonconformist colleagues have inculturated a Protestant ethic of English farmer’. The contribution waged at various times and with thrift, hard work and individual of Anglicanism and of other faith varying intensities campaigns against discipline, encouraging its followers to communities to rural and provincial such ‘social evils’ as gambling and accumulate wealth and invest capital communities where traditional drug abuse whilst the Catholics all of which can be compared to the values are stronger is insufficiently have focussed more on abortion social and economic performance of recognized and studied except for the and euthanasia, generating much other longtime settler societies such Royal Flying Doctor Service and the hostility from the broader society, as in Latin America. In fact, a Seventh work of Reverend John Flynn. even though all major world religions Day Adventist consultee argued for a to varying degrees are opposed to all retention of ‘Protestant culture’ since four activities. it had a proven record for the delivery of the good life.

68 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 69 Fletcher (2002b) notes that, unlike In Fletcher’s view, Anglicanism’s In 2001 to commemorate the their Roman Catholic rivals, role during World War I was Centenary of Federation, the Anglicans did not provide an especially important in encouraging Melbourne Catholic archdiocese, the Australia-wide Anglican education army enrolment; in fact, 75 priests nation’s largest, produced a small system though they have been actually enlisted together with document, The Catholic Contribution supportive of government schools the 175 Anglican chaplains. The to Australia (Hart 2001), the Great through chaplains and religious Church insisted the enemy was not South Land of the Holy Spirit, education teachers. They sponsored the German people, but Prussian recalling the Spanish naming of schools for the more well-to-do militarism, and was concerned about Australia in 1606 by Captain Pedro families with the covert aim ‘to the rights of Australian citizens of Fernandez de Quiros as ‘Austryalia produce a colonial leadership German origin. The introduction of dell Espiritu Sanctu’ (Grassby imbued with Anglican values’ as well Anzac Day was very much the work 1983). It drew attention to the as university colleges. Australian of Canon David Garland in seeing Church’s educational contribution, leadership is a huge topic in itself, all war as both a glory and a defeat. especially for the 100 year period but the overwhelming majority of It supported the White Australia from the 1870s to the 1970s Australian political and social leaders policy but not a Protestant Australian when no government funds were have been religiously influenced, if policy even though it was always received for Catholic schools which not religiously motivated and faith suspicious of Catholicism’s claims were maintained by the Catholic committed. to papal infallibility and absolute community with ‘heroic personal truth up until the ecumenical sacrifice’ – whilst now receding into movement emerged in the 1960s at the distant past, this government the grassroots level. Sectarianism is failure is still perceived as a grave implicitly conflictual but it produced injustice. During this period and even a more competitive environment today since it costs the government through much ‘inter-denominational significantly less to educate students cross-fertilization’. in a private than a government school, the Church has saved the Whilst its strength was in the middle government and the Australian and upper classes, the poor were people many billions of dollars. not neglected and welfare work has always featured in Anglican pastoral care though diminished in recent decades by the emergence of the welfare state, the professionalisation of social work and the introduction of government agencies (Fletcher 2002b) – with the partial demolition of the welfare state, governments are again becoming reliant on churches.

68 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 69 The same document highlighted Centrecare plays a different welfare Religion, as has been seen in the Church’s contribution to role through its counselling work this study, aims at personal the building of a multicultural while other organizations sponsored transformation and conversion for, nation through its welcoming and by the religious orders such as the as one preacher put it, “God wants to integrating of Catholic immigrants McKillop Family Services undertake give us a new engine”; it aims as well as well as its defence of marriage, work among distressed families and to produce inner calmness of spirit, motherhood and family life against disadvantaged youth. In social policy, for example, the soothing presence those who reduce life to the level of a the Catholic Church has insisted of faith to heal psychic wounds. commodity and demean the value of on the centrality of social justice in Across Australia, there are thousands each individual life from the moment addressing the inequalities between of religious houses, monasteries, of conception. It drew attention rich and poor, and, as other authors places of worship, chapels, mosques, to Catholic leadership in public have pointed out, it had a special temples, synagogues, presbyteries, life, James Scullin, Joe Lyons, Ben role to play in the formation of the vicarages and manses where the Chifley and Paul Keating as Prime Australian Labour Party. mundane meets the absolute, where Ministers, Tim Fischer as Deputy the spiritual challenges the material Coming into the contemporary Prime Minister, Sir William Dean and the prophetic challenges the scene, our data suggest that the as Governor-General and Sir James superficial, and where the devotee contribution of local and national Gobbo, Leneean Forde and Dame challenges the consumer. Religion faith communities to national social Roma Mitchell as state Governors brings reconciliation and forgiveness capital is substantial. We have already among many others in politics and for, as Archbishop Desmond Tutu, seen how religious personnel have the professions, and not least B.A. has said, “the future is reconciliation’. assisted immigrants and refugees Santamaria who led the fight against The research showed cases of local to settle, especially in their early Communist infiltration. Attention religious leaders, formerly refugees, years, and we will see how leaders was also drawn to the innovative whose torture was so horrific that have defused ancient and less leadership of women religious in the it had at one stage reduced them ancient hatreds and animosities. areas of teaching, nursing and social to despair and who were working The sense of the spiritual, the work, led by Blessed Mary McKillop. for reconciliation in their own transcendent and the moral remains Catholic hospitals have led the way in communities with their former necessary in all societies to counter care, welcoming all members of the enemies and torturers. the corrupting and debilitating community while the St. Vincent de influences of materialism, hedonism Paul Society, unlike any other welfare and selfishness. Despite all its faults, organization, has people on the limitations and outdated religious ground in every part of Australia, to discourse, religion has this capacity. help the homeless and the poor. As the hymn at the English service in the Chinese Presbyterian Church said, “Lord, I come to your awesome presence”.

70 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 71 Across the data, the evidence is 5. In Glenara, the Anglican Church 8. In Jackaranda, the shire president scattered randomly, yet cumulatively, was hosting Maori congregations, was a religiously committed aside from the various religious assisting them to settle into and person as had been her education programs to inculcate identify with Australia, while, predecessors while the Baptist altruistic values, it adds to together with the Catholics, community brought economic an impressive total as can be seen retaining a sense of a religious capital into the town to help keep in the research: presence in an area vacated by the it afloat as well as sponsoring other faith communities as well an annual drug-free, sex-free 1. In Bendall Plains the Anglican as sponsoring their local primary youth festival. The Baptists Church had built a village school; the Anglicans were also provided playgroups for for poor and disadvantaged catering for young people with mothers, craft groups and youth families, while the Hindu priests jazz celebrations and were hosting activities as well as a parenting had provided for the spiritual a community serving people with program. The churches had settlement of their people. intellectual disabilities. worked together to provide crisis 2. In Meringle, the Serbian accommodation and they also 6. In Heptonstall, the Jewish Orthodox priest, whilst his encouraged a tolerant attitude synagogues had provided a community retain a very Serbian to the Muslim and Aboriginal sense of solidarity and security view of recent events in the communities even if fundamental as well as a sense of social Balkans, was helping to create a issues were avoided. A Pentecostal space to community members sense of belonging to Australia. Church provided a focal stable recovering from the trauma of the point of reference for the local 3. In provincial Braddock, the Holocaust; the Anglicans had a Aboriginal Christians in a town Lutheran community had child exercise program while the that was not accepting of them. established its own school Church of Christ had a pre-school attended by Lutherans and mothers group and a youth group 9. In Marbleline, the Muslim non-Lutherans alike, and its while offering public seminars on community in its own small social contribution to the whole topics such as grief management enclave was assisting its members area had been extensive since and diabetes. to integrate, helping them the beginning of European to construct their identities 7. In Green Valley, the Presbyterian settlement. as Muslims and as members Church was providing service not of a distinctive religious 4. In disadvantaged Bunreba, all the only in this provincial town but community and, with its school, Christian faith communities were to four small rural communities it was reinforcing the historic working to assist in the settlement scattered across bush Australia, presence of Islam in Australia of poorer, disadvantaged and this community’s focus was as well as educating its children immigrant communities and very much on family support, in accordance with normal creating and cementing their including family life education. curriculum requirements. sense of belonging to Australia while the multicultural Catholic primary school was catering for these children from struggling migrant backgrounds. Some of the local councillors had been drawn from the Christian communities.

70 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 71 10. In Midmet, the Catholic migrant 12. In the city of Shelbourne, the In much of the research, reference chaplains were assisting their Assemblies of God leader wanted was made to trained religious immigrant communities to adjust his community to work towards personnel being involved in crisis as well as defusing past hatreds ‘reconstructing our city for and grief counselling, pre-marriage and animosities; the Chaldean Christ’, and this took the form education and marriage counselling chaplain stressed his community’s of a child care centre, breakfast as well as general welfare such as philosophy as ‘faith, family, work’; program at a government high answering knocks at the door by the the chaplains helped to bridge the school, their own high school, destitute. In the consultations with communication and social gaps youth camps, four houses for leaders and the electronic public between their own community reforming drug addicts, a welfare consultation, it was found that and both the broader Church and group and a foodbank. religious leaders had some difficulty the wider society. grappling with the notion of their 13. In upper middle class Tamarena, faith’s contribution to the nation’s 11. In Salamander, a middle-ring the Greek Orthodox lay people social capital. Among the themes that suburb, the Jehovah’s Witness spoke of how religion was a emerged: preacher focussed on the danger solace in troubled times, lessening of spiritual complacency which stress. The women had formed » Christian communities had was likened to a spiritual sleep; a benevolent society to help the built schools and other special the community had raised funds poor, the disabled and the aged. educational institutions such for disaster relief but involved as kindergartens, schools for 14. In outer suburban Wattleton, the itself in no other social activity. the disabled and impaired and Christian, Buddhist and Muslim The nearby Salvation Army university colleges to educate communities worked in a new, congregation expressed its millions of Australian students lower middle class area; the only commitment to the poor and the down the ages. group with a fulltime school were disadvantaged, including overseas. the Catholics who also had a large » Many hospitals, aged care St. Vincent de Paul centre to serve facilities and welfare agencies, the needs of the poor; the Lao including the delivery of abbot not only initiated the young innovative programs, had been boys into Buddhist teaching but initiated by the major Christian he also taught them regard and denominations in all parts of care for old people amongst other Australia, and they were involved Buddhist core values. in the delivery of innovative programs as well as acting as lightning rods for emerging social problems because of their grassroots network.

72 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 73 » In the words of a Jewish leader, » Religious education encouraged It was acknowledged that not all faith religion is the backbone and the observance of the law and communities do all these things in support of the value of altruism respect for the other, as well as equal measure, and that some are and of altruistic behaviour. As one social equity. encapsulated within their community submission put it, “throughout cocoon, even being opposed to the » Life’s rites de passage, basic to history, religion has been one state, which is their right in terms individual and family growth, of the most powerful sources of of religious freedom. Comments were celebrated or mourned vision, values and social progress. showed that social capital could be solemnly in religious rituals that The faith communities which destroyed by: link the past with the future, and, collectively represent the majority in the cases of dying, death and » A continued emphasis on one of Australians share in common tragedy, religious ritual and faith religion being superior or the the eternal spiritual principles of allow victims or relatives to cope correct one as holders of the total love, justice and hope. with the unpredictability of life truth. » Religiosity helped to develop and with psychological scars. » The refusal to co-operate moral character, including » Faith provides a purpose for or interact with other faith integrity, and provided an living a committed life and gives communities. antidote to criminal, unethical reasons as to ‘why we are here’. and self-destructive behaviour. » The upsurge of religious and » The business notion of the triple ethnic extremism, and the » Faith communities, more than bottom line with its emphasis encouragement of religious other institutions, emphasized on social justice and wealth sectarianism. the ethic of care within the distribution had been promoted philosophy of ‘good works’, and » The demeaning of women as not with the help of religious groups. the erosion of religiosity would in practice equal to men in family lead to a decline in the ethic of » Faith communities with their life or in organizational structures care and longterm commitment global networks can provide despite the official rhetoric of to the disadvantaged. information to Australian leaders gender equality. about other societies. » Faith communities emphasized » The anti-Islamic views of some the dignity of the individual » The capacity to lobby and extremist Christians. person, including the young and pressure the three levels of the aged, the useless and the government on key national disturbed, as well as highlighting and local issues as well as global family cohesion and a sense of matters. justice. » Faith communities have been very » Volunteering, as ‘the sacrifice supportive, if not formative, of of self’ for the common good, international aid agencies. was the basis of religious communities, and its example flowed right across society in the form of civic duty and national responsibility.

72 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 73 Practising and transmitting the faith are the core activities of faith communities, and from this flows At the same time, any contribution to national social capital. A Uniting Church leader with their high priest-member said there were many publicly untold stories in promoting social cohesion and in contributing to ratios, the largest Christian social capital through education. Whatever their faults, limitations and inconsistent or even scandalous faith communities are finding behaviour, faith communities make an enormous contribution to social it increasingly difficult to capital. They have evolved into solid and flexible institutions even if, at times, they may remain handcuffed continue to contribute to the to the past and slow to respond. As has been demonstrated throughout nation’s social capital. this chapter, faith communities have made and continue to make enormous contributions to Australian diversity and to social well-being. At the same time, with their high priest-member ratios, the largest Christian faith communities are finding it increasingly difficult to continue to contribute to the nation’s social capital. Yet, much work needs to be done in bringing the faiths together to act more cohesively as we shall see in the next chapter.

74 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 75 chapter Five Racist and religious violence, ancient hatreds, intercommunal relationships and September 11th

major aim of the project Inter-Faith Relationships: » In Meringle, the Serbian was to assess the impact of The Local Level Orthodox priest had no formal the September 11th terrorist or informal contacts with A The data collected from the studies of attacks on inter-faith and inter-ethnic other local faith communities, local religious communities, showed relationships and, on a broader Christian or non-Christian. a very mixed pattern; it needs to scale, to assess the role of faith The image of a famous Serbian be presented in some detail before communities and their leaders with general adorned the church drawing several conclusions: respect to intercommunal hostilities, property. The researchers felt past and present, in Australia or » In Bendall Plains several that some in the community overseas. For this report, ‘ecumenical’ faith communities existed believed that the war in will be used in reference to inter- independently of each other with Yugoslavia was a war against church relationships within the no contact. None of the Christian Orthodoxy and the ‘New World Christian sector, whereas ‘inter-faith’ churches or their leaders had any Order’, and there was a general will refer to the relationships between formal or informal relationships feeling in the community that Christian faith groups and faith with the Hindu temple whose alleged war criminals were, in groups other than Christian. Data leaders, however, had been careful fact, national heroes. In Australia, were available from the research and to invite the local church leaders the community’s relationships from the consultations. In Midmet, to attend their major functions. with other Balkans communities the focus was on the role of Catholic The Christian leaders did not were good if only because they migrant chaplains in defusing past attend. The local Christian leaders had no contact with each other. hatreds. had informal contacts with each Conflict had been left behind in other which sometimes led to a the Balkans. After September 11th, joint activity such as a combined in an adjacent suburban area, Christmas Carol service. there had been a combined However, there was a very active liturgical service but it had municipal inter-faith committee been Christian. The Anglican in which the Hindu community priest had endeavoured to come leaders participated. The Hindu to terms with the theological community reported no problems implications, focussing on the with vandalism or racism of any notion of Muslim martyrdom kind. as a likely explanation of S11.

74 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 75 » In the provincial city of Braddock The Lutheran national magazine » In Bunreba churches juxtaposed where a Lutheran community had published several articles on alongside each other on the had deep historical roots, Islam to increase understanding same street on the edge of an ecumenical relationships between and that their Australian leader Asian-like shopping centre. The the Christian churches were very had attended a post-S11, multi- three churches had reached out strong and longstanding with faith ceremony. to their Asian communities and co-operation on public events offered services in Vietnamese to market the true meaning of and Lao. The churches had very Christianity, inter-church services, intermittent relationships and co-operation on social justice it was claimed there had been issues, and weekly columns in ecumenical services during the city’s newspaper written by Christian Unity Week though the the local clergy and local church Baptists did not participate. One members on a rotational basis. long-resident priest suggested The Lutherans co-operated that inter-church and inter-faith in all this though they were relationships were at the level of not at the forefront of activity, peaceful coexistence rather than their reticence perhaps a result active co-operation. The major of the memory of wartime preoccupation of each of the faith internment though the elders communities was maintenance had surprisingly little knowledge of their own operations and they of German internment during simply did not have the time both World Wars. Lutherans or resources to devote to other also had mistaken impressions activities including interfaith of key Roman Catholic beliefs. meetings. The local council did They were, however, very aware bring the faith leaders together of formal dialogue at the global for community pageants and and national levels between their multicultural festivals. The own Church and the Catholic, September 11th events had caused Anglican and Uniting Churches. no negative events in the area With regard to other faiths, though the Muslim presence Lutherans realised they were in this highly migrant area was constrained by their beliefs in significant but swamped by the the infallibility of Scripture. Buddhist and Catholic presences. Their answers about the eternal

salvation of those not Christian wavered uneasily between theological negativity and multicultural tolerance based on the Christian command ‘to love thy neighbour’.

76 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 77 The Catholic school said it had » In inner-suburban Glenara, the been proactive, assembling the focus was on an Anglican parish. students the following morning Except for the Anglicans, the to pray for the dead in the nearby Catholics and Buddhist USA, their families and for the centre which none of the perpetrators. A letter had been Christians knew anything about, sent to parents, warning against the area was bereft of active creating ‘goodies’ and ‘baddies’ on religious congregations. The the terrorist issue. There had been small Anglo-Australian Anglican one small incident against an community was too engaged in Arab Christian girl but the insult its own survival to be bothered had been defused. There was a about ecumenical and inter- general feeling in the area that faith activities. The Anglican diversity is Bunreba’s lifeblood. pastor couple had endeavoured to mount several ecumenical initiatives but there was a lack of response from other faith groups. This was confirmed by the Catholic priest who maintained his parishioners were too elderly to be concerned, and he was too busy as the priest in charge of three former parishes collapsed into one.

76 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 77 » The focus of Heptonstall an » The nearby Church of Christ » In the provincial city of Green upmarket suburban area, minister participated regularly Valley, organized inter-faith was on two Orthodox Jewish in ecumenical activities. The activities simply did not exist congregations and a progressive Anglican community was not because the members belonging Jewish congregation together very involved in ecumenical to the world faiths other than with ministers from an activities which were led by Christian were less than one evangelical Anglican Church and the Catholics and the Uniting per cent - inter-faith interaction a progressive Church of Christ. Church. In this local government has little relevance in most of In terms of intercommunal area, the Council had taken a very provincial and rural Australia relationships, the Jewish proactive role in multicultural but with some exceptions. communities felt decidedly issues since 1997. September Relationships between the comfortable though the Orthodox 11th had generated very little mainstream churches in Green community was losing families racist activity though after the Valley were cordial and the to other, more densely populated Bali attack of October 12th, ministers’ fraternal was active, Jewish areas. The Orthodox 2002 the one mosque had been promoting various annual events rabbis were vigorously opposed to attacked, but not seriously. The and each group participates to religiously mixed marriages, and City had previously had an the level their ideology allows this demonstrated their closeness Interchurch Council but the USA them. The Presbyterians and the as a community. There was no terrorist attacks had so moved Lutherans seemed to work very interaction with other faith one councillor that, with the well together, including a plan to groups but Orthodox rabbis were strong support of the Uniting build a conservative Protestant always happy to participate in Church minister, a “Multi-Faith Christian secondary college. religious discussions so as people Gathering” had been conducted. were not ignorant about Judaism. To have called it a ‘service’ would The liberal Jewish community have precluded the participation had a more positive, if still wary, of some Christians because the attitude to intermarriage and its word implies some commonality members were keener to foster of faith. The mourning for the links with other groups such as victims and the expression of the Council for Christians and sorrow and compassion had been Jews. Before September 11th, the held, and the following groups community had had discussions participated: Aboriginal, Baha’i, with Muslims in the spirit of Buddhist, Christian, Jewish, Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, which Hindu, Muslim, Sikh, Sathya Sai made Jews and Muslims members and Zoroastrian. In consequence, of the same monotheist family. the Council officers had begun The Anglicans cited real practical forming a multi-faith network but and theological difficulties in it was too early to form a Inter- reaching out beyond Christians Faith Council - more groundwork given that they have not accepted needed to be done. all Christians.

78 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 79 » Jackaranda in remote Australia, In Jackaranda the anti-minority » In suburban Marbleline, the had both a Muslim and an undertones were profoundly Islamic facilities had been Aboriginal community. The worrying, not in an overt way firebombed after one overseas Muslim community was accepted as much as a covert way. It terrorist attack, exactly one because they were very law- was peopled by good, often month after the USA attacks. abiding, even if a closed and altruistic, folk, who, however, The target was not the prayer mysterious community. The could not appropriately address hall, but another building young imam knew how to keep the two major intercultural containing classrooms, offices a low profile but the channels of issues confronting the town: and a kitchen. Immediately communication with town leaders the integration of their Muslim afterwards, a Christian couple, were open. After September 11th, neighbours into the town’s probably Anglican, had brought there were two small incidents mainstream and the full a bunch of flowers which had at the government high school recognition of the historic deeply touched the Muslims. where, according to the imam, injustices against the local Many supportive phone and mail the Muslim children were well- Aboriginal people. The Muslims messages had been received as treated. Jackaranda contrasted were tolerated, if only because had some vilifying ones. Overall, with another town about 150 they were law-abiding while the reaction had been more kilometres away where there had the Aborigines were positively positive than negative. Aside been trouble between the locals spurned, even by most of the from this there had been break- and the Muslim population which ministers who understood all ins which could be overcome seemed to have its origins over too well that, notwithstanding with a resident caretaker but the Muslims taking the seasonal the Christian theology of Council had disallowed this work of others, particularly reconciliation, their congregations proposal. There was continuous backpackers, and it was alleged could not address the issue of harassment on noise levels, that Muslims had spat on ‘scantily Aboriginal reconciliation. including when the facilities were clothed young women’. The being used between 12:00pm and Ministers’ Fraternal operated 5:00am. Some locals patrolled efficiently in Jackaranda, meeting the mosque property checking once a month. As well, some of on noise levels and, when the the local Christian leaders met mosque asked the council to weekly for a prayer breakfast. vary the noise regulations, a There had been tensions about local protest movement, led the admission of the Wesleyan by a Christian clergyman, had Church minister who had gathered 250 signatures. The broken away from the Uniting mosque was quite isolated, not Church over the issue of same having any relationship with the sex unions, but the main division Christian churches - in fact, the was with the Aboriginal Christian mosque officials could not even communities, who were scathing name the local churches or their in their assessment of the town’s denomination. attitudes to Aborigines and of the Ministers’ Fraternal which they claimed was not prepared to have them.

78 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 79 » In Midmet, the hard-working sensible in a difficult situation. were described as ‘friendly and migrant chaplains endeavoured Some in the community were co-operative’ since they both to serve the spiritual and pastoral opposed to the church because wanted to live in peace and needs of their many communities, it did not talk sufficiently about harmony. There were inter- and in some cases, this involved politics and the extremists were faith services four times a year healing divisions within their usually not associated with the between the two communities own Catholic community. The Catholic centre as they tended to mark occasions such as the head Croatian chaplain had not to be church-goers. One Vietnamese New Year and to pray been in Australian for many faith leader had never met a for freedom in Viet Nam. Joint years as spiritual head of a Serbian Orthodox priest in his functions had also been held to community that had worked many years in Australia, nor any raise funds for bushfire victims hard notwithstanding a period of of the imams from the Balkans. in Victoria and New South vilification when the community The research found that in Wales. The researcher’s were told was divided between the pro- and Australia the Croatian and Serb that the community’s hatred anti-Tito forces. During the 1990s, communities ignore each other. for the regime was such that the community had been renewed It was felt that this is the best groups had been formed to fight with the influx of Croatians solution for the moment, and communism though no details from Croatia itself and from rarely do they talk to each other. on their methods were given Bosnia-Herzogovina. Despite the Here, the Serbs are a small group, except to say that the preferred stigmatisation, no graffiti had but it was felt they are very pushy method was to work with the ever been placed on his church, in getting onto committees and Australian government to use a former Congregational church. councils, and some are using an diplomatic pressure to liberate Some in the community felt English surname. Some in the those still persecuted in Viet sorry for the Orthodox church community added, “any kind Nam like priests and democrats. because of its manipulation by of reconciliation is not possible International students from the politicians and its lack of at the moment. The wounds Viet Nam were well-accepted response to Catholic overtures are very fresh”. One Catholic and welcomed in Australia. though some change was now chaplain explained how there had About other religious groups in occurring in ecumenical relations been historic tensions between Australia, knowledge seems to in the former Yugoslav nations. Buddhists and Catholics as a have been limited but the policy It was admitted that a few Croats result of 300 years of persecution. was to co-operate with them ‘to and Serbs had returned from However, during the Viet Nam develop in hope, love and joy’ and Australia to fight in the various war, both had been united in to participate in all ecumenical stages of the 1990s Balkans their unsuccessful opposition to and inter-faith activities conflict but they stayed there even the Communists. In Australia, supported by the archdiocese. though they were admired by the the situation differed from the people. Inevitably the conflict had one in Viet Nam - the Catholics impacted upon the local Balkans had tended to arrive before the communities in Australia but the majority of the Buddhists and, Croatians had behaved sensibly in Australia, Catholics made and with dignity. A religious up a larger proportion of the community leader said to his community than they had in people that there was a place for the home country. In Midmet, everyone in Australia and to be relations between both groups

80 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 81 The Indonesian chaplain was senior priest in charge of his Islam”, “Christians are polytheists new to his position after having Eastern-rite Church who felt that because they believe in the come from a smaller city. He Australia was making a mistake Trinity”. Moreover, in the view of claimed there were about 7,000 in admitting Muslims. It was the community Muslims in the Indonesian Catholics in Australia, clear that this community held detention centres protested at the including international students, very negative attitudes towards erection of Christian symbols like and acknowledged the antipathies Islam. In Australia, relations the Christmas tree at Christmas, his community had brought with Muslims were non-existent and they had succeeded in having with them. Researchers were except on an informal basis. the crucifix removed from the told of the difficulties faced by This was because this Eastern- centre’s prayer room because it Christian groups in Indonesia rite group had fled Iraq to allegedly offended Muslims. where the government gave escape Muslim persecution.

preference to Muslim groups and The community’s knowledge created difficulties for Christian of Arabic allowed them to » In Salamander, the Jehovah’s groups, especially in regard to monitor Muslim activities. In Witnesses had a multicultural building churches. The situation an attempt to support these English-speaking community in Indonesia was very complex allegations, reference was made as well as Greek- and Spanish- because there were many inter- to Arabic programs on SBS TV speaking communities who all faith initiatives and yet, in and ethnic radio; these, in the seemed to merge harmoniously the view of some community view of the community, had without difficulty. Their attitude members, there were also some indirectly supported Osama Bin to non-believers was basically radical Muslims who were Laden by criticising the United negative inasmuch as only leading the uneducated masses States’ response in the “War on believers can be saved and, as towards religious intolerance. In Terrorism’, their presence in ‘Holy’ theirs is the true religion, all Australia, it was found that the Saudi Arabia and their policy on other religions are false. The attitude of Indonesian Christians Israel. The community’s attitude same set of attitudes was reflected towards Australian Muslim to Muslims in Australia, it was in ecumenical and inter-faith co-nationals was the Christian explained, was to tolerate them activities in which Witnesses one of forgiveness. The chaplain and co-exist with them. This could not participate since it intended to initiate a dialogue was not easy because, first of would mean consorting with process though he believed all, since September 11th there false religions. Contrariwise, it that Muslim immigrants from had been attacks on Christian was suggested that other religious Indonesia were committed to churches which, according to leaders are antipathetic to the peace and non-violence. The rumours, were perpetrated by Witnesses. events of September 11th had Muslims. It was also claimed that had no repercussions within the Christian asylum seekers in the Indonesian community. city’s detention centre were being harassed by Muslim inmates. The researchers also detected Evidence of this harassment, misgivings among the in the community’s view, was communities about admitting the defacing of notices placed Muslims as immigrants and on noticeboards by Christians refugees. Such misgivings were with slogans like “you would be shared by the community of the better off if you would convert to

80 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 81 » The Assemblies of God were very » Greek and Cypriot immigrants » In suburban, multi-faith active in Shelbourne, with their and their families formed Wattleton, the various faith successful spiritual and pastoral the Greek Orthodox parish communities (Buddhist, Anglican, welfare ministries. The senior of Tamarena. where the key Baptist, Catholic, Chinese pastor maintained his church word was ‘tolerance’, rather Presbyterian, Turkish Muslim and had until very recently been fairly than ‘acceptance’, though this Vietnamese Christian Evangelical) insular though the previous lack tolerance did not extend to basically ignored each other of engagement had partly resulted Jehovah’s Witnesses who were though the Buddhist leaders had from the mainline churches criticized for their door-knocking limited contact with each other keeping the Assemblies at arm’s missionisation. An increasing and there was some practical co- length. Their success had given number of inter-church and operation between several groups them more confidence, and there inter-faith marriages were on carpark matters during high was now greater participation in occurring though the Orthodox peak festival times. But even if ecumenical affairs. However, this strategy was not to encourage they ignored each other, there was outreach did not extend to non- them. The impression given was no hint of disharmony or hostility. Christians who, in theological that the Greeks and Turks ignored All the communities had taken terms, were damned. each other’s presence in Australia September 11th in their stride, despite the historical legacy. On the Buddhist monks praying for relationships with other churches, peace and calmness in world it was mentioned about the many society, though it was reported Greek children who had attended that the non-English-speaking Catholic schools over the years Laotian monks were afraid to go and this had generated respect out onto the streets in their saffron for the Catholics. Attention was robes because they were often drawn to the fact that the Greek teased and verbally abused. The bishops had not initially been Baptist pastor was totally enthused keen on the visit of the Pope, and by multiculturalism, though, the committee was in agreement paradoxically, he discouraged his with this strange contradiction multicultural congregation from that it was acceptable for Greek speaking their own languages. The Orthodox to practise in Australia, Catholic Church down the road but less than acceptable for under the guidance of its pastor Catholics to practise their faith in was much more multicultural, Greece. and it made allowances for lack of English language proficiency by having Italian and Vietnamese Masses each Sunday. While each of the Buddhist communities were ensconced in their own linguistic and national cocoon, each had a typically Buddhist openness and laissez-faire inclusivity though one wondered about their knowledge of other religious communities.

82 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 83 The research data was supplemented Inter-Faith Relationships: » the importance of longterm with data from the electronic Views of Australia’s contact and friendships between consultations where respondents Religious Leaders religious leaders at all levels of were asked about their attitudes using society The consultations across Australia a Likert scale. An overwhelming with religious leaders stressed the » the achievement of inter-religious majority (78%) agreed (43%) or level of harmony that existed between co-operation can best happen strongly agreed (35%) that ‘religious their faith communities and that had through joint community projects extremism has the potential to been achieved, particularly since the and regular multi-faith services or destroy the fabric of Australia’s 1960s, with the rise of the ecumenical pageants civil, pluralist and democratic movement to unite the Christian society’. As well, a majority, though » the need for cross-cultural and churches though the movement less strong (61%) agreed (45%) or inter-faith education for all did not incorporate those churches strongly agreed (16%) that ‘recent religious personnel, whether which do not accept belief in the overseas conflicts in areas such as trained in Australia or overseas Trinitarian God. In the consultations, the Gulf, the Balkans, Sri Lanka and particular grievances were aired. In » the responsibility of the media, Central Asia have put Australia’s intercommunal and inter-religious especially the tabloids and the social harmony at serious risk’. One interaction and co-operation, stress talkback commentators, to adopt respondent wrote, “as a Christian, I was placed by the consultees on the a more proactive and facilitative am sometimes alarmed at the anti- following factors: approach when addressing Islamic views promoted by some religious and inter-faith issues extreme Christians, and fear they » the importance of change in inter- may lead to direct verbal attacks and faith relationships at the local » the need for governments to ultimately give legitimacy to physical level where issues are best dealt take the lead in times of crisis attacks”. Before drawing conclusions, with by overcoming prejudice, through the development of quick let us examine the data on inter-faith misconceptions and stereotypes response strategies co-operation. and in demystifying other faiths, » the need for the faiths to work their personnel and their religious together for religious education to practices be offered by government schools

82 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 83 According to the consultees, the It is impossible to ascertain to what State governments, notably the NSW, events of September 11th had extent these attacks were directly South Australian, Victorian and triggered an Australia-wide spate of triggered by S11 or were merely ACT governments, were quick to abuse, physical assaults on persons vandalism attacks that are made react to the September 11th attacks, and property and hate mail. The regularly upon religious edifices. having built up expertise throughout most serious incidents were the the 1990s in dealing with overseas Particular targets were veiled burning down of a Brisbane mosque conflict. For example, in NSW, a Muslim women, many of whom and the burning of mosque facilities service was held in Martin Place, were afraid to venture out onto the in Adelaide - this was, of course, not attended by 5,000 people, and the streets or into public for several unprecedented as Lutheran churches Premier brought the religious leaders weeks in the major cities. This also had been burned down during together in a Unity-in-Adversity occurred after October 12th though the First World War. There was a forum at Government House. In negative reactions and serious significant increase in vandal attacks Victoria, the government made a incidents seem to have been less on Islamic mosques and schools, and public statement that not all Muslims according to the police evidence one Islamic school decided to erect are terrorists and that all Muslims from across Australia. It may indicate a barbed wire fence as protection. have the same rights as every citizen. the greater level of readiness and The number of attacks should not A ground-breaking event was the higher level of know-how amongst be exaggerated though it seems to multi-faith service held at Melbourne the police. However, it would seem have been larger than has so far Park in the presence of 10,000 people. numerous minor incidents have been publicly recognized. In the two gone unreported and Muslim weeks after S11, the Victorian Equal organizations have received much Opportunity Commission received hate mail. The Muslim community just over fifty accounts of reportable was particularly concerned about incidents such as a Muslim person police raids on Muslim family homes being driven at by a car, women’s in the Bali aftermath, and there was hijabs being ripped off and Muslims a growing feeling of covert hostility being refused service in banks. A that impacted in such matters as Muslim children’s bus was vandalised. gaining employment and winning Muslims were, however, not the promotion. only targets. There was an increased number of attacks on Jewish synagogues and other facilities, justifying yet again the considerable security expenses that the Jewish community has had to take upon itself for more than half a century. Sikhs and their temples, probably in cases of mistaken identity, were also targeted e.g. a pig’s head soaked in alcohol was thrown into the grounds of a Sikh temple. Several Christian buildings were also targeted.

84 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 85 In the consultations, more However, equally importantly and Inter-Faith Co-Operation longstanding grievances included: much more positively, on the other and its Limitations side of the ledger, the September 11th » aggressive and allegedly deceitful As part of the project, the research attacks have catalysed a series attempts by evangelical Anglicans team was asked to map the extent of inter-faith initiatives in many to convert Jews to Christianity of inter-faith interaction and parts of Australia. There has been through the use of names such as networking. Many individual a proliferation of initiatives and Rachel and Aaron examples of inter-faith co-operation organizations, though starting from were brought to the attention of the » regular vilification of Christianity a very low base. From the consultees, team: on Arabic and Islamic programs it is clear that there has occurred an on SBS Radio and community engagement with Muslims across » faith-for-peace walk where people radio Australia who themselves have walked from church to church realised they cannot remain in any and to the mosque » difficulties between Jews and spiritual or community enclave. Muslims in New South Wales, » a washing-of-the-feet ceremony Followers of Islam needed to educate including provocative anti- done jointly in a Uniting Church Australians about themselves and Semitic content on Muslim service by the minister and an their faith as an antidote to the Australian websites imam extremists who with their perverted » the isolationism of particular faith gain international and Australia » an address given by a Buddhist groups, including the Orthodox media attention. A level of antipathy monk in an Anglican cathedral churches and the Sikhs and misunderstanding against » an address given by a Catholic Islam is now a reality in Australia. » the publication in Uniting Church archbishop at a major mosque At the same time, there is a growing publications of allegedly anti- realization amongst Muslim leaders » Catholics and Muslims working Semitic letters and that their own imams need to be together to provide halal meals in » anti-Muslim material produced educated about exercising moderate a meals-on-wheels project in hard copy or on websites by leadership in a multi-faith society » multi-faith services on Australia Hindu and evangelical Christian and that there needs to be established Day to pray for the well-being of groups an Islamic educational institution the nation to train Islamic religious and civic leaders for the Australian context. » many efforts by members of These suggestions may well apply to the Bahai faith to bring faith other faiths new to Australia. communities together with exhibitions and other activities

84 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 85 However, the infrastructure for However, a very different picture It has worked with the Australian such inter-faith co-operation and emerges in regard to inter-faith Government in presenting the networking is weak. In contrast, the activity which is poorly supported. religious pageant in Melbourne’s mechanisms for ecumenical co- An exception to this are the various Exhibition Buildings as part of the operation through the Australian Councils for Christian-Jewish celebrations for the Centenary of Council of Churches and its State Relations which have worked Federation. In South Australia, there counterparts are well-established, for many years in places such as is an active Inter-Faith Council financially supported by the Melbourne and Sydney. Murdoch which works closely with the state mainstream churches which have University has played a particular multicultural and ethnic affairs often established ecumenical role in facilitating such relationships, commission, and the religious centre commissions and agencies. This work and in Melbourne, the Sisters of Our at Flinders University regularly dovetails with many official dialogue Lady of Sion have strongly supported sponsors multi-faith meetings. projects between the Churches at Christian-Jewish understanding Another factor that has required the an international level in breaking as part of their religious charism. different faiths to come together has down the doctrinal and historical Another Catholic religious order, the been the planning of religious studies barriers between the churches. At the Columban Fathers, have established for the final two years of high school, local level, over the past forty years a centre in Sydney to support and the providing of chaplains and there has grown up the Ministers’ Christian-Muslim relationships and religious education into government Associations which are usually have worked closely with the Turkish- schools. Inter-faith organizations informal groupings of religious based Australian Intercultural Society have begun to appear, especially in personnel in a local area. However, in recent years mounting conferences Melbourne though less so in Sydney as seen in the research, these do not with international and Australian on the basis of the evidence from the exist in many areas or they have fallen speakers. The major inter-faith consultations with religious leaders by the wayside; a certain lethargy organization is the Australian chapter and the electronic consultation with has crept into these fraternities, of the World Conference of Religions the Australian people. The religious except, perhaps, in rural towns and for Peace, centred in Melbourne and climate in Australia’s two major provincial cities. This would seem with an executive committee drawn cities is distinctively different. The to be occurring because of the from three States and with branches Baha’i community has been very disappointing progress that is being in Sydney and Hobart and, more active in bringing faith communities made in inter-church union, the recently, in Brisbane and Canberra. It together. In Melbourne, the Cities of greater pressure on fewer religious is linked into a world-wide network Dandenong and Moreland have led personnel and decreased lay support, with headquarters in New York the way in moves to form inter-faith especially amongst younger age which has strong connections with councils for their municipalities, and cohorts, and the lack of commitment the United Nations, and is a member now there are similar organizations to and interest in the ecumenical of the Asian Conference of Religion in the Cities of Geelong, Hume and ideal by evangelical and pentecostal and Peace which has its secretariat in Kingston. churches, the fastest-growing Seoul. churches in Australia.

86 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 87 The Victorian Council of Churches In Queensland, an inter-faith Muslim prayer rooms have has an inter-faith sub-committee, and multicultural forum has been in proliferated on Australian campuses the Unity-in-Diversity and Ganesha existence for some time through the which has, in turn, raised questions Temple of Healing in Templestowe interest of the state office of ethnic about provision for other religious has sponsored inter-religious affairs, and on the Gold Coast there faiths, especially if there are no dialogue. In many municipalities, is an inter-faith dialogue group. longstanding Christian halls of there may be committees formed However, the most important residence and divinity colleges that include religious leaders along initiative has been the development attached to the university. RMIT with other local community leaders of Griffith University’s Multi-Faith University recently took over the or may include only the Christian Centre which is developing high- prison chapel of the Old Melbourne leaders. Another pioneering initiative level academic expertise in inter-faith gaol, calling it “RMIT’s sacred space”, in inter-faith co-operation has been matters. Monash University has long to be used by staff and students for at Dandenong hospital where a had a multi-faith worship centre and quiet meditation and reflection as multi-faith religious space has been other universities are considering well as for religious services. The created, able to be adapted for use by similar proposals, especially if issue of chaplaincy in Australia’s all the major faiths. they have substantial intakes of universities needs further study. international students.

Across Australia, the terrorist attacks of September 11th 2001 were handled at all levels with maturity and alacrity though some political and religious leaders in some States could have reacted more quickly.

86 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 87 As the mainstream churches An Australian National Dialogue of Christians, Jews and Muslims has recently commenced through are forced to withdraw their the participation of the Australian Federation of Islamic Councils, the personnel from areas such as Executive Council of Australian Jewry and the National Council of Churches of Australia. As well, MCAT inner suburbia or to spread (Muslim-Christian Action Team) has been formed involving Affinity, a Turkish Muslim group, the Uniting their resources more thinly in Church of Australia, the Columban centre and the Catholic Commission poorer, outer-suburban areas, for Ecumenical and Inter-Faith Relations. The General Synod of the Anglican Church of Australia ecumenical activity has become has initiated a dialogue with Islamic organizations. At a national level, the more problematical. Federation of Ethnic Communities’ Councils of Australia (FECCA) has established a special committee to In Sydney, the inter-religious climate, Another women’s dialogue network address inter-faith issues, holding its according to consultees, has been has been sponsored out of the first meeting in April, 2003. more problematic with the Christian Christian-Muslim relations centre churches divided between two established by a Roman Catholic umbrella organizations, making co- congregation, the Columbans, which operation difficult. Some Christian has done valuable work. In Auburn, groups were reluctant or simply valuable work at a local level has refused to participate in the post-S11 also been done by the Australian service in Martin Place. There seem Islamic Cultural Centre. Since not to be many Ministers’ Fraternals September 11th, several initiatives and inter-church councils are few, have taken place though they are only in such places as Dee Why, hampered by divisions within the Mosman-Neutral Bay, Kuringai and Muslim communities and by the Roseville-Lindfield. At the inter- refusal of low-church evangelical faith level, the Sydney branch of the and Pentecostal groups to fully WCRP has operated for many years, commit themselves to inter-faith and informally linked to it has been a co-operation, especially in inter-faith women’s inter-faith network in which religious services. individual women from a variety of traditions speak of their faith journeys.

88 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 89 However, it needs to be acknowledged » The Buddhist community, to » The Sikhs were consumed by the that, whilst there is a natural the deep-throated gong of a horror of it all, and in despair theological and historical impetus bell sounding the passing of they cried out, “O God, the world to ecumenical activity between the life, asked those present to close is going up in flames; save it; by Christian communities, this is less their eyes and become bodies whatever means, deliver it. O God, true of inter-faith activity between of light, praying for this disaster who can save it?” the world’s major religious groups. As not to worsen and for all to be » The Muslim imam, focussing one long-experienced Jewish leader enlightened that the enemy and on “the convulsion of the days”, put it, inter-faith activity is ‘a hard those who harm can be our in sending their community’s slog’. The data showed considerable best teachers and that everyone condolences to the people of resistance to many forms of such consider the Karmic causes and the USA, prayed for peace and activity, in particular, multi-faith origins of the hatred that drove harmony in the whole world and religious services. Christian faith the terrorists. reminded us, “O all mankind, fear communities who base their faith on » To the sound of the ram’s horn, your Lord”. the inerrancy and literal infallibility the oldest known musical of the Bible such as low-church » The Bahais prayed, “O my God, instrument, in the year 5762 Anglicans, Presbyterians, evangelicals O my God, unite the hearts of thy of its calendar, the Jewish and pentecostals are resistant to such servants; help them to serve thee; community asked all to reflect religious services. The strength of this leave them not to themselves”, on the Talmudic saying, “Those resistance will vary depending on the enjoining all that “the thought of who share in the grief of the circumstances, but it may be based hatred must be destroyed by the community will share in its on the allegation that the different more powerful thought of love” redemption” to which they invited faiths have different conceptions of everyone present to respond with » and lastly, the Christian singer God. Since every other conception “Amen”. sang of “beautiful brokenness’, the of God is false, particular faith beautiful brokenness of the cross communities will only participate » The Hindus focussed on the followed by the resurrectional in services where everyone holds aphorism that ‘experience is not transformation, and the reader the same conception of God. The what happens to you; it is what recited the Beatitudes, “Blessed most successful multi-faith religious you do with what happens to are they who mourn; they shall services are those where each faith you’, lighting the candle of love be comforted; blessed are the has a small segment in which a prayer for peace and prosperity for the merciful; they shall have mercy or a reflection is drawn from each’s world and for the departed souls, shown them”, imploring through spiritual heritage. The services are, and praying “may there be peace the voice of the carpenter, “we thus, multi-faith rather than inter- in the heavenly regions” in line want justice, not vengeance”. faith. Perhaps the best example of with the great Hindu principle this was the Melbourne multi-faith of ahimsa, non injury, that “it In organising such services, there service held after September 11th is the principle of the pure of are other sensitivities in need of and the following is a resume of each heart never to injure others, even negotiation: the use of symbols such tradition’s contribution as the seven when they themselves have been as candles and icons for God and communities prayed for, with and fatefully injured” and with the other spiritual figures, and the use of over the assembled 10,000 people in advice that “an eye for an eye, and music which, for example, is never drawing on their spiritual heritages to soon everyone will be blind”. used in the Islamic tradition. reflect on terrorist attacks.

88 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 89 Conclusions 1. Australia and 2. Ecumenical and September 11th Inter-Faith Co-Operation In reviewing the evidence concerning racial and religious violence and Across Australia, the terrorist The ecumenical aim to bring the inter-faith relationships from the attacks of September 11th 2001 were Christian churches together in different data sources, the following handled at all levels with maturity the pursuit of Christian unity areas of concern have emerged: and alacrity though some political is organizationally supported and religious leaders in some States by most churches through the could have reacted more quickly. The National Council of Churches in most concrete signs of this response Australia and its umbrella State were religious services conducted counterparts. There remains much in the capital cities. However, right enthusiasm, underpinned by high across Australia there were serious level scholarship, at the state and and less serious physical attacks national levels. But, while ecumenical on Muslim, Jewish, Sikh and a few relationships in some areas is thriving Christian buildings summed up in and productive of many initiatives, one slogan, “kill the Arabs’. There this is combined with a widespread were also attacks, mostly verbal feeling of tiredness at local level and but some physical which usually with the reluctance by low-church meant the ripping off of women’s evangelical and Pentecostal groups hijabs, upon Muslims and Sikhs, to be involved in such activity. As particularly Muslim women whose the mainstream churches are forced fears of going out into public space to withdraw their personnel from has considerably increased, including areas such as inner suburbia or to after the Bali attack. Since most spread their resources more thinly of our data was collected before in poorer, outer-suburban areas, this attack, we cannot make any ecumenical activity has become more definitive conclusions except that problematical. Inter-faith activity the police evidence made available is more sporadic and random at to us through the Australasian Police local level though many areas of Multicultural Advisory Bureau Australia have so few persons of a suggests serious incidents were less non-Christian background that such numerous after October 12th. But activity lacks relevance. But such there were many minor incidents activity is even more problematic which went unreported. However, exemplified by the fact that the the terrorist attacks have generated, research team could identify only firstly, a desire by the Muslim one salaried person working full- community to be more engaged time in this sensitive area. It relies on with other religious groups and the volunteers. Whilst the Federal and broader community than previously, State multicultural bodies would and, secondly, there commenced claim that the inter-faith area might a series of inter-faith initiatives come under their aegis as part of at various levels, which remain inter-ethnic relationships, none fragmented and unco-ordinated. has any specialist expertise in the

90 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 91 area. Nonetheless, there has been 3. High-Level Dialogue 4. Religious Leadership and a welcomed spate of activity since and Awareness Hostility Defusion September 11th. However, unlike the Internationally and across The evidence suggested that religious ecumenical movement, its aim can Australia, there are many instances leaders generally play a positive role never be inter-faith unity and it lacks of interaction, dialogue and co- in defusing hatreds and hostilities a rationale except for the key one of operation between Australian and brought to Australia by particular inter-faith understanding and unity. international religious leaders. As individuals and whole immigrant, one example in Australia, there has usually refugee, communities. been longstanding formal contact Australia has an enviable record in between Christian and Jewish leaders. defusing ancient and less ancient However, the research suggested hatreds. To use the typology of Kunz that the content and results of these (1973, 1981) the most numerous in high-level conversations are not refugee communities are the “passive disseminated to many, if not most, hurt” who, after the traumas of social religious communities. Often, they chaos, war, torture etc., the dangers of may be communicated through the escape, the uncertainties of their religious newspapers, which are read future destinations and the dangers by a minority of religious followers. of the refugee camp, wish to retreat It would seem that the results need to into peacefulness and to gain both be filtered down more systematically internal and external security as they from the pulpit. mourn for their lost homeland, worry and feel guilty about their relatives and friends left behind, come to terms that they have been the losers and settle into Australia. They are led by “integration-seeking realists”, including religious leaders, and “eager assimilationists”, who wish to put the past behind them and adapt, if not assimilate, into their host society.

90 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 91 Their task is rendered difficult by As one said, “the wounds are 5. The Special Situation of the “revolutionary activists” whose too fresh”, and it is a matter of the Australian Muslim thoughts are focussed on their home considered judgement if and when Communities country and their major aim is to it is appropriate to bring previously There was agreement, though not overthrow the current regime. Much opposed groups together. Religious unanimous, that, in the wake of energy is given in trying to whip leaders implied that, in negating overseas events, Muslim communities up the refugee community to give inter-ethnic and inter-faith hostility needed special support at this money to any resistance movement, brought from overseas, they often dangerous time. There was much to participate in demonstrations and walk a communal tight-rope evidence to suggest that many other forms of collective resistance inasmuch as they must retain the Christian leaders had reached out and perhaps to encourage young male confidence of their congregation after New York and Bali, and that the community members to return to upon whom they rely financially for Muslim communities had, in turn, take up arms. At the same time, the their livelihood. The attention of the begun a more fruitful dialogue with community is engaged in the process research team was brought to the the broader community. Various of cultural, linguistic and religious efforts of academics and community Catholic groups and the Uniting maintenance. leaders from the La Trobe Group Church of Australia through its who had brought together sections Local faith leaders such as migrant financial support of the LaTrobe of the Turkish and Greek Cypriot chaplains and Buddhist monks fit group to support Christian-Muslim communities in Melbourne through uneasily into this scenario. Generally, dialogue in Melbourne had led the confidence-building measures such as with their universalist message of love way. Islam in Australia is a multi- concerts, soccer matches and raising and reconciliation and their realist faceted reality (Cleland 2002; Saeed funds for a sick child. The evidence message that former enemy groups, 2003). further suggested that, whilst playing now living in Australia, ought be left a positive role, some ethnoreligious Several Muslim consultees claimed alone in the interests of multicultural leaders remain locked into past there was only one authentic Islam Australia and community image stereotyped and sociopolitical with little variation in interpretation and in accord with the religious attitudes, especially amongst those whereas the historical evidence ethic of loving your enemy, they from the Middle East. suggests otherwise (Armstrong 2000; play a positive role. Nonetheless, the Saeed 2003). There are many Islamic evidence indicated that, in many voices, and it is difficult to know cases, their thinking is locked into the which are the authoritative ones past, and they have no contact with – the same situation exists in other each other, Catholic with Orthodox, religions. Several Muslim consultees Muslim with Christian, even after spoke of ‘ethnic fiefdoms and imams many years in Australia. At crisis self-appointing themselves to times, Federal and State authorities various positions’. Of course, similar do often bring together community circumstances occur in other faith leaders, including religious. groups.

92 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 93 Points and suggestions made in the now freely operating across the 6. Knowledge about various consultations were: country (Bouma and Singleton and Attitudes towards 2004). Governments have funded » Assistance in their public relations Other Faiths Islamic schools, unlike the United to combat biased opinions The research evidence suggested Kingdom which refused to fund expressed in newspapers and talk- that the knowledge levels of faith such schools until recent years. Nor back radio. members towards other faiths were has Australia imitated the French far from accurate – some informants » Need to build a Muslim government which has disallowed thought the Hindus and Buddhists educational institution staffed the wearing of the hijab in French worship stone statues and other by international scholars for schools. However, the reality is that views of Catholic theology on key educating their own imams and fear and rejection of Islam exists points were mistaken; still others other community leaders for the in Australia. In a study of 5056 had inadequate ideas of Islamic Australian context. people in NSW and Queensland martyrdom and others alleged interviewed by telephone in October- » Need to continue developing Christians were polytheists. It can be November 2002, Dunn (2003) found contacts between its 29 schools suggested that, because most faith that when asked which groups did across Australia and other schools communities are fundamentally not fit into Australia, one quarter through exchange visits, debating in competition with each other responded either “Muslim’ or contests, sporting contests etc. for adherents and converts, it is in “Arab”, compared to 14.75 per cent the interests of faith communities » Need to better educate the in respect to Asians. Islam, like the that their followers have negative, Australian community on Islamic term, ‘the West’, is not a unitary misconceived ideas of other faiths or attitudes to gender equality, entity. Halliday, an eminent student that skewed versions of other faiths monogamy and polygamy and of international politics writes, “The are presented. Yet, it would seem female genital mutilation. core simplification involves these that accuracy ought be an essential very terms themselves: ‘the West’ » Need to further develop mosques prescription for how religious is not a valid aggregation of the not just as prayer halls, but as communities operate in multi-faith modern world and lends itself far local social and recreational Australia. Competition ought be fair too easily to monist, conspiratorial centres in accordance with the and honourable. presentations of political and centuries-long tradition of Islamic social interaction. But nor is the Underlying the skewed knowledge architecture. term ‘Islam’ a valid shorthand for issue was another serious and » Professional development summarizing how a billion Muslims, contentious issue, namely, theological programs for imams and other divided into over fifty states, and into frameworks towards other faiths. Islamic leaders to assist them in myriad ethnicities and social groups, In the research, it emerged on four their leadership in a multi-faith relate to the contemporary world, separate occasions where Christian society. to each other or to the non-Muslim evangelical or Pentecostal groups world. To get away from such expressed views such as ‘other Despite the difficulties that simplifications is, however, virtually religions are the work of Satan’. have arisen, triggered more by impossible, since both those opposed overseas events than internal to to ‘Islam’ and those invoking it Australia, Australia has done well adhere to such labels” in accommodating its Muslim (Halliday 1999: 893). communities with many mosques

92 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 93 The religious base of Australian and torturous, extending back 2000 7. Reluctance for Inter-Faith racism is a subject little studied years to apostolic times. Mainstream and Social Participation though Yarwood and Knowling Christianity has seemingly reached Another issue to emerge concerned (1982) drew attention to one element agreement that salvation outside the participation. The evidence of the British colonial baggage. They Church is possible with theories about revealed on the part of some faith suggested that the Biblical injunction the anonymous Christian or about communities and their leaders a to tame or subdue the earth and conscientious belief or about the reluctance to participate in inter-faith make it fruitful like ‘the sturdy intrinsic worth of authentic religions events, especially inter-faith services. English farmer’ had provided ample other than Christianity. Despite the There was some reluctance to engage justification for robbing Australian tragic history of Muslim-Christian with people from other faiths and Aborigines of their lands. This relations and the current situation even of people of the same faith but idea was intrinsically linked to the in the Middle East, Muslims have different denominations. In some Christian thinking of the philosopher, positive attitudes to the Peoples of the cases, this failure was theologically John Locke, and the economist, Book, but it may not be clear what is justified as explained in the previous Adam Smith, in his treatise on how their attitude to other faiths. It would section or it was a matter of time, nations generate wealth. They further seem that all faith communities need, priorities and strategies. Often, it noted that the Christian symbolism, as a matter of urgency, to develop was concomitant with a stress on also found in Shakespeare’s plays, their theologies of “The Other” and individual conversion and salvation of blackness and night to represent of other faiths so as to disseminate with a lukewarm attitude to the sin and evil cauterised any possible them at grassroots level in order to creation of social capital. positive attitude to Australia’s first avoid the charge of religious racism. peoples though the other injunction To be noted is that preparatory Social participation through speaking to love your neighbour, and even training for all religious personnel out on selected issues, handling your enemy, would have played a needs to include subjects on this and the press, knowing how to network mitigating role. associated topics before taking on and lobby etc. were found to be not their spiritual and pastoral work in highly developed in some of the The thinking that there is no eternal a religiously pluralist society. The newer religious groups, forfeiting salvation without explicit union with last point is that these anti-cohesion their ability to participate in and the infinite God is alive and well in attitudes seem more entrenched in contribute to social debate. This was contemporary Australia according Sydney than elsewhere. partially linked to the issue of English to this study which also showed language proficiency of religious there is genuine confusion on the The study also found, again leaders, canvassed in the previous topic. The question has to be asked: within evangelical and Catholic chapter. is this theological belief a possible communities, deeply entrenched religious base for racism and religious and negative attitudes towards prejudice? The history of whether homosexuals. In one country town there is salvation outside Christianity, conflict over this issue caused a split expressed in the Latin phrase, extra in a congregation, and a major city ecclesiam nulla salus (outside the was the setting for diatribes on the church there is no salvation), is long issue from the pulpit of a suburban church.

94 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 95 8. Inter-Faith Marriages It ultimately is personally maturative The Christian spouse was much for the two partners who in the more likely to give the children the Intermarriage has been said to be intimacy of their marital relationship choice of their own religion than an important barometer of social and in their day-to-day contact with their Muslim partner. On the West cohesion and inter-ethnic and inter- their own families of origin may have Bank, mixed marriages bring mixed faith relationships. Whenever and to deal with the complex intricacies outcomes, and Ata concludes, “clearly, however it occurs, it usually is an of cross-cultural communication and without major adjustment by the emotional topic, and its incidence miscommunication. community at large to this newly- is clearly on the rise in Australia. emerged paradigm of partnership, It implies the crossing of ethnic, In Australia, there has been a series of Christian-Muslim marriages are religious, linguistic, racial or national studies on Filipino brides, including doomed to failure” (Ata 2000: 101). boundaries by a woman and a man that of Cahill (1990) who, in a in life’s most intimate union. The study of Filipina women married For religious leaders, intermarriage decision to marry outside one’s own to Australian, Japanese and Swiss is a vexed and difficult issue. In group often generates considerable men, found that those in Australia this study, inter-church and inter- intellectual and emotional turmoil. were the happiest and most satisfied faith marriages emerged as an issue There are two fundamental even though there were significant though not a dominant one. Whilst paradigms. The stunting approach problems. Penny and Khoo (1992) the former has been adequately dealt emphasizes the problems generated: took a positive approach to the topic, with over past decades, the latter intermarriage inevitably ruptures and highlighted the success of these is more problematic. Leaders fear group boundaries, is often associated marriages in Australia. The Australian them because they are perceived as with female exploitation, leads researcher, Abe Ata has investigated leading to an inevitable loss of faith to a higher incidence of family marriages between Christian and commitment and a dwindling in breakdown and generates identity Muslim partners living on the West membership numbers. In reaching a problems for both the partners and Bank. The overwhelming pattern pastoral accommodation, religious especially for the children. To quote was that the males were Muslims leaders can vary enormously in a Chinese saying, “a chicken does and their female partners Christian. their reaction ranging from outright not marry a duck”. The alternative The religious communities, as well condemnation to quiet antipathy liberating approach accentuates as relatives and friends, perceived to genuine ambivalence to perhaps the positive: it highlights the these marriages “as a threat to the resigned acceptance of the inevitable. intercultural communicative aspect fine balance and cohesion which In the consultations, it was not a of intermarriages which leads to have shaped the community for subject leaders were comfortable the rupturing of monolithic groups centuries” (Ata 2000: 96). This with and there was some consensus based on ethnicity, religion or culture. negativity impacted on the couples, that, at this point in time with its It facilitates broader intercultural causing stress and emotional strain. incidence still low, it should be interaction between various There was also a lack of professional left to the individual policy of the groupings or societies which is the and community support for their faith community and the couple basis for inter-group co-operation. children. themselves.

94 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 95 chapter six Religion, cultural diversity and social cohesion: National and international perspectives

In a global world characterised As our historical overview has be required as a qualification for by ideoscapes, financescapes, suggested, the Australian colonies any office or public trust under the mediascapes, ethnoscapes and and the subsequent Australian Commonwealth”. Subsequently, in technoscapes, the role of the nation nation-state, notwithstanding the 1981, in the unsuccessful challenge state has changed because it is denominational tensions and the to government funding of religious inescapably influenced, if not actually various negativities religious bodies schools, the High Court clarified the vulnerable to, global processes have generated, have viewed religion meaning of the word ‘establishing’ (Appadurai 1996). Despite the claim as an asset and a resource. Society’s – it meant recognition of any religion of some theorists that the nation state need to define the social and political ‘as a national institution’ of the state is increasingly ‘a nostalgic fiction’, space for faith communities to (Attorney-General (vic); Ex rel Black nation states will survive and thrive practise their faith with due regard to v. Commonwealth (1981) 146 CLR though each will need to reposition their civic and multi-faith contexts is 559 at 612 per Mason J. at 653 per itself internally as well as in relation a delicate art. The task requires faith Wilson J.). Accordingly, the state to the fractal global neighbourhood. communities to accomplish their cannot make Anglicanism or any This re-alignment may include a task in building up cultural, social other faith the established religion re-examination of the faith-state and spiritual capital that contributes of the Australian state (Sheen 1996; relationship, which can be expressed to the broader nation-building and Bouma 1999). in the total separation of religion world citizenship agenda. But it The extensive consultation with and state, leaving religious practice also requires a civil society to allow the nation’s national and state faith to be a matter for the private forum, religion to be counter-cultural in leaders was designed to elicit their or in the opposite extreme of a close critiquing society for its corruption thoughts on the evolving religion- configuration between religion and for its social and spiritual ills. state relationship and on their place and state in theocratic societies. Religious freedom is a paramount in the evolving Australian society. Australian society tends to the former right enshrined in the 1948 end of this spectrum rather than the Declaration of Human Rights, re- latter, but nor is it at its extreme end. iterated in several other international conventions and covenants, including, after 19 years of debate, the 1981 Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance and of Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief, the so-called Religion Declaration, which is to protect individuals and religious groups from undue intervention by the state in religious matters. Section 116 of the Australian Constitution states “The Commonwealth shall not make any law for establishing any religion, or for imposing any religious observance, or for prohibiting the free exercise of religion, and no religious test shall

96 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 97 The present era is seeing the 1. Shift from a Christian to a It was suggested religion had been coalescing of three historic shifts in Paradoxically almost written out of Australian Australia, and it is appropriate that Multi-faith and Secular history, and the prevailing attitude the issues raised be grouped around Society amongst opinion-makers is ‘all these three trends which are: religion is wrong, and all faiths Previous chapters have documented are equally right”, no matter how 1. The shift from a Christian to a the transformation to the multi-faith outlandish or extreme they may be. paradoxically and secular profile of Australia’s civil The fact that 68 per cent of Australia’s both multi-faith and secular society. The consultations revealed population were Christian according society disagreements about the place of to the 2001 census was being ignored, religion in contemporary Australia. 2. The repositioning of the and could be even more ignored in A Jewish consultee argued that relationship between the move to a multi-faith society if Australia is a profoundly Christian religion and state Christianity was to be recognized as country because of its underlying only one of the world’s major faiths 3. The international dimension: value system with its work week when the other faiths represented interface between the based around the Christian Sunday only 4.8 per cent of the population. formation of religious and as a rest day and its major holidays Leaders of smaller faith communities linguistic diaspora and are Christmas and Easter. This generally felt ignored without any the new technologies was not recognized as such by capacity to influence public life. Christian leaders who see Australia as profoundly secular with agnosticism Three sets of issues emerged in the and atheism rampant, dominating context of this overall shift: public debate and unduly influential, a. Signs, symbols and sacred places and it is felt that the introduction of some laws are not reflective of b. Education in and for a multi-faith mainstream Christian positions. They society see themselves and their faith groups c. Faith communities and the media in a beleaguered situation with religion either ignored or ridiculed or under relentless attack. Immigrant faith leaders are often surprised by the strength of the secularist putsch. In the view of the leaders, religion is constantly in conflict with the secularist forces who fail to recognize the worthwhile nature of religion and its implicit altruism. Everything has been reduced to the lowest common denominators set by the secularists.

96 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 97 a. Signs, Symbols and Accordingly, the example of other Use of Christian Churches countries offers contrasting models Sacred Places The use of Christian churches and each nation must make its own God is recognized in the Australian in times of national celebration choices. constitution though, if Australia were and of national and international to move to a republic, the designers The consultations in Australia tragedies and their subsequent of any revised constitution would focussed on other, equally pertinent commemorations was considered need to address the inclusion of issues: inappropriate. Examples were given God in any preamble. The European of the Centenary of Federation Use of the Christian Cross Union is currently struggling with celebratory service held in St. Paul’s the same issue – the draft first 15 The use of the Christian symbol Anglican Cathedral in London, articles make no reference to God of the cross for public events or on and of the occasional use of St. to the consternation of Catholic, public insignia was raised. Some Christopher’s Catholic Cathedral Protestant and Orthodox leaders, led consultees pointed out that the cross as Canberra’s largest church for by the Pope, who have argued there had been used at a public ceremony commemorative services such as the needs to be a reference to Europe’s held at Gallipoli on Anzac Day in S11 anniversary. Australia’s national Christian heritage and that a reference the presence of the Prime Minister capital lacks a holy site or a sacred to God is necessary to show that when it was known that, amongst place, large enough to accommodate the claims of public power are not the fallen buried there, at least four crowds or adaptable enough to absolute, that certain rights inhere are Jewish Australians; that the cross accommodate different faith by virtue of God-given dignity and had been placed on the casket of the traditions, where the nation can come that religious freedom ought be Unknown Soldier when it is possible together to celebrate or to mourn recognized in its individual as well as he may have been of another faith. or to reflect on its journey into the its institutional dimensions. A group The opposing view argues that it is future. As well, there is no burial of Christian M.P.s has suggested the appropriate since Australia’s religious place such as Arlington Cemetery phrasing, The Union values include heritage is mainly Christian and the in Washington where illustrious or the values of those who believe in God majority of Australians are Christian, exemplary or heroic Australians can as the source of truth, justice, good and even if many are only nominally so. be buried and whose graves can be beauty as well as of those who do not A middle view suggests that a new, visited by subsequent generations share such a belief but respect these composite sign be developed and though this raises the issue of the universal values arising from other negotiated by the faith groups. The expressions of the national spirit and sources but this was rejected as divisive solution to use no symbol is rejected nationalism which are little debated and offensive (Bruton 2003). Among because it is felt the secular minority in public life except for the incessant the developed countries, the USA is imposing its view on the religious debate on the Australian identity. offers a very different scenario with majority and as taking the lowest the strong recognition of God in the common denominator approach. constitution and in public life though paradoxically its strong division between religion and state ensures the state cannot publicly fund religious institutions such as schools.

98 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 99 Use of the Our Father Oaths and Public Affirmations Construction and Use of Places of Worship The use of the exemplary Christian The use of oaths and public prayer, the Our Father, to commence affirmations was raised as an The construction of places of each parliamentary day was raised issue by the Victoria police who, worship, especially by groups other though some Christian leaders in their submission, saw religion than Christian, was signalled as considered it ought to be acceptable as a powerful reinforcer of social a significant issue as was their to all faiths since the name of Jesus is norms and values and a promoter of use, particularly during the night never mentioned. The suggestion that social solidarity. In their swearing- for evening, night and pre-dawn the Our Father be replaced by a series in ceremony at police graduation, prayer or liturgical services. Local of prayers and readings selected by currently in use is an affirmation government authorities and each of the major faith communities with a non-denominational Christian residents’ groups placed barriers on a rotational basis with, perhaps, format which, as police from Asian or constraining restrictions and, the Our Father, in deference to the and Middle Eastern backgrounds whilst, when the faith groups Christian majority, being recited were more incorporated into the took the planning permit issue to to close each parliamentary day force, was becoming inappropriate. higher tribunals or courts, they was received by religious leaders as This issue would seem to be present usually (but not always) won, it was a more preferred and worthwhile in other police and military settings at considerable financial cost to compromise. It is suggested that and in legal and paralegal settings struggling groups. This had forced the rotation also include a reading with the use of the Bible or the faith groups, usually not Christian, chosen by rationalist or atheist affirmation when a religious person to erect their places of worship in organizations in deference to those may prefer to take an oath in other industrial or semi-industrial areas. whose world view is not embedded ways. The issue needs further research The consultations suggest the in a theist framework. It is suggested to discover current legal practice in problem is Australia-wide. Examples that the rotational system include other countries. were given of sites previously those faith groups which have at occupied by churches where the faith least 0.333 per cent of the total group could not obtain permission population – in 2001, this would have because the temple or mosque did included the following 16 groups not fit in with the local residential (in order): Catholic, Anglican, No building culture and of Christian-led Religion (atheist/rationalist), Uniting residential groups leading campaigns Church, Presbyterian, Orthodox, to stop construction. Buddhist, Baptist, Muslim, Lutheran, Pentecostal, Hindu, Jewish, Jehovah’s Witness, Salvation Army and Church of Christ. Local inter-faith groups such as Hume in Melbourne have utilized a similar system successfully. Such a solution would show to the world Australia as a lighthouse of multi-faith co-operation.

98 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 99 Related to this is use. Faith groups b. Education in and for Religion in Government Schools reported difficulty with local a Multi-Faith Society Criticism focussed on the failure of government authorities on the use Educational issues were a constant government schools in particular of bells in the case of churches (e.g. theme in the consultations. In to address the issue of religious to sound the time of the Angelus, a the public consultation, the most faith. Their general self-perception very common practice in European cited issue of serious concern was was of secular schools, agnostic, if churches) or the use of the call to religious education in mainstream not antagonistic to faith matters, prayer or the gathering for prayer public and private schools. In fourth rather than of schools in and for an at unusual times in the case of place was the education of faith Australian and global civil society. Muslims. Invariably, objection community leaders, addressed in Some parents were also aggressive came from local residents, some the previous chapter. There were in not wanting religion to play any motivated by religious competition, very few concerned about the part in the life of a government and permission was not granted on existence of full-time and part-time school. There were doubts about the the basis of noise restrictions even religious and ethnoreligious schools. efficacy of casual, perhaps poorly though it could be argued that such There was general agreement that trained, religious personnel entering restrictions are an infringement of Australians had become less literate schools for short weekly periods on religious freedom. in religious matters and that this was behalf of their own denominational a less than favourable development, groups. There was also feedback that given not merely that Australia religious subjects in the final years itself was moving towards being of secondary schooling, accredited a multi-faith society but that for by the Year 12 authorities, needed trade, commercial, diplomatic and to be revisited as an issue, perhaps recreational (inc. sporting) activities, to incorporate a greater inter- empathy for and understanding of faith dimension. However, there religious faiths in other countries, is strong anecdotal evidence that not least in Asia and the Middle East, because of schooling and family was an essential component of global factors the majority of Australian literacy. government school students are religiously illiterate. This study could not have religion in government schools and in schools generally as a major focus, and the issue needs further research. Three schools (2 Catholic, 1 Lutheran) were included as minor elements in the research, and they were shown to be creating social capital in accomplishing their missions.

100 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 101 Full-time Ethnic and Ethnoreligious and Arabic schools; in Victoria, In his study, Cahill (1996) found Schools there are Coptic Orthodox, Greek, there was concern over overcrowding Islamic, Jewish and Turkish schools. and poor physical facilities of many As a result of the monumental In his research, Cahill (1996) noted ethnic and ethnoreligious schools; policy change in the early 1970s, suggestions that their growth had significant industrial problems; initially through the McMahon and been spurred by the failure of the unhealthy and sometimes bitter then the Whitlam governments, to government system to provide competitiveness between schools give funding to private schools for cultural maintenance and religious drawing students from the same construction and running costs, a education programs though no ethnic community; lack of funded smorgasbord of schools has arisen empirical research has investigated ESL programs; the ‘pervading which includes not only Christian this as an issue. ethnocentricity’ of the leadership Biblical schools run by evangelical group; lack of contact with other and Pentecostal groups but also by Their proliferation has been types of Australian students; ethnic and ethnoreligious groups. questioned and debated a little in historically dubious curriculum There was a small minority dissenting academic circles (Bullivant 1982; materials emanating from the source view representing either secularists or Lewins 1982), but only occasionally country and lack of knowledge religionists who argue for a complete in public. The questioning has by principals and teachers about separation of religion and state that been in terms of social cohesion educational policy and curriculum “all such schools should not gain and the potential divisiveness and statements. He also found that, in my taxes to teach their religious and of educational pathways. Our two separate studies (1984, 1996) particular sectarian nonsense”. consultations revealed a similar mainstream Australian teachers disquiet at the highest levels of Part of this development has been remain firmly and overwhelmingly the public service, not concerning the growth especially of Lutheran opposed to these schools. their existence which is accepted as schools, whilst other mainstream government policy, but about their churches such as the Anglican social contribution. Bullivant who and Uniting churches have begun labelled these schools as “ethnic dual building schools in newer suburban curriculum schools”, asked whether schools. However, there has been the historical framework is focused little growth in ecumenical schools on the past rather than the present: that cross the Catholic-Protestant “an extreme example would be for divide – there had been much talk Greek children to learn only about during the 1970s for such ventures Greek culture as it existed in ancient with one actually being mounted at Greece, but neglect the modern Maryborough in Victoria but little period that has evolved since the has occurred since. A proliferation collapse of the military dictatorship of full-time schools sponsored by in July 1974” (Bullivant 1982: 19). ethnic and religious communities An opposing view considers the has occurred in the past two decades, schools to be legitimate expressions some inspired by religious faith of ethnic and religious pluralism and motivations, other by concerns for in accordance with the principles of cultural and linguistic maintenance. parental choice. Bullivant also asked Most are in New South Wales and whether the schools, insofar as they Victoria. In New South Wales, focus on a passing lifestyle, are not there are Greek, Armenian, Jewish, ultimately detrimental to the students’ Maronite Catholic, Turkish Muslim life chances.

100 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 101 Begum (1985) in a study of the Part-time Ethnic and in the school curriculum content. Victorian Muslim community Religious Schools Parochialism and religio-centrism questioned the existence of prevailed in the religious education, The existence of part-time ethnic Muslim schools because of an particularly in church-schools. schools dates back to the 1830s alleged incompatibility between Religious education is at the core though it was not till Tsounis’ work multicultural theory and Islam of the church-schools’ function that they were brought to public itself and the lack of an appropriate together with language and culture attention. They received considerable educational model. However, in a forming a separate subject, although attention in the literature up until the more focused study Donoghue-Clyne generally Greek schools focussed mid-1980s (Tsounis 1974; Kringas (2000) gave a much more upbeat more on culture and language and & Lewins 1981; Eckstein 1982; and positive evaluation, outlining the less on religion. Despite the focus Lewins 1982; Norst 1984), and some various options available to Muslim on religious formation, students’ attention since then (Cahill 1996; parents and their communities (see knowledge of Greek Orthodoxy Arvinitis 2000). Cahill found that also Donoghue Clyne 2001). Cahill could only be described as poor mainstream teachers had become (1996) noted that detailed knowledge and stereotypical. A mono-religious more accepting of these schools, and of full-time ethnic schools remains approach was employed failing to there had been increased interface a serious gap in the literature and address the broader issues of identity with the full-time system. among mainstream educational formation and inter-religious administrators who have overall In her study of part-time Greek education. Orthodoxy was never responsibility under the various schools sponsored by the church, presented in an ecumenical context educational legislative acts for the the community and private nor in a universal context which quality of schooling. There has been entrepreneurs, Arvinitis (2000) stands at the core of an authentic some improvement in this over the found the schools had been Orthodoxy”. Arvinitis concluded, past decade, but this consultation reasonably successful in teaching “Greek Orthodoxy in Australia is still brought forth the following issue: the Greek language. In curriculum tied to its traditional alliance with what do Islamic schools teach about and pedagogical terms, the church a certain ethnocentrism” (Arvinitis Judaism? What do Catholic schools schools were the least successful. 2000: 333). teach about Buddhism? To what Overall, religious instruction in Both Australian and some State extent do these schools incorporate the three types of schools was not Governments have given small inter-faith modules in their religious viewed as that important. Among amounts of per capita funding to education program? Anecdotal many community leaders and part-time ethnic schools but little evidence suggests there is some but some parents, faith was no longer is known of their functioning, limited interaction between these perceived as a core component; it especially amongst the more-recently types of schools, including between was important but less important arrived groups. Jewish and Islamic schools, but no than language, cultural awareness systematic study has examined the and self-identification as a Greek. situation which is a fundamental She concluded, “the Orthodox’s one in terms of Australian social slow response to an increasingly cohesion. changing world and to perceiving the implications of globalisation and the necessities of an ecumenical and inter-faith perspective to Orthodox faith education within a religiously diverse society became apparent

102 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 103 c. Faith Communities and Young reporters were not sure of On the other hand, it was the Media ecclesiastical titles, and, while this was acknowledged that the media has a minor issue, it was symptomatic of the potential to play a constructive At the time of data collection, a deeper ignorance, particularly when role in increasing inter-faith religion had been very much in the religious complexity had become understanding. The ABC in news with the controversy of the the norm in Australia and across the particular through programs such appointment of the governor-general world. The media played a critical as Compass were commended for still reverberating, the continuing role in educating and mis-educating their focus though its religious affairs clerical sex abuse scandals, mainly the community, and it was felt that unit needed additional funding. within the Catholic Church, the reporters and columnists accepted The largest faith communities had rape cases in suburban Sydney, the too readily religion as the cause of the resources to fund media units hunt for Islamic terrorists and the internecine violence when in fact a whereas for smaller ones this was controversy over the Iraq war. Both more nuanced account would show impossible – it was noted that the sets of consultations revealed a deep religion was only a triggering factor main Islamic organizations had been concern about and distrust of the or it masked underlying economic overwhelmed by the array of issues media. One religious leader likened and political factors. that they needed to comment upon, it to ‘a wild beast’. The electronic leaving them feeling disarmed in the consultees listed it as an issue of Some consultees felt sensationalist media battle and in the struggle to serious concern at number 7, the or biased or less-tempered reporting, present a moderate image of Islam mid-level range. Among the more especially in the case of Islam, may in Australia. Journalists needed to be concerned faith leaders, there was a have actually triggered religious and better prepared in their university pervasive feeling that the media was racist violence. Others felt that the preparation, and religious groups biased against all forms of religion, media over-focused on Christian also needed to be more proactive in promoting a secularist agenda liturgical holidays whereas other briefing and educating them. rather than reflecting a civil view of religious holy days usually went society to which faith communities unreported. Specialist religious made significant contributions. reporters were now less common, The media emphasis was said to be which had only magnified the almost continually on the negative. problem. Or else religion was sidelined, treated superficially and caricatured or mocked. It was further felt that journalists and media reporters were disproportionately anti-religious or areligious. Religious leaders were now dealing with reporters who approached faith communities with minimal knowledge.

102 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 103 2. The Repositioning of the » The funding of confessional » The utilization of religious leaders Relationship between universities such as the Australian in civic services of celebration Religion and State Catholic University through and at moments of tragedy to the normal university grants assist the grieving process and The second longterm trend evident program. give spiritual comfort to bereaved over the past three decades has been Australians. a repositioning in Australia of the » The appointment of religious relationship between religion and personnel as State governors (in » The government utilizes, on state in the nation’s journey away South Australia and Victoria) and an honorary basis, religious from Protestant ascendance and in for the whole of Australia. personnel to act as functionaries the rise and subsequent movement of the state in celebrating » Whilst the government has always away from the welfare state. It is marriages and has recently funded religiously-sponsored often argued that religion has been increased its expectations of hospitals, the funding of health privatised and whilst on one level them by their providing for pre- care agencies has increased with of social reality this may be true, marriage preparation. religious organizations playing religion and state have become more an increasing role in areas such as » The government has always used intertwined though each has been aged care facilities and programs. and continues to use, on a paid careful to maintain its boundaries. basis, chaplains for the armed The signs of this repositioning have » The government funding of forces. been: religiously-sponsored welfare agencies, now increased with the » As the most important » Probably most importantly, the run-down of the welfare state and development of the past decade, government funding of full-time de-institutionalisation resulting the successful tendering by religious schools, beginning in the in greater government reliance religious groups, notably the 1960s with grants for libraries and on organizations such as the St. Salvation Army and the Catholic laboratories, in the 1970s with Vincent de Paul organization and Church, for the delivery of funds for capital and running the Salvation Army with their employment services as part costs and increasing in the 1990s ability to give total grassroots of the privatisation of the as part of the movement of the coverage on an almost 24-hour services formerly offered by the privatisation of government basis to care for society’s needy, Commonwealth Employment services generally, since it is disadvantaged and social derelicts Service. less expensive for governments, who keep knocking on vicarage Australian and State, to educate a and presbytery doors. child in a private school. » The inclusion of religious » The funding of part-time discrimination within the legal ethnoreligious schools beginning ambit of racial discrimination in 1979 as part of the Australian acts. Government’s multicultural policy to maintain and develop » The listing of historic places of cultural diversity. worship on the various heritage registers, making them subject to possible application to heritage legislation, particularly in making changes to the place of worship.

104 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 105 In this interrelationship, faith terrorist or treasonous activity or In overall terms, religious leaders communities are cultural in the sexual abuse or mutilation behaviour expressed satisfaction with the sense of creating social capital or gender inequality. The line current religion-state relationship. for the social and economic well- between transcendent and perverted There were concerns about individual being of Australia as part of their religion is fine and grey, and the matters such as the extension of commitment to the present and arrival on the world stage of the laws prohibiting female genital future of the nation and in the sense Al-Qaeda movement has highlighted mutilation to male circumcision, of maintaining and developing their that theologians and social theorists the added difficulties Sikhs were faith community’s cultural, linguistic need to work on this task. The issue facing following September 11th and spiritual heritage down the also relates to the definition of concerning the wearing of turbans generations and maintaining and religion. and the carrying of the kirpan and tax developing its religious patrimony. relief for groups wrongly declaring In the public consultation, the In debating and heralding moral themselves to be religious. In the definition of religion in a multi- values, faith communities are also context of this project, the central faith society was listed in third place counter-cultural in pointing to and issues that emerged concerning the as an issue of serious concern. The highlighting the wrong, misguided religion-state interrelationship were: 1983 High Court case regarding actions and false values both of the Church of the New Faith a. Organizational ethos and governments and its institutions (Scientology) affirmed ‘freedom employment practices. and of individuals, irrespective of of religion, the paradigm freedom, their rank or status, in their lust b. Marriage celebrants for is of the essence of a free society’. for power, money, sex or whatever a multi-faith society. In deciding the case, religion was god. This is usually referred to defined in terms of two criteria: c. Advisability of an inter-faith as the prophetic voice of faith in First, belief in a supernatural Being, advisory council. challenging corruption, hypocrisy Thing or Principle; and second, the and mistaken directions. This has d. Construction of an acceptance of canons of conduct in been seen recently in the churches’ electronic network. order to give effect to that belief, opposition to gambling. In culturally though canons which offend against diverse societies, faith communities the ordinary laws are outside any ought be cross-cultural, that is, an immunity, privilege or right conferred outward orientation that is part of on the grounds of religion (Church the universalism that is an authentic of the New Faith v Commissioner core of all religions. of Pay-roll Tax (Vic) (1983) 154 Because of the right to religious CLR 120 at 130 (per Mason and freedom, religion and state are not Brennan JJ). It may well be that this subservient to each other but their decision may need revisiting in light relationship needs to be renegotiated of the new religions that have been in the light of changing realities. The introduced into Australia in recent state remains neutral in regard to the times. religious claims of faith communities but it is not indifferent to religion because of the possibility of the emergence of corrupted or perverted religion e.g. a religion sect advocating

104 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 105 A civil authority moves beyond its There were claims of Jewish area of competence when it attempts to judge what is or is not relevant to the practice of religion. Religious employees being pressured to freedom means nothing if secular bodies are able to determine what attend a Catholic Mass. does and does not constitute religious practice. The Church fears that the distinction allows the state to school organization argued that a. Organizational ethos and define individual or communal faith “although we are financed by public employment practices and to define so much of what is funds, we are not a public agency”, Probably the most contentious essential to the faith as non-core, implying that it did not necessarily issue of the consultations related adding that all those who choose need to follow regulations related to to the employment practices of to work in a religious organization public agencies. The issue has gained religious agencies delivering human have a significant responsibility to currency in several states, notably services such as education, health maintain the religious integrity of New South Wales and Tasmania. In and welfare, and employment the organization. It is a reality that New South Wales, its Law Reform practices. It is probably the area individuals have an impact on the Commission recommended that the generating most tension in the culture of their organizations and also anti-discrimination act be amended religion-state relationship. The entry represent the organization and the to remove exemptions to religious of some Christian churches into the Church to the wider community in a bodies. The argument focuses around employment field has given a new variety of ways (par. (f) 6). This is the the point that once religious bodies edge to this issue, and a Salvation ethos argument, very understandable have moved beyond their “core” Army consultee mentioned that his perhaps in a school context though activities, normal anti-discrimination church as a result of its successful less so in an employment agency provisions ought apply. tendering was said to be now in as was strongly suggested in the the top 200 companies in Australia. The most forceful expression of consultations. A Catholic school is Some consultees, in particular, the opposed view is the NSW/ACT carrying out a religious activity when expressed concern that their Catholic Bishops’ 2001 Statement it cares for a disadvantaged student as followers, perhaps well-credentialed on Religious Freedom which argued much as when it engages in morning and highly experienced, might not that the core/non-core distinction prayer. Likewise, when resources are be able to gain employment on represents a narrowing of religious applied to palliative care in a Catholic religious grounds because they are practice and a contravention of hospital, it engages in an activity as unable to help create ‘a Christian religious freedom. In (f) 2, the validly religious as the pastoral care ethos’, to use a phrase often used bishops argue that any claim by non- offered by its chaplain. (par. (f) 4). in the advertising material. There religious agencies to make decisions were claims of Jewish employees about the nature of religious bodies being pressured to attend a Catholic and about the relationship between Mass. Perhaps, it was summed up in religious beliefs and practices is another way where a major church- inappropriate.

106 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 107 It was beyond the aims of this project b. Marriage Celebrants for a In 2001, the number of marriages to examine the issue in depth except Multi-Faith Society celebrated by a civil celebrant to flag it, and to suggest it needs equalled that of religiously celebrated The last thirty years has seen marked a more imaginative solution than marriages whereas in 1973 the changes in the national register presently in practice in the various proportion of religious marriages of marriage celebrants with the states. The nature and parameters was approximately 84 per cent with introduction of civil celebrants in of “ethos” need to be defined in the rest done in the registrar’s office. 1973 and the diversification in faith qualitative and quantitative terms The percentage of registry marriages communities. In its 1991 brief on as it is presently vague and does has gradually declined to be now less multiculturalism and the law, the not draw on social science studies than 10 per cent, and 53 per cent of Australian Law Reform Commission of social environments. Perhaps marriages are now non-religious. considered the proposal to take the part of the answer is to be found power of civil celebration away from In Australia, there are over 20,000 in delineating, again in qualitative religious celebrants so as to separate religious celebrants from the and quantitative terms, the nature the civil and religious elements. The 106 faith communities currently and extent of scandal generated by a Commission found no support for recognized as such by the Governor- staff member who acts in a manner the proposal as the system was then General in Council. They celebrate organizationally disloyal or even working well. This would seem to an average of less than two marriages subversive, or against the major remain the case. per year though some celebrate more tenets of a faith. than a hundred. Once recognized, It needs to be recognized, however, faith communities appoint registrars that it is a Judaeo-Christian concept at local, regional or national level that a priest or a minister or a vicar who nominate their celebrants to should perform marriages. It is a the Registrar of Births, Deaths and belief among some non-Christian Marriages in each State. This is a groups that a monk or a priest does self-regulatory process outside the not perform marriages – in fact, in functional ambit of the Attorney- one strand of Buddhism, monks are General’s Department. To be forbidden to perform marriages. recognized as a faith community, In these cases, customarily a civil it is the accepted benchmark that celebrant or a lay person from it have a minimum of 12 places of the community, approved by the worship though this benchmark Marriage Celebrant Unit within the is exercised with some discretion. Attorney-General’s department as ‘a The community must have been fit and worthy person’ performs the established in Australia for a marriage, often in the home. This minimum of three years. implies a small undercounting of the number of religious marriages.

106 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 107 However, there are approximately Consultations brought to light the c. Advisability of an Inter- 1,700 celebrants from non- following points: Faith Advisory Council recognized religious communities » English proficiency is required so The research team was asked who come within the ambit of as the requirements of the Act are to advise on the feasibility and Section 32 (2) of the Marriage Act understood – however, in practice, advisability of an inter-faith advisory covering civil celebrants. These some leniency is applied if there is council to advise government on religious celebrants, like all civil a support person available. religious and inter-faith matters. In celebrants, come under the aegis of the public consultation, 84 per cent the Attorney-General’s Department. » Religious celebrant status is agreed (39%) or strongly agreed Their communities are usually not given to religious personnel who (45%) that “an inter-faith council recognized because the community are in Australia on a longterm ought to be established to advise the cannot agree on a registering system, temporary visa. Australian Government on faith and usually because there are divisions » Failure by marriage celebrants inter-faith issues” with only six per within the community. With the from a recently arrived group to cent not in agreement. Opposition 2001 reforms to the Marriage Act submit the marriage papers on came from some Christian which places greater emphasis time, waiting for weeks to see if evangelical groups whose social that the concept of marriage be the marriage was successful, and policy, based on their interpretation promoted and the promotion of in cases where the marriage had of the Gospel, is for a complete marriage education and upon broken up, destroying the official separation of religion and state – “the professionalism and professional papers. original separation of Church and development, all civil celebrants are State has been corrupted” and who now required to undertake inservice » Failure by marriage celebrants will not participate, as a matter of training according to a points from recently arrived groups to church policy, in inter-faith activity. system. ANTA (Australian National understand the process of pre- Training Authority) has developed a marriage education and failure by Consultations with the religious course for Section 39 (2) celebrants. these religious groups to establish leaders showed they were strongly These professional development on a systematic basis pre-marriage in favour though more cautious requirements have not been made education programs. in their responses since demonic mandatory for religious celebrants. forces are in the detail! Several senior » Failure by marriage celebrants to Catholic leaders were both cautious distinguish adequately between and ambivalent, concerned that it Australian law and religious law, should deal ‘only with broad issues’. whether church canon law or The most trenchant opposition came Sharia law. from several senior government departmental and agency officials, both Australian and State, though the majority, particularly the State multicultural commissions, were generally in favour. Some remained to be convinced.

108 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 109 Negative views were that “the A sample of the positive comments is government should stay away from as follows in verbatim: religion” and, as the most trenchant, » “it would provide a public face of “it’s a preposterous proposal. The our multi-faith society” existing multicultural councils should see it as part of their job. Not » “a profound symbol that multi- to do so is an abdication of their faith issues be taken seriously” responsibility”. » “it would provide for inclusion of non-Christian groups”

» “it would mitigate against sectarian agendas”

» “send out the right messages in breaking down barriers”

» “yes, because at local level it has proved valuable”

» “we need channels to the heart of parliament”

» “an exercise in inter-faith co- operation”

» “would defuse extremism and fundamentalism”.

108 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 109 Caveats were also expressed in The feedback suggested that, to Membership of the Council could be various ways. These were: prevent it from providing political decided on the basis of two options space only for an extended or a combination. It could be based » its representation be as inclusive talkfest, it needed to relate to a upon an eminent persons model in as possible, including the small small, suitably funded secretariat, which the Australian Government faith groups strategically located within could select eminent religious » its representation include the ‘no government structures, to which faith leaders and laypersons who would religion’ category to reflect the communities could relate. It could not represent any faith community views of agnostics and atheists be supported by the Department but chosen for their knowledge and of Prime Minister and Cabinet, but capacity to contribute. It could be » it might be seen as the religious not within it in order to maintain based on a representative model voice to government and prevent the commitment to the separation in which authority bodies such as or mitigate direct approaches to of religion and state. Or it could the Australian Catholic episcopal government be supported jointly by DIMIA conference or umbrella bodies such » it would need to clearly and DFAT to reflect the internal as the Australian Federation of differentiate between religious and external interfaces of faith Islamic Councils could nominate and cultural issues communities. their representative. The latter option would thus have a genuinely » it could not presume to speak out The Council needed to be separate authoritative voice, but there were publicly on issues on behalf of the from the Council for a Multicultural several drawbacks. Firstly, many of faith communities Australia, and nor could it form the small religious communities its sub-committee since no senior » it could be used to denigrate would not be represented though Australian religious leader would religion if it opposed the their needs could be addressed take it seriously. As well, religion government of the day through a small faiths sub- and culture are not co-terminous, committee. There had to be a » it should report to the especially now that in the post-S11 limitation to the size of the council. Department of the Prime world religion is a transnational Secondly, some umbrella bodies do Minister and Cabinet rather than phenomenon. not provide full coverage of their the immigration department. local faith communities. Thirdly, if based on representation, it is likely that the council might not contain a female member or very few unless a certain number of places were allocated to eminent religious women.

110 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 111 Religion and the role of women did d. Construction of an Some consultees were keen to not emerge as an issue of serious Electronic Network broaden the functions beyond concern in the consultation with information dissemination to include The research team were also asked religious leaders, but it did emerge provision for the government to to examine the feasibility of an as a significant issue in the public consult faith communities on issues electronic network. Across Australia, consultation – many saw it as an of policy and program development there was general agreement that issue of serious concern (see Table in matters such as health (e.g. death the construction of an electronic 1.1). As one respondent said, “The and dying issues) or welfare and network would be a positive role of women is crucial. The education. Others saw it as a way of initiative to allow government to Christian faith has still not resolved increasing inter-faith understanding disseminate information quickly in practical ways how women are and interaction as part of a multi- and efficiently to faith communities. fully equal with men and until this channel means of communication. Some faith leaders in the ACT saw it is done, it is difficult to know how However, the following issues were “as a positive resource” and “a good the appropriate respect can be given”. raised: educational and communicational A Baha’i respondent telegraphed tool for progressing multi-faith » many local faith communities do electronically, “Establishing the full understanding”. In the Northern not currently have email access equality of women and men in all Territory, it was considered “a good fields of human endeavour is an » need for a protocol of use and to idea” “because one of the major essential pre-requisite for peace in avoid misuse problems is lack of communication” the world. The Baha’i teachings place and “information can get around » access and the format of a great emphasis on this”. A Roman more effectively”. No consultation doorkeeping function by Catholic wrote, “The Catholic in any state or territory, including government and the individual Church has so marginalised women. the biggest ones, opposed the religious authority I feel the institution of the Church establishment of the network, and ought to feel great shame”. But there » problems of updating no individual consultee expressed were a few dissenters, “This issue is information such as names and direct opposition to the idea. an example of how modern feminism addresses However, there was opposition to any has infiltrated the teaching of the suggestion that the government site » multilingual facility for religious church and is dictating to church should be official sites or be linked leaders and marriage celebrants leaders who is meant to be selected into information sites for particular who do not read English for ministerial candidacy. In the faiths - as one Jewish leader expressed Christian scriptures, it is clear that a » security of the system and the it, “we do not want an official woman is not to have authority”. need for an unsubscribe button government Jewish site”. » constraints of the privacy act

» danger from hackers and electronic viruses.

110 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 111 The construction of an electronic The management of the relationship 3. The International network partly expresses the between religion and state is a Dimension: Interface with relationship between religion and delicate art, as already mentioned, the Formation of Religious state in which there are always and it seems appropriate that and Linguistic Diaspora sensitivities. Because of the history religious leadership ought have and the New Technologies of persecution in other countries, such control in cases where there With the exception of the Indigenous faith communities do not want to is ambiguous or unambiguous faiths of the Aborigines and the be under any semblance of control conflict between government action Torres Strait Islanders, all other by the state. Although the following and religious beliefs as in giving faith traditions have their origins two functions will vary considerably details about the establishment outside Australia, usually Asia from community to community, of abortion clinics, provision for or the Middle East. The Uniting the role of faith communities is not blood transfusions or safe drinking Church, formed in 1977 from merely to be culturally supportive guidelines. the Methodist, Presbyterian and in building up a nation’s social Congregationalist Churches, is a capital in terms of authentic values unique Australian venture in church and behaviours and in building and unity. The Australian Christian managing their institutions such as Churches, initiated in February 2000, schools and hospitals. Their other is a different type of unity venture function is to be counter-cultural – it is a federation or alliance of in challenging the state and its contemporary churches committed leaders on particular actions or to communicating Christianity policies or on directions its leaders through ‘vibrant church services, may be taking the nation. One key relevant preaching and practical question to emerge from the exercise community care’. It includes is: in the process of a government’s the Abundant Life Fellowship dissemination of information to faith International, the Apostolic Churches communities, should their leadership Australia, the Assemblies of God, have discretionary control over the Bethesda Ministries International, process as to whether the information the Christian Churches in Australia, ought be passed onto their religious the Christian Churches Network and personnel at local grassroots level? Christian Life Churches International as well as many large and successful independent congregations such as the Riverview Church in Perth and the Waverley Christian Fellowship in Melbourne.

112 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 113 In a globalising world, Australian With their altruistic sentiments. From the data, two sets of issues faith communities are interfacing Australian faith groups had emerged: with their counterpart communities always, even in less globalised a. authority, jurisdiction outside Australia, including with the times, encouraged and facilitated and representativity assistance of the new technologies. congregational interest in countries Even before the internet, because and places overseas, including b. websites and web links. many faith leaders, national and through pilgrimage to holy sites such local, have worked or studied as Jerusalem, Mecca, Rome, Lourdes, overseas, they have had detailed Assisi, Canterbury, Mt. Athos and the knowledge of other countries Ganges. Australia does not have such through their grassroots links and holy sites except perhaps for the tomb through their funding initiatives of Blessed Mary McKillop in North for overseas missionising and for Sydney, and for the Aboriginal sacred overseas relief, welfare and advocacy sites scattered across Australia’s work. Christian communities, in landscape and seascape. particular, have been supportive of Religious communities have generally overseas aid organizations. Several been strong advocates for the United consultees mentioned that this Nations in particular and global overseas knowledge and linkages governance generally. Their lobbying were insufficiently utilized by for human rights and religious governments. It was further indicated freedom is well-known. that within the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, faiths and their worldwide network of communities were insufficiently understood.

112 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 113 a. Authority, Jurisdiction This divisiveness is likewise reflected » One Catholic migrant chaplain, and Representativity in Australia in a situation that whilst his faculties to operate as does little to enhance the image of a priest had been approved by All world faiths are riven with religion as the repository of peace the Australian bishop, answered divisions and splits as their histories and harmony. The research of primarily neither to him nor attest as seen in Karen Armstrong’s local communities uncovered two to the Australian head of his 2000 study of Christian, Islamic situations where a community had religious order, but to the superior and Jewish fundamentalisms. recently split: the breakaway by a back in the source country. Christianity, as the major world schismatic UCA community to form religion in Australia, retains its » The Eastern-rite priest who saw a branch of the Wesley Methodist historical legacies. Whilst much himself as accountable to his Church on the moral issue of same progress has been made through patriarch did not see his role as sex unions, while the Anglican dialogue on doctrinal and other being a migrant chaplain even Maori community was shown to be matters, little progress has been though he was, to all intents fractured and one of the issues was made on actual unity. For example, and purposes, functioning as a whether jurisdictional authority lay the two largest faith communities migrant chaplain, as his aim was nationally or transnationally. But in Australia, Catholic and Anglican, to establish a national church there were other indications of the have had ongoing international of the Eastern rite within the centrality of the issues of authority, dialogue for over three decades and Catholic Church. jurisdiction and representativity: much has been achieved in mutual Whilst much of the earlier evidence understanding through key joint » In one consultation with faith on multicultural faith communities statements yet key issues remain such leaders, it was made very clear to largely suggests it to be otherwise, as Anglican orders, intercommunion, the research team that this group there was some evidence to suggest the Petrine office, papal infallibility of Muslim leaders represented the some kernal of truth in the axiom and the prohibition against the ‘true Islam’, and other claimants that ‘religion divides, culture unites’ British monarch being a Catholic were not to be taken notice of. (see Lewins 1978). Certainly, it is while the Anglican commitment to » Several consultees commented not the function of government the ordination of women and the that during the stem cell research to concern itself with religious homosexuality issue has further controversy, the Prime Minister arguments and the emergence of widened the breach. had recourse to advice only new religious groupings. But it can from the Anglican and Catholic impact upon government in terms archbishops of Sydney, and in the of consultation and representativity, end took no notice of their joint and whether government should advice. fund small, breakaway religious groups to establish schools or welfare agencies, atomising the schooling or welfare system. There is currently no Australian umbrella Buddhist organization; the Australian Federation of Islamic Councils is not accepted by many Muslim communities and nor is there an Australian Board of Imams though there are several State

114 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 115 bodies. Orthodoxy, especially the b. Websites and Web Links These, often very skewed, versions of overwhelming majority who are in history are not overseen by reputable Cyberspace has allowed faith communion with the Ecumenical scholars, and they feed the prejudices communities much more scope to Patriarch of Constantinople, struggles of religious followers. In one instance interconnect the global and the local. to overcome its ethnic divisions and during the data collection process, the They have been quick and adept rivalries in Australia. In the case of religious leaders failed to understand in adopting the new technologies Roman Catholics, from a government the gravity of the issue when it was to create their own presence in perspective, it is not totally apparent raised by the research team though cyberspace, to articulate their whether it should consult the head of the web link was subsequently message more clearly, to advertise the Australian Episcopal conference, removed. The incident illustrates their services and other activities the Cardinal archbishop of Sydney the point that, in the continuing and to canvass for new members. or to consult the Archbishop of construction of a multi-faith, However, in the consultations, Jewish Melbourne, head of the largest cybernetic society, the monitoring of leaders complained strongly about Catholic diocese in Australia. The Australian-based religious websites the anti-Semitic contents of some lack of a fully accepted umbrella by religious leaders themselves and Muslim websites such as the links to organization has caused problems by government authorities charged Mein Kampf and the forged Protocols for the Australian Government in the with administering legislative acts of the Elders of Zion. The research in matter of the approval of marriage concerning racial and religious particular raised the issue of web links. celebrants. All faith communities, the discrimination has become a priority. The website of one faith organisation smaller much more than the larger, linked into an overseas website which struggle to have an effective national was very anti-Muslim and which also organization – often, it is a lack of contained on its first page a heading funds; sometimes, it is concerned ‘The Islamicisation of Australia’ with differences in doctrine or though without any content. As Lal practice; sometimes, it is due to (2002) has indicated, the internet has ethnic animosities; otherwise, it is given faith communities or schismatic due to personal rivalries. remnants the capacity to invent and disseminate new, revised histories.

114 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 115 chapter seven Safeguarding a multi-faith Australia: Conclusions and Recommendations

Conclusions Safeguarding Australia from religious The major findings or conclusions of extremism has become more this study have been: Living in religious and ethnic problematic with the stretching harmony has historically been and » Australia, both in its changing of social, political, economic, remains an Australian challenge and religious profile, the repositioning military and religious activities will remain so for the foreseeable of the religion-state relationship across national borders such that future. Standing behind every and the evolving interface events, decisions and activities in religious leader and his or her faith between the global ecumene and one part of the world impact upon community lies an ineffable reality to the cybernetic world, has been individuals and communities in which faith points. Faith points out impacted by these globalising other parts of the world (Held et that there is more in life than meets forces which require a response al. 1999). Biblical, Qur’anic and all the eye (Obenchain 2002). Professor at all levels of government and by other fundamentalisms need to be John Haldane, a philosopher the faith communities themselves. monitored and the state cannot be (Haldane 2003), has recently written religiously neutral in the face of » Across the world, religiosity and that a lack of interest in religion, corrupted religion. Solutions need faith commitment are not in characteristic of academics and to be focussed around religious retreat and both the actuality and public officials, is no longer possible, moderation and its support. This the potential for inter-religious and perhaps betrays a fear that, in project on religion and cultural conflict has increased – as a fact, there may be a God! diversity was designed to assess consequence, all Australians, Both initiating and maintaining the impact of globalising forces, whether from faith or secularist religious organizations have always especially world population backgrounds, need to engage with been problematic projects in colonial movements such as permanent the world’s religious ecumene just and federated Australia, dependent migration and the advent of the as Australia has had to engage on volunteer commitment and cybernetic world, upon Australia, with the world’s new political and voluntary financial contributions. But and summed up in the events of technological realities following without the accompanying cultural September 11th 2001 followed by the collapse of the Berlin Wall and and religious fermentation that has the Bali attack of October 12th 2002, the invention of the jetliner and occurred, Australia would be a less upon Australia’s faith communities the internet. rich society. Religious extremism in and upon the relationship between the form of fanaticism and cultism, religion and state. Faith communities and certainly in the form of terrorism, are now encountering each other has never been a major issue in across Australia and across the world Australia, principally because the in multi-layered patterns. underpinning economic and social conditions have never been allowed to develop on any widespread scale. But social cohesion and internal security remain continuously on the Australian agenda.

116 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 117 » Notwithstanding Australia’s » The national project of » Religious organizations, historical legacy of religious continuing to build a secular and underpinned by individual faith rivalries, hostilities and multi-faith society will need to commitment, have always been mistakes, faith communities address issues such as national and remain powerful and diverse have lived and continue to live signs, symbols and sacred places producers of social capital not in peaceful co-existence, and as well as appropriate ceremonies merely through institutions such the response by Australia as a and functions at times of national as schools, colleges, hospitals, whole to the provocations of celebration, commemorations aged care facilities, welfare September 11th and its aftermath and tragedies. agencies and research centres. It has been relatively productive has also manifested itself through » The decline in religious though significant difficulties value and behavioural formation identification seems now to have were created for the Muslim such as in personal discipline, plateaued though new measuring communities and some other moral integrity and honesty, indices are required, and religious faith groups through the support for the family unit, the revivalism can be now seen firebombing of facilities, physical centrality of good livelihood in the growth of evangelical and verbal attacks, hate mail etc. and work toil, avoidance of and Pentecostal Christianity self-destructive behaviour, the » Some Australian religious with their particular variety of thirst for justice and a fair go leaders and committed followers Australian popular religion, in the for all, conflict mitigation and expressed the feeling that continuing identification of most diffusion of hate through love of religiously legitimated extremes immigrants with their religious enemy, solicitude for the poor and pose a threat to Australia, and traditions and in the rise of the disadvantaged, the altruism of that its religious and cultural New Age spiritualities. volunteering and bystander aid, diversification may have become welcome of and hospitality for too broad for its own good. the stranger, encouragement of » Over the past fifty years Australia and commitment to the evolving has moved from a Christian, national vision, monitoring of previously Protestant dominated, core national structures and to a paradoxically secular and institutions, and democratic multi-faith society, and, whilst challenge to actions of the state Christianity retains the formal, if and its agencies as well as solemn mostly uncommitted, allegiance and respectful observances of of two-thirds of Australia’s life’s rites de passage. population, this trend will not be reversed as a consequence of the continuing decline in Australia’s mainstream Churches.

116 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 117 » The ecumenical movement » Religious leadership, both at » Many religious leaders continue has reduced inter-church a national and local level, has to perceive many media outlets hostility amongst the Christian generally been of high quality to have a negative, if not Churches even though it remains in creating and maintaining a mocking, attitude to religion, constrained by lack of significant multicultural society but, in over-representing the views progress and a certain lethargy. some quarters, this is hampered of secularists in Australia’s However, inter-faith initiatives by some Christian and other civil society; there is also the remain sporadic and unsupported faith leaders, often newly arrived perception that younger media though since September 11th and overseas trained, who have representatives are less religiously 2001, there has been a renewed inadequate levels of English and literate than their older colleagues, commitment to such initiatives. an uninformed appreciation of and concern was expressed the functioning of a religiously about the content of some ethnic » Barriers to inter-faith harmony diverse civil society. community radio programs. and co-operation and possible religious bases for racism » The level of knowledge of » Overwhelming support was and bigoted behaviour were Australia’s faith adherents about expressed for the construction identified in the form of religious other faiths is questionable and of an electronic network for superiority, exclusivist theologies often negative – religious trainees information dissemination with of other world religions and need better preparation about appropriate safeguards to protect unwillingness to participate in other faiths, and each religious the individual freedom of faith inter-faith initiatives. group should develop and fully communities and for a multi-faith disclose its theology of world advisory council to advise the » In the granting of public religions, enunciating in a public Australian Government. funds to private religious statement their relationships with agencies, such as schools and » An emerging issue accompanying and beliefs about other world employment organizations, the the growth of the internet is the faiths. tension between the creation of content of religious websites a particularist religious ethos » Education in all sectors emerged and weblinks, usually sourced and the generalist values of as a multi-dimensional area of from overseas, containing hate employment justice and universal concern even though it was not a propaganda targeting other access remain unresolved, and central focus of the study. Further faith communities. more creative solutions for studies need to be completed on different types of organizations information provided to school need to be found based on students about world faiths in further study. their geographic, geopolitical and multicultural dimensions within government schools as well as the availability of religious education as well as religious formation in religious schools and their attitudes to other world faiths.

118 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 119 Recommendations It is thus recommended that: It is suggested that the Council for Multicultural Australia would a. The Council for Multicultural » Formation of an incorporate the following terms Australia should consider including Advisory Council of reference into its ambit of within its ambit multi-faith In the brief, the research team was responsibility: Australia, and that this be reflected asked ‘to investigate the feasibility in its membership and its terms of 1. to advise the Australian of Australian inter-faith bodies and references as outlined below. Government on all matters structures to advise the Council for pertaining to faith communities Multicultural Australia and other b. An Annual Australian Multi- and inter-faith harmony and government and non-government Faith Advisory Forum should co-operation for the social and bodies’. Many countries such as India be sponsored by the Council for economic well-being of Australia have such bodies, and they have Multicultural Australia to advise and to safeguarding it from played important roles, including in the Australian Government and extremism of all kinds resolving conflict. As we have seen, its departments and agencies on it was the overwhelming opinion inter-faith and associated inter- 2. to provide informed advice, that an inter-faith advisory body or communal affairs. based on consultation with faith mechanism be established, working community leaders and their c. The Council of Multicultural closely with and alongside the communities, on policies and Australia, through its members Council for Multicultural Australia programs relevant to inter-faith and staff from the Department of and government departments and harmony and co-operation and to Immigration and Multicultural agencies. It was also suggested that monitor and evaluate them Affairs and Indigenous Affairs it must be supported by secretariat should conduct on an annual 3. to design, in association with facilities, located either in Canberra basis consultations with local heads of faith communities, as the nation’s capital or in Sydney faith community leaders at state, ceremonies, services and or Melbourne as Australia’s most territory and, as appropriate, pageants at times of national religiously diverse cities. In the regional levels on inter-faith and and international celebration, consultations, it was pointed out that associated inter-communal affairs. remembrances and tragedies that the national needed to be balanced reflect the unity of Australia’s by the local, and that the necessary d. These consultative mechanisms multi-faith society separation between religion and state should be provisionally reviewed be maintained. The consultations after two years of operation and 4. to provide informed advice further showed that the Council be fully reviewed after five years to government on policy for Multicultural Australia had, of operation. and practice related to the on its own acknowledgement, entry into Australia of religious failed to address appropriately personnel on a permanent and the issue of multi-faith Australia temporary basis and the linkages between culture, 5. to oversee and monitor language and religion. appropriate orientation and inservice programs for religious personnel newly arrived in Australia, for religious marriage celebrants and for religious personnel generally

118 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 119 6. to disseminate to faith The Australian Multi-Faith Advisory This would comprise the following communities and their leaders Forum would be conducted annually. faith communities (in order of size) material on government policies It is suggested that membership who would be asked to nominate a and programs, including through of the Advisory Forum be based religious, not lay, leader: the electronic network of faith on representation from faith Aboriginal and Torres Strait leaders and their communities communities with a following Islander Spirituality representative of more than 0.333 per cent of 7. to support and work with local Australia’s total population, currently Roman Catholic Church (inc. its government authorities in 62,000 according to the 2001 census, Eastern rites) establishing and maintaining local including representation from the multi-faith networks Anglican Church of Australia Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander 8. to work with the community, communities. Uniting Church of Australia including the media, in educating Presbyterian Church of Australia the public about the role and function of faith traditions in Orthodox Churches of Australia local, national and international (in communion with the affairs Ecumenical Patriarch)

9. to promote, in liaison with DFAT, Buddhists in Australia nationally and internationally Baptist Union of Australia Australia’s image and reputation as a model of inter-faith harmony Lutheran Church of Australia

10. to monitor the websites of Australian Christian Churches Australia’s ethnic and faith Australian Federation of Islamic communities for material or links Councils damaging to Australia’s social cohesion Hindu Council of Australia

11. to work for, in liaison with State Executive Council of Australian and Australian educational Jewry authorities, interaction and co- Jehovah’s Witnesses operation between Australia’s government and religious schools Salvation Army and for the design of appropriate Churches of Christ curricula

12. to develop a resource centre for appropriate government and community use.

120 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 121 Additional would be one person » Establishing an Electronic In the construction of an electronic nominated by the Government to Network network, the Australian Government represent the viewpoint of those already has a basic system that seems Faith communities are only now who belong to the ‘no religion’ appropriate, namely, that devised coming to grips with the new category. As well, the Government for marriage celebrants. Currently, technologies though some are well would appoint two further persons as we have seen, there are more than advanced in utilizing them for to represent Australia’s small 20,000 marriage celebrants belonging missionization or for advertising religious communities with followers to ‘recognized denominations’ themselves and their religious numbering less than 0.333 per together with another 1,700 religious activities. However, as previously cent of the population. It is further celebrants who belong to ‘unaligned suggested, whilst many grassroots suggested that the Forum include religious organizations’. The marriage faith communities have their own at least five women and, in the case celebrant unit within the Australian websites, many do not even have of this requirement not being met Attorney-General’s Department email. This lack is likely to diminish through the nomination process, which administers the marriage in coming years but it is a current the Australian Government would celebrant section of the Marriage reality. For example, the Catholic subsequently appoint eminent Act does not have nor does it have Archdiocese of Melbourne which is religious women. Chairship of the any intention of constructing an the largest religious administrative Forum would belong to the Minister electronic network amongst all these unit in the country, is only now in for Citizenship and Multicultural marriage celebrants. But it has been the process of developing a network Affairs or his or her nominee. This constructing an electronic network for all its 239 geographical parishes would make for a consultative forum amongst “the nominating authorities” and it does not, as yet, have plans to of 19 members with a maximum of of the 106 recognized denominations include religious houses, convents, 24 members. Because of the need to gazetted and proclaimed by the monasteries etc. on its network link into Government departments, Australian Government as having the though it does have for them a it is suggested that the following power, without interference by the hardcopy address list. It has access departments have observer status government, to nominate persons to an electronic mail system for its at the annual forum: Department able to act as marriage celebrants. parish schools. It seems at this point of the Prime Minister and Cabinet, The nominating authorities of a in time neither feasible nor desirable Department of Foreign Affairs and recognized denomination can be a for the Australian Government to Trade, Department of Immigration religious authority at a national or endeavour to construct a network and Multicultural and Indigenous state or regional level. At a regional involving every religious address in Affairs, Department of Health and level, it might be a diocese or a synod. the country. It would be very costly Community Services, Department of These 247 nominating authorities to maintain, and would never be up- Education, Science and Technology are those closest to the grassroots to-date. and the Attorney-General’s communities, and would have the Department. most up-to-date information for their own administrative purposes. As well, there are no privacy issues because the Marriage Act requires that the list of official marriage celebrants be published each year.

120 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 121 The nominating authority could The advantage of this An alternative or additional network thus be the electronic conduit for recommendation is that the to reach local faith communities information to be disseminated by nominated religious authority is the lists compiled by local the Australian Government, including will have control as to whether government authorities. These are for those without email facilities. the government’s information is usually accurate in terms of address To include the 1,700 celebrants to be passed on to his or her faith though not necessarily in terms of not belonging to an aligned communities. As well, levels and personnel. These communities are denomination, it would be necessary sectors of dissemination will have to listed on the websites and can be for the Australian Government to be developed as part of a protocol easily downloaded. For example, the gain their emails, which is already for appropriate use e.g. avoidance City of Ryde, under its heading of partly happening. Other agencies of dissemination of party political ‘religion and philosophies’, whilst such as inter-faith organizations information. Appropriate levels containing some health clubs, might need to be included but these might be: (1) national level (2) contains 1466 entries for local faith are relatively few in number. national, state and regional levels communities, including religious (3) national, state, regional and houses. It is estimated that there are Accordingly, it is recommended that: local levels and (4) all religious probably about 20,000 – 23,000 local If an electronic network is constructed house, agencies and institutions. The faith communities across Australia. the Australian Government should protocol might also cover whether It is recommended consider using, as the base, the the network can be used by state currently forming network of government agencies. It also ought to As an alternative mechanism a list nominating authorities for marriage cover frequency of usage because it of local faith communities should be celebrants to disseminate information would be easy to overload the system constructed based on the lists held on about legislation and policy and with material of marginal usefulness the websites of local governments program initiatives and evaluations, to religious personnel. and that it be known as the Australian It is recommended Religious Celebrants’ Electronic Network. A protocol of usage of the electronic networks should be developed in In some very few communities, consultation with the nominating religious leaders are not permitted authorities. by virtue of their religious law or tradition to be marriage celebrants, and it is suggested that the Australian Government make special provision in these cases to be included on the network. It seems difficult to develop a multilingual facility though information, which has already been translated, could be transmitted through the network.

122 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 123 » Quality Religious Many ethnic community The capacity of newly-arrived Leadership: Orientation organizations have been wrecked religious personnel to function and Preparation of or damaged by authoritarian, effectively in a multi-faith society Religious Personnel personality-driven leadership emerged as a significant issue, and styles whereas a more democratic, it is relevant to most faith groups, One set of key questions that has collaborative leadership will be based Christian and non-Christian. Failure arisen out of this study is as follows: around: to speak adequate English, even after how do Australia’s ethnic and religious many years in Australia, implies they leaders respond to the concerns about » a principled, integrity-based cannot communicate adequately religious terrorism, and how do leadership style with second- and third-generation they exercise quality leadership in » clear, engaging directions, goal- members of their immigrant and developing an harmonious multi-faith setting and appropriate strategy refugee communities. Equally society in a world that is a far riskier selection importantly, it implies that such place with an increasing number leaders cannot act as cultural and of overseas ethnoreligious conflicts? » competent, engaged community religious bridges or as mediators Connected with this is the role of members between their own community and government: how does government » a clear perception of the reality of the wider community. Australia is ensure quality religious leadership in the community’s situation a community of communities. The changing world circumstances and capacity to build linkages between the maintain separation between religion » a unified commitment to advance communities is a key component of and state? community and society social capital. The provision of religious leadership » a collaborative climate amongst As well, newly arrived religious and community management is built members personnel need to receive an in- around, firstly, diagnosis of one’s own » articulated ideals and standards of depth orientation program offered current situation and appropriate excellence through a designated TAFE college interrogation of one’s own religious under the aegis of the government’s tradition; secondly, it can be » external support and recognition. multi-faith secretariat, designed to constructed around adaptation and assist them to work effectively in strategy selection to achieve tolerance a multi-faith society and to work and harmony between the religious alongside colleagues from other faith and ethnic groupings. In some communities. The module ought cases, the diagnosis will be to live in include a visit to each other’s places peaceful co-existence, ignoring one’s of worship. past enemies. Leadership is a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a set of common goals. It needs to keep a balance between concern for results and concern for the people involved.

122 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 123 Accordingly, it is recommended that: » Constructing a The complex set of issues concerning signs, symbols and sacred places All arriving religious personnel, Multi-Faith Australia was continually raised during data whether applying for permanent The central finding of this study is collection as outlined in chapter six. residency or a long term temporary that Australia’s changing religious Addressing issues such as the use visa, be given provisional visas for profile requires some changes as of the Christian cross, the nature six months until they have achieved part of the process of constructing of public oaths and affirmations vocational proficiency in English a multi-faith Australia. The use and the appropriateness of selected and have undergone an orientation of the Our Father to commence physical locations for multi-faith process together with arriving each parliamentary day is largely a services of celebration, mourning and religious personnel from other faith symbolic issue, yet its importance remembrance will require complex communities. is undeniable in acknowledging and inclusive solutions adaptable that religiosity of the majority of As part of the process of constructing to many types of circumstances, Australians. The suggestion of a an harmonious multi-faith society, including when Australia’s head of rotational system of prayers and faith communities need to develop state who is also head of the Church readings by each of the major theologies of world faiths that of England is present. It is of note faith communities was received by address issues such as the nature of that almost half of the respondents religious leaders in the consultations civil society, attitude to the other in the public consultation (47%) as an acceptable way forward. It and the stranger, conversion and strongly disagreed with the is suggested that the readings be intermarriage. These theologies proposition, ‘Christian rather than selected in turn by the seventeen need to be available for public multi-faith services should be held on faith communities represented on the scrutiny, though it is not the task occasions of national celebration and Advisory Council, including the ’no of government to evaluate such national and international tragedy’. religion’ group. It is further suggested theologies as this would be an Only 4 per cent strongly agreed. that each parliamentary day conclude illegitimate trespass of religious Appropriate protocols reflecting with the Our Father in deference to freedom. The sets of issues addressed Australia’s religious unity-in-diversity the central role of Christianity in by this report and summarized need to be further developed in a Australia’s development as a nation. within the community’s theology process of collaboration between the of other world faiths needs to be Accordingly, it is recommended that: Government and Australia’s religious incorporated into the basic training leaders when consulted during the Both Houses of the Commonwealth of religious personnel preparing to annual forum. As well, the possibility Parliament consider the proposal that work in Australia. of developing a national sacred space each parliamentary day commence in Canberra needs to be placed on Accordingly, it is recommended that: with a prayer or reading selected by the national agenda in the medium to Australia’s faith communities on a All faith leaders encourage their longer term. rotational basis and that it conclude communities, as a matter of urgency, each day with the Our Father. to include in their Australian training courses a subject or module on religious ministry in a culturally diverse, multi- faith Australia.

124 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 125 Accordingly, it is recommended that: A theme that remained in the The tension between the creation background of the research but of the ethos of a publicly-funded The Commonwealth Parliament whose potential was ever-present religious agency and employment should consider developing appropriate concerns the role of local government justice remains a problematic issue, protocol for multi-faith services and in generating multi-faith harmony brought into focus during the pageants for times of celebration, and inter-faith interaction. The audit consultation with open differences remembrance and tragedy that takes of inter-faith initiatives highlighted between the nation’s religious leaders. account of Australia’s multi-faith this point. Some local government The attitude that religious agencies, and secular society, and examines the authorities have established inter- even though they receive public feasibility of developing a sacred space faith consultative networks for funds partly or wholly for their in Canberra for such occasions. local religious leaders. Criterion for educational, welfare, occupational The study uncovered legitimate membership should be based on the and other activities, are not publicly concerns about the material of places of worship physically located accountable beyond a financial audit, several websites of faith communities, within the physical boundaries of as was argued to the research team, particularly their links to racist the LGA though some flexibility may remains problematic to government websites offshore. At this stage, it is need to be exercised. It is suggested and other religious leaders. At the appropriate that a process of self- that the network of local religious same time, creation of a proper regulation remain in place but the leaders come together with local religious ethos comes within the right issue needs to be monitored by the government social development to religious freedom, which, however, Council for Multicultural Australia. officers under the chairship of is not an absolute right. Discussion a nominated councillor, not for is currently held back by a failure to Accordingly, it is recommended that: inter-faith dialogue, but to work operationalise and particularize the All faith communities be encouraged on community projects, campaigns concept of ‘religious organizational to put in place mechanisms for a and festivals for local community ethos’, including its creation and continual monitoring of their websites betterment as part of building up the maintenance, and the failure to for materials or links whose content local social capital. differentiate different types of might damage the harmony of agencies (e.g. the religious ethos in a Accordingly, it is recommended that: Australia’s multi-faith society. school is different from the religious The Council for Multicultural ethos in an employment agency). Australia, in association with Accordingly, it is recommended that: Australia’s religious leaders, encourage all local government bodies to sponsor The Council for Multicultural and establish a network of local Australia should consider religious leaders with places of worship commissioning papers and research located within their boundaries and it to examine the issue of employment is suggested the network meets at least practice within religious agencies twice a year. with a view to producing a publicly acceptable protocol for the different types of religious agencies.

124 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 125 » Educating in and for a Multi-Faith Australia Education was not a central Consultees continually emphasized the centrality of education, as well as focus of this study, and more the role of the media in recognizing religion as an asset and a resource, and in constructing a multi-faith research needs to be done society built around its Christian core. in both the schooling and Accordingly, it is recommended that: The Commonwealth Minister for tertiary education sectors. Education should consider inviting all universities offering media and journalism courses to include a subject on Australia’s culturally diverse, multi-faith society and that all such universities respond within twelve months. Accordingly, it is recommended that: Education was not a central focus of The Commonwealth Minister for this study, and more research needs Education should consider sponsoring to be done in both the schooling and a research program on the teaching tertiary education sectors. Recent about other world faiths in religious press coverage has focused unfairly schools, and the Minister invite his on Muslim schools and their teaching State counterparts to report on the content whereas all schools, whether teaching on the world’s faiths in their government or private, religious schools’ curriculum in preparation for or non-denominational, need to Australian students to live and work be asked about their treatment of in a multi-faith society within and religious issues in their curricula, beyond Australia. and in the case of religious schools, about their treatment of other world The Commonwealth Minister for faiths. Within the tertiary sector, Education should consider sponsoring issues in need of research include a research program to examine the religion and university legislation, place of religion in universities and the link between universities and TAFE Colleges. colleges of divinity, chaplaincy and the provision for students, provision of sacred spaces for Australian and international students and, lastly, course content, particularly in the arts and social science areas.

126 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 127 In Conclusion The four current challenges for No one religion is without sin or all religious traditions, besides the fault and, as Archbishop Tutu has God, globalisation and social central one of dealing with cultural said, there can be no future without cohesion are all major topics, pluralism and religious extremism, forgiveness. As Hans Kung, one especially in a world where there are these: (1) the development of of the driving forces behind the is a new kairos, a new moment of an ecological consciousness that Parliament of the World’s Religions, history when new dangers and new recognizes the sacredness of the says, what is needed is “religiosity opportunities lie before Australia. universe and the dangers of the with a foundation but without The new approach to international exploitation of the world’s non- fundamentalism; religiosity with order and to the safeguarding of renewable resources (2) the doctrinal religious identity, but without Australia includes to take seriously and inpractice commitment to the exclusivity; religiosity with certainty the resurgence of religion in equality of male and female in and of truth, but without fanaticism”, all its diversity (Thomas 2002). beyond their religious structures a new religious cosmopolitanism. Martyrdom, whether self or inflicted, and the development of a feminist All the great religious figures of occurs at the extremist of terrorist sensitivity that is not about power but history have been teachers - and times. Self-martyrdom in particular about distributive justice, about care education is at the core of the multi- is an act of despair, an act that and nurturance and the importance faith agenda. Extremists are highly hopelessly hopes the world will take of civilty and human relatedness (3) selective from the faith traditions notice of their motivations and their commitment to the spiritual and the they embrace. Over the past fifty grievances. Memories of oppression, mystical, not being too distracted by years, in a bipartisan way, Australia abuse and hatred will always come their social and political lobbying has become a multicultural and back to haunt us, even destroy us, if activities and their welfare and multi-faith lighthouse; despite the they are not dealt with constructively educational initiatives and (4) the issues documented in this report, it and with hope. And with vision. In commitment to social justice that remains so despite the provocations the face of immense provocation, recognizes all men and women have of New York and Bali. Australia especially of Bali, we as Australians an inherent human dignity. needs to have, firstly, co-operative must be rigorous in our thinking and leadership between our ethnic and be imaginative in our solutions. religious communities and secondly, co-operation between its civic and religious leaders as Australia moves from being a Christian to a multi- faith society. Imagination is at the core of globalisation.

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Strenski, I. 2002, “Religion, Yin, R. 1990, Case Study Research: globalisation and the law of nations’, Design and Methods, Sage Paper given at the RMIT-UCLA Publications, California. colloquium on Religion and Yuan, C. 2001, ‘Chinese in White Globalisation, Melbourne, September Australia 1901 – 1950’, in J. Jupp 2002. (ed.) The Australian People: An Stake, R. & Easley, J. 1978, Case Encyclopedia of the Australian Studies in Science: Education Centre Nation, its People and their Origins, for Instructional Research and Cambridge University Press, Curriculum Evaluation, University of Melbourne. Illinois Press, Urbana-Champaign.

Tacey, D. 2003, The Spirituality Revolution: The Emergence of Contemporary Spirituality, HarperCollins, Sydney.

Thompson, R. 2002, Religion in Australia: A History, Oxford University Press, South Melbourne.

Tsounis, M. 1974, Greek Ethnic Schools in Australia, ANU Press, Canberra.

Vrcan, S. 1993, ‘A Christian confession seized by nationalistic paroxysm: the case of Serbian Orthodoxy’, in R. Cipriani (ed.) Religions sans Frontieres, Presidenza del Consiglio dei Ministri, Universita ‘La Sapienza’, Roma.

132 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 133 APPENDIX ONE Consultations with religious, government and community leaders

Discussion Brief The fundamental approach of the Research Personnel project is to place the role and activities Background: The Commonwealth The project is being conducted by three of religion and faith communities Government through the Department researchers: within the context of the creation of Immigration and Multicultural and of social and moral capital, and Professor Desmond Cahill, Professor Indigenous Affairs has commissioned to relate them to citizenship in a of Intercultural Studies, is head of the Australian Multicultural multicultural democracy built around RMIT’s undergraduate international Foundation in association with the the four principles of (1) civic duty (2) and cross-cultural programs He has World Conference of Religions for cultural respect (3) social equity and conducted numerous consultancies Peace (Australian chapter) and (4) productive diversity as outlined for the Commonwealth government, RMIT and Monash Universities to in the 1999 report of the National especially in immigrant and refugee conduct a series of consultations with Multicultural Advisory Council, education and ethnic minority youth. religious, government and community Australian Multiculturalism for a He is Chairperson of the Australian organizations. It is part of a broader New Century: Towards Inclusiveness. chapter of the World Conference on study in religion, cultural diversity However, given the broadness of Religion and Peace. and social cohesion in contemporary the brief, it is essentially a mapping Australia - details of the study are Professor Gary Bouma, Professor exercise. attached with the aims, background of Sociology, is the associate dean and methodological details. (research) at Monash University’s Faculty of Arts. He is a leading The brief is broad and wide-ranging. religious sociologist, and is widely Consultees are free to focus on published in the area of religion whatever aspects concern them - they and cultural diversity. He is Deputy are free to raise any issue directly Chairperson of the Australian chapter related to the topic and need not of the World Conference on Religion feel constrained by the following and Peace. framework. Mr Hass Dellal, O.A.M has been since 1989 executive director of the Australian Multicultural Foundation currently chaired by The Hon Sir James Gobbo AC CVO. Hass has extensive experience within Australia and internationally in multicultural affairs. He is currently Special Adviser to the National Police Ethnic Advisory Bureau, a Trustee of the European Multicultural Foundation and a former commissioner of the Victorian Multicultural Commission.

134 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 135 Discussion Procedure 1. The Relationship between Religion and the delivery of Religion/Faith and State in government services, especially in Consultations are being held with a Culturally Diverse Nation education, health and employment? the heads of faith in every state, chaplaincy and government and invitations have been issued to The relationship between religion agencies, especially the armed forces? the heads of 25 faith communities and state is continually shifting, government and the marriage identified by the Australian census at and it may need to be repositioned celebrant network? having more than 10,000 adherents. and reformulated in face of shifts in This implies that the consultations national governance and the changing Faith, religious liberty and the law? will cover religious traditions followed role of the nation state in global affairs. religion in a multi-faith context and by 98.3 per cent of the Australian the resolution of complex ethical Does Australia’s cultural, linguistic population identifying with a issues? conversions, inc. mandatory and religious diversity imply a religious group. Consultations are also conversions, and their implications? repositioning of faith and state? what being conducted with appropriate implications for the definition of 2. The Relationship between Commonwealth and State agencies religion? religion and the role of the Faith Communities at and with relevant NGOs. Head of State (both monarch and Local and National Levels In most states, the heads of faith the governor-general)? what are the As a result of population movements consultees will be given the choice limits of religious expression in a into and within Australia, inter-faith of two consultation sessions. The civil, pluralist society? the place of encounters and new expressions of consultations are to be conducted Christianity vis-a-vis other faiths? spirituality are now taking place in within the normal bounds of religion and secularism in multi- local suburbia and, increasingly, in anonymity and confidentiality faith, democratic societies? religious rural and remote Australia. - this implies that statements made traditions and democracy? in the consultations will be treated Religious and racial hatred and Is it desirable to have an inter- confidentially according to the ethical violence, its growth, importation faith advisory council to advise the standards for research of RMIT and and expression in Australian society? Commonwealth government? the Monash Universities. If there are any its antidote and the role of civic representativity of faith communities concerns about this, you are asked and religious leaders? physical and at national, state and local level? to refer your concerns to Professor verbal assaults on persons because the advisability and format of Gary Bouma ([email protected] of religious or ethnic affiliation? multi-faith services for occasions of nash.edu.au) or Professor Des Cahill job discrimination and religious national celebration and national/ ([email protected]) or to the affiliation? employment practices and international tragedy? Secretary, Human Ethics Committee at religious expression, inc. religious either university. holidays?

134 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 135 Inter-faith relations in the local neighbourhood? the education and preparation of local faith community The well-being of nations leaders for leadership in multi-faith neighbourhoods and for a multi-faith is said to depend on nation? intercultural and inter-faith marriages, family formation and religious duties and celebrations? the construction of social Construction of religious buildings in local neighbourhoods? the and moral capital construction, operation and management of local religious sites and of other sacred sites and to which religion can be buildings? formal and informal shrines? expressions of popular a significant contributor and religious festivals? inter-faith religious services at local government level? 3. Religion, Faith also a significant destroyer. Communities and the Construction of Social Capital

The well-being of nations is said to depend on the construction of social and moral capital to which religion can be a significant contributor and also a significant destroyer.

Religion, the national common good, a civil, pluralist and democratic economy? Inter-religious education its underpinning values and the four society? in integrating immigrant in mainstream public schools and principles of civic duty, cultural communities into the Australian private schools? inter-faith education respect, social equity and productive social fabric? faith communities and in confessional and ethnic schools diversity? religion and its historical their attitudes towards minority - enclosure and curriculum issues? and contemporary contribution groups? Other faith communities? confessional universities in multi- to Australia’s social and economic religion and the formation of the faith societies? capital? Australian identity and identities? The attitudes of media and Religion and its current and possible The inter-faith education of the academe towards religion and future role in the construction of Australian community? religion and faith communities? their religious the construction of the knowledge background knowledge? religion and its use of the media? and of the internet?

136 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 137 4. Australia, Faith expression in Australian society? 5. Construction of an Communities and diasporic faith communities and Electronic Network their Interface with the religiously/ethnically-based conflict The Commonwealth Government has International Arena and terrorism? the impact of asked the research team to investigate visiting religious leaders on such Religion is or can be a core element data sources for the construction of an relationships in Australia? in Australia’s trade and diplomatic electronic network for the transmission relationships and in overseas conflicts. The incidence of imported religious of information to religious groups at After S11, religion is now at the centre fundamentalism in Australia and local, regional and national levels. of world stage; faith communities its impact on social cohesion? the Advisability of such an electronic are inter-connected across the world building of peace and transforming network? its purposes and uses? through their religious diasporas in conflict in Australia and overseas? coverage? advice on its construction? an increasingly networked world. This use of marriage celebrant list? can impact upon social cohesion in Lists of the Christian Research Australia or even affect the conflict Association? electronic transport of overseas. e-lists of details of local, regional and The role of religion and religious national bodies and their leaders to understanding in Australia’s government data site? updating diplomatic relationships? in its trade of list? and commercial relationships? in increasing the nation’s economic wealth?

Religion and intranational and international tourism in Australia? prayer rooms at international airports? tourists and visitation of religious sites? pastoral needs of international students in Australia?

The impact of overseas conflict on inter-faith and inter-ethnic relationships in Australia? imported religious hatred and its

136 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 137 APPENDIX TWO Public Consultation: Religion, Diversity and Social Cohesion in Contemporary Australia

Discussion Brief Background Aims of the Project

Due to limited funds and resources, As part of the “Living in Harmony” i. To profile the current religious this public consultation is being projects, the Commonwealth diversity context in Australia conducted in English. However if you Government through the Department within a brief historical are experiencing language difficulties of Immigration and Multicultural framework, and map the extent and wish to participate, please contact Affairs has commissioned the of interfaith dialogue and co- and AMF via Fax (03) 9347 2218 or Australian Multicultural Foundation operation. email ([email protected]) to see if we in association with the World ii. To examine the current can assist in any way. Conference in Religion and Peace contribution that religious (Australian Chapter) and RMIT All submissions must be received by 8 frameworks and religious groups and Monash Universities to conduct April 2002. are currently making and can and electronic consultation with make to the development of the religious , government and community four civic values of civic duty, organizations. cultural respect, social equity and It is part of a broader study in religion, productive diversity. cultural diversity and social cohesion iii. To identify current and emerging in contemporary Australia which will issues, challenges and possibilities involve consultations with heads of regarding the interface of faith, government departments and religious groups with Australian selected community organizations society and each other, including together with micro case studies of local areas for further research and faith communities. The project also exploration. involves the production of educational materials about Islam and a kit for iv. To suggest policy and program interfaith dialogue and co-operation. initiatives that foster a healthy, interactive religious diversity and that utilizes religion as an asset and resource for Australia’s social, political and economic well-being in a globalizing world.

138 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 139 v. To develop material for in Research Personnel Anonymity information kit to facilitate and The project is being conducted by three Anonymous submissions will not be encourage dialogue, interaction researchers: considered. The consultation is being and co-operation between carried out according to the ethical Australia’s faith communities at Professor Desmond Cahill, Professor standards for research of RMIT and local, state and national level. of Intercultural Studies, is head of Monash Universities. If you have any RMIT’s undergraduate international vi. To investigate the feasibility of complaints they are to be referred ad cross-cultural programs. He has Australian interfaith bodies and to the Ethics Committees of either conducted numerous consultancies structures to advise the Council university. for the Commonwealth government, for Multicultural Australia and especially in immigrant and refugee Under the confidentiality procedures, other government and non- education and ethnic minority youth. all submissions will be considered government bodies. He is Chairperson of the Australian anonymous, and if quoted in the final vii. To investigate data sources for chapter of the World Conference on report, will be quoted in such a manner the construction of an electronic Religion and Peace. as to hide their anonymity unless the network for the transmission of waiver of confidentiality at the end is Professor Gary Bouma, Professor information to religious groups at given. of Sociology, is the associate dean local, regional and national levels. (research) Monash University’s Faculty Submission The fundamental approach of the of Arts. He is a leading religious Print this pdf form, when the form is project is to place the role and activities sociologist, and is widely published complete, send to the: of religion and faith communities in the area of religion and cultural within the social context of the diversity. He is Deputy Chairperson Australian Multicultural Foundation creation of social and moral capital, of the Australian chapter of the World PO Box 538 Carlton South, Vic 3053. and to relate them to citizenship Conference on Religion and Peace. in a multicultural democracy built Mr. Hass Dellal, OAM has been around the four principles of: (1) since 1989 executive director of the civic duty (2) cultural respect (3) Australian Multicultural Foundation social equity and (4) productive currently chaired by The Honorable diversity as outlined in the 1999 New Sir James Gobbo AC CVO. Mr. Dellal Agenda for a Multicultural Australia has extensive experience in Australia (www.immi.gov.au/multicultural/ and internationally in multicultural agenda.doc). However, given the affairs. He is currently a special advisor broadness of the brief, it is essentially a to the National Police Ethnic Advisory mapping exercise. Bureau, a trustee of the European Multicultural Foundation and a former commissioner of the Victorian Multicultural Commission.

138 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 139 PUBLIC CONSULTATION Religion, Diversity and Social Cohesion in Contemporary Australia

Submission Form Please fill out all the sections that apply to you. Items marked with and asterisk ( * ) are compulsory, you must fill them in for the consultation to be complete.

Final submission deadline is 8 April 2002. Title:

Given Names:

*Surname:

*Postal Address:

*Suburb or town:

*Postcode:

*Telephone:

Fax:

*Email:

Mark here if this is a group submission:

Organisation Name:

Organisation Address:

Suburb or town:

Postcode:

140 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 141 If this is a group submission, briefly describe the objectives and activities of your organization:

How many members are there in your organization?

What is your religion? Catholic Anglican Uniting Church Presbyterian

Greek Orthodox Baptist Lutheran Islam

Buddhist No Religion Other:

Are you a member of any inter-faith organization (e.g. World Conference on Religion and Peace)? If so, specify which:

Have you participate in any inter-faith service or activity during 2000 or 2001? If so give details:

Is there an inter-faith body in your area, local or regional? Give name and location:

140 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 141 The following six questions are for individual submissions only: Please tick one response only for each question.

1. Christian rather than multi-faith services should be held on occasions of national celebration and national/international tragedy:

Strongly disagree Disagree Neither agree nor disagree Agree Strongly agree

2. An inter-faith council ought to be established to advise the Commonwealth Government on faith and inter-faith issues:

Strongly disagree Disagree Neither agree nor disagree Agree Strongly agree

3. Religious intermarriages are to be anticipated in multi-faith society, and they promote intercultural under- standing and cooperation:

Strongly disagree Disagree Neither agree nor disagree Agree Strongly agree

4. Recent overseas conflicts in areas such as the Gulf, the Balkans, Sri Lanka and Central Asia have put Australia’s social harmony at risk:

Strongly disagree Disagree Neither agree nor disagree Agree Strongly agree

5. Religious extremism has the potential to destroy the fabric of Australia’s civil, pluralist and democratic society:

Strongly disagree Disagree Neither agree nor disagree Agree Strongly agree

6. Leaders of faith communities at national and local level ought to be educated about the role of religion in Australia’s civil, pluralistic and democratic society:

Strongly disagree Disagree Neither agree nor disagree Agree Strongly agree

The following questions are for all submissions. Please use dot-points and concrete examples whenever possible 1. Areas of Serious Concern Nominate without explanation the three areas that concern you or your organization most in the areas of religion, cultural diversity and social cohesion in contemporary Australia:

1.

142 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 143 2.

3.

2. Religion and Social Cohesion How do the faith communities of Australia contribute to national well-being and the nation’s social and moral capability, especially in regard to civic duty, cultural respect, social equity and productive diversity?

How do faith communities hinder or prevent the creation of social and moral capital, especially in regard to civic duty, cultural respect, social equity and productive diversity?

Suggest ways in which faith communities could further contribute to the creation of social and moral capital:

142 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 143 Are there particular ethnic and religious communities or other organizations about whom you have concerns as initiators or as victims of verbal attacks or physical assaults?

3. Religion and the State in a Culturally Diverse Nation How should the relationship between religion and state be positioned in the current context, including the delivery of government services?

If Australia were to become a republic, what are the implications from a religious perspective?

Do changes to the law need to be made in the changing context of religion, cultural diversity and social cohesion?

144 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 145 Do the limits of religious expression and the management of religious sites and services need to be re-negotiated in the current climate?

4. Relationship between Faith Communities at Local and National Levels How serious is the problem of religious and racial hatred in Australia and what are its antidotes?

What suggestions do you have for inter-church and inter-faith co-operation and activity at the grassroots level?

How should government and faith communities themselves deal with religious extremism that conflicts with Australian and cultural practices?

144 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 145 5. Faith Communities and their Interface with the International Arena What role do religion and faith communities have in Australia’s offshore trading and commercial activities?

How can religious groups respond better to the needs of international tourists?

How should Australia handle religious hatred and extremism, both home-grown and imported?

How should Australia handle the impact of overseas conflicts on its own ethnic and religious communities?

146 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 147 6. Specific Issues Please select up to four issues only from the following list that are most relevant to you and provide com- ments. Make sure you use concrete examples.

The definition of religion in a multi-faith context The place of Aboriginal spiritualities in a multi-faith context Aboriginal reconciliation Success or failure in inter-faith initiatives The religious dimensions of emergency situations Job discrimination and religious affiliation Employment practices and religious expression, including religious holidays The education of faith community leaders Religious education in mainstream public and private schools Inter-faith marriages and their religious implications for families The construction and management of special sacred and religious sites Multi-faith chaplaincy in the Australian armed forces Religion and the role of women Full-time and part-time religious and ethnoreligious schools Representativity of faith communities in local, state and national forums Tourism and the visitation of religious sites Faith, religious liberty and legal issues The media and the reporting of faith community activities Religion and the Australian identity The state and confessional universities Religion and environmental protection

Issue 1:

146 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia 147 Issue 2:

Issue 3:

Issue 4:

Would you like notification of how to receive the final report from this consultation? Yes No

*I agree that my name or the name of my organization can be cited in the final report if quotations are to be made. Yes No

Final submission deadline: 8 April 2002

148 Religion,Cultural Diversity andSafeguarding Australia ByFriday DLD 04