WorkforceDiversity Training: From Anti -Discriinina ti 0 n Comp Hanc e to OrganizationalDevelopment Marc Bendick,jr., Bendick and Egan Economic Consultants, Inc.; Mary Lou Egan, Bendick and Egan Economic Consultants,lnc.; SuzanneM. Lofhjelm,U.S. General Accounting Office

ur surveyof training providersreveals that contemporaryworkplace training aboutemployment discrimi- nation and workforce diversity encompassesa :.:...>.;;\: variety of approaches.Many training programsfocus on individual attitudes ~ and appearto haveonly V modesteffects. To the extentthat training ~ more comprehensively addressesindividual behavior,organizational systems,and employer performancegoals, their effectivenessappears to increase.A particularly comprehensiveapproach, rooted in the theory of organizationaldevelop- ment, can be identified by the presenceof nine benchmark training practices.Although initiatives adoptingthis final approachappear to be the most effective,they are commonlyimplemented by only 25 percentof diversity trainers.

10 HUMANRESOURCE PLANNING In the first decadesfollowing the passageof And in a 1995 survey, 50 percent of members of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, anti-discrimination the American Management Association reported training in the American workplace primarily having formal programs for managing diversity, provided straightforward roles to employees with training a usual compo~ent; this figure had about behavior required or forbidden under fed- risen from 46 percent in 1992 (AMA, 1996, p.6). eral and state laws. Training in this style remains Despite diversity training's prevalence, little '-oJ common, now frequently focusing on such topics systematic research is available to resolve often- as sexual harassmentand the Americans with vociferous debates about its nature and effects. Disabilities Act. Starting in the mid-1980s One side of these debates argues the continuing and accelerating throughout the 1990s, many of need for and effectiveness of the activity. Some these efforts have evolved into more ambitious authors emphasize the benefits for employees in undertakings with a different label - diversity terms of reduction of discrimination, while others training - and a more strategic role in human emphasize the benefits for employers in terms of resource management. productivity. For example, Thomas (1990, p.108) This study empirically profiles diversity training has written: in American workplaces today, using a structured survey of training providers. It describes this train- Womenand blacks who are seenas having the necessaryskills andenergy can get into the ing's varying forms and assessestheir effects. We find that the most modest training programs typi- work force relatively easily.It's later on that cally focus on individual attitudes, whereas more many of them plateauand lose their drive and comprehensiveefforts typically add consideration quit or get fired. It's later on that their man- of individual behavior and employers' human agers'inability to managediversity hobbles resourcepolicies and systems.The most compre- them and the companiesthey work for I hensive initiatives, which we derIDe with nine don't think that affumativeaction alonecan benchmarks,are full-scale efforts to change work- copewith the remaininglong-term task of place cultures using organizational development creatingwork settingsgeared to the upward approaches.As the scope and depth of mobility of all kinds of people. training efforts increase, their effectiveness, as Focusingon training,another scholar concurs perceived by both training providers and our in predictingpositive results (Cox, 1994,pp. researchteam, also increases.Nevertheless, only 236-237): about 25 percent of training providers in our The most commonly utilized starting point for survey typically practice the most comprehensive, organizational development work on managing organizational development approach. diversity is some type of employee education Prior Research program Even elementary educational efforts do have positive effects on perceptions No definitive estimate is available concerning and attitudes. Most experts agree that education the prevalence of diversity training in the is a crucial flTStstep. American workplace today; however, it appears to be undertaken by the majority of large Equally adamant, other authors fmd training employers in both the public and private sectors, and other diversity initiatives counter-productive. as well as a substantial proportion of medium- Some reject the activity for philosophical reasons size and smaller ones, and its use continues to (Lynch, 1997, p. 325): expand. For example, a 1995 survey of the 50 The ambitious organization change masters largest U.S. industrial flITl1Sfound that 70 percent astride the diversity machine...are extending had a formal diversity management program, affmnative action's top-down hiring campaign typically including training, and an additional 8 into a broader multi-cultural revolution in the percent were developing one (Lynch, 1997, p. 7). American workplace and beyond. Both the In a 1994 survey of members of the Society for ends and the means of this policy movement Human Resource Management, 33 percent pose a substantial threat to...free speech; reported that their employers provided training individualism; nondiscrimination on the basis on workforce diversity, making it about as com- of ethnicity, gender, or religion; and equality mon as training in sales techniques (35%) or of opponunity. clerical skills (31 %) (Rynes and Rosen, 1995).

HUMAN II.ESOUII.CEPLANNING II Others view it as ineffective or hanDful in universe of such providers, random sampling to practice (Hemphill and Haines, 1997, pp. 3-5): generate a nationally representative sample was not feasible. We therefore applied stratified con- In spite of its positive intent, it is unrealistic venience sampling to obtain a broadly inclusive to think that with three to five hours of diver- group of respondents. Potential respondentswere sity training, complex sociological and cultural identified from industry directories, attendance principles could be clearly understood, much lists of national conferences, advertisementsand less applied to all interpersonal relationships... articles in the trade press, Internet sites, and word Social conflict was created from the attempt of mouth. From these sources, respondentswere to deal publicly with sensitive social and per- selected to encompassa variety of geographical sonal issues better dealt with elsewhere.... locations, industries, demographic foci, size, and Many personal agendas,minority platforms, other characteristics (in-house staff versus out- and social conflicts were frequently major side consultants, non-profit versus for-profit). portions of the program White males report Respondents that could not be contacted or that they are tired of being made.to feel refused to participate were replaced by others guilty Groups that already felt oppressed with similar characteristics. The result was a left the diversity program feeling even more completed sample of 108, a 73 percent response vulnerable and victimized. rate (Bendick. et al.. 1998.pp. 22-27). Whether supportive or critical, Interviews were conducted by most of these writings address telephone during the second half of diversity management generally 1997 using a 338-item structured rather than the training component questionnaire completed in about that is our specific subject In addition, 45 minutes. The respondent was the their evidence is largely anecdotal. most senior person in the organization Two studies have attempted more with direct involvement in diversity systematic evaluations. One surveyed training (e.g., practice directors 922 employees in one department of in consulting fmns. directors of a large firm where diversity training diversity in corporations). Individual had been conducted. Respondents responseswere treated confidentially. who received training reported them- selves substantially more supportive A Profileof Workplace of diversity, and perceived their DiversityTraining employer to be more supportive, Exhibit 1 describes the character- than those who did not (Ellis and istics of the training providers SoMenfeld, 1992). The second study surveyed. Although these data in part used a mail survey of members of the reflect our sampling procedure and SOCietyfor Human Resource Management whose are not necessarily nationally representative,the employers had provided diversity training. About exhibit demonstrates that diversity training can 33 percent rated the training "extremely success- be obtained from a variety of sources, both ful" or "quite successful," 50 percent estimated for-profit (training vendors, consultants, lawyers, "neutral or mixed" success,and 17 percent judged media producers) and non-profit (anti-bias it unsuccessful - on balance, moderately more organizations,universities, trade and professional favorable than unfavorable. In that study, design associations). factors perceived to be associated with success About two-thirds of providers can be described included mandatory attendance for managers, as well-established and possessingconsiderable training followup, top management support, resources and experience, while about one-third explicit rewards for diversity, and a broad defmi- operate on a more limited scale. For example, tion of diversity (Rynes and Rosen, 1995). between 60 percent and 84 percent operate nationwide, have provided this training for at ResearchMethods least five years, and have served at least several This study addressesthe same controversies hundred clients. through a survey of providers of diversity train- Exhibit 2 describesthe individuals who con- ing throughout the United States. Because no duct training sessions.Critics sometimesportray comprehensive sampling frame identifies the these trainers primarily as advocatesof their own

81 HUMAN RESOURCEPLANNING <.iHS~f?~~~4'~~i~:'2:']~~";~j<;;~~~~::~:~; ':',. Proportion of trainers Lei.' status' from protected croups Allor most 48.6 Private, for-profit 73.9 Some 43 Government agency .,.1 Few or none Private, non-profit -H 1L Total 100 Total 100

Primary product or service- When trainers are from For-profit training 44.6 protected If'Oups,are they For-profit consulting 17.6 From 8 singlegroup 10.2 Legal services 10.8 From multiple groups ..Jll Anti-discrimination services 12.1 Total 100 Degree-granting education 9-' Trade or professional association .5.4 Primary basisof trainers' expertise Total 100 Multiple or mixed 42.6 Organizationaldevelopment or training 23.1 Geocraphlc ranp of clientele Businessexperience or businesstraining 13.9 Entire U.S. or U.S. and international 63 Legal experienceor training 13 Primarily one region .1L Personalexperience in Total \00 A protectedgroup 7.4 Total 100 29.2 21.7 than 5 among the 108 respondentscould be 49.1 described as strident advocates.TIle majority 100 presentedthemselves in a highly "business-like" Number of clients to which manner and described their programs in terms have provided training'" reflecting their education and experience in Dozens 40 management,organization development, human Hundreds 44 resource management,or law. Membership in a Thousands ...!L Total 100 protected group may confer the appearance of expertise on issuesof discrimination and diversity - a source effect (Kotler, 1994, p. 607) - but the 13.9 training they deliver is predominantly profession- '2.8 ally, rather than personally, based. 33.3 Exhibit 3 describes the clients to whom 100 training is provided. Typical client organizations .excludes 35 respondents who are employers' include employers from a broad spectrum of in-house staff. industries, government agencies, and non-profit organizations. Consistent with prior surveys, discriminated-againstgroups. The exhibit suggests, larger employers are more common than smaller however, that this circumstance is rare. Many ones: While 87.8 percent of survey respondents trainers are members of groups traditionally facing reported that they typically work with fmns of discrimination: Only 8.4 percent of respondents 5,000 or more employees, only 30.9 percent reported that few or none of their staff come from reported typically working with firms of 100 groups protected under employment discrimina- or fewer employees. tion laws. But only 10.2 percent described their According to Exhibit 3, 70.4 percent of entire staff as coming from a single group, and respondentstypically deliver training to individual only 7.4 percent described this staff's primary organizations separately; only 11.1 percent pri- source of expertise as personal experience. Based marily provide sessionsattended by persoMel on comments made during interviews, no more from multiple firms.

HUMAN RESOURCE PlANNING 13

~ Exhibit 3 also reveals that employers' reasons for initiating training emphasize the operational needs of their businessesmore than moral and legal concerns. Some 82.3 percent of respondents report productivity or improved customer rela- tionships as important motivation for most or all their clients, while only 37.4 percent describe compliance with discrimination laws as an Client ol'lanizations important client goal. typically include+ Concerning individual trainees, Exhibit 3 Private for-profit flm1s 14.8 indicates that enrollment is often not limited to Government agencies S8 managersand supervisorswho make employment Non-profit organizations 52.3 othen 4.1 decisions, with 78.7 percent of respondents reporting that typical trainees include non- Private sector client firms typically includes firms with what number supervisory employees. Mid-level managersand of total employeesl+ supervisors are the most common participants, < 100 30.9 with 98.1 percent of respondentsdescribing them 100-499 43.2 as typical trainees. Seniorexecutives are typical 500-999 S3.l 1,000- 4,999 M.4 trainees for 83.1 percent of respondents. > 5,000 87.8 Exhibit 4 profLles training activities. In a typical course, about 25 trainees work with either Private sector client firms typically instructors Include those from which industries?+ one or two for an averageof 10 hours. Services 80.2 In somecases, trainees are drawnfrom different Transportation 80 levels in the organization, from executives to Manufacturing 73.8 non-supervisory employees, while in others the Finance, insurance, and real estate 67..5 groupsare more homogeneous.I An eclecticmix Wholesale or retail trade 55 Construction 30 of instructional methods is used, with emphasis on active learning. Every survey respondent Composition of trainees In a single reported using at least one instructional method. trainln, class Employees from a single finn 70.4 such as role playing or discussions of real Open session- multiple finns 11.1 incidents from the workplace, fostering trainees' Varies ..!Y active participation. Total 100 Exhibit 4 also describesthe content of diversity What are Important motivations for training. One set of frequent topics focuses on training for most or all client flrms?+ individual trainees' awarenessof discrimination Increase productivity or improve and trainees'personal attitudes toward members Customer relationships B2.l Comply with anti-discrimination of different demographic groups. Such topics Laws or prevent litigation 37.4 include: discrimination in the workplace (typical- Improve rum's ability to operate ly coveredby 97.2% of survey respondents);the In international markets 27.2 role of stereotypes in perceptions and decisions Meet the requirements of a litigation Settlement 4.8 (91.3%); how a diverse workforce contributes to productivity (82.4%); the content of stereo- Level of employees typically tralned+ types about different groups (65.4%); white Mid.level mangers and supervisors 98.1 Senior executives 83.1 male backlash (64.9%); the cultures of different Human resource staff 82.2 groups (61.1 %); and discrimination outside the Non-supervisory employees 78.7 workplace (55.6%). Others 11.2 One example of such awarenessmaterial is a Trainee enrollment is videotape portraying the so-called "blue-eyed, Compulsory 34.3 brown-eyed" exercise, presented in a videotape: Voluntary 28.7 The policy varies .1L [The trainer] challenges a mixed race group Total 100 of about 40 people in Kansas City to confront

+ Respondentscould select more than one response. the racism which persists in our society and (0 experience its effects personally. She divides

14 HUMANRESOURCE PLANNING ..."",-"...o"f":. ;""", ,::"..:, , ,,'" 'II.\ ""," " ," " ,-, .-". Number of trainees in a typical training group ~ Optimal 23.9

Maximum 43.6 " ',,'~, ','

,~ 44.1 46.1 2! 100

Number of training hours in Most frequently provided course 10 Longest course 10.1 Shonest course 4.2

Hlerarchlca' composition of classes Employeesfrom a rangeof levelsare trainedtogether 43.4 Employeesfrom different levels are trained separately 30.2 The policy varies 26.4 Total 100

Training methods+ Wrinen handouts 99.1 Group exercises 95.3 LecturesOf mini-lectures 87.7 Discussionof actualincidents from the worlcplace 84.1 Casestudies 75.7 Self-awarenessexercises 73.6 Video tapes 70.4 Role playing 70.1 Interaction with trainees of different backgrounds 49.1

Topics typically COYerH+ Problems of discrimin~ion in the workplace 97.2 The role of stereotypes in discrimination 91.3 How to make different groups welcome in the workplace 84.3 How a diverse workforce contributes to productivity 82.4 The client organization's policies on discrimination 66.7 Non-discriminatory employee evaluations/promotion 65.7 The content of stereotypes about different groups 65.4 White male "backlash" 64.9 Promoting retention and development of different groups 64.8 The provisions of equal employment opportunity law 61.1 The cultures of different demographic groups 61.1 Nondiscriminatory employee recruitmentJhiring 58.3 Problems of discrimination outside the workplace 55.6 Other 48.5 Important lOals of tralnln... Change the workplace behavior of individual trainees 95.4 Promote organizational change 90.7 Increase trainees' awareness of discrimination issues 88.8 Decrease trainees' use of stereotypes 85.3 Change trainees' attitudes toward protected groups 61.7 Make the content of stereorypes more positive 34.6 Other goals 3.4

+ Respondents could selecl more than one rcsponae.

HUMAN RESOURCEPLANNING I!

~ the group on the basisof eye color and then subjectsthe blue-eyedpeople to a withering regimeof humiliation and contempt.In just a few hours,we watch grown professionals becomedistracted and despondent,stumbling over the simplestcommands. The peopleof color in the group are surprisedthat whites react so quickly to the kind of discrimination they face every day of their lives. And [the trainer] points out that sexism,ageism. and homophobiacan have similar effects People Adopting formal policies against discrimination or in favor of diversity 86.9 who haveexperienced prejudice themselves, if only for a few hours in a controlledenvi- Improving specific human resource management practices 82.2 ronment,are much lesslikely to discriminate Disciplining or firing employees againsttheir fellow employees. who discriminate 68.6 A second set of topics focuses on individuals' Inclumng equal opportunity in managers' perfonnance evaluations 64.4 behavior, including practical ideas for acting differently for example, techniques for making Providing an accessible discrimination - complaintprocess S7.9 different groups welcome in the workplace Providing mentoring and similar (covered by 84.3% of survey respondents), staff development programs 57.9

nondiscriminatory employee evaluations and Celebrating diversity in COlDpIIIY promotions (65.7%), increasing the retention and publications 39.8 development of different groups (64.8%), and Establishing a diversity advisory committee 39 nondiscriminatory recruitment and hiring (58.3%). Establishing numerical goals for In Exhibit 4, 95.4 percent of respondentsiden- employingprotected groups 34.3 tify changing the workplace behavior of individual Employingfull-time diversity staff 33 trainees as an important training goal, while 90.7 + Respondentscould selectmore thanone response. percent identify promoting organizational change as a major objective. These goals are cited at a (68.6%), including equal opportunity in man- somewhat higher rate than increasing trainees' agers' perfonnance evaluations (64.4%), and awarenessconcerning discrimination (88.8%) and providing a discrimination complaint process changing trainees' attitudes (61.7%). Of course, (57.9%). Fewer than half characterized the trainers who focus on awarenessand attitudes remaining four actions listed in Exhibit 5 as typically believe that changesin behavior will very important. Notably, having numerical follow. Nevertheless. some inconsistency remains goals and timetables for employing protected between providers' emphasis on behavior as a groups, commonly viewed as the core of target they seek to influence and their relative lack affmnative action, is rated very important by of focus on behavior itself. While answering our only 34.3 percent.2 structured questions, more than a dozen survey Some complementary activities are closely respondentscommented spontaneouslythat their related to training itself, such as organizational current priority for improving training was to assessmentsthat identify issuesfor training strengthen its practical behavioral content to address.Training providers are commonly Nearly all survey respondents expresseda involved in some pre-training activities, although belief that training should not be an isolated the depth of their involvement varies. Involvement initiative but part of a broader change process. once training has been delivered is more limited, Exhibit 5 lists 10 diversity management activities with only 38.7 percent reporting that they typically often undertaken to complement training. Among have any followup role. these, 86.9 percent of respondents characterized adoption of formal policies against discrimina- BenchmarksDefining the Organization tion as a very important reinforcement to train- DevelopmentApproach ing. This activity was joined by: improving Although the previous section has emphasized that diversity training programs typically share human resource management practices (82.2%), disciplining or firing employees who discriminate many characteristics,they also vary widely in their

16 HUMANRESOURCE PLANNING styleand scope. Based on an analysisof the corre- relevant to ..the way things are done around lation amongsurvey responses, as well ason-site here'~(Harvey and Brown, 1996, p. 67). observationin 14training programs (Bendick, et 3. Training Links Diversity to Central . Operating Goals. If a client organization trains al., 1998.Chapter 5), we concludedthat much of that variationcan be summarizedin a single merely to salve senior managers' consciences, dimension - the degree to which a program placate disaffected employees, or reduce the conformsto what we label the organization likelihood that an employer will be sued, then developmentapproach to diversity training. organization development theory suggeststhe Operationally,we define that approachin terms effects are likely to be shallow and short-lived. of the following nine benchmarks. In contrast, if an organization undertakes training d! 1. Training Has StrongSupport from Top to advance its most important operational goals Management.One surveyrespondent remarked through increased productivity, reduced costs, that, if he had to choosebetween an unlimited easier recruitment, enhanced creativity, improved budgetfor diversity training and having the top client service, or expanded markets then the executiveof a client organizationsimply insist effort is likely to be treated more seriously and that discriminationbe banished,he would select have a more lasting impact (Williams and the latter.When traineesunderstand that the O'Reilly, 1998; Richard and Johnson, 1999). managersto whom they report are seriousabout Accordingly, diversity training in the organi- this subject,they are more likely to participatein zation development style typically involves training whole-heartedly,apply its lessons,and training around and discussion of the "business generalizeto situationstraining did not specifi- case" for diversity. Frequently. this case is pre- cally address- all elementsof sustainedorgani- sented in terms of the importance to the fmn of zationalchange. Support can be manifestedin customers or employees of different demographic numerousways, for example,by having senior backgrounds.Additionally, researchis sometimes managersattend training, endorse it, repeatedly quoted to demonstrateempirically the relationship referto its lessons,or echoits lessonsin employee between workforce diversity and business performanceevaluations. success.For example, one study found that 2. TrainingIs Tailoredto Each Client stockholders' five-year total return on investment Organization.A numberof surveyrespondents was 17 percent higher for 50 firms picked as the offer "off the shelf," standardizedtraining best companies for minority employees than for packages.Although their approachis relatively other comparably sized companies (Johnson, inexpensiveand appeals to employerswishing to 1998, p. 96). Another study estimated that stock delegatediversity work, it can sharplydiminish valuations were lower than expected for fmns the ability of the training to promotesubstantial losing discrimination litigation and higher than organizationalchange. Some trainees find it expected for firms receiving awards for exem- difficult to absorbinformation if the situations plary affirmative action (Wright, et al., 1995). studieddo not preciselymatch their own work- A third found that fmns identified as best- place.More basically,off-the-shelf training may performing companies either objectively (in be irrelevantbecause it fails to matchthe client terms of financial performance) or subjectively fmn's corporateculture. Furthermore, the (most admired by leading executives) were only processof working with the training provider one-tenth as likely as other firms to discriminate to tailor training is often an importantpart of against older workers (Bendick, et al., 1996, the client's organizationallearning. pp.37-39). Tailoring can involve the style or modeof 4. Trainers Are Managerial or Organization delivery,selection of topics,examples from the Development Professionals. Consistent with workplace,or other adaptations.At its most elab- the organization development approach,trainers orate,it involvesa pre-trainingdiversity audit with experience managing organizations, educa- identifyingthe client fmn's currentcircumstances tion in management,or experience as organization and priority issues.Whether elaborate or simple, developmentconsultants tend to train in a business- tailoredtraining will achievethe goal implied like style and emphasize diversity's contributions in the informal defmition of corporateculture to the client organization's operational perfor- usedby many organizationaldevelopment con- mance. Personal experience as a member of a sultants:Trainees will recognizethe training as group traditionally facing discrimination, if it is

HUMANRESOURCE PLANNING 11 a trainer's sole expertise,cannot substitute for stereotypesby focusingon behavior"typical" of this background. membersof different groUps.3Another character. 5. Training Enrolls All Levelsof Employees. ires diversityinitiatives as reparations for past Seniorexecutives, mid-level managers, and first- abusesand implies that womenand minorities line supervisorscontrol many humanresource can advanceonly at the expenseof white males managementdecisions and also function as (Cherners,et al., 1995,p. 106;Wentling and opinionleaders in settingan organization'sculture. Palma-Rivas,1997, pp. 28.30).A third is stress. Their enrollmentin diversity training is therefore inducingor blatantly offensiveto manytrainees.4 obviouslyimportant. But work environmentsthat This benchmarkcharacterizes training programs are unwelcomingor hostileto certaintypes of that avoid suchcircumstances. workerstypically reflect relationshipswith peers 7. Training Explicitly AddressesIndividual as well as supervisors,and changingcorporate Behavior.As notedearlier, 95.4 percentof survey cultureis ultimately a "360-degree"process in respondentsidentified changingtrainees' work- which the attitudesand behaviorof non-supervi- placebehavior as a very importantgoal; however, sory employeesalso playa major role. One theserespondents' training often focuseson surveyrespondent estimated that a "critical mass" awarenessand attitudes, devoting limited attention capableof influencingan organization'scorporate to behavioritself. culturedoes not start to form until Of course,behavior-oriented about25 percentof all persoMelat training can be narrowand mechani- a work site havereceived training. cal, providing rigid rulesor rote 6. Training Discusses proceduresthat, while sometimes Discrimination as a General useful, offer little guidancewhen Process.Journalists often portray employeesencounter issues in forms diversity training as harpingon the or contextsother thanthe oneson experiencesof specificgroups, such which they weretrained. When con- as racismexperienced by African ceptuallygrounded (see Benchmark Americansor sexismencountered 6), organizationdevelopment theory by women.Although that is the suggeststhat training that actively approachof sometrainers, those engagestrainees in developingand working in the organizationdevelop- practicingnew waysof speaking ment tradition tend to emphasize and acting is more likely to affect generalpsychological and social post-trainingbehavior. processesof inclusion and exclusion, 8. TrainingIs Complemented such as stereotyping,ingroup bias, by Changesin HumanResource social comfort, and group think Practices.Although important (Aigner and Cain, 1977;Darley and improvementscan be achieved Gross, 1983;Krueger and Rothbart, by changingindividuals' behavior, 1988;Word, et al., 1974).While the many diversity problemsare embed- experiencesof specific groupsare ded in systemsand policies beyond usually cited as examples,these trainers use a individuals' control, suchas organizations' breadthof examplesto signal that individualsof proceduresfor recruitment,hiring, assignment, many backgrounds - including white males - compensation, training, evaluation, promotion, can be adverselyaffected by theseprocesses. and dismissal. This broaderapproach is lesslikely to exacerbate In somecases, the mosteffective way to intergrouptensions, and it addressesthe often- addresssuch issues is not linked to discrimination subtle and unconsciousforms of discrimination itself. For example,training in basicsupervisory prevalentin today's workplace(Jackson, 1992; skills for inexperiencedsupervisors often reduces Bendick,et al., 1994). inconsistenciesin policies,failures of communi- When diversity training doesnot conformto cation, and interpersonalconflicts - changesthat this benchmark,it can easilybecome embroiled disproportionatelyaid membersof groupstradi- in controversyand conflict that the organization tionally experiencingdiscrimination but improve developmentapproach is more likely to avoid. the working environmentfor otheremployees For example,one type of training outside as well. One surveyrespondent estimated that the organizationdevelopment style reinforces 60 percentof client organizationshiring him to

18 HUMAN ~ESOU~CEPLANNING addressdiscrimination really have only generic of organizationdevelopment professionals, managementproblems associated with antiquated such fundamentalapproaches may, however, corporate cultures and operating systems; only be the only way to addressissues of diversity 40 percent combine these problems with discrim- and discriminationcompletely and permanently. ination per se. One major finding of our surveyis that diver- Organizational-deve I opment-oriented diversity sity training programsin the comprehensive v training is likely to make individual trainees aware organizationdevelopment style definedby these of these issuesand mobilize them as advocates nine benchmarksdo exist. Our surveyincluded of change. But system changestypically must be 40 questionsthat, separatelyor jointly, directly initiated by senior managementand occur outside represented the benchmarks - for example, of. although parallel to. training itself. whether the survey respondent typically includes 9. Training Impacts the Corporate Culture. In top managers among trainees, trains employees a full organization development approach, activi- from only one organization at a time, character- ties such as those under Benchmark 8 are part izes productivity enhancement as an important of an even broader process. In this effort, training training motive, employs trainers whose primary combines with organizational self-examination, expertise is management or organization devel- symbolic acts, reforms of policies and procedures, opment, engages in post-training followup, and and selective changesin personnel to achieve rates improved human resource management far-reaching changesin the corporate culture - practices as an important reinforcement to training. the interdependentsystem of beliefs, values, On a scale with possible scores from 0 to 40, and ways of behaving that are common to a the 108 survey respondents scored between 18 workplace (Greenberg and Baron, 1993, p. 622) and 38, with an average of 27.3. Using 80 per- Some workplaces have cultures in which dis- cent of the maximum score (32 out of 40) as criminatory attitudes and behavior are not only a cutoff representing substantial conformity to tolerated but implicitly or explicitly condoned the organization development approach, then (Roberts and White. 1998; Watkins. 1997). In one-quarter (24.1%) of survey respondents can many more, signals are mixed. For example. the be said to train in this style. majority of large employers have written policies The following examples illustrate diversity requiring equal employment opportunity, but training in the organization development style as it these policies are given varying degrees of prior- has recently been implemented in two actual firms. ity. Widely circulated reputations suggest that some companies are distinctly better places Owens Coming: Reinvigorating to work than others for minorities. women, a Staid Corporate Culture and others traditionally facing discrimination Owens Coming, Inc. (OC) is a manufacturer of (Johnson, 1998; Levering and Moscowitz, 1993). fiberglass insulation and other building materials, The difference is often a corporate culture in which with 24,000 employees and $4.3 billion in annual discriminatory, harassing,or exclusionary behavior revenues.Founded in 1930, the firm enjoyed 50 is so discordant with norms, values, social rewards, years of slow but steady growth basedon innova- and daily practicesthat they are unthinkable. tive products and promote-from-within manage- Some indicators of an organization's ment In the aggressivebusiness climate of the commitment to building such a culture are found 19808,however, the firm's conservative style made within training itself, including the proportion it a target for a hostile takeover.The recapitaliza- of employees who receive training, participation tion used to defeat the takeover left the company of top managers in training, the sequencing of with a multi-billion-dollar debt that, in turn, made training (whether managers are trained before the firm even more conservative (e.g., precluding non-supervisory employees, so that the managers nearly all hiring for seven years). are prepared to reinforce the training), and In 1992, Glen Hiner, an executive from whether attendance is voluntary or mandatory. General Electric, was hired as the fU'St"outsider" Other indicators fall outside of training (see Chief Executive Officer in the company's history. Exhibit 5). Because such efforts often require He articulated ambitious goals: Transfonn the strategic support from top management and sub- rum's product line from components to compre- stantial resources over two to five years, they are hensive building systems,expand annual sales not to be undertaken lightly. From the experience to $5 billion, increase international sales to 40

HUMAN RESOURCEPLANNING 19 percentof revenues,enhance productivity 6 per- had availablemore than 35 employeesand centa year,and have profitability grow twice as . ~onsultants,and one of the fum's partnersspent fast as sales.He radicallyraised expectations for the majority of his time with OC for five years. individual performanceand soughtprofound This consultingfum vieweditself not as a changesin the fum's staidculture, processes he delivererof isolatedtraining eventsbut as an estimatedwould takefive yearsor moreto institu- organizationdevelopment catalyst devising tionalize.Soon the company'shistoric headquar- and implementingstrategies for culturalchange. tershad been replaced by an ultra-modembuilding In this firm's ideal diversity process,training featuring open offices, half a dozensenior absorbsabout one-third of the time andresources. executiveshad beenreplaced, and a new sense Equal effons precedetraining (in assessing of possibilitypervaded the firm (Stewart,1997). issues,developing strategies, and customizing For Hiner, diversity was, aboveall else,a training materials)and follow it (in activities way to supporthis ambitiousgoals by promoting reinforcingtraining, establishing internal diversity broader vision, flexibility, opennessto new councils,cultivating demographicaffinity net- ideas,and continuouslearning. He 'argued works and mentoringprocesses, and modifying that a more diverseworkforce would promote companypractices and procedures). internationalization,assist in penetratingdemo- Consistentwith this approach,OC's work graphicallydiverse domestic markets, on diversity has included:(a) the andprovide talented employees. appointmentof a corporateDirector Having madediversity centralto of Diversity; (b) an organizational his strategy,Hiner becameindefati- assessment,conducted by the con- gablein keepingthe subjectin front suiting firm, using focus groupsand of his employees.In his first meeting individual interviews;(c) presenta- with seniorexecutives, he bluntly tions to seniormanagement on the stated,"We are too white and too assessmentand on diversitygenerally; male, and that will change."In par- (d) a day-long dialoguebetween tial fulfillment of that prediction,he seniormanagers and lower-level appointedtwo womento the former- employeesfrom under-represented lyall-male boardof directors,sand groups; (e) planning meetings five women,including one woman betweenthe Director of Diversity, of color, to the formerly all-male, Vice Presidentfor HumanResources, all-white corpsof 50 vice presidents. and the headof eachoperating He orderedthat employees'business division; (f) the establishment cardsstate the company'score values, of diversity councils at corporate and this statementsets individual headquanersand branchplants; dignity (the baseof diversity,as OC conceptual- (g) the developmentof data systemsmonitoring izes it) equalto customersatisfaction and share- the demographiccharacteristics of the compa- holder value.When he madeyearly conferences ny's workforce; (h) distribution of a flTSt-ever with the company'stop 120executives a principal diversity survey to all professionalemployees; mechanismof his leadership,he devotedseveral and (i) modifications in companypersonnel days of one early conferenceto diversity practices(e.g., an electronic bulletin board and madeit a recurrenttheme of others.In advertisingjob vacanciescompany-wide; reviewing senior-levelhiring or promotions, giving managersinternational assignments). he constantlyquestioned whether minorities, OwensComing committeditself to providing women,or citizens of other countrieswere diversity training to all of its 6,000salaried consideredas candidates.In senior managers' employees,and its consultingfum implemented annualperformance reviews, he paid prominent that commitment,in two-day sessionsfor groups attentionnot only to fmancialgoals but alsoto of 25 to 30 trainees,as the OC budgethas nonfinancialones, including diversity. permitted.The first day of training is devoted For assistancein theseefforts, OC formed a to diversity concepts,focusing on eight issues long-termrelationship with a for-profit consult- identified in the organizationalassessment. On ing firm led by an individual with 30 yearsof the secondday, traineesdivide into demographi- experienceas a diversity consultant.This fmn cally mixed work teamsto designactions

20 HUMAN RESOURCEPLANNING addressing problems discussed the previous day. customers, and a nationwide consumer boycott . Shaner training is gradually being provided to seemed imminent. Further ~n.vestigationrevealed non-supervisory employees. a fmn with aU-white management, virtuaUy With regard to diversity, OC today is an orga- no minority suppliers, and an environment in nization in transition. Although the company's which racial epithets were common. Fortune management remains predominantly white and characterized Denny's during this period as male, women and minorities now occupy several "a shameful model of entrenched prejudice" positions unprecedentedfor them half a dozen and "one of America's most racist companies" years ago. While many employees have yet to (Rice, 1996, p. 1). receive diversity training and others have passed To settle the lawsuits, Advantica accepted through it silently unconvinced, many have court supervision of Denny's for seven years, emerged with broadenedunderstanding. Although distributed $54 million to compensateAfrican- infonnal social networks still keep "outsiders" American customers, expanded the number of from feeling fully at home at the finn, and minority restaurant managers and franchises, and women and minorities continue to rate the fino publicized a toU-free telephone line for customer only "average" as a place to work, many formal complaints. Simultaneously, upheaval was under- company systems have been revamped to way within the corporate leadership. Controlling enhancetheir inclusiveness.Among manufacturing ownership was purchased by "corporate raider" plants across the country, the production work- Kohlberg Kravis Roberts, which installed a new force remains overwhelmingly white and male Chief Executive Officer, JamesAdamson, with at some locations but has become substantially a mandate to improve company perfonnance dra- more diverse at others (especially new plants, matically. Adamson soon replaced 11 of the 12 where diversity processeswere in place during most senior executives, recruiting replacements initial hiring). And while women and minorities with industry experience but no previous ties to still tend to sit apart from their white male Advantica and including women and people of coworkers in the cafeteria, crude gender humor color. His goal was to break from both discrimi- and racial epithets on the shop floor have been nation and a legacy of provincial, lethargic substantially curtailed. Within a broad process management (Adamson, 2000). of organization development, diversity training While senior executives' attitudes might be contributed significantly to these results. changed by replacing individuals, the same strat- egy could not practically be applied to the several Denny'sRestaurants: Recovering thousand managers and assistant managers from a Utigation Disaster operating restaurants across the country. Like AdvanticaRestaurant Group, Inc. is not a their counterparts throughout the lower-priced widely recognizedname. despite the company's food service industry, these managers typically $2.6 billion in annualrevenues and 65,000 had risen through experience with the company employees.Far better known are the 2,500 and internal training, processesemphasizing loy- fast-food and moderatelypriced restaurants alty to the firm and comfort with its corporate the companyowns, operatesor franchisesas culture. To eliminate attitudes and practices that Denny's, Quincy's. EI Pallo Loco, Coco's, were formerly part of that culture, retraining Carrows,and Hardee's. Started in 1961with a would be essential.6 singlehamburger stand, the finn evolvedthrough This ttaining was mandated for all Denny's multiple mergers,bankruptcies, and reorganiza- managers and employees as part of the litigation tions to becomethe fourth largestfood service settlement. But even before the litigation, finD in the United States.Every day,Advantica Advantica had initiated a "Mission 2000" servesmeals to nearlytwo million customers. to develop commonalities among its largely inde- On April 1, 1993,those customers did not pendent restaurant chains, establish the fmn as include six African-AmericanSecret Service an "employer of choice," and make customer agentswho waitedfor breakfastat a Denny's service as important as hygienic food handling. while their fellow white agentswere served As the firm struggled to find a positive aspect to aheadof them.Multiple lawsuitstriggered by the litigation that had so shaken the company, this nationally publicizedincident allegedsys- it realized that the suit had created a "teachable tematicdiscrimination against African-American moment" for these longer-term improvements.

HUMAN WOUACE PlANNING 11

~ To implementtraining, Advantica engaged an Today, AdvanticaJ remains a company with array of consultants.The processstarted in 1992, many probproblems. Its leveraged buyout still burdens with a short-livedinternal diversity committee the !innfIrm withwi more than $1 billion in debt, and and employeefocus groups.An anthropology the cash requiredre to service it limits the resources professordeveloped a self-studycourse on available forft training and other new initiatives. diversity for new managersin the Hardee'sand The processproc~ of culture change remains incom- Quincy's chains.A charismaticspeaker was plete. But the1 "inexorable zero" representation broughtin for short,awareness-focused presenta- of protectedprotecte groups in positions of authority has tions, entitled "Harnessthe Rainbow,"to senior been dramaticallydram; altered, with racial/ethnic executivesand franchises.During 1994,a for- minorities now 26 percent of Denny's managerial profit training vendordelivered one-day diversity employees.employees FortUM, which had previously called awarenessworkshops to 4,000employees, Denny's one01 of the country's most racist compa- including all restaurantmanagers and assistant nies, now describesc it as "a model of multicultur- managersin Denny's and El Polo Loco. al sensitivity"sensitivi (Rice, 1996, p. 1). In terms of rapid While this training was generallyreceived change startingsta: from a disastrous situation, it is politely, feedbacksuggested that traineespre- certainly so,Sl and diversity training in the organi- ferred an approachthat would move beyond zation developmentdevl style deservesan important awarenessto discussbehavior. part of the credit. Traineesalso denigratedthe trainers' laclt of backgroundin the restaurant DiversityTraining's industry and classroomexercises not PerceivedImpacts set in restaurants.In response,subse- However impressive initiatives quent training was redesignedto use such as those at Owens Coming and companyinternal staff. A racially Denny's may seem, they of course mixed group of 75 employeeswas do not conclusively demonstratethat selectedas training leaders.They such efforts have substantial benefits eachreceived six daysof training either for employers or their employ- on diversity, interpersonalsensitivity, ees. Our survey can provide some and training methodsfrom three evidence of the impact of diversity different consultingfirms. These training, although it is basedon employeesthen led one-daytraining perceptions rather than objective, sessionsaround the company,under independent measurement.We asked titles suchas "We Can." To date,sev- survey respondents to estimate the eral thousandrestaurant managers and impact of their diversity training other employeeshave been trained in work, on a scale from -2 (large groupsof 25, andthe processcontin- negative effect) to +2 (large positive uesas resources permit. effect). Their responses,summarized The focus of this training is treat- in Exhibit 6, claim positive but ment of customers,rather than employees, modest effects;eft the bottom row of Exhibit 6 reports althoughthe two often intertwine.Sessions that, acrossacros the 10 topics on which respondents are keynotedby a videotapein which the CEO were askedaslte. to estimate training's effects,the aver- endorsesthe training.The "businesscase" for age responserespOI was 1.2 (a small positive effect); the diversity is given prominence,highlighting modal responseres' was I (a small positive effect). the purchasingpower of differentethnic groups. SurveySurve) respondents were asked to consider Anti-discriminationlaws arediscussed, as is 10 areas ofc possible impact of diversity training, materialon customerservice adapted from other and their perceptions varied substantially. companytraining. Examplesof problematicinci- RespondentsResponde estimated that training's largest dentsare presentedon videotape,some reproduc- effect waswa on trainees' awartn~ss of diversity ing incidentsalleged in the litigation, andpracti- issues, withw a score of 1.6 - the only subject on cal behavioralresponses for handlingthese situa- which thethf modal response was 2, a large positive lions ("scripts" of what to say,"decision trees" effect. ConcerningCc more concrete outcomes - concerningwhat actionsto take)are practiced in changes ini trainees' attitudes and behavior or role-playingexercises. the clientclienl organizations'personnel practicesand

n HUMAN USOU1'CE PlANNING EXHIBIT 6 . :~,~,;,.,"'.' ;' '.~"'~:- ~',:,-. ,.,!',.',.Tr'.~,'::c','. '.~.:r:_. ~:.. '.-,~,' ~..',:.".".'.'.":a!'~'"';:.".'..".'. '-O. '.',.~" ~:,"':.', ,',',cn'",',:,..',. ..;':.'.'.','. ,.."'~""."::i. '. ,'.':',~,."'.','.':..~", '~.:~"',"':.:...;;,'. ..',,'~'.'.'~,~..."..lf.. :".,'.-,':.,.,.~",.':.".,' ",~~'_.~.;,,:O:',':'~r.:='..:,'.',',",',:-,:_'~,'. ~~,~,', ~'.~. ~:. ,,::~,"',~',..-,'. ~':'-. ",',-,~,.,~:' ',_,1",',,-'.:...,' -,-.."~:.'.','~,,: :: ~~','_: .,',~:-,.-':';",',:_:.',~~~,-.'. '~'.'.;'" " ',',:,' ,":.:,: "...'::':~,':-'.'.'.:..:'.:,',-.'. ~:':."."-:.,'. ~"J:':'.. ~',', ".'..:,~~',1:-.:,:"",.'.-:-:,',.",'~:. ~'_.,'~'.:':-:"~""~'::~-: -".:,'~":.",.,',~,-,'-;"',' :.:"~-'. ~',',.~.,~~,,',..:,',', ~:, ~-,. .'J'i'..,.:..,:,'~:,. ,'.'."'. '..."-'.'~.,'. . ~.'.,.~.;..:..'-'..~.:,-,::',:~':..'" ,,;,'..,',~.'.'~'. :~C"'~':_',-~"~,'. '-','..:,J.',',.. -."~~.',..'...~.'. ."'.:.',:,. ~.:. ,.:'\.:C.~~'M'~.' ,'.:. ".~r'... ,~,' 'L~:;' ' -~'"..',"..-ea:"-9..='~.'"- ":',,'.',:,: '.'.:,'.'r-:'.';.~.'.'.~,'nCe':""".,,""""",~ ~.:,~, '.',':~,~.',',~, "':,a.',.,'. ,::-,'.-~.';'_. """.-'~:.M'.',' ~,"'sco~...

Trainees' aW~nes5 of issues 1.6 2 0 ! 1.67 1.59

Useof stereotypesin persOlU1eIdecisions 1.3 I 0 1 1.53 1.26 Personnelpra.cticeuhe employer is awareof 1.3 1 . 0 j '1.40'1.29 Corporateculture concerning discrimination 1.3 1 1.1 j . 1.48 1;21

Trainees'beJuvior in the workplace 1.2 1 0' J 1.44 L1~ ' Employees'attitudes toward discrimination U, ,I 0 .'1 1.31 1.18 Hostility among groups in the workplace 1.2 I 1.1 1.39. 1.10 Productivity of client organizations 1.1 1 0 ! 1.22 1.03 Employment opportunities for protected groups .8 1 1.1! 1.01 .77 Morale of white males .6 1 14.1 t .99 ..51-- Average 1.2 1 1:7 i r.34 1.n- ; +Whu are the effCCbiof your tralninC. on the following &cale: 2.. Imp poaitive effect; 1 - small positive ~ 0 '" no effect;~ 1'" small negativeeffect; -2 .II!Ije negaliveeffect? . p<.05 "P<.Ol

corporate culttm: - respondents estimated more the organization development model rated their limited impacts; responsesaveraged 1.3, with a effectiveness higher than their non-organization- mode of I (small positive). Respondents made development counterparts rated their own efforts. still more modest claims for outcomes that might The difference averaged .23 points, with a range follow from theseeffects - enhancedproductivi~ from .07 (for increasingtrainee awareness) to .48 ty (an averagescore of 1.1) and expanded (for improving the moraleof white males).Three employmentopportunities for protectedgroups differences,including that for the averageof the (an averagescore of .8). 10 dimensions,were statisticallysignificant.8 The third column in Exhibit 6 reportsthe pro- Becausethe evidencewe can presentconcern- portion of respondentswho estimatedthat their ing the effectsof diversity training is basedon efforts had negativeeffects. This proportion is perceivedbenefits rather than impactsrigorously zero (or virtually zero? for every subjectexcept and independentlymeasured, and becausethese for the moraleof white males,where 14.1 perceptionsmay be subjectto distortion,')these percentestimated a small negativeeffect. resultsmust be consideredsuggestive rather Suchresponses, of course,reflect the ayerage than definitive. Nevertheless,the modestyof experienceof all the diversity trainerssurveyed, the claimsmade, and the ways that the claimed a groupthat, as we haveemphasized, varied impactsseem sensibly related to the scopeand widely in the style and scopeof their training style of the training efforts and the typesof programs.Using the nine benchmarkspresented impactsclaimed, lends these estimates additional earlier in this article as defining the organization credibility. Rigorousproof of effectiveness developmentapproach and the 40 questionsthat would requirea controlledexperiment and objec- representedthese benchmarks in the survey,we tive measuresof programimpacts that are not divided our 108survey respondents into two only well beyondthe scopeof the presentstudy groups- 26 respondents(24.1 %) who imple- but may neverbe available.In this circumstance, mentedthe organizationdevelopment approach it may be appropriateto considerperceptual data relatively thoroughlyand consistently,and the on impactsas importantevidence of positive remaining82 respondents(75.9%). The final two impacts,even if it is not definitive proof columnsof Exhibit 6 illustratethat, as diversity (Kilpatrick, 1977). trainers perceive it, the organization development . approachis associatedwith more positive effects Conclusions than otherversions of diversity training. Diversity training appearslikely to continue Accordingto the exhibit. on all 10 dimensions as an importantactivity in the Americanwork- of impactexamined, respondents conforming to place.Major trendsmotivating it - including

HUMANRESOURCE PLANNING 13 changing workforce demographics, accelerating AMA. 1995 MIA SUTl'ry 011Mollogillg Cultural DiHTsity. New YotIc: internationalization, and continuing group con- American Management Associalion. flict and litigation - are likely to continue. Many .uTD. 1991. Cultural Diversity Survey R,port. Aleunclria. VA: AIIIIrican Sociely for Tra;ning and DcvelOflll*ll. employers are aware of discrimination problems BendIdc,M., Jr., Elan, M., and LoIhjelm. S. 1991.,.,. ~ that they have not yet attempted to address.10 And and Eva/llatian at Anti-Oiscrimlnatlan Training in tit, Un/t,d Sta"s. as legislation and court decisions increasingly Geneva, Inlemalional Labour OIJanizarion. limit other anti-discrimination approaches,such Bendick, M., Jr., Jackson, C., and Reinoso, V. 1994."Meuvrina Employment Discrimination tbrouah Controlled ExperimenIs," RtvitW as affumative action, diversity training offers of Shick Political EcOllomy, 23: 2S-48. an increasingly important alternative. Consistent Bendick, M., Jr.; Jackson, C., and Romero, JR. 1996. "Employment with these circumstances, 73.3 percent of our Discriminllion apinat Older WOlken: An Experimental Study of Hirina Practice.:' Journal 01 Ag;n, and Social PO/icy. 8: 25-46. survey respondents reported that they expected CCH. 1995a. Human R,sourr:, ManagnMnt IdNs and T~nds. demand for diversity training to increase over Washing1On: Commerce Clearing House. l1li:. the next several years. COL 1995b. 1995 SHRMICCH Survey. Washington: Commerce This article suggeststhat both workers and Clearina HOUle. lnc:. Cbemen. M.. Osbmp. S.. IDcICoII8nzo. M.. cds. 199.5.Divmiry in employers are likely to benefit from this expansion, O,.,oniwtions. ThouIandOaks. CA: Sap Public8liOllS. even where diversity training is implemented in Cox. T..Jr. 1994.Cullllral Diwrsiry in OrganizatitHU.Sill"": its most basic and limited fonDs. It also suggests Daren-Koehler Publishers.

that the benefits are likely to be more substantial Darley, J.,1I1d OroIa, P. 1983. "A Hypochesia-Conforming Bias in if the efforts embody the organization develop- ment approach defined by our nine benchmarks. Ellis,c.. andSonnenfeld. J. 1994.MDi- Appro8cheIlo Managina Particularly to the extent that the entire diversity Divenily,MHwltllll R~IOurr:eM_.-nt. 33: 79-109. training industry comes to resemble the organiza- GreenberJ. J., IIId Baron, R. 1993. """'/or /n Orton/rot/OIlS. tion-development-oriented 25 percent of survey B08IOn: Allyn IIId BICOII. respondents, then this activity can be a valuable Huwy, D.n Brown, D. 1996.1111 ~ri~lItiol IIppl'QQch10 Ol'f4l1iZlltiOltDev~/apm'nt. En8lewood Cliffs. NJ: PrenticeHall. component of American strategic human resource Hemphill. H.. and Hainea. R. 1997. DiScriminatiOll. Hal'tlSsmm/. tlIId management in the 21st century. 1M Failun of Div~rsity Traillinl. WestpoI1. CT: Greenwood Preas. JICbon. S. 1992. Diwrsiry in lilt! Worl:plact!. H_n RuouIU Biographical Sketches Inilialiws. New York, Guilford Press. Johnson. R. 1998. "The SO Bes! CompuIies for Alians. Blacks. and Marc Bendick, Jr. (PhD., University of HisJllllics. " Fortunl!. AUIUS! 3: 94-122. Wisconsin) is a principal in Bendick and Egan Kirkpatrick. D.L. 1977. "EvalU8ling Train!n. ProJl'lms: Evidence VI. Economic Consultants, Inc. A labor economist, his Proof," Training and Dne/()fHMnt JourllQl. 31 (November): 9-17. work as a researcher,consultant, and litigation KOller, P. 1994. Mark~ling MallQg~m~nl. Englewood Cliffs. NJ: expert witnessfocuses on expanding opportunities Prentice Hall. Krueger, J., and Rothbart. M. 1988. "Use of Call1JOrical and for people, businesses,and communities tradition- Individuatinalnfonnarion in Mum, Infenncea about PenonaIily," ally excludedfrom the economic mainstream. Joul7/Ol qf Personality and Social PsycltolOIY, 55: 187-195. Mary Lou Egan (PhD., GeorgeWashington Llbich. K. 1996. "Makin. Diversity Ply," Fortun~. September 9: University) is a principal in Bendick and Egan 177.180. Leverlna. R., and MOICowilZ, M. 1993. T/w [00 81M CornpII1Iill 10 Economic Consultants, Inc. A former associate Wo'*for in A_rica. New York: Doubleday. professor of international business, her research Lyneh.P. 1997.The Oi~rsity MIIChi".. TheOri 10Clttul,. 1M and consulting focuses on mobilizing business 'While Mole" Worlrp/lICe.New York: FteePraa. solutions to public policy problems both in the Myen, D. 1990. S«uII Ptyelrology. Nft York: McGnw Hill. United States and in emerging markets. OI.ten~I994. Workplace Social/slU's /994. New York: Olslen Suzanne M. Lofhjelm (M.P.P., University Corporation. of Maryland) is an analyst with the Education, Rice, F. 1994. "How 10 Make DMI1ity Pay," Fortuiti, Maust 8: 78-86. Workforce and Income Security Team of the Rice, F. 1996. "Denny's a..,. its Spoil," FortIIM, May 13: 133-142. Richard,0., wi Johnson,N. 1999."Makinalhe Connectionbetween U.S. General Accounting Office and a former Fonnal HumanResource Diversity Prlcticesand Orpnizarional researcher with Bendick and Egan Economic Etrectiven_," P~tformanc~ImprovelMlII Quarl~r/y. 12: 71.93. Consultants,Inc. Roberts. B.. and While. J. 1998. Roberts v. TlXIKo. It Trw $lory of Racr ill COI'pOI'tI/r Amrrico. New York: Avon BookJ. References Rynea. S..and Rolen, B. 1994. "Whit Mikel Divemty Propuns Workr' HR, October. 67-73. Adamson. J. 2000. Th~ D~"",'s S,ory. HIfI4I Q Compa", in Crbis ResurrtCltd its Good Nam~. New York: John Wiley a: Sana. Stewart, T. 1997. "Owens Comin.. Bck from the DIId," For/11M, May 26: 118-126. Aigner. D. and Cain. O. J 977. "S1IIiIIicaI1beoriea of Diac:riminllion in LIbor Markets." IndllS/riDI Qnd Labor RtIQ/;ons RtvitW, 30: 17S-187. Thonw, R. 1990. "From Afflmlltive Action to Aflinning Diversity," Horvord Susi"en Review, March-April: 107-117.

24 HUMANRESOURCE PlANNING . - - ... -~

Towers Pmin. 1990. WOl-Aforc~2()()()0' Compelin, in a S,II,,'s MarUi. ing some employees who were not adapting 10 the new culture...... Valhalla, NY: TOwetS Perrin. 7. "Vinually zero" refers 10 the three qucstiOll8IO which there was ... \Ioat, P. 1993. DirtiOllQry tfSlalistics tJ1tdM~Iltodolo,y. Thousllllc! . neplive reaponae from one reapondenl (1.111», who was the source t Oaks. CA: Sap Publications. of all three negative n:sponael.

Watkins. S. 1997. Th~ Black 0: Racism and RftI_pliOll in an 8. Our analysis of 14 SpecifIC 1rIinin& prosnuns on which we conducled A_rican Corportll~ Empirr. Athens, GA: University of Gecqia Press. on-site case study research provides Iddilional evidence suggesting Wentlilla. R., and Palma-Rivas, N. 1997. Diwrsity in 1M Wor.!forc~. A the greater effectiveness of divmity lrainin. in the orpniZlliona1 Lil~ralurr R~vitW. Berkeley. CA: National Center for Research on development style. In the one cue amons the 14 where we rated v Vocational Educ:ation. Univmity of CaliforniL training as having a major positive imp8Ct. the trainin. approach /. met 87.S percent of the nine benchmarks; in seven cases of moderate Williams. K. and O'Reilly. C. 1998. "DemoaraPhy and Diversity in posiiive impact. ilaveraged 82.S percent; and in six cases of little or Orpnizations: A Review of 40 Years of Reaearch." In: R~s~arch in no impact, itaver8ged S2.J percent (Bendick. eI at.. 1998. p. 85). OrganiztUional B~ltavIor. OnIenwoocl, CO: JAI Press. pp. 17-140. 9. As a provider of diversity training, respondents' financial self. Word, C.. Zanna. M..1IIIc! Cooper, J. 1974. "The Nonverbal Mediation interesl probably has a posilive bias on their perceplions of training of Self-Fulfilling Prophesies in IntemciaJ Interaction," Journo/ of impacts. In addition. the principle of cognitive diJaonance sullests £xp~rim~nlol Social P'ych%g.v, 10: 109-120. that individuals tend to view activilies more favorably when they have Wright, P., Ferris. S., Hiller, M.1I1d Kroll, M. I99S. "Competitiveness invested lime and effort in diem (Myen, 1990. pp. '3.S4). Consistent through Management of Diversity: Effect on Stock Price Valuation," with this ~ are die results of one survey in wltich human Acod~my 01 Monog~mml JourMl, 38: 272-287. resource professionals and non-human resource managers were asked to rate workforce diversily programs. The averaae nllng by human resource professionals was 2.6 out of a possible '.0, while that by Endnotes other manageR was 1.9 (CCH, 199'a, p. 93). To minimize such a biu, our survey wed about effects on specific topics nIher than J. When the levels are seplnted, IrIinillJ u usually tailored 10 each. overall effects; our analysis emphasizes the variation among responses For example. one lUl'Vey respondent offen three optionJ: Diversity nther than their absolute level; and in 14 case stUdies, we, nther than Stratei}' (a tWO-daycoune for executivea);TaPPina the Potentialof tnining provideR, nted training effects, relying largely on the views Diversily (a day-and-a-ha1f COline for mid-levellnllllapr5 and super- of tnining clients nther than providers. visors); and Valuing Divenily (a half-day course for non-supervisory employees). 10. For example. in a confidential survey of 64.5 senior HR executives. .5.5percent of respondents voic:ecl conc:ema about the ability of 2. As this fll\8l flndin. suaesu, an employer'sdivenily manasement staff are often administral;velyseparate from the humanresources supervilOR in their fum to motivate diverse employees. 29 pe=nt described discrimination u a c:ontinuinl problem In their firm. and staff responsiblefor equalemployment opporrunily and affinn81ive 2 percent aarced that their firm's c:orpor8Ie culture wu nor open to action programs.A numberof diversity trainina proanIIIJ we divenily. Fewer thlUl half of the respondents ac:knowledaina eac:II observedbepn by explicitly differentiatinl diversity manqement problem indic:8led that their firm had c:unent pllUla 10 do lUIythinl (describedas beinadriven by buainesaobjectiv" and seelUna10 about it (Towers Perrin. 1990). Similarly. In a survey of 1.04.5 private- includeall employeea)from affinnative action (describedas beinl sector fume. ooly .5 pe=nt of respondents felltbattheir C:ompIUIiea driven by governmentreaulations and serving only specifiedIroups were c:umndy doinl a lood job of manalinglhe divenily of their of employ_). work forces (Rice. 1994. p. 79). 3. For example, one survey respondent staled that his uaininl describes Hispanics IS family-orienled rather than work-oriented and counsels employers 10 motiva1e Hispanic employees by appealing to these ramily in_IS. In Exhibit 4, 34.6 percent of respondents rated "making the content or I1ereotypes of protected lfOuJII more positive" This article is partially adaptedfrom a IS an important uaining goal. Althouah such effona may intend 10 increase undentandinlltDOIII peROnI with different cultural back- studyfor the International Labor Organization Irounds, they reinforce the UlVmption that all individuals who belonl (Bendick, Egan and Lofhjelm, 1998). The 10 a JI'OUPhave the same traits. More effective traininl diac:ouraaea authors gratefully acknowledgefinancial reliance on S1ereotypeSand emphlSiz.es the importance or understand- ing individuals. At most, once an individual is known 10 have a partic- support from the Russell Sage F oundalion ular trait. that penon's cultUral bac:karound may help 10 explain why and insightful COmml!ntsfrom Rogers Zegers he or she hIS that trait; but cultural background should not be used 10 predict that individuals will have a trait. Behavioralsc:ientislS empha- De Beijl, Eric Wanner,Russell Sage's Cultural size this point by distinguishinl idiographic from nomotlr4tic infonna- Contact Working Group, and Paul M. Swiercz. lion (Yogt. 1993. p. 109, IS2), but this distinction is not maintained by many diversity trainers. 4.For example.Labic:h (1996, p. 178),his written: For several years, the U.S. Department of Transportation provided the - epJioua eumple of how not to conduct diversity b'aining. The sessions, suspended in 1993 Iflet' outraaed tomplaints from employees. included a launder where men were ogled and fondled by w_. Blacks8nd whilel - encouraged to exch8np rllCial epithets.people -R lied up toJedierfor hood... S. Refleclinl Hi_', brold definition of divenity, he selectedwomen who would divenify the boardin more than a Sendersense. One is expen in malelials lechnology and Ihe olher in !"Clliling, perspeclives other directOR did nor poae8I. 6. Non-training sreps that Advlntica initiated to suppon culture change included: pllCinathe finn 's Chief Diversity Officer on the finn's management commlnee; placina five women or persons of color on lhe 12-member board of directors; modifyina personnel practices, both formal 8J1dinformal; expanding sources from which employees are recl\liled; atablisltiJla minority procurement agree- menu wid! African.~ and Hispanic civil rights organizations; conducling focus gr0up6 to probe minority consumen' attitudes: redesiinini advertising 10 featUre non-white customers; 8J1ddismiss-

HUMAN RESOURCEPLANNING 15